FT1 Cenozoic Carbonate and Caves

Home , Glen Massey, Mahoenui, Rangitoto Range, Te Anga, Te Kuiti, Waitomo District

Geoscience Society of New Zealand 2012 Conference

FIELD TRIP GUIDES

HAMILTON 25 - 28 November 2012

Geosciences 2012

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Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences

Faculty of Science and Engineering

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EXHIBITORS Annual Conference of the Geoscience Society of New Zealand

Field Trip Guides

Conference Convenor Adrian Pittari (University of Waikato)

Organising Committee Roger Briggs, Rochelle Hansen, Chris Hendy, Steve Hood, Peter Kamp, David Lowe, Cam Nelson, Sydney Wright (University of Waikato)

Administration Janet George (Absolutely Organised Ltd)

Symposium Convenors Peter Almond, Greg Bignall, Carolyn Boulton, Karin Bryan, Hamish Campbell, Martin Crundwell, Jennifer Eccles, Susan Ellis, David Hamilton, Peter Kamp, Gert Lube, David Lowe, Vicki Moon, Nick Mortimer, Adam Munro, Rewi Newnham, Adrian Pittari, Mark Quigley, Andrew Rae, Catherine Reid, Martin Reyners, Glenn Vallender, Russ Van Dissen, Jenny Webster-Brown

Field Trip Leaders Roger Briggs, Mike Hall, Chris Hendy, Peter Kamp, Kerri Lanigan, David Lowe, Vicki Moon, Cam Nelson, David Palmer, Adrian Pittari, Andrew Rae

Photographs on front cover: Maria Lowe (top), Wendy Peel (bottom left) !"#$%$&%'()*+!%,#)"-")".,"#-')#"*,!#["&0#1)%+#(2%0"#%34

Author, A.N. (2012). Title of Field Trip Guide. In: Pittari, A. (compiler). Field Trip Guides, Geosciences 2012 Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand. Geoscience Society of New Zealand Miscellaneous Publication 134B. p. x.

ISBN 978-1-877480-26-3 ISSN (print) 2230-4487 ISSN (online) 2230-4495 Geosciences 2012 Annual Conference of the Geoscience Society of New Zealand, Hamilton

Field Trip 1 Sunday 25 November 2012

C3 - Cenozoic Carbonates and Caves

Leaders: Cam Nelson and Chris Hendy University of Waikato

Bibliographic reference: Nelson, C.S. and Hendy, C.H. (2012). C 3 - Cenozoic Carbonates and Caves. In 7!!"1:`15!(8! (compiler). Fieldtrip Guides, Geosciences 2012 Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand. *VQ-H1VJHV!0QH1V 7!Q`!4V1!V:C:JR!91-HVCC:JVQ%-!"%GC1H:QJ!@5! !]8

ISBN : 978-1-877480-26-3 ISSN (print) : 2230-4495 ISSN (online) : 2230-4487 Frontispiece - Karst landscape formed on Otorohanga Limestone west of Waitomo, with numerous sinkholes separated by irregular limestone ridges (Photo CN33080/11 taken by D.L. Homer as Fig. 11 in Edbrooke 2005). Waitomo Field Guide Introduction

HEALTH AND SAFETY

PLEASE READ! Certain hazards will be encountered on this !eld trip. General information is mentioned below and some more speci!c matters are given in Appendix 3. At all times, participants must heed and observe the warnings and directions of the leaders.

We expect the weather in late November to be warm and sunny, but participants also need to be prepared for cooler, wet and/or windy conditions. Sturdy, enclosed, shoes or boot-like footwear are required and eye protection (e.g. glasses or sunglasses) is desirable. A sunhat and sunscreen is recommended, as is a waterproof and/or windproof jacket. Participants must carry any person- al medications for allergic reactions (e.g. insect stings, pollen, food allergies).

An average level of !tness and mobility is required for this trip. Participants must be surefooted enough to walk up to several hundred metres on farm or bush tracks, and be able to walk up and down moderately steep tracks and grassed hilly paddocks exposing rock outcrops. Underfoot conditions will include gravel or bush tracks, roadside curbs, grass slopes, wooden walkways and stepped rock outcrops.

Caution must be exercised when examining rocks at the base of roadside, natural or quarried cli"s and banks, due to the risk of rock fall from above and, in the case of road exposures, also from passing tra#c. If you hammer rocks, wear eye protection and pay special heed to the safety of other participants. High-visibility vests will be provided for participants, and hard hats are also available. A hammer and hand lens will be useful but not essential, but a camera to record your trip is!

Lunch, including a drink, is provided, but participants may wish to bring some additional special food items and a water bottle. A food shop stop cannot be guaranteed. Participants will need to pay for a planned early evening meal being served at the Waitomo Tavern prior to returning to Hamilton in the evening.

FIELD TRIP SYNOPSIS

A full 1-day !eld trip departing 8 am Sunday 25 November 2012 from Hamilton to Waitomo to Te Anga and return in limestone-dominated country developed in transgressive sedimentary deposits of the Oligocene Te Kuiti Group – a world class example of a temperate shel f carbonate depositional system. Attention will focus on the nature, distribution and paleoenvironmental controls of the main limestone facies and some of the mixed terrigenous-carbonate facies in the Group.

Later in the day we turn attention to Waitomo karst landscape features and go underground in Ruakuri Cave to discuss cave origins and the evidence for paleoenvironmental change locked up in speleothems.

The excursion ends with a visit to the Waitomo Caves Discovery Centre at Waitomo and an early evening BBQ dinner at the Waitomo Tavern, before returning to Hamilton.

1 . 3 Stop 1 & 2 notes Waitomo Field Guide

ROUTE MAP The route map and planned stops for the trip are shown on Fig. 1. The main stops, involving some time and walking, are at 2, 3, 6, 8, 9 and 12. The other stops are briefer ones and will be optional depending on time. Grid references are approximate and based on 1:50,000 NZ 260 Topomap Series; equivalent Topo50 grid references are in italics.

Hamilton to Te Awamutu to Otorohanga The drive south a"ords excellent scenic views of the Hamilton Basin (or graben) landscape and the bounding horst blocks of uplifted Mesozoic basement rocks to the west (Hakarimata Range) and east (Cambridge hills and Rangitoto Range). The main Hamilton-Otorohanga highway (SH3) mainly follows the summit of a series of low hills developed on early to middle Pleistocene tephras and alluvium including the Hamilton Ash Formation, Kauroa Ash Formation, Karapiro Formation and Puketoka Formation. The %at surface surrounding the low hills is the Hinuera Sur- face, the maximum aggradational level of the ancestral braided Waikato River system during the late Pleistocene (c. 40-12 ka). The alluvial deposits, known as the Hinuera Formation, consist of profusely cross-bedded rhyolitic gravelly sands derived from active erosion and silicic volcanism in the Central Volcanic Region of North Island during the Last Glacial period. In the Holocene, extensive (now drained) peat swamps developed on poorly drained parts of the Hinuera Surface, including the Rukuhia Swamp west of the highway on leaving Hamilton and the Tuatuamoana Swamp east of the highway near Ohaupo.

STOP 1 - Gateway to Otuiti Lodge, south of Ohaupo ( S15/136597; BE33/034981 ) Overview of geomorphology and geology of Hamilton Basin and surrounds, noting some of the features mentioned above. Here, and nearer Te Awamutu, excellent views to the W-SW of the NW- SE aligned andesitic and basaltic composite cones of Karioi (756 m), Pirongia (959 m), Kakepuku (450 m) and Te Kawa (214 m), all part of the Alexandra Volcanic Group (2.74-1.6 Ma). To the east is the andesitic-dacitic cone of Maungatautiri (797 m; 1.8 Ma).

Otorohanga to Waitomo At the south end of Otorohanga township turn west onto highway 31 (to Kawhia) and, soon after crossing the Waipa River, south into Waitomo Valley Rd. The road closely follows the trace of the Waitomo Fault that separates uplifted Mesozoic basement rocks capped by Oligocene Te Kuiti Group rocks forming the hills to the west from mudstones of the early Miocene (Otaian) Ma- hoenui Group to the east. Typically, up to several metres of yellow-brown weathered Quaternary tephra blankets all these deposits.

STOP 2 - Waitomo Valley Rd Quarry ( S16/960294; BE33/858677 ) Discussion points

1. Regional lithostratigraphy of the Te Kuiti Group

2. Immediate geological succession and landscape (include faulting, basement relief, karst features)

3. Nature of formation contacts and facies

4. Depositional paleoenvironments

5. Flaggy limestone development

1 . 4 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 2 notes

Lithostratigraphy Te Kuiti Group rocks crop out extensively in central western North Island from Waikato River mouth in the north to Awakino in the south (Fig. 2). Due especially to considerable lateral vari- ability in facies, the lithostratigraphic naming of the Oligocene rocks has had a long and rather confusing history, not yet fully resolved (e.g. Kear & Scho!eld 1959, Nelson 1978; White & Water- house 1993; Tripathi 2008; Kamp et al. 2008). A lithostratigraphic compilation by Tripathi (2008) for the full N-S outcrop extent of the Te Kuiti Group in central western North Island is shown in Fig. 3. The scheme recognises six major unconformity-bound depositional sequences (TK-1 to TK-6) and places the Te Kuiti Group within a suggested large-scale sequence stratigraphic frame- work (see also Dix and Nelson 2004). The limestone-dominated upper part of the Te Kuiti Group (TK-5 & -6) belongs in the Castle Craig Subgroup, with all underlying mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sediments and basal non-calcareous and coal measure deposits in the Okoko Subgroup (Tripathi 2008). For the limestone formations in the wider Waitomo region Nelson (1973, 1978) established also a !ner stratigraphic subdivision involving members and beds (Table 1).

Bio/chronostratigraphy The Te Kuiti Group rocks regionally range in age from late Eocene to earliest Miocene (Ab-Lw), but are mainly Oligocene (Lwh-Lw). Ages derive principally from foraminiferal bioevents (Fig. 4), supported by some strontium isotope absolute dates (Nelson et al. 2004).

Stratigraphic column The stop introduces participants to the main Oligocene Te Kuiti Group formations in the immediate Waitomo area, these being from bottom to top the Aotea Formation, Orahiri Limestone/ Formation, Waitomo Sandstone and Otorohanga Limestone. This now disused Waitomo Valley Rd quarry site is the type locality for the last three named formations (Nelson 1978). A stratigraphic column for the site (C32) is reproduced in Fig. 5, along with some photo images tied to the column (Kamp et al. 2008).

Facies characteristics for the various limestones and mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sandstones and siltstones in the Castle Craig Subgroup, along with possible paleoenvironmental interpretations, are noted in Appendix I (Kamp et al. 2008). The facies codes are recorded against the stratigraphic columns in the !eld guide.

Geomorphic expression Where fully developed, the succession of formations in the Te Kuiti Group typically crop out with a characteristic geomorphic expression, related to carbonate content (Table 2), well seen here at Waitomo Valley Rd. The high carbonate (70-100%) limestones form steep and stepped or vertical faces with excellent exposure, while the moderate carbonate (40-60%) calcareous muddy sandstones and mudstones erode to give more subdued sloping grass or bush covered topography with mainly sporadic outcrop (e.g. image 7 in Fig. 5D).

Limestone composition Compositional aspects of the Te Kuiti Group rocks are fully described in the theses of Nelson (1973) and Tripathi (2008), and summary information is provided by Nelson & Hume (1987). The carbonate fraction is dominated by the fragmental remains of a wide variety of invertebrate skel- etons, principally bryozoans, echinoderms, foraminifera (benthic and planktic), and epifaunal bivalve molluscs, but also infaunal bivalves, calcareous red algae, brachiopods, and serpulids (Nel- son 1973; Nelson et al. 1988b; Hayton et al. 1995). Overall, whole fossils are rare (Nelson 1978). Siliciclastic material includes quartz, plagioclase and potash feldspar, volcanic and sedimentary rock fragments, and clay minerals (smectite, chlorite, illite, and kaolinite). Pelletal glauconite is

1 . 5 Stop 3 & 4 notes Waitomo Field Guide ubiquitous, sometimes abundant, and rare limonitised pyrite spheres occur. The rocks are strongly cemented most commonly by granular and syntaxial rim calcite spar or microspar, and locally by micrite (very !ne-grained calcite). Except for local marine cemented horizons associated with some unconformities or persistent high energy current conditions (Nelson & James 2000), the cements are mainly of burial origin as evidenced from the widespread development of pressure-dissolution features in the limestones, such as dissolution seams, stylolites, and microstylo- lites, so that rock fabrics are tight and rock porosity values are very low or zero (Nelson et al. 1988a; Hood & Nelson 1996).

Using Folk’s (1962) petrographic classi!cation for carbonate rocks the Te Kuiti limestones are biosparites and biosparudites, less commonly biomicrites and biomicrudites, while Dunham’s (1962) scheme would have them as predominantly skeletal grainstones and rudstones, or occasionally packstones (Fig. 6).

Nontropical (or temperate or cool-water) limestones The birthplace of shallow-water or platform limestones has traditionally been regarded to be in the warm shallow seas of tropical regions (Table 3A). However, we now know that modern shelf carbonate sediments can also be widespread in cool to cold waters beyond the tropics, and there is growing awareness that extensive tracts of shelf limestones in the geological record probably also originated in cool waters at more temperate latitudes (Nelson 1988a). The paleoenvironmental interpretation of shelf carbonate rocks is consequently not always so straightforward, and the geologist requires criteria that can help distinguish this broad spectrum of carbonate facies types.

Despite the tectonically active setting of New Zealand, presently at 35-45°S latitude, modern cool-water skeletal carbonates are common on those shelf sectors where terrigenous sediment supply is low (Table 3B). Moreover, skeletal limestones that are fossil analogues of the modern deposits are widespread at times during the Tertiary, when the New Zealand subcontinent was drifting northwards (60-40°S paleolatitudes) out of the Southern Ocean, away from Antarctica (Nelson 1978b). The carbonate facies in the Oligocene Te Kuiti Group exemplify all the characteristics of such a nontropical or temperate or cool-water shelf carbonate regime (Nelson 1973; An- astas et al. 1997, 2006; Tripathi 2008), as do all NZ occurrences of Tertiary age limestones (Nelson 1978b; Table 3C).

STOP 3 - Overview of Waitomo Caves area (S16/943249; BF33/841632 ) Travel south to end of Waitomo Valley Rd and right into major Waitomo Caves Rd (highway 37) that enters Waitomo village. Just after the Waitomo Caves entrance way, park on the right (north) side of road behind the Glowworm Caves portacom building. Toilets are available across the road at the Waitomo Caves reception area. We will climb the hill adjacent to the car park up through the Otorohanga Limestone, noting its outcrop characteristics at close quarters. At the summit, discuss features of the surrounding landscape, including larger scale controls on karst development. Note that the major N-S trending Waipa Fault which separates Murihiku and Waipapa Terrane rocks in western North Island, lies just to east of this locality (Fig. 2).

STOP 4 - Ahuroa Ignimbrite (S16/918251; BF33/816634 ) Continue west along Waitomo -Te Anga Rd where road climbs up though poorly exposed slope mudstone of the Early Miocene Mahoenui Group (Taumatamaire Fm, Otaian (Po) age) that every-

1 . 6 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 5, 6 & 7 notes where overlies the Otorohanga Limestone in the wider Waitomo area. Above the Mahoenui Group are occasional road side outcrops Mokau Group shelf muddy sandstones and mudstones, in places laminated, carbonaceous, jarositic and fossiliferous, of Early Miocene age (Altonian, Pl). Note the implied major tectonic shifts in relative sea level between the Te Kuiti, Mahoenui and Mokau Group deposits.

Brief roadside stop to view Ahuroa Ignimbrite (1.18 Ma), one of several old (1.68-1.00 Ma) Pakau- manu Group ignimbrites that are widespread in the King Country, sourced from the Mangakino caldera, 50 km distant from here (Edbrooke 2005). The Ahuroa Ignimbrite is a partially welded ignimbrite with inverse thermal zonation that is characterised by development of columnar joint- ing throughout much of its thickness, includes conspicuous %attened pumice clasts (weathered lenticulite of Marwick 1946), and can have a prominent bedded airfall ash deposit named Unit D (1.2 Ma) at its base from a large-scale phreatomagmatic eruption. Other pyroclastic %ow deposits in the Pakaumanu Group include the Ngaroma (1.55 Ma), Ongatiti (1.21 Ma), and Rocky Hill (1.00 Ma) ignimbrites.

STOP 5 - View thin Waitomo Sandstone (R16/860234; BF32/758617 ) Continue west along Te Anga Rd and pause only in vans on roadside about 1 km west of Waipuna Rd to observe a small cli" face (part of now overgrown Mac’s Quarry) exposing the Orahiri Lime- stone (some oysters visible), Waitomo Sandstone (bushed “ledge”) and basal beds of the Otoro- hanga Limestone. In particular, note that the Waitomo Sandstone has thinned considerably (c. 1 m) from STOP 2 on Waitomo Valley Rd, which is only about 10 km away to the NE. South and west from here the Waitomo Sandstone rapidly thins into a prominent disconformity between the Orahiri and Otorohanga limestones (Fig. 7).

STOP 6 - Orahiri Limestone at Kokakoroa Rd (R16/819242; BF32/717625 ) Continue west along Te Anga Rd to Kokakoroa Rd where turn north (right). Travel about 2 km to Gate 183, where enter and drive up hill to presently disused farm house and beyond onto air !eld. This is a possible lunch and toilet stop. Weather permitting, drive southwards across pad- dock towards hillock with trig that exposes Aotea Sandstone at the base, a full thickness of Ora- hiri Limestone with prominent oyster beds (Fig. 8) and some pebbly horizons (Fig. 9), and some Otorohanga Limestone at the top. Column C40, from nearby this locality, portrays the general stratigraphic succession, along with some !eld images tied to the column (Fig. 10).

Field trip participants can explore at their leisure as much of the outcrop as they feel comfortable to undertake. The main aim is to observe the Orahiri Limestone at close quarters and to make some comparisons with what was seen at earlier stops for the overlying Otorohanga Limestone. Some W-E cross sections through the Te Kuiti Group are shown in Fig. 11 which demonstrate that Oyster Bed (OrB2) development in the Orahiri Limestone in the Oligocene (Ld) was thickest in the vicinity of C40 (see also Fig. 12).

STOP 7 - Te Kuiti Group on basement (R16/786235; BF32/684618 ) Return to Te Anga Rd and continue west. Most of the immediate country along this stretch of road is in Okoko (or Lower Te Kuiti) Subgroup rocks, namely calcareous sandstones (Hauturu Sandstone of Aotea Fm) and calcareous mudstones (Dunphail/Ngapaenga Siltstone of Glen Mas-

1 . 7 Stop 8 & 9 notes Waitomo Field Guide sey/Whaingaroa Fm) (Fig. 3). Local limestone can occur at the base of each of these formations (Fig. 3). Note that intensive leaching of the calcite cement from the Hauturu Sandstone leads !rst to hard residual sandstone slabs in a soft sandstone “matrix” (referred to as Banded Sand- stone Beds (Ao-5) by Nelson 1978) and ultimately into a soft friable sand otherwise appearing like “Quaternary sands”.

Park at roadside area immediately beyond Marae Rd. Walk single !le for about 200 m along south (left) side of Te Anga Rd observing the occasional roadside outcrops. In particular, note the nature of the Mesozoic basement rocks (here Late Jurassic; Ko – Ohauan, Inoceramus haasti) and the basal facies of the onlapping Te Kuiti Group (= C42 of Nelson 1977).

STOP 8 - Mangapohue Natural Bridge (R16/763253: BF32/661636 ) Continue west along Te Anga Rd and stop at Mangapohue Natural Bridge Scenic Reserve car park. Toilet within reserve. A clockwise loop walk initially follows the Mangapohue Stream (which feeds into the Marokopa River) in a collapsed cavern developed in the Orahiri Limestone. Massive (OrA3/5), %aggy (OrB1) and oyster-bearing (OrB2) beds comprise the limestone at this locality. Locally the cavern walls show secondary tufa deposits. The spectacular Natural Bridge is formed from an intact 20 m section of the cavern roof which supports (epitrophic) speleothems.

Beyond the Bridge the track loops around uphill through excellent exposures of the oyster-bearing Orahiri Limestone (OrB2). OrB2 facies are thickest in this general area (Fig. 12). Despite several past suggestions, the oyster genus involved remains unknown, but they are most typical of the tribe Flemingostreini Stenzel (Nelson et al. 1983). Carbon and oxygen isotope values, and associated sedimentological and petrographic evidence, support development of the oyster banks in a fully marine, tideswept seaway, in water depths of 25-50 m and bottom temperatures in the vicinity of 12-15°C. Apart from the much larger size of the Oligocene oysters, the proposed setting is reminiscent of the modern oyster ( Tiostrea lutaria Hutton) accumulations in Foveaux Strait o" southern New Zealand (Fleming 1952).

To the north of this site the Mesozoic basement rocks with residual Okoko (Lower Te Kuiti) Sub- group successions are upthrown on the Marokopa Fault (Fig. 12), a roughly WSW-ENE bearing normal fault that ultimately links north of Waitomo Caves into the major N-S trending Waipa Fault separating the Murihiku and Waipapa Terranes (Fig. 2).

STOP 9 - Marokopa Falls (R16/720255; BF32/618638 ) Continue west along Te Anga Rd to the Marokopa Falls car park. The falls have developed over a thick, well lithi!ed conglomerate and coarse sandstone bed within siltstones of the Mesozoic basement rocks (here Late Jurassic; Op – Puaroan, Buchia plicata ). This location is roughly at the centre of the regional N-S trending Kawhia Syncline developed in Murihiku Terrane rocks (Late Triassic-Late Jurassic) in western North Island. Low positive Oligocene paleorelief associated with the resistant basement interval at Marokopa Falls is onlapped by basal limestone and calcareous sandstone of the Glen Massey or Aotea Formation, seen above and south of the falls from the lookout point down the bushwalk track below the car park.

1 . 8 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 10, 11 & 12 notes

STOP 10 - Basal Te Kuiti Group limestone (R16/714255; BF32/612638 ) Continue west along Te Anga Rd, pausing on the descent down to Te Anga settlement to note the character in fallen roadside blocks of basal limestone of the Te Kuiti Group (either Waimai or Elgood Limestone Member of Aotea or Glen Massey Formation; Fig. 3). Not uncommonly, such on-basement transgressive (TST) limestones include conspicuous calcareous red algal and/or rhodolith clasts (Nalin et al. 2008), skeletal types otherwise mainly rare or absent in the main Te Kuiti Group limestone formations.

STOP 11 - Te Anga limestone blu"s (R16/695257; BF32/593640 ) Immediately after Te Anga turn south at the T-intersection on to Marokopa Rd (to the north Taha- roa Rd leads to the Taharoa ironsand mining site and beyond to Kawhia Harbour). Travel a short distance to the second roadside pull over spot with gravel piles and a small quarry in Mesozoic basement rocks of Late Jurassic sandstone on the opposite side of the road. View to the east across the Marokopa River the impressive blu"s of Orahiri Limestone above Glen Massey For- mation, in turn overlying an irregular paleosurface upon Mesozoic basement rocks (Fig. 13). The Castle Craig Subgroup (Table 1) derives its name from the cli" face having this name, just visible on the skyline to the south of this stop. Note the occurrence in images 7 & 8 in Fig. 13C of some prominent pebble bands in the Orahiri Limestone at this site.

STOP 12 - Ruakuri Caves (S16/920240; BF33/818623 ) Return to Waitomo back east along Te Anga Rd. At the roundabout just before Waitomo Caves, turn south into Tumutumu Rd and proceed to the junction with Ruakuri Rd, where vehicles will park and await instructions for entering the Ruakuri Cave from Travis Cross (Cave Environmental O#cer, Tourist Holdings Ltd).

Overview This !eld trip demonstrates the relationship between cave development and regional geomorphology, especially where this in turn is in%uenced by glacio-eustatic sea-level %uctuations. Participants will be guided through Ruakuri Cave (Appendix 2), one of the most pristine and accessible caves in New Zealand, with an opportunity to observe speleogenesis, environmental concerns associated with tourist activities in caves, and scienti!c opportunities o"ered by caves.

History Ruakuri Cave, which literally means two dogs, has been known to the Maori for many centuries with a small high entrance above the original main entrance being used as a burial cave which is Waahi Tapu - “a sacred place”. Ruakuri Cave was !rst opened to visitors in 1904 by James Holden, an ancestor of the family that still owns much of the land above the cave system.

It was the second cave in the region to be opened as a visitor attraction and was quickly an- nounced by early visitors to be visually impressive and an experience that was almost spiritual.

The Government claimed ownership of Ruakuri Cave and the attraction was then operated by the former Tourist Hotel Corporation until February 1988, when a legal and !nancial dispute forced its closure.

Ruakuri Cave was closed for over 18 years and was o#cially re-opened for underground guided walking tours by the New Zealand Prime Minister in July 2005. This followed extensive redevel-

1 . 9 Stop 12 notes Waitomo Field Guide opment by Tourism Holdings Limited and an agreement with the Holden Family Trust of Waito- mo. The re-opening marked the culmination of 18 months of underground construction work on walkways, bridges and a new spiral entrance way to avoid the Waahi Tapu, the source of much of the original strife between cave operators and descendants of the original land holders.

Geomorphology In common with much of lowland North Island, the combination of 100,000 year glacio-eustatic sea-level %uctuations and easily eroded sedimentary rocks has resulted in valleys with steep walls and broad gently sloping valley %oors. At times of low sea levels, the last about 18,000 years ago, the valleys were probably incised to grade to the then coast line. With post-glacial sea-level rise the valleys have in!lled to grade to modern high sea level. This e"ect is visible looking north down the Waitomo Valley Road from Waitomo Village. Fluctuating sea levels impact on cave development as most of the cavernous weathering takes place at stream level and gives rise to multiple passageways. Where the landscape is also undergoing slow tectonic uplift, old high sea-level passages are raised above the regional groundwater table between successive high sea levels resulting in four or more abandoned high level passages. We will enter through one of the upper passages and descend progressively to stream level.

Karst geochemistry Plants expire large quantities of CO from their roots raising the P of the soil atmosphere to 2 CO 2 several % of an atmosphere. Water passing down through the soil will dissolve this CO 2:

+ + H2O + CO 2 = HCO 3- H When this solution comes into contact with the limestone the hydrogen ions attack the carbonates

+ 2+ H + CaCO 3 = Ca + HCO 3- which results in solution of calcium ions and a disturbance of the chain of equilibria:

+ + H2O + CO 2 = HCO 3- H HCO = CO + H+ 3- 3-

2- 2+ CO 3 + Ca = CaCO 3

If the soils are shallow, as CO 2 is removed from solution through attack on CaCO 3 more is replaced from the soil atmosphere (open system). However, if the soils are deep and plant roots are isolat- ed from the limestone, the P will drop substantially, and the pH will rise as the water passes CO 2 into the limestone (Fig. 14).

When the solution re-emerges in a cave the P will readjust to achieve equilibrium with the CO 2 cave air. If it is higher than the cave air CO 2 will be lost from solution forcing carbonates to be precipitated.

Ca 2+ + 2HCO = CaCO + H O + CO 3- 3(calcite) 2 2

But if it is lower than the cave atmosphere the reverse will occur and further solution of calcium carbonate will take place. Where calcium carbonate is precipitated, formations known as “speleothems” will be deposited, such as stalactites, stalagmites and %owstone. Both of these e"ects occur in Ruakuri Cave.

1 . 10 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 12 notes

A special problem can arise when large numbers of people occupy small or poorly ventilated caves. As people respire CO 2, the partial pressure rises in the cave atmosphere and can exceed that of the drip waters causing speleothems to redissolve. Other deposits can also occur as a re- sult of the loss of CO 2 (and rise in pH) for example deposits of black MnO 2 (pyrolusite) in the form of cave varnish on stones, and “cave leather”. These are precipitated by:

Mn 2+ + H O + ½ O + MnO + 2H + 2 2 2 (pyrolusite) as the pH rises and oxygen is readily available.

Evaporation also causes precipitation of carbonates and sulphates.

2+ 2- Ca + SO 4 = CaSO 4.2H 2O(gypsum)

This leads to deposits with a crumbly appearance as water moving by capillary attraction is not as constrained by gravity. Examples of “Cave Coral” can be found in many caves, including Ruakuri.

Lampen!ora The waters seeping into limestone caves are typical ground waters (other than for the e"ects of their exposure to limestone). In this respect they will carry similar concentrations of nutrients such as phosphate and nitrate, especially if they originate under pasture or cultivated land. All they lack to grow plants is light. When light is available to these waters, such as in tourist caves, a wide range of low light tolerant plants will grow giving rise to lampen%ora. Careful manage- ment of lighting (reduced intensity and duration, spectral shifting, etc. can reduce this e"ect in tourist caves, but often chemical control with bleaching agents is also required). In Ruakuri Cave the growth of lampen%ora is suppressed by using LED lights with low output and limiting the duration of illumination.

Geochemical research in Ruakuri Cave In order to prevent respired carbon dioxide from damaging speleothems the Department of Con- servation require the cave operators to keep P below 2400 ppm. However the upper Drum CO 2 Passage regularly exceeds this value when outside temperatures are greater than cave temperatures (Fig. 15). Under these conditions it appears that air cools on contact with the limestone and gradually sinks into the upper levels of the cave bringing with it high P air from an epikarst CO 2 region above Drum Passage. When outside air temperatures are colder than cave temperatures the air%ow reverses bringing low P air up from the many low level entrances into the cave CO 2 (Fig. 16).

Development of the new Drum Entrance and its graduated walkway required excavation of silt and rockfall in!ll in two locations (near the Drum Entrance – o" to the upper right in the map, and a short section marked “no connection” in the map). During both of these excavations buried and broken stalagmites were recovered. Some of these are still in the cave near the Drum En- trance, but several were removed and used by Tom Whittaker as part of his PhD research (Fig. 17). Tom determined the age of these by using the decay of natural uranium, which is present in the speleothems in concentrations of typically 100 ppb. Uranium-234 has a half life of 250,000 years and decays to form thorium-230 with a half life of 80,000 years. By measuring the ratio of both isotopes you can determine ages up to about 400,000 years. Two stalagmites (RK05-3 & RK05-4) buried by silt near the Drum Entrance were dated (Figs. 18, 19) as were two buried beneath the rockfall between Holden’s Cavern and the mirror pool (RK05-1 &RK05-2).

RK05-4 from near the base of the silt in!ll started growing 102,000 years ago and stopped 73,000

1 . 11 Stop 13 & 14 notes Waitomo Field Guide years ago.

RK05-3 started about 53,000 years ago but !nished about 7000 years ago. Unfortunately the depth from which this stalagmite was recovered was not recorded. From the dates it was likely to have formed on top of the silt bank.

RK05-1 started 60,000 years ago and stopped 51,000 years ago while RK05-2 was modern. Again the depths at which these speleothems were recovered during the excavation process was not recorded, but shows that the rockfall cannot be more than 50,000 years old.

However, Tom’s thesis was aimed at looking for a record of changing climate rather than cave development (Fig. 20). This was done by investigating changes in the ratios of oxygen isotopes 16° and 18° (driven by changes in temperature, global ice volume and weather patterns), and changes in the ratios of carbon isotopes 13 C and 12 C, which was suggested to be driven by whether the overlying soil is saturated with water or dry and friable. The technique was !rst developed in New Zealand using stalactites from Gardners Gut Cave, about 1 km from Ruakuri Cave, and Waipuna Cave, also in the Waitomo district (Hendy & Wilson 1968).

The results of Tom’s analyses of the three suitable Ruakuri stalagmites agreed with stalagmites he collected from the West Coast of the South Island and from cores taken in the Paci!c Ocean to the east of the South Island (Fig. 20). These all show cold dry periods between 75,000 and 60,000 years ago and again between 30,000 and 18,000 years ago. Both these times were marked by extensive glaciations in the South Island.

STOP 13 - Mahoenui Group mudstone (S16/933247; BF33/831630 ) Stop brie%y at the entrance to Kaimanawa farm to view a small roadside exposure of light blue- grey massive mudstone of the Taumatamaire Formation, typical of the Mahoenui Group in the Waitomo area. Of early Miocene (Otaian, Po) age, this slope depth mudstone accumulated during rapid subsidence and marks the cessation of limestone deposition (Otorohanga Limestone) in the region. Away to the north of Hamilton the contact between the Te Kuiti and Mahoenui Groups is strongly unconformable, with uplift and signi!cant erosion of the Te Kuiti Group deposits, but in the King Country the contact is abrupt to rapidly gradational as a consequence of subsidence and drowning. The event corresponds to the full tectonic e"ects associated with the propagation of the Paci!c-Australian convergent plate boundary through Zealandia at this time. Note that north of Hamilton through Auckland and on to Northland, the lateral equivalent of the Mahoenui Group is the Waitemata Group including widespread vocanogenic and mass %ow deposits.

STOP 14 - Waitomo Caves Discovery Centre (S16/947248; BF33/845631 ) Celina Yapp, Managing Director of the Waitomo Caves Discovery Centre, has kindly given permis- sion for our group to visit the Centre and see the displays related to the caves and history of the Waitomo district. Some archived fossil specimens from the region may also be able to be viewed, including recent fossil whale and !sh vertebrate !nds.

The day will conclude with an arranged BBQ or other meal at Curlys Bar at the Waitomo Tavern, being specially prepared by Curly McErlich.

1 . 12 Waitomo Field Guide References

Acknowledgements We thank the Waitomo area land owners for kindly allowing us access on to their properties to view and discuss the geology. Special mention in this regard goes to Ross and Viv Roberts (Stop 2), Trevor and Jodie Murchie (Stop 2), Cristen Dimond (Stop 3), and David and Toni Townsend (Stop 6). The stratigraphic columns forming Figs. 5, 10 and 13 come from Nelson (1977) but were redrawn and included within the stratigraphic column compilation by Kamp et al. (2008) from where they have been copied into the present !eld guide. Travis Cross (Cave Environmental Of- !cer, Tourist Holdings Ltd) is thanked for facilitating our visit into Ruakuri Cave and providing the Black Water Rafting Co. cave map adapted here in Appendix 2, as is Celina Yapp (Managing Director of the Waitomo Caves Discovery Centre) for kindly allowing our access to the Waitomo Caves Discovery Centre. The support of Steven Hood and Peter Kamp (University of Waikato) in the preparation of this !eld trip is acknowledged, as is the cartographic input by Betty-Ann Kamp (University of Waikato) who assembled the !nal !eld trip guide notes into a coherent whole. A special thanks for the long time support given by John Ash (Waitomo) for all things geological in the Waitomo region. Finally, we appreciate the arrangements made by Curly McErlich to provide our group with a tasty BBQ meal at the conclusion of the Waitomo limestone !eld trip.

References (J:- :-5!(8085!C:C`7I]CV5!E885!G:IV-5!48"8!:JR!4VC-QJ5!H808! 7!H`Q--R- `:VR!H:CH:`VJ1 V-!``QI! New Zealand: subaqueous dunes in a cool-water, Oligo-Miocene seaway. Sedimentology 7! 869-891. Anastas, A.S., Dalrymple, R.W., James, N.P. and Nelson, C.S. 2006: Lithofacies and dynamics of a HQQCR1: V`!H:`GQJ: V!-V:1:77!I1RRLV`:`75!LV!M%1!*`Q%]5!4V1!V:C:JR8!NJ7!"VRCV75!O898! :JR!H:`:JJ:J V5!*8!^VR-_8!HQQCR: V`!H:`GQJ: V-7!CV]Q-1QJ:C!07- VI-!:JR!":C:VQVJ01`QJ - mental Controls. VQCQ$1H:C()QH1V 75(-QJRQJ5()]VH1:C(1%GC1H:QJ5 ! 7! R 8 C165!*8E8!:JR!4VC-QJ5!H808!7!L.V!`QCV!Q`! VH QJ1-I!1J!-V_%VJHV!RV0VCQ]IVJ !:JR!`:H1V-!R1- - `1G%QJ!Q`!]]V`!\C1$QHVJV!HQQCR1: V`!H:`GQJ: V-7!HQ`QI:JRVC!"VJ1J-%C:5!4V1!V:C:JR8! Sedimentology 51: 231-251. C%J.:I5!E8G8! 7!HC:--1H:QJ!Q`!H:`GQJ: V!`QH@-!:HHQ`R1J$! Q!RV]Q-1QJ:C! V6 %`V8! In Ham, 8_8!^_R8_!HC:--1H:QJ!Q`!H:`GQJ: V!EQH@-5!(!07I]Q-1%I8! AAPG Memoir 1: 108-121. _RG`QQ@V5!088!^HQI]1CV`_! 7!*VQCQ$7!Q`! .V!:1@: Q!:`V:8!NJ- % V!Q`!*VQCQ$1H:C!!4%HCV:`! 0H1VJHV-!7 5!$VQCQ$1H:C!I:]!8!!-.VV !U! !]8!bQ1V`!O%5!4V1!V:C:JR8!NJ- % V!Q`! *VQCQ$1H:C!!4%HCV:`!0H1VJHV-!b R8 Fleming, C.A. 1952: A Foveaux Strait oyster-bed. N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology !@7! R 8 Folk, R.L. 1962: Spectral subdivision of limestone types. In !O:I5!8_8!^_R8_!HC:--1H:QJ!Q`!H:`GQJ - ate Rocks, A Symposium. AAPG Memoir !7! R 8 O:7 QJ5! 085! 4VC-QJ5! H808! :JR! OQQR5! 08C8! 7! (! -@VCV :C! :--VIGC:$V! HC:--1H:QJ! -7- VI! `Q`! non-tropical carbonate deposits based on New Zealand Cenozoic limestones. Sedimentary Geology !7!R8 Hendy, C.H. and Wilson, A.T. 1968: Palaeoclimate data from speleothems. Nature 7! R 8 OQQR5!08C8!:JR!4VC-QJ5!H808! 7!HVIVJ :QJ!-HVJ:`1Q-!`Q`!4V1!V:C:JR!JQJ `Q]1H:C!C1IV- QJV-8! 688(9Q%`J:C(Q`( VQCQ$7(:JR( VQ].751H5 39: 109-122. M:I]5!"8G8G85!L`1]: .15!(8!:JR!4VC-QJ5!H808! 7!0 `:$`:].1H!HQC%IJ-!:JR!HQ``VC:QJ-!`Q`! .V!b: V! _QHVJV!T!\C1$QHVJV!LV!M%1!*`Q%]5!HVJ `:CR1V- V`J!4Q` .!N-C:JR5!4V1!V:C:JR8! =1J15 `7(Q`(

1 . 13 References Waitomo Field Guide

Economic Development New Zealand Petroleum Report PR3901 8! !]8 MV:`5!C8!:JR!0H.QVCR5!G8H8! 7!LV!M%1!*`Q%]8! 688(9Q%`J:C(Q`( VQCQ$7(:JR( VQ].751H5 !7! R 8 9:`11H@5!G8! 7!L.V!*VQCQ$7!Q`! .V!LV!M%1!0%GR101-1QJ8! 688( VQCQ$1H:C()%`0V7(?%CCVJ(8( (]8 Nalin R., Nelson C.S., Basso D. and Massari F. 2008. Rhodolith-bearing limestones as transgressive I:`@V`!GVR-7!`Q--1C!:JR!IQRV`J!V6:I]CV-!``QI!4Q` .!N-C:JR5!4V1!V:C:JR8! Sedimentology 7! R 8 4VC-QJ5!H808! 7!0 `:$`:].7!:JR!0VR1IVJ QCQ$7!Q`! .V!LV!M%1!*`Q%]!1J!:1 QIQ!HQ%J 75!0Q% .! (%H@C:JR8!".C!L.V-1-5!J10V`-1 7!Q`!(%H@C:JR8! !]8! 4VC-QJ5!H808! 7!0 `:1$`:].1H!HQC%IJ-!Q`! .V!\C1$QHVJV!LV!M%1!*`Q%]!1J!:1 QIQ!HQ%J 75!4Q` .! N-C:JR5!4V1!V:C:JR8! DHH:51QJ:C(EV]Q` (5(GV]:` IVJ (Q`(I:` .()H1VJHV55(J10V`51 7(Q`(:1@: - to . 138 p. 4VC-QJ5!H808! :!7!0 `:$`:].7!:JR!]:CVQJ QCQ$7!Q`! .V!\C1$QHVJV!LV!M%1!*`Q%]5!:1 QIQ!HQ%J - ty, South Auckland,New Zealand. (688(9Q%`J:C(Q`( VQCQ$7(:JR( VQ].751H5( 7! R 8 4VC-QJ5!H808! G7!LVI]V`: V!-.VC`!H:`GQJ: V!-VR1IVJ -!1J! .V!HVJQ

1 . 14 Waitomo Field Guide Route Map

11 8 4 3 7 6 5 10 9 12 13 14

Hamilton 0 10 20 30 40 50 kilometres Te Awamutu

N Otorohanga Te Kuiti Fig. 1 – Route guide and approximate 3 locations of !eld trip stops. 4

Mokau

Taumaranui 43 New Plymouth Turangi

43 4 1

Waiouru

1 . 15 Stop 2, Fig 2 Waitomo Field Guide

175°0'0"E TUAKAU Legend 37°20'0"S DH-9053

DH-8064 Alexandra Volcanic Group DH-8374 (Pliocene) Onewhero 1

Port Waikato Neogene PW-5 PW-6 strata

PW-1 Wairamarama

PW-1A PW-1B

Matakitak i Rd P PW-2 o PW-7 r t

Waikawau Beach

W PW-8 Glen Murray Castle Craig a ik PW-11 a to Subgroup - DH-8436 DH-8171

Kaawa Beach W PW-4 a d i ell R k thw PW-3 a Bo DH-8394

Te Kuiti Group Kuiti Te PW-12 d DH-8082 DH-7271 d R - Oligocene L. Eocene y e erington Okoko ll Heth Rd a V tu are Subgroup Waik PW-10 PW-13 DH-8048 PW-9 HUNTLY

TA-2 TA-1 Murihiku Waikorea lley Glen Afton Va R TA-6 Valley Rd i d a Terrane m Northern i TA-16 TA-3 a Pukemiro Waimai Stream TA-5W Dunphail 37°40'0"S Blu!s Region Basement

TA-4 TA-8 Mesozoic

Te Akatea TA-17E

l TA-3a g d R o o o r d a TA-9 R TA-18 TA-7 g NGARUAWAHIA d Waipapa n i

T e Te Akau Glen

Gibsons Beach A Wa k Massey Terrane a u TA-10

TA-11 R

1 o

C r a o Carters Beach g a n s TA-13 i t a

R Tauterei Stream mouth W d S19 -

u TA-12 d k i R U t gi Te Hara Point n e a T 26 M Te Kotuku Creek Rothery Rd TA-19 Waingaroa Landing

TA-14 Waitetuna Estuary Raglan Harbour TA-20 23 HAMILTON Patikirau Bay RAGLAN TA-15 Okete Bay 23

Mt Karioi

K a Ak-6 w Karamu h ia R lateau d P Rd Ak-15 3 Ak-3 S18 Te Pahu CAMBRIDGE Ak-2 d Landing Ak-4 R Central a Ak-1 e Sh Makaka Ruaweke Ak-7 Region Fault S17 Point Orotangi S16 Cli!s d R n Waiteika Station Taranaki Point la g PIRONGIA Thrust Ak-5 a Ak-8 38°00'0"S R 38°S Aotea Mt Pirongia Harbour TE AWAMUTU Ak-8a Okapu Stratigraphic DH-8501 DH-8691 Ak-3 KIHIKIHI column name Kawhia Rd & location Kawhia S15 DH-8672 Kawhia Harbour S6 S4 31 DH-8691 Drill hole name S10 Te Rauamoa Ak11 Kawhia Rd & location S5 S2 S14 31 Kihi Rd 3 S12 C4 Tihiroa 94-55 Rakanui S13 Okoko S8 S7 Hautapu Hill Lake Cross section line S3 S9 Kaimango Rd C25 DH-8587 S11 Honikiwi Rd C-8 Honikiwi 31 S1 Ak-14 C14 C-24 Te Raumauku

d OTOROHANGA R C28 y lle C17 Va mo d ito R Wa oe Mah C32

Kokakoroa Rd Waitomo Te Anga

Te C-40 Marokopa Rd A 3 Awamarino nga C47 Rd Kair im C-50 u DH-8508

R DH-6796 38°20'0"S Marokopa d C-51 DH-8570 C-121 38°20'0"S C-119 Oparure 94-26 C-56 Ngapaenga TE KUITI Townships Mangaohae BH-502 C-125

N C61 g 94-24 a p C-68 C-113 a Rd C-117 C-78 enga d Localities

Whakarotorua Stm s r Mairoa e p 3 94-35 o ro C-130 C-94 T 1 Mangaohae Stm C-97 94-39 Highways C-85 Mangaotaki m St Secondary roads ihi ik

ih Southern r K

v 30

i C-145

Lakes

i Region k

94-64 a t

o PIOPIO 4 Puketiti a C-154 Rivers / streams g n Station a M 94-61 C-166 Mangapehi Region Mangaotaki Boundary C-184 Bridge C-174 3 Benneydale C-185A C-186 Mahoenui

Manganui Rd

Awakino River C-191

e g Awakino Tunnel r o G C-193 o in Awakino k Bexley a 38°40'0"S w Station A

C-194 Mokau River Mokau 0 10 20 30 40 50 3 km

38°40'0"S 4

Fig. 2 – Simplied map of the outcrop geology of central-western North Island between Pt Waikato in the north and Awakino in the south showing the distribution of Mesozoic basement rocks (blue), Te Kuiti Group (Okoko and Castle Craig Subgroups, yellow-fawn colours) and Neogene and Quaternary strata (grey) and volcanics (red). Map from Kamp et al. (2008) after Edbrooke (2005).

1 . 16 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 2 , Fig 3 & Table 1

Fig. 3 – N-S lithostratigraphy of Te Kuiti Group formations and members. From Tripathi (2008).

Table 1: Lithostratigraphic subunits in main Te Kuiti Group limestone formations (Nelson 1978a). Subgroup Q`I:QJ Member Beds Piopio Lst 2. Argillaceous Limestone (OtC) 1. Upper Flaggy Limestone Otorohanga Waitanguru Lime- 8)*]VJ)-JQGGC7)11IV3 QJV Limestone stone 8)6:H@VR)-JQGGC7)11IV3 QJV 1. Blocky Limestone (Ot) (OtB) Pakeho 8):``V$%C:`C7)=V:IVR)11IV3 QJV Limestone 2. Lower Flaggy Limestone 1. Basal (OtA) Waitomo Sandstone (Wt) Castle Craig 8)AQ_%1J1 V (old Upper 6. Limestone-in-Limestone 5. Fossil-hash >V)-%1_ Te Anga 8)D:3310V)=:JR7)11IV3 QJV Limestone 3. Semiknobbly Limestone Orahiri (OrB) 2. Oyster 1. Flaggy Limestone Limestone (Or) 8)6VGGC7)D1H`1H)11IV3 QJV 5. Bimodally-Sandy Limestone Mangaotaki Lime- 8)]]V`)H:JRVR)=:JR3 QJV stone 3. Massive Sandy Limestone (OrA) 8)IC:%HQJ1H)11IV3 QJV 1. Basal

1 . 17 Stop 2, Fig 4 & Table 2 Waitomo Field Guide

Fig. 4 – New Zealand Stages and boundary events for the Oligocene. From Cooper et al. (2004).

Table 2: Av. carbonate-sand-mud contents for formations (from Nelson 1973). Q`I:QJ '(1C1H1HC:,H' '(1C1H1HC:,H' %CaCO 3 % sand % mud Otorohanga Lst 91.0 8 5.3 Waitomo Sst 8 8 16.2 Orahiri Limestone 8 18.5 5.3 Aotea Fm (Sst) 8 8 12.0 Whaingaroa/Glen 8 9.6 36.3 Massey Fm (Zst)

1 . 18 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 2, Fig 5A

Stratigraphic Column No: C32 Grid Reference: NZMS 260 S16 Region: King Country/Waitomo E: 2696320 - 2696142 Location: Abandoned limestone quarry, N: 6329200 - 6329388 C-32 northeast of Waitomo NZMS 1 Sheet: S16 Page1 of 2 Author: C. Nelson Modified: A. Tripathi 1 of 4

Strat Strat Unit LithologyStructures Fossils Photo Description Unit Scale (old) No. Facies (metres) Stage WO No. Cont. on pg 2 100 Mass.-incip. seamed lst., sl. sandy. Lw Crossbed 12 o to ENE, well dev. flags 5-10 cm. Flaggy lst., flags mod.-well dev., 5-15 cm wide, sep. by wide (to 1.3 12 cm) seams Complexly cross-bedded at a no. of levels, is on a lge. scale and shows both planar and trough vars., var. current dir., L2-L 3 cosets of 5-15 cm , sep. by horiz. flags minor channeling.

90 11 o 12 to NE seen. Pakeho Lst

Mass. s. lst. as 40.5 cm indent.

10 Inv. seams 2.5-7.6 cm apart, sl. irreg., seams wide near base, weath. in, to 2.5 cm wide. 80 Gradual contact over 46 cm Calc. sst. - s. lst. S1

9 G 7 Mass. calc. sst., com. leached and w., forms smooth connecting G 70 slope between two lst. Glauc. content mod., decr. upwards as does sand content. Ssts. fine throughout.

25 cm hard s. lst., 10 cm calc. sst., passes into flaggy lst. Gradual contact

Orahiri Otorohanga 7.6-15.2 cm flaggy lst., irreg. seams, sl. sandy, glauc. nearer top. 60 Pure micritic lst., irreg. seams 7.6-15.2 cm. 8 Scattered L6 Oyster band, disartic., haphaz., 10 cm frags., incip. irreg. seams. oysters Scatt. oyst. horizon, 45.7 cm scatt. frags., 53.5 cm occ. lge. frags, Orahiri Lst Sst Waitomo Otorohanga Limestone

Te Anga Lst Te 38 cm scatt. oysts. G G Sl. glauc. lst., mass. 50 L4 G Mass.-incip. lge. flagged lst., sl.-mod. glauc., occ. pebbs. near base, G borings infilled w. glauc. lst. into underlying gsd. 1 C 5 & 6 G G Bivalve frags. 13 2 J G J Immed. below 48.2 m have calc. gsd., mass., well cem. for 30.5 cm, G less cem. and forms strong w. indent. 47-48 m, base marked by 5-7.6 m band of biv., par. bed., trace ff., pebbs. to 5 cm av., 0.95 cm scatt.

Ld 3-4 thr.out, biv. frags. scatt., com. in streaks & lenses, calc. worm tubes, 40 cem. top shows lge. borings infil. w. overlying lst., biv. band varies in dist. below contact along strike, also glauc. content, overlying lst. shows marked overhang. Grad. down into w. mod. gl. calc. muddy sst., less ff. mat., sl. fritt., occ. borings, glauc. content decreases. Aotea dnwd. Passes down into bl/gr fritt. m. v.f. sst. and v. s. msts, burrowed, sl. glauc. S4

G 30

KihiJ Anga Te Waitomo Pakeho Burrowed, Sl. s. burrowed muddy lst., plnk. foram. rich. planktic S4-L 4 J foram rich J

Blue/grey s. mst. 20 Aotea Sandstone G Sl.-v.s. lst., muddy, glauc. and pebbly (av. 0.6 cm) at base, bivalve frags. Bivalve frags. common. G L4 1 G

Aotea 10 l. Lwh

Mass. ripply-incip. seamed, av. 7.5 cm apart sandy lst., sl. glauc. Sand content incr. upwards w. mod. glauc. and pebbs. av. 0.15 cm, max. 0.95 cm at top. Waimai Waterfall over lst. Waitetuna Lst Waitetuna

0 Actual contact unseen Mesozoic basement rocks. mud fine med. coarse fine med. coarse gravel silt sand

1 . 19 Stop 2, Fig 5B Waitomo Field Guide

Stratigraphic Column No: C32 Grid Reference: NZMS 260 S16 Region: King Country/Waitomo E: 2696320 - 2696142 Location: Abandoned limestone quarry, N: 6329200 - 6329388 northeast of Waitomo C-32 NZMS 1 Sheet: S16 Page2 of 2 Author: C. Nelson Modified: A. Tripathi 2 of 4

Strat Strat Photo Unit LithologyStructures Fossils Description Unit Scale (old) No. Facies (metres) Stage WO No.

eroded top

Well flagged 15-20 cm lst. 120 Seams 2.5-7.6 cm apart, seams typ. wide, to 1.2 cm, sl. cavernous w. L3 Flags 2.5-7.6 cm, wide seams, c. shell mat. appar. Piopio

1.22 m more mass. micritic lst., dense, contacts not well flagged Piopio Lst 110 Cross-bedded, flaggy, 10o to NW.

Otorohanga Flaggy lst., 5-7.6 cm.

O+B Irreg. cav. weath., high cement content. Otorohanga Limestone Wide seamed, lamin., flaggy lst. Pakeho G Muddy glauc. unit, 12.7 cm glauc. lst., 3.8 cm slst., 15 cm glauc. lst. G Pakeho Lst

Lw 12 7 1.2 cm slst. mud fine med. coarse fine med. coarse gravel silt sand

1 . 20 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 2, Fig 5C

NZMS 260 S16

C-32

3 of 4

1 2

Te Anga Lst

Kihi Sst

3 4

5 6

1 . 21 Stop 2, Fig 5D Waitomo Field Guide

NZMS 260 S16

C-32 7 4 of 4

8 Pakeho Lst

Waitomo Sst

Te Anga Lst

1 . 22 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 2, Fig 6

A B

1 mm 0.5 mm

C D

0.5 mm 0.5 mm

E F

1 mm 0.5 mm Fig. 6 – Photomicrograph examples from Otorohanga (A-C) and Orahiri (D-F) Limestones. Dominant types in both limestones resemble images B & C (bryozoan biosparites/grainstones), having moderately to tightly pres- solved fabrics. Open fabric bryozoan biosparite/grainstone in A. D & E have micritic matrices (biomicrites/packstones) typical of many of the oyster-bearing units. Spar lled biomolds of former aragonite bivalve fragments evident in E, although never in the more widespread biosparites (e.g. A, B, C). Spar cement fringes evident in F, followed by inltered detrital micrite, a “marine cement” fabric evident in some units associated with unconformities and high energy.

1 . 23 Stop 2, Tab le 3 Waitomo Field Guide

Table 3: Comparison of tropical shelf carbomnate model (A) with NZ modern (B) and Cenozoic (C) carbonate deposits (adapted from Nelson 1878, 1988b). Environmental or A. Tropical shelf B. New Zealand modern C. New Zealand Ceno- facies parameter carbonate model shelf carbonates zoic shelf limestones : %RV From 30 oS to 30 oN '`QI+ oS to 33 oS From 60 oS to 35 oS .V]Q01QJ:C+0VJ$ Shallow rimmed shelves Deeper open shelves, ramps 7]VJ+0.VC0V05+]C:QÌ0+ :JR+]C:QÌ0 :JR+]C:QÌ0 and seaways Marine climate zone Tropical-warm subtropical Warm-cool temperate Warm-cool temperate Sea-water temp. (mean ) Above 23 oC 13-19 oC Below 20 oC Sea-water temp. (min.) ;GQ% + oC 9-12 oC About 5 oC Sea-water salinity Normal-hypersaline Normal Normal

CaCO 3+0: %`:QJ+: L1J+0V:+ Highly supersaturated Mildly supersaturated to ?J`V`+I1CR+0%]V`0: %`:QJ+ bed ?locally undersaturated Q+CQH:C+%JRV`0: %`:QJ : V`+H1`H%C:QJ Restricted-open Open, strongly storm- and 7]VJ5+0 Q`IR+:JR+RVR+ RVRRQI1J: VR dom. shelves/seaways Tectonic regime Stable, slow subsidence Stable-unstable Stable-unstable Shelf gradient <0.5 m/km 0.25-2 m/km >0.5 m/km Reef structures Common (especially coral/ None (some oyster banks) Rare (oyster banks; bryo- coralgal) zoan mounds) DVR1IVJ :QJ+`: V0 RU+HIL@7 R +HIL@75+Q VJ+`VC1H <5 cm/ky, many diastems

CaCO 3 content >90% 50-100% 50-100% D1C1H1HC:0H+$`:1J0 Rare Rare-abundant Rare-abundant Glauconite Rare Common, especially in skele- Common, pelletal and in tal chambers skeletal chambers Dolomite and evaporite Common-rare Absent Absent (locally rare late minerals R1:$VJVH+RQCQI1 V_ Non-skeletal carbonate Common-abundant Absent Absent grains (e.g. ooids, pellets) Major skeletal grain types Calcareous green algae Bryozoans Bryozoans Corals (hermatypic) Molluscs, mainly bivalves Molluscs (epifaunal bivs.) Benthic foraminifera Forams, mainly benthic Forams, mainly benthic Molluscs generally Echinodems Echinoderms Coralline algae Barnacles Barnacles Coralline algae Coralline algae Serpulids Brachiopods Brachiopods Corals (ahermatypic) Sponges Main skeletal assemblages Chlorozoan Bryomol Bryomol, Echinofor (Hayton et al. 1995 Chloralgal Bimol Barnamol, Rhodechfor DVR8+MVQC8+7+R_ (Nannofor) Bimol (Nannofor) Algal mats/stromatolites Common Absent (or not preserved) Absent 70V`:CC+R1:$VJVH+`V$1IV QQJ0 `%H0V .V0 `%H0V .V0 `%H0V Carbonate mud Common-abundant ;G0VJ R`:`V5+%0.VR+:JR+G7R Absent-rare, locally as ma- ]:00VR+Qc0.Q`V `165+1JH`V:0V0+Qc0.Q`V Main origins of carbonate .101J V$`:QJ+H:CH8+$`VVJ+ U.701H:C+:G`:01QJ5+G1QV`Q08++ Skeletal abrasion and bio- mud algae and inorganic pptn. I:HV`:QJ+Q`+0@VCV QJ0 erosion; nannofossils Primary sediment miner- ;`:$QJ1 V+]+XYQ+]+?YQ+]+ YQU?YQ+]+XYQ+ aragonite YQU?YQ+]+XYQ+ ara- alogy LMC gonite Y:1J+VJ01`8+Q`+:C V`:QJ+Q`+ Subaerial/meteoric Beginning submarine Submarine to shallow metastable carb. grains burial, rarely subaerial Environment of major lithi- Submarine and subaerial/ JC1 .1VR Subsurface burial, rarely H:QJ meteoric subaerial/meteoric \1I1J$+Q`+HVIVJ :QJ Y:1JC7+V:`C7+R1:$VJVH - Rarely early, mainly later R1:$VJVH Major carbonate cements Aragonite and HMC - ]:`V+?YQ5+I:1JC7+ YQ+ ^Q VJ+`V``Q:J_ Major sources of cements DV:+1: V`+:JR+R100QC%QJ+ - U`V00%`VRR100QC%QJ+Q`+ of aragonite grains H:CH1H+0@VCV QJ0 Carbonate petrography Mud-, wacke-, pack-, rud-, Grain- and rudstones Grain-, pack- and rud- grain- and boundstones stones

1 . 24 Waitomo Field Guide Stops 5 & 6

Fig. 7 – Sharp disconformable contact between pebbly and macrofossil-rich Orahiri B Limestone (below) and !aggy Otorohanga Limestone (above) at Ngapaenga, south from Waitomo.

5 cm Fig. 8 – Packed and haphazardly oriented giant oyster valves (A) and shell borings (B) in Oyster Bed facies (OrB2) of the Orahiri Limestone, Waitomo.

Fig. 9 – Pebble band separating the Man- gaotaki and Te Anga Limestone Members of the Orahiri Limestone (Table 1) at Ngapaen- ga, south of Waitomo.

1 . 25 Stop 6, Fig 10A Waitomo Field Guide

Stratigraphic Column No: C-40 Grid Reference: NZMS 260 R16 Region: King Country/Waitomo E: 2681942 - 2682577 Location: Kokakaroa Road, west of Waitomo N: 6325309 - 6325108 C-40 NZMS 1 Sheet: R16 Page1 of 2 Author: C. Nelson Modified: A. Tripathi 1 of 3

Strat Strat Photo Unit LithologyStructures Fossils Description Unit Scale (old) No. Facies (metres) Stage WO No. Cont. on pg 2 100 L3-L 6 Mod. oyst. bands, oysts. par. bed., re. mass.-inv. seams, av. 2.5-5 cm apart. Invisible seams below and characteristic.

Mass.-incip. seams, sl. ripply lst., v. occ. oysts. 93.3 m. Prominent weath. indent. Orahiri Weathering break Incip. seams, 2.5 cm apart, scatt. oysters. 90 Te Anga Te 4 Succession of oyster bands showing mod.-well packed oysts., incip. sl. irreg. seams, freq. invisible.

L4-L 6 80 Incip. irregular seams, scatt.-mod. oysts., scatt. pebbs. av. 0.95 cm, max.10 cm with pebbly horizon immed. below 82.3 m, oysters artic. and disartic.

Orahiri Limestone Incip. flagged slightly sandy lst. 3 Crossbeds, complex sets, dip as gt. as 19o between N-NE, only vaguely defined by incipient dev. seams in slightly sandy lst. OrAAnga Lst Te

Ld 70 Mangaotaki L2-L 4 Mass. ripply sandy lst., incip. seams 2.5-5 cm apart, main cliff above 65.2 m.

Orahiri W. Indent. Mass.-incipient ripply sandy lst., smooth surface. Weathering indent 2 60

S1 Aotea 50 1 Aotea Sandstone Hauturu

Monotonous seq. of mass. ripply calc. sst., occ. seams av. 5-7.6 cm apart, forms lower cliff-face into Marokopa R.; on roadside commonly weaths. to produce yellow friable sands, elsewhere bded ssts. obvious; 40 well exposed on Waitomo-Te Anga Rd. in this area.

Aotea 30 Lwh

20 S1

10 Near base becomes muddier, bl/gr., weathered fritt., calc. muddy Aotea Sandstone fine ssts. Hauturu

Aotea Unseen

0 Mesozoic basement rocks. mud fine med. coarse fine med. coarse gravel silt sand

1 . 26 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 6, Fig 10B

Stratigraphic Column No: C-40 Grid Reference: NZMS 260 R16 Region: King Country/Waitomo E: 2681942 - 2682577 Location: Kokakaroa Road, west of Waitomo N: 6325309 - 6325108 C-40 NZMS 1 Sheet: R16 Page2 of 2 Author: C. Nelson Modified: A. Tripathi 2 of 3

Strat Strat Unit LithologyStructures Fossils Photo Description Unit Scale (old) No. Facies (metres) Stage WO No.

140

eroded top 3 O+C L Well flagged, av. 15-18 cm smooth lst. 130 O+B L5 Incipient very irregular seams, v.c. lst., char. vert. joints, semi-knobbly.

L3 Well flagged, av. 5-7 cm smooth pure lst., slightly irregular seams.

120 Narrow flags av. 2.5 cm, irregular seams, very occ. oysters par. seams. Otorohanga Lst Otorohanga Pakeho Lst

Mod. well dev. flags, av. 5 cm, sl. wavy

Highly irregular incipient seams, scatt. pebbs. av. 0.63 cm. 110 Reg. seams, flags av. 5 cm Fossil hash Ff.-hash zone, scatt. pebbs. av. 0.3 max 1.2 cm, occ. oysts., highly

Lw irregular seams 2.5-5cm.

Reg. seams, av. 5 cm apart, commonly invisible.

Orahiri Lst Incipient oyster horizon.

Te Anga Lst Te 3 6 Te Anga Lst Te L -L mud fine med. coarse fine med. coarse gravel silt sand

1 . 27 Stop 6, Fig 10C Waitomo Field Guide

NZMS 260 R16

C-40

3 of 3

1 2

3 4

1 . 28 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 6, Fig 11

Vertical exaggeration 84x

Fig. 11 – Schematic W-E sections from Nelson (1978a) through the Te Kuiti Group showing lateral relations between several of the main rock units in the wider Waitomo region (see p.17, Fig. 3 and Table 1).

1 . 29 Stops 6 & 8, Fig 12 Waitomo Field Guide

Fig. 12 – Total thickness map of the Oyster Bed facies (OrB2) in the Orahiri Limestone in the wider Waitomo region (from Nelson et al. 1983).

1 . 30 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 11, Fig 13A

Stratigraphic Column No: C-50 Grid Reference: Top Bottom NZMS 260 R16 Region: Te Kuiti E: 2668419 Location: Southeast of Awamarino N: 6322490 C-50 NZMS 1 Sheet: R16 Page1 of 3 Author: C. Nelson Modified: A. Tripathi 1 of 3

Strat Strat Unit LithologyStructures Fossils Photo Description Unit Scale (old) No. Facies (metres) Stage WO No.

130

Eroded top L6 OYSTER LIMESTONE: Light greyish to creamish white, irregularly flagged, scattered pebbles, whole oysters. Scattered oysters 120 Lw

110 Well flagged pure limestone L3 FLAGGY LIMESTONE: Light greyish white, well flagged, medium to coarse skeletal grainstone.

100 Massive, smooth surface, thin 11-12 pressure solution L4 seams

L2 90

L4 SANDY LIMESTONE: Greyish to brownish white, massive to medium Sandy seams flaggy, with abundant medium to coarse quarztoze sand and grit often varying from regular Bivalve fragments 9-10 visible on surface, occasional floating rounded-subrounded pebble 80 to highly irregular granule.

Orahirigently Otorohanga inclining Ld Mangaotaki

70 Scoured contact, L1 pebble band 7-8 J J Ripply surface J CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE: Light brownish grey, very calcareous fine calcareous silty sandstone, lapiez weathering, bluffy, bioturbated, J J Vertical fluting on S2 6 steep faces in places burrows visible on surface. 60 J J J J J Rare pectin J J Break in profile, becoming steeper J upsection J J Ellipsoidal to 50 irregular shaped concretions, very 5

Glen Massey frittered surface

40 CALCAREOUS SILTSTONE: Light bluish grey, massive with common frittered weathering surface, prominent ellipsoidal concretion near its upper gradational transition to calcareous sandstone. S6 Massive, common frittered weathering surface, steep 30 profile

Lwh 20

Glen Massey MEDIUM FLAGGY SANDY LIMESTONE: Light brownish grey, medium Flags av 10-15 cm, flaggy, prominent recessive sandy seams, scattered pebble granule, sandy recessive L4-L 5 common bivalve cast and mold, sandy packstone-grainstone. 10 seams L2 Elgood Dunphail Ahirau 2 Cavernous weath., PEBBLY CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE: Dull brownish grey, mod. prominent horizontal L1 partings 3-4 well cemented, massive to becoming faintly horizontally bedded, Pectin and other scattered rounded-subrounded pebbles, large algal heads and large bivalves,

Waika -retu scattered bivalve fragments. Manga- kotuku abundant rhodoliths 1 0 Basal conglomerate mud fine med. coarse fine med. coarse gravel silt sand

1 . 31 Stop 11, Fig 13B Waitomo Field Guide

NZMS 260 R16

C-50

2 of 3

1 2

3 4

5 6

1 . 32 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 11, Fig 13C

NZMS 260 R16 7 C-50

3 of 3

1 . 33 Stop 12, Fig 14 Waitomo Field Guide

8 2 and precipitates calcite

Saturated solution looses CO 7

Water returns to atmosphere returns to Water reacts with limestone 2 CO 5 2 from soil atmosphere Rainwater absorbs CO 0°C 4 25°C

10 3 1 0.3 0.1 0.03 %atm

PCO 2 Fig. 14 - Changes in pCO2 and pH in speleothem genesis.

1 . 34 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 12, Fig 15 & 16

Fig. 15 – Changes in PCO2 in Ruakuri Cave during 2011.

Fig. 16 – Changes in temperature in Ruakuri Cave during 2011.

1 . 35 Stop 12, Fig 17 Waitomo Field Guide

Fig. 17 – Section through stalagmite RK05-4 from Ruakuri Cave. Five mineral-rich laminae shown by arrows. From Whittaker (2008).

1 . 36 Waitomo Field Guide Stop 12, Fig 18 & 19

Fig. 18 – Age vs depth for Ruakuri Cave stalagmite RK05-4 (±2σ errors). Dashed line is age model used for plotting stable isotope ratios. Mud-rich layers are also noted. From Whittaker (2008).

Fig. 19 – Age vs depth for Ruakuri Cave stalagmite RK05-3 (±2σ errors). Average growth rates are shown on the diagram. From Whittaker (2008).

1 . 37 Stop 12, Fig 20 Waitomo Field Guide

Fig. 20 – Stable isotope and paleoenvironmental summaries from the Ruakuri Cave stalagmite data in comparison to some other New Zealand sites. From Whittaker (2008).

1 . 38 Waitomo Field Guide Appendix 1

Appendix 1 – Lithofacies characteristics in the dominant limestones and other mixed carbonate-siliciclastic deposits of the Castle Craig Subgroup of the Te Kuiti Group (from Kamp et al. 2008).

Litho- Field Carbonate Texture size Typical fauna / Common Inter- facies characteristics, content/ range /abrasion/ bioturbation occurrence preta- code and sedimentary insoluble sorting / typical tion name structures, residue example bedding type Limestone association

L1 Common to Moderate Medium Fragmented Common near Near Pebbly abundant (50-60%) to coarse pectinids, the lower shore grain- subrounded grainstone- oysters, contact with to inner stone pebbles and rudstone, echinoderm, basement, shelf -pack- cobbles may occasional clasts and/or mark adjac- stone. occur as pebble large shell occasionally erosional ent to bands, or fabric fragments, encrusted by contact with rocky supported by poorly to calcareous red the underlying shore- bioclastic silty moderately algae, including formation; line [!"#$%!&$'(!")# sorted; very rhodoliths up to tens of usually massive abraded centimetres in appearance thick. “Basal Beds” (OrA1/ OtA1 of Nelson 1978a)

L2 Sigmoidal to High Medium to Bryozoans, Developed High Cross- tabular cross- (91-96%) very coarse echinoderms, locally in energy $'*%'+["&# beds are grainstone, benthic the lower, inner grain- low (< 100) rare small foraminifers, mid and to mid stone to moderate pebbles and occasional upper parts shelf angle (100- granules. bivalves, of Orahiri domin- 25 0); occur Siliciclastic coralline Formation ated by as 0.3-4.5 m particles in red algae, and strong thick cross- bedding planes rare planktic Otorohanga off- sets traceable are generally of foraminifers Limestone. shore- laterally for [!"#$%!&$'(!"# directed few tens of to siltstone, storm metres; base moderately and or and tops of abraded, poorly tidal sets are sharp to moderately induced and discordant, sorted currents cross-beds are generally 2-15 cm thick

1 . 39 Appendix 1 Waitomo Field Guide

Appendix 1 (continued) - Lithofacies characteristics in the dominant limestones and other mixed carbonate-siliciclastic deposits of the Castle Craig Subgroup of the Te Kuiti Group (from Kamp et al. 2008).

L3 Beds typically High Medium to Bryozoans, Comprises Inner Horizon- well developed, (81-99%) very coarse echinoderms, most of to mid tally averaging 2- grainstone, benthic the Orahiri wave bedded 10 cm; well abraded, poorly foraminifers, Formation domin- grain- developed to moderately and occasional and ated stone \!""#$%&&'#&' sorted bivalves and Otorohanga shelf characteristic calcareous red Limestone. algae; planktic “Flaggy foraminifers Limestone rare or absent Beds” (OrB1, OtA2, OtC1) of Nelson 1978a

L4 Commonly Moderate Coarse to Echinoderm, Comprises Inner Sandy varying from to high very coarse large benthic most of the to mid grain- massive to (42-87%) grainstone, foraminifers Mangaotaki shelf stone- tabular bedded common (Amphiste- Limestone pack- units, bedding medium to gina ), Member stone plane (0.1 - coarse quartz bryozoans, mainly in 1.5 cm) rich sand grains, and occasional western in siliciclastic abraded, and bivalves and areas. material is poorly to calcareous red “Sandy obvious in moderately algae; planktic Limestone places sorted foraminifers Beds” (OrA3, rare or absent OrA4, OrA5, OrB4) of Nelson 1978a.

L5 Massive to High Medium Bryozoans Comprises Bryo- Massive irregularly (98-100%) to coarse (up to 80 %), most of the zoan to irregul- bedded, grainstone, echinoderms, Waitanguru mound arly occasionally common benthic Limestone buildup bedded, well bedded large skeletal foraminifers, Member indicat- fossilifer- 20-100 cm fragments, common (Otorohanga ing high ous rud- thick beds, abraded, poorly bivalves and ‘B’). energy stone- commonly to moderately gastropod “Blocky and inner- grain- develops sorted moulds and Knobbly mid stone “knobbly“ occasional Limestone shelf to blocky calcareous red Beds” (OtB1, depths weathering algae OtB2, OtB3) feature, of Nelson frequently 1978a cavernously weathered

1 . 40 Waitomo Field Guide Appendix 1

L6 Massive to High Medium to Articulated / Comprises Oyster Pebbly- irregularly (77-97%) very coarse disarticulated, most of the reefs oyster bedded, tens with pebbles randomly Te Anga com- \!"#$ of centimetre (<2 cm), clasts orientated Limestone monly stone- thick; beds and matrix oysters Member. associ- pack- laterally supported, (Flemingo- “Oyster and ated stone. traceable for poorly sorted strea sp. ), Fossil Hash with few metres bryozoans, Beds” (Or sandy echinoderms, B2, grain- benthic OrB5) of stone foraminifers, Nelson -pack- bivalves and 1978a stone, occasional high calcareous energy red algae, tide solitary corals swept (Flabellum ) inner- mid shelf

L7 Bedded units Moderate Coarse to very Bryozoans, Occurs as Inter- Con- 0.5-3 m thick to high coarse sparry echinoderms, conspicuous preted glom- with abundant grainstone with benthic unit within as eratic clasts of 1-10 cm size foraminifers, Orahiri carbon- limestone limestone, clasts, poorly oysters and Formation ate calcareous sorted occasional near Awakino debrite/ sandstone calcareous Tunnel. mass and rounded- red algae “Limestone em- subrounded encrusting in Limestone placed basement basement Beds” unit - pebbles, which pebbles (OrB6) of deposit- are frequently Nelson ed at profusely bored 1978a shelf depths in re- sponse to tilting

1 . 41 Appendix 1 Waitomo Field Guide

Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sandstone association

L8 Massive to well Moderate Predominantly Moderate Comprises Outer Massive bedded to high micritic with to abundant most of shelf to to (2-25 cm) with (59-89%) scattered whole planktic the Raglan slope horizon- prominent sub- and fragmented foraminifera Limestone tally horizontal to bivalves with subequal Member in bedded bifurcating thin (pectinids) and proportions of the northern skeletal (0.5 -1.5 cm) echinoderms, echinoderms, region; also pack- silty interbeds poorly to benthic occurs as stone- moderately foraminifers a transition wacke- sorted and bivalve facies near stone fragments, the upper occasional contact with whole well Mahoenui preserved Group. echinoderms. “Argillace- Bryozoans and ous calcareous Limestone red algae Beds” (OtC2) are absent of Nelson or present in 1978a traces

S1 Typically Low to Fine to very Echinoderms, Most Mid to Massive massive moderate [)%'*+),*-")%&' bryozoans common outer glauco- with smooth (20-60%) poorly sorted and benthic in the shelf nitic weathering foraminifers Waitomo muddy !"[$%&' ""!$(' with rare Valley area. sand- to moderately presence of “Waitomo stone cemented, and calcareous Sandstone bioturbated red algae and Formation” bivalves. of Nelson 1978a)

S2. Massive, dull Moderate Fine silty Oysters Mostly Mid- Fossilif- brownish grey, (38-62%) sandstone (Flemingo- forms the outer erous moderately with scattered strea sp.), top part shelf silty cemented, large bivalve Athlopecten of the above sand- occasional hard and skeletal athleta, limestone storm stone concretionary fragments, Lentipecten (Orahiri wave and glauconitic poorly sorted hochstetteri, Formation/ base sandy sandstone Panopea Otorohanga siltstone bands, worthingtoni, Limestone) bioturbated Dosinia sp., at inland solitary corals Kawhia (Flabellum Harbour sp.), abundant area pectinid fragments and benthic foraminifers

1 . 42 Waitomo Field Guide Appendix 1

Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic siltstone association

Z1 Light grey to Moderate Medium to Dominated Common in Outer Medium creamy yellow, (51-75%) coarse siltstone, by planktic the lower shelf to bedded moderately to occasional foraminifers part of Carter upper calcar- well bedded whole bivalves, with variable Siltstone bathyal eous (10-50 cm), gastropods and proportion Member siltstone occasional echinoderms, of benthic glauconitic in- poorly to foraminifers, [!!"#$%&''()"#$ moderately echinoderms horizons (10- sorted and bivalves, 30 cm) locally bryozoans present

Z2 Massive, light Low to Predominantly Bioclasts are Wide- Outer Massive bluish grey to moderate medium to dominated spread in shelf to calcar- brownish grey, (24-73%) coarse siltstone, by planktic the northern upper eous characteristic however foraminifers region bathyal siltstone conchoidal admixture of with minor forming most fracture /"'+$[*"$.($[*"$ proportion of the Carter when fresh, sand grains may of benthic Siltstone weathers into a be observed foraminifers, Member [*"!+$,'-.."'"#$ !(01!!+2$[*"341*#$ echinoderms surface sized planktic and bivalve foraminifera whole shell commonly fragments recognisable, poorly to moderately sorted

1 . 43 Appendix 2A Waitomo Field Guide Cavern JUMP SITE Holden’s Holden’s Outlook Platform ARANUICAVE SWITCH ROOM SWITCH Tomo Rapids Tomo Izzie’s Corner Izzie’s WAITOMO STREAM WAITOMO P Fossils Bore Hole Bore Junction 210’Tomo RESERVE RUAKURI Old Lunchroom RUAKURI ROAD RUAKURI Pipe Tunnel Pipe Passage Rimrock Rimrock Extension Spiral Entrance Spiral (Sump in high water) (Sump in high Labyrinth Exit and gauge Labyrinth Tunnel of Love Tunnel New Lunchroom New Pool (Sump in high water) (Sump in high Mirror Bypass Muddy The Pretties The 56’ climb 56’ Crack Charlie’s Charlie’s This is the endpoint of stream survey on Gardner’s Gut map surveyGardner’s on of stream is the endpoint This 42’H MOA HOLE MOA 42’H Duck Dave’s Dave’s 9’WF Waahi Tapu Waahi NATURAL BRIDGE NATURAL RUAKURI ROAD RUAKURI WAITOMO STREAM WAITOMO Stals LENGTHS P Original survey NZSS/TCG 1968, Updated BWR 2010 1968, Updated surveyOriginal NZSS/TCG NORTH Main stream Other passages 3510 8840 TOTAL Other caves FEET 1070 Surface surveys 2694 2600 12,350 16,050 METRES 3764 4892 792 car park for car park for Gut cave Gardner’s P Black Labyrinth Ruakuri Black Abyss Black Tapu Wahi Box Light Rockfall Aven 5’ WF TUMUTUMU ROAD

12’ WF’s entrances Ledge Twin Tomos Tomos Twin

Tracks Gauge Glowworms Ladder/Steps Formation Power 4’ WF’s 12’ WF 12’

10’ WF 10’ Fox SCALE

0 20 40 60 80 100 METRES 0 100 200 300 400 FEET Throat P Phones Aid First Wires High Stretcher Chairs Wheel Points Pick-up Water

TUMUTUMU CAVE

The Legendary Black Water Rafting Company acknowledges the New Zealand Speleological Society for the use of the original cave survey Speleological Zealand Societycave the use of original acknowledges the New for Rafting Company Water Legendary Black The 50’ aven 50’ ? 35M Shaft Platform

Avens P

Entrance Entrance Stile (110’ Tomo) (110’ Black Abyss Black Abyss

Dam/Slide

Submergence Fox P Main Waterfall Main Ledge

Blender Ledge Ledge Gauge 50’ drop in aven drop 50’ Kahikatea Stream from Huhunui cave from Kahikatea Stream Muddy Bypass Training Site Training To Ruakuri Road Ruakuri To 100’apart vertically100’apart No connection No Mainstream Junction Mainstream Rock THE LABYRINTH THE Cecils Pool Cecils Sump in high water Sump in high Waterfall Gauge Waterfall Entrance 25’ drop drop 25’ Entrance Lab Entry Whale Bone Whale RUAKURI CAVE RUAKURI Test Tank Test 1’ WF 1’

Dry passage Slot The Upstream Entrance 1’W Entrance 2’H Upstream 9 ‘WF 9 The Labyrinth The TUMUTUMU ROAD Dug 15’ drop 15’ to chamber to Extension Rebirthing (Sump in high water) Canal The Twins The Abyss Exit Abyss Sump To Tumutumu Road Tumutumu To Stile and STREAM OKOHUA

1 . 44 Waitomo Field Guide Appendix 2B

Mirror RUAKURI CAVE Pool

The Pretties

Fossils

Holden’s Cavern

Bore Hole

Old Lunchroom

Muddy Bypass

Tomo Rapids

210’Tomo New Lunchroom Junction Outlook Rimrock Platform Passage

Rimrock Extension

010 20 30 40 50

metres

RUAKURI ROAD

Izzie’s Corner

Pipe Tunnel

Spiral Entrance P SWITCH ROOM

1 . 45 Appendix 3 Waitomo Field Guide

Stop specic potential hazards and mitigation for Fieldtrip 1 (C 3 – Cenozoic Carbonates and Caves)

These Stop specic notes supplement the Health and Safety information given on page 1.3, which must be read.

Contact name on trip: Cam Nelson, mobile 027-5182249; Chris Hendy 022-1290454

Emergency Hamilton contacts:

Adrian Pittari (GSNZ Conference Convenor): 021-02538762

Sydney Wright (Earth Sciences O!ce): 07-8384024, home 07-8550588

Margaret Nelson: home 07-8543483, mobile 027-2111301

Emergency agency: Phone 111

Healthline: Phone 0800 611116

First aid : Vans carry appropriate "rst aid kits

Illness: Advise trip leaders immediately if any health or other problems arise during the trip

Drinks: No alcohol or recreational drugs during the "eld trip (Stops 1 to 14) through to dinner time

Smoking: No smoking in vehicles during the trip

Stop 1: Gateway to Otuiti Lodge, south of Ohaupo Hazard: Tra!c Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road; wear #uoro vests

Stop 2: Waitomo Valley Quarry (disused) Hazard: Falling rock debris; slippery grass slopes Mitigation: Keep away from cli$ faces; use geological hammers appropriately and wear safety glasses; wear #uoro vests and hard hats; take care ascending/ descending grass slopes

Stop 3: Overview of Waitomo Caves area Hazard: Slippery grass slope Mitigation: Take care ascending/descending grass slopes; optional participation

Stop 4: Ahuroa Ignimbrite Hazard: Tra!c Mitigation: Do not wander on to road; only cross road if instructed; wear #uoro vests; use geological hammers appropriately

1 . 46 Waitomo Field Guide Appendix 3

Stop 5: View thin Waitomo Sandstone Hazard: Tra!c Mitigation: Do not wander on to road; wear #uoro vests

Stop 6: Orahiri Limestone at Kokakoroa Rd Hazard: Falling rock debris; slippery grass slopes Mitigation: Keep away from cli$ faces; use geological hammers appropriately and wear safety glasses; wear #uoro vests and hard hats; take care ascending/ descending grass slopes

Stop 7: Te Kuiti Group on basement Hazard: Tra!c; falling rock debris Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road; use geological hammers appropriately and wear safety glasses; wear #uoro vests and hard hats

Stop 8: Mangapohue Natural Bridge Hazard: Tra!c; slippery grass slopes and muddy track Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road; wear #uoro vests and solid foot wear; use stiles provided to cross fence lines

Stop 9: Marokopa Falls Hazard: Tra!c; slippery muddy bush track Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road; wear #uoro vests and solid footwear

Stop 10: Basal Te Kuiti Group limestone Hazard: Tra!c; slippery grass slopes Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road; only cross road if instructed; wear #uoro vests and solid footwear

Stop 11: Te Anga limestone blu$s Hazard: Tra!c Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road; wear #uoro vests

Stop 12: Ruakuri Cave Hazard: Slipping on wet walkway #oor Mitigation: Wear solid footwear; take time; follow directions of Cave Environ- mental O!cer

Stop 13: Mahoenui Group mudstone Hazard: Tra!c Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road; wear #uoro vests

Stop 14: Waitomo Caves Discovery Centre Hazard: Tra!c Mitigation: Do not wander on to main road

1 . 47