The Educational Value of Digital Media in Museum Exhibitions

A NEW ERA AND PERSPECTIVE: THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF DIGITAL MEDIA IN MUSEUM EXHIBITIONS

Anna Pantazi

A NEW ERA AND PERSPECTIVE: The educational value of digital media in Museum exhibitions.

Anna Pantazi s2157284 MA thesis Archaeology (4ARX-0910ARCH) Supervisor: Dr Llanes Ortiz Co-supervisor: Dr Piccoli Museum Studies University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Leiden, 30/04/2019 Final Version

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements...... 5-6 Part I...... 7-40 I. Introduction...... 7-9 1.1. Aims and research questions...... 9-11 1.2. Methodology...... 11-13 1.3. Thesis structure...... 13-15 II. The Educational Value and Digital Media...... 16-28 2.1. Museums and education...... 16-20 2.2. Museums, Digital Media and learning...... 20-25 2.3. Education and Digital Heritage...... 25-29 III. The value of Aesthetics...... 30-40 3.1. The concept of aesthetics in archaeology and museum exhibitions...... 30-33 3.2. Aesthetics and Digital Media...... 33-40 Part II...... 41-90 IV Introduction...... 41-42 4.1. The case study of Tomb of Christ...... 43-66 4.1.1. Introduction to the Tomb of Christ...... 43-49 4.1.2. The exhibition Tomb of Christ: the monument and the project ...... 50-53 4.1.3. Discussion...... 53-66 V. The case study of Nasca...... 67-90 5.1. Introduction to the Nasca culture...... 67-71

5.2. The exhibition Nazca. Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert...... 71-79

5.3. Discussion...... 79-86 5.4. Visitors’ responses...... 87-90 V.I. Conclusion...... 91-94 6.1. Evaluation of the thesis...... 94-95 Abstract...... 96 Bibliography...... 97-106 Online Sources...... 107 Figures...... 108-110

Tables...... 111 Graphs...... 112 Appendices...... 113-123

Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my Professor and thesis supervisor Dr Genner Llanes Ortiz for embracing my ideas, guiding and supporting me unwaveringly throughout this research. Admittedly, there were times that this research hit stumbling blocks of one kind or another, but with his positive energy and clear directions, he inspired me and taught me how to think out of the box as well as the importance of tenacity. Furthermore, I would like to thank my thesis co-supervisor, Dr Chiara Piccoli, for her invaluable assistance and guidance throughout this research. Her original notions and endless support, not only on the digital aspects and paradigms of this thesis such as the Pottery Goes Public but with others as well, such as the Walter Benjamin’s work, have been a source of great enlightenment to me and have significantly contributed to the research. Gratitude is also due to my professor and supervisor of the Museum Studies department of Leiden University Dr Mariana De Campos Francozo, who was the first person I turned to, to discuss my ideas. More specifically, I would like to thank her for making my ideas fruitful including the topic of this thesis, as well as, for the suggestion of the Nasca exhibition, which became the primary case study of this research. I would also like to acknowledge my professor and supervisor of the Digital Archaeology department of Leiden University Dr Karsten Lambers who contributed to this thesis in multiple ways; firstly, by donating his publication: «The geoglyphs of Palpa, Peru: Documentation, analysis, and interpretation». Secondly, he contributed immensely with sound advice as he is the primary researcher of the Nasca geoglyphs, and last but not least by offering his valuable assistance concerning the digital part of this thesis. Moreover, I would like to thank all the interviewers for their time and participation as without them this research could not have been possible. Special thanks to the interviewers: - From the exhibition Nasca. Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert, in Bundeskunsthalle, Bonn:

o Mrs Cecilia Pardo Grau, Curator of the Pre-Columbian art, in Museo de Arte de Lima – MALI, Peru. o Mrs Susanne Annen Exhibition Curator, in Kunst-und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland GmbH, in Bonn. o Moreover, to Mr Peter Fux, Curator of America and Exhibition Manager, in Museum Rietberg Zürich for filling out the questionnaire. - From the Nineveh exhibition, in the National Museum of Antiquities Leiden: o Mr Lucas Petit, Curator Department Ancient Near East, in the National Museum of Antiquities Leiden. o Mrs Anna de Wit, Project Curator, in the National Museum of Antiquities Leiden. - Special thanks to Bundeskunsthalle in Bonn, for permitting me to conduct the visitors’ questionnaire. - Moreover, to Grande Exhibitions creators of Van Gogh Alive - The Experience, for sharing basic information regarding the exhibition. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for supporting my dream, for their unceasing support, for listening to my ideas, putting up with my frustrations and for motivating me to continue with my research. Without the contribution of each and everyone, this thesis would have never been realised. I would like to thank them all from the bottom of my heart for their patience and for the faith they have placed in me.

PART I

I. INTRODUCTION

With the advent of technology in people’s everyday life, our perception of the world has changed dramatically. Technology has improved our lives in various fields, as an increasing number of transactions and communications now occur in a digital form. Contemporary museums cannot be an exception to this revolutionary digital era. As the world evolves, demands, needs and exchanges transform, resulting in a radical new way for the dissemination of knowledge and information. Nowadays, the use of computer-based media by museums is indispensable to their exhibitions, both permanent and temporary, as it offers new ways of presenting art collections and archaeological sites (Macdonald 2006, 302). Other forms of media such as dioramas or video installations had already made their impact a long time ago. In contrast, the ‘new media’ which are computer-based media such as 3D reconstructions, multimedia installations or mobile applications have rapidly developed over the last few years (Stogner 2009, 392; Widmann 2016, 17; Were 2015, 154; Medić and Pavlović 2014, 166-167). One of the main purposes of digital media in exhibitions is to illustrate artefacts and archaeological sites effectively and comprehensively. The archaeological context of the exhibits should be adapted accordingly, in order to attract and stimulate the public’s interest. Due to this rapid evolution, the educational value is an issue that museums as institutions are now called upon to fulfil. Numerous educational programmes and workshops have already taken place in museums, designed by museum educators which aimed principally at children but also with adults in mind. Education and digital media are now inextricably linked, since the primary aim of the use of digital media in exhibitions is to create meaningful exhibitions in order to construct a ‘‘bridge of mutual communication’’ and to create an interactive environment between the audience and the respective exhibition (Awayda 2018, 1-2; Davis and Trant 1996, 9-10;vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 4). In this spirit, the use of digital media has succeeded in intriguing, attracting and engaging the public with the

7 concepts of archaeology, heritage and culture. Through the combination of visual and audio, the fog of the past has been cleared, at least up to a point (Macdonald 2006, 309). In this thesis research, the main goal is to investigate the educational value of digital media and its impact, as part of archaeological exhibitions. The criteria of the case studies that have been chosen were the use of digital media, the educational value of them in relation to the archaeological interest. The two case studies, the Nasca Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert exhibition in Bonn, Germany and the virtual exhibition, Tomb of Christ: the monument and the project, in Athens, Greece are archaeological exhibitions that contain digital media. Furthermore, both exhibitions are not blockbusters. On the contrary, they are smaller presentations. Due to this nature of the exhibitions, it is common to see less visitor participation. The two case studies were selected to support the primary argument of this research, which is that museums and exhibitions are at the cusp of a new era, where digital media are ubiquitous and the rapid dissemination of information and knowledge transformed what is called heritage’s perception. In other words, since museums are an integral part of heritage, as institutions and ‘keepers’ of this heritage they must include and illustrate equally, civilisations from all around the world. Digital media in museum exhibitions are significantly contributing to the aforementioned factors. Nowadays there is a plethora of applications, multimedia installations and other forms of technology such as augmented reality, as part of museum exhibitions. In this research, the focus is in the most common means of technology used by museums. The purpose of this was to concentrate on the technology that visitors are most familiar with as they can find at least one of them, such as video installations, even in the smallest, local museum. Thus, this fact was another criterion for the selection of the case studies. Many studies have taken place about the use of digital media and new technologies in museums, but most of them are either at a theoretical level, or they merely concentrate on the technical components of digital media in terms of digital archaeology (Widmann 2016; Ballarin et al. 2018; Myrczik 2014; Stogner 2009; Agostino 2013). One of the main purposes of utilising media in

8 exhibitions is to create a learning environment, a ‘meaningful’ process through the use of digital resources such as animations or video installations (Kise 2013, 1-2). However, the question which arises is, does the use of media succeed in creating the appropriate environment for the public which will make their visit to the museum worthwhile? Are digital media another trend that museums have become preoccupied with but without delivering an appropriate return? In order to answer this, we must initially start with theory and subsequently continue with praxis. Therefore, the division of this thesis is into two parts. The first part concentrates on the theoretical aspect and the second on the empirical. The chosen case studies will enlighten these aspects.

1.1.Aims and research questions

Nowadays, digital technology has become an integral part of our lives, and museums all over the world are adjusting to these new changes. Technology and media are ubiquitous in museums. From local museums such as the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden to international museums such as the British Museum, there are numerous examples of the use of media in their exhibitions, both temporary and permanent. In addition, as the presence of virtual and digital exhibitions is increasing day by day, with examples that derive from both archaeology and art history such as the virtual exhibitions like Tomb of Christ and Van Gogh Alive-The Experience respectively, a new era for museums has arrived. Having visited numerous museums and exhibitions, that included at least one technological component, such as interactive screens, and been fascinated by the opportunities that technology can provide to curators (such as the creation of a robust archaeological context for the visitors), the interest in investigating further the use of media in exhibitions became stronger. This thesis research focuses on the educational value that is offered by the use of digital media in museums. To put it differently, there are various investigations and publications regarding the technological part of digital media such as the creation process or the influence of them but only limited ones about the purpose they serve such as the educational (Widmann 2016; Stogner 2009;

9 vom Lehn and Heath 2005). Thus, the case studies of this thesis were selected due to the archaeological focus (which is different since the Nasca exhibition is a civilisation and the Tomb of Christ a monument), and to the use of technology. The primary focus was on the meaning, the educational value of the digital media and what they contributed to the exhibitions and consequently their value to the public. Similarly, one of the methods that were followed was to see the use of digital media and their educational value in action by visiting the exhibitions and discussing them further with their creators. In order to achieve that, the method that was applied was firstly to perceive the use of digital media and technology as a visitor and secondly as a museology student, to define their educational purpose. The research question that organises this thesis is to investigate the educational value and thus the impact and the benefits of the technological use in museums (archaeological exhibitions), such as digital media (Graph 1). One of the initial assumptions of this thesis research was that through the use of technology we can expand the knowledge, broaden the horizons and construct a different approach for museum audience, as learning and entertainment can combine. One of the central research questions is if the above are achieved in the exhibitions in question. Other research questions are: o How does digital media contribute to the ‘reconstruction’ of the archaeological context regarding the exhibits. o How does digital media achieve an educational purpose? o How does digital media contribute to digital heritage and education? o What are the other benefits that can be gained through the use of digital media in museums?

Graph 1. Graphic of the thesis structure and research question.

1.2. Methodology

The research for this thesis was conducted from May to November 2018, and the methodology followed consisted of four aspects: the literature review, the interviews with the museum staff, the visitors’ survey and the participant observation. The initial approach of this thesis, was to compare exhibitions of art such as the Van Gogh Alive-The Experience with archaeological exhibitions such as the case study of Nasca, Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert (since digital media were included in both exhibitions), to identify similar processes and challenges. To these end, intensive efforts to contact the respective museums and private companies via emails were made. Unfortunately, owing to the fact that the gathered data were not sufficient (as most of them could not provide more than basic information), the core theme of the thesis had to be slightly shifted. However, the case study of Nasca culture was kept due to the relevance that this exhibition has for the topic of this thesis given the presence of digital media and several multimedia installations, as well as the fact that this is an archaeological exhibition. Since the establishment of the topic, the first step was to visit the two of three exhibitions on research, as the third exhibition of the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Nineveh, had unfortunately come to an end (25 March 2018), before the beginning of this research. Notwithstanding the fact of not

11 visiting the exhibition, the innovative character of the Nineveh exhibition, its topic and the embodiment of digital, such as the 3D reconstructions of the artefacts of Mosul Museum, destroyed by the terrorist attacks in 2015, led to the decision to include this exhibition in this research. In contrast, the Nasca exhibition, in Bundeskunsthalle, Bonn, in Germany, was visited by the author of the thesis on three occasions (Appendix 9). The first and third visits were dedicated to the exhibition itself. Through touring the exhibition and from personal observations of the artefacts, the museographic structure and naturally the main topic of the thesis, digital media, it was possible to understand in depth the Nasca culture. As far as digital media are concerned, the first aim was to identify what they were depicting and secondly why. Inevitably, questions did emerge such as what purpose they serve, how can the public benefit from them, where their educational value lies and many more, which are examined and discussed in the respective chapter. Furthermore, in all three visits, the method of participant observation was applied, in order to observe and document their reactions (chapter 5.3.). In the second visit, another method regarding visitors was carried out, that of the questionnaires (Appendix 7). The questionnaire was approved by the supervisor of this thesis Mr Genner Llanes Ortiz and the Bundeskunsthalle administrative department. The first section of the questionnaire concentrated on general questions such as the reason for the visit. The next questions were all about the multimedia installations and the public’s perception about them, such as if they consider the multimedia installations to have an educational context and if so, what that it was. The questionnaire had two forms, the first was a multiple choice and the second was open questions. However, the fact that the participants in the questionnaires were of different age groups helped enormously to achieve a result regarding all target groups. Some visitors did not want to fill out the questionnaire, but they contributed to this thesis through a short discussion regarding the topic and their insight. Likewise, with the exception of questionnaires, the case study Tomb of Christ was visited by the author of this thesis on September 2018 (Appendix 9), in the Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens, in Greece. Due to the fact that the museum never replied to my request to conduct visitor

12 questionnaires, it was not possible to carry out any research with questionnaires, but once again the visitors were followed, and their reactions and discussions were documented, along with the observation and interpretation of the exhibition. Endeavours were made to contact the creators of the exhibition, which unfortunately once again did not bear fruit. For all the reasons above, it was not possible to interview every participant during the creation of the exhibitions. However, in the Nasca case, the exhibition manager, Mrs Susanne Annen, and one of the two curators of the exhibition, Mrs Cecilia Pardo, were interviewed (Appendix 8). Furthermore, both of the curators (Mrs Cecilia Pardo and Mr Peter Fux) filled out an additional questionnaire (Appendix 6), with five fundamental questions about the choice and the use of technology such as multimedia installations, which is included in the Nasca discussion chapter. The third case study, the exhibition of Nineveh could not be visited, although the curator, Mr Lucas Petit, and the exhibition manager, Mrs Anna de Wit, agreed to be interviewed (Appendix 8). These interviews once more were focused on the digital media as well as the 3D parts of it. All the interviews started from a general description, such as the institution or the museum, and why they decided to create the respective exhibition to specific questions about the use of digital media, the creation of them such as who designed them, what was the purpose of them, if and how they achieve an educational purpose and what was the public’s reaction. In addition, questions about the economic costs of digital media were asked, as economics play a crucial role in order to understand in depth the intentions behind their creation. In other words, the design and creation of most of the digital media are expensive. Therefore, digital media and their use must be accurate and serve to elucidate when it comes to archaeological exhibitions.

1.3. Thesis structure

This thesis is divided into parts, where the first part focuses on the theoretical background and the second one on the empirical. The second chapter of part one investigates the educational value of digital media in

13 museum exhibitions. Since digital media have been added to the arsenal of museum display techniques, and the educative function of museums has always been a major concern, these two factors are nowadays interlinked. Thus, a flashback in the history of education in museums and the past display techniques used is mandatory. While in the same chapter the role of digital media regarding the learning processes is researched. Moreover, the role of digital heritage as part of museums, and its educative value are explored, with the Nineveh exhibition lightening up this examination. Since, aesthetics play a pivotal role in exhibitions and especially to the display of artefacts, chapter three which is dedicated to this explores aesthetics and their relation to archaeology as well as the concept of digital aesthetics. Part two focuses on the case studies of the Tomb of Christ and the civilisation of Nasca. In order for the reader to understand in depth the use of digital media, and the description of the exhibitions in the researched case studies, first of all, it is essential to include a short introduction of the history, the position in time and place and the evolution of the archaeological case studies in question (particularly for the Nasca culture, known for its complexity due to its society structure or geoglyphs). Subsequently, the exhibitions are presented and the arguments, observations and results of the aforementioned gathered data are discussed last. Last but not least, online or digital collections have been deliberately left out. The reason is to enable scrutiny of museums’ display techniques, where various media are nowadays the star attractions. Not all visitors are familiar or have access to the websites of the museums or the online digital collections (Were 2015, 154). Furthermore, this research aims to investigate what digital media in exhibitions offer and if they achieve their purpose of disseminating information when they are isolated from all the complementary media, such as websites. In this way, what is gained from the exhibition itself for a visitor will be more apparent. Only the category of computer-based media known as ‘new media’ (Chun and Keenan 2006), that exist as an integral part of exhibitions is taken into consideration, and the reason for doing so is the fact that not all people have access to the internet, and consequently, they may not

14 know how to use a smartphone or an application. An example is the target group of the elderly. In a nutshell, all the data was gathered and studied in comparison with each other and with the educational background of the author of the thesis. For instance, the Nasca literature was combined with the interviews and personal observations and perceptions in order to understand first and foremost, the civilisation itself, and then the purpose of creating the multimedia installations and the digital means and the role they play in the exhibitions, as well as the context of the civilisation. To make this possible, it had to be identified who the Nasca were, what they had achieved, why they are still important and what the main components of their culture are. Otherwise, the exhibition and its museographic structure would not make any sense. Then the question arose, of how the public reacts and what they personally think of the examined topic. Regarding the Nineveh, the research was based on the interviews and the literature review such as the catalogue of the exhibition. Afterwards, online research took place on social media sites such as Facebook in order to seek photographs and comments by the people who had visited the exhibition, not only to better understand the structure of the exhibition but to seek through such comments what people thought about it as well. However, as there were not many posts available that could be accessed a sample was taken.

CASES DESCRIPTIVE DIRECT INTERVIEW OBSERVATIONS RECONSTRUCTION OBSERVATIONS WITH AND CURATORS INTERFERING WITH AUDIENCE NASCA     TOMB OF   X  CHRIST NINEVEH  X  X Table 1. Process of the investigation of the case studies.

II. The Educational Value and Digital Media

In this chapter, the focus is on the educational value that the presence of digital media adds to the display techniques in archaeological museum exhibitions. Education has many facets and dynamics since knowledge can be disseminated by various methods. Foremost, the educational process regarding the museum experience is related to create exhibitions that are ‘meaningful’ to the public, in other words, that can be easily understood and to the primary notion that visitors should develop their own thinking and comprehension. This is made possible in combination with the learning experience museums have established along with all the information. Technology and digital media used in exhibitions are designed to provide visitors with these two elements: experience and information. Hence, a detailed overview and examples will be used as guidelines to understand in depth the main research question, which is to determine the educational value of the use of technology in museum exhibitions; technology which now occupies a dominant place in museums and which has become the primary means of educating the public together with the display of artefacts. The museographic structure of an exhibition and its artefacts is the arbitrator between the culture in question and the public (Swain 2007, 7). Thus, the curation of an exhibition is dependent on all these, setting as a priority, the ‘message’ that needs to be imparted. Digital media are a powerful tool and can be used with accuracy and completeness. Given this, and with the aid of particular examples, the concept of digital heritage and its correlation with education will be thoroughly examined.

2.1. Museums and education

The educational aspect clearly plays a pivotal part for museums. Over the past decades, as the strategies of museums have shifted, sometimes quite dramatically, so the focus on the educational component has increased in significance (Macdonald 2006, 340). This can be further explained by the definition regarding the function of museums by the International Council of Museums (ICOM):

“A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment’’ (https://icom.museum/en/). ICOM’s definition concentrates principally on the social aspect of museums concerning the public, one of which is correlated with the educational value, and which will be further explored throughout this chapter. In addition, the second definition that must be explored is what precisely museum education and its purpose are. According to ICOM: ‘‘Museum education can be defined as a set of values, concepts, knowledge and practices aimed at ensuring the visitor’s development; it is a process of acculturation which relies on pedagogical methods, development, fulfilment, and the acquisition of new knowledge’’ (Desvallées and Mairesse 2010, 31). While in the same edition the definition of a museum’s educative purpose ‘‘[…] It is connected with the notion of awakening, which aims to arouse curiosity, to lead to questioning and develop the capacity to think. The purpose of informal education is thus to develop the senses and awareness; it is a development process which presupposes change and transformation rather than conditioning and inculcation, notions it tends to oppose’’ (Desvallées and Mairesse 2010, 31). To put it another way, since it is in human nature to show curiosity about the past, so a museum’s chief educational principle, using a variety of display techniques and educational approaches, is to stimulate visitors, to aid them in seeing the world from other perspectives, to develop their critical thinking, to make connections between the past and present, insomuch as the past is an integral part of our history, which defines us and gives us a sense of belonging (Anderson 1989, 357; Trofanenko and Segall 2014, 1). Museums are ‘children’ of the Enlightenment and the West (Hein 1998, 3; Swain 2007, 18). The first collections were started by the upper or aristocratic classes but there has been considerable development since the studiolo and the cabinet of curiosities or Wunderkammer and Kunstkammer

and the division of the artefacts by artificialia (made by man), such as coins or sculptures and naturalia (made by nature), such as shells or plants, in the 16th and 17th century (Lidchi 2013, 122-123), all the way to the first public museums of Europe in the 18th century, such as the British Museum, many of which owed their foundations to the bequests of wealthy collectors1 (Swain 2007, 20-23; 93; Macdonald 2006, 341; Ames 1992, 18). In the early years of public museums’ existence, the museographic structure of the collections was primitive or completely lacking along with there being only limited access to the public (Ames 1992, 18-19). Nonetheless, the educational objective has always been a key purpose of museums, but in different terms and approaches (Hein 1998, 3). With the historical events of the time such as the industrial revolution or the foundation of the first independent nations, education started to play a crucial role in the 19th century (Hein1998, 4). Museums of the era were influenced by the political and social changes as well, and the first educative efforts took place. Nevertheless, it must be pointed out that these efforts were addressed only to a limited public audience and exhibited vast differences from today’s methods and approaches (Hein 1998, 5-6). Since then a great deal has changed, with the advent in the 20th century of the concepts of new museology and critical museology, along with the democratisation of museums and the equal rights of people in education (Álvarez et al. 2017, 833). Cultural, political and economic aspects also played their role in the evolution and transformation of museums (Ames 1992, 18-21). One of these transformations, as referred above, is the educational function taken by museums, where nowadays that approach is reinforced by the presence and use of digital media, in order for the exhibitions to provide visitors with a strong archaeological context, in-depth knowledge and ‘meaningful’ exhibited cultures (Macdonald 2006, 309-315). The educational aspect in museums is not a novelty as indicated above. The notion has dominated museums’ thinking since its beginning (Swain 2007, 20-21), and has been equally associated with the aim of the exhibitions, where the latter is the ultimate form of communication and expression. Nonetheless, the point of transformation is that

1 For example Sir Hans Sloane bequeathed his collections to the British Nation in the 18th century (Ames 1992, 18), and this became one of the principal reasons for the creation of the British Museum (www.britishmuseum.org).

18 education has become today one of the principal aims and objectives of museums (Barcelos et al. 2015, 8; Hooper-Greenhill 2007, 1), and this has also had a significant impact on the arsenal of techniques at their disposal (Holdgaard and Simonsen 2011, 108). The use of digital media and applications are some of the most contemporary techniques used by museums (Neamţu et al. 2014, 56). The principal objective that museums endeavour to achieve in terms of education is to create an open discourse through the dissemination of knowledge, influencing through this process the perception of the audience, and resulting in an impact (Barcelos et al. 2015, 8-9). The learning process today has become a ‘‘highly personal process’’ (Macdonald 2006, 325). This fact has been underpinned by the tremendous potential that technology has provided humanity with, since all kinds of information and knowledge can be accessed with significant ease, leading to the result of self-education. Essentially, the process of learning is personal and timeless. It can occur anytime, at any place, out of curiosity, interest or even quite haphazardly by discourses. Whatever the case is, learning is not always related to new knowledge, but it is the established corpus of knowledge that can also be enhanced in various ways; for instance through experiences (Hooper-Greenhill 2007, 34-35; Hein 1998, 6). Experience plays a pivotal role to learning; apropos to the museum experience, the focus of museums always remains to create exhibitions with a particular emphasis on learning, but the acquired knowledge when leaving a museum depends on diverse aspects such as the aesthetical, the awe, the memory or interest. Last but not least, education is inextricably linked to social changes and cohesion (Hooper-Grenhill 2007, 1). Consequently, the learning experience is not only correlated with the past but with the present as well, as waves of change continuously influence humankind. Since we live in a tumultuous, multi-dimensional epoch of technological advances and history keeps repeating itself; it is now imperative for the educational value to be further expanded. Museums act as the middleman between the audience and the exhibited culture, in other words, the knowledge. Ergo, the question which arises at this point is if education in museums should only focus on the past or whether they should

19 also include the present as well. In addition, should contemporary events such as terrorist attacks and particularly those associated to the destruction of cultural heritage also be taken into account and be included in the exhibitions, as contemporary society has to cope with this issue and since these facts are part of humanity’s history? (Barcelos et al. 2015, 24). Archaeology and history are two deeply intertwined disciplines, as one cannot exist without the other. Museums display history through the illustration of the artefacts. Since such artefacts were an integral part of people’s lives associated and created for a diversity of reasons such as daily use or religious practices, they are endowed with historical attributes that have been further developed through the times. In any case, artefacts radiate their power upon humans. An example is the ‘‘Multaka’’ project, launched by the state museums of Berlin. In this project, refugees are trained and employed as museum guides in the Arabic language, for the communities of refugees established in Germany as well as for newcomers (www.dw.com). The project aims to familiarise and welcome them through the artefacts of the museums, which is part of their culture. This example illustrates the combination of the past and presents making us realise our interconnection. By using the past and the present, illustrating examples, the first can promote a deep understanding of the latter, and enhance the educational value by comparing and demonstrating past with the present and by bringing objects and people together. In this way, critical thinking is stimulated and the trigger of emotion or awareness follows naturally. Needless to say that museums’ main content has been created by humans for humans, and the museums themselves are addressed to humans. After all, and using Nelson Mandela’s own wise words: ``Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world``.

2.2. Museums, Digital Media and learning

Digital media are today ubiquitous in the majority of museums’ exhibitions worldwide. Their presence and use have periodically been a source of contention, particularly when it comes to digital media’s ‘‘absence of

materiality’’ (Cameron and Kenderdine 2007, 35-37). Nonetheless, digital media are further museums display techniques, which have been dramatically expanded over recent years. Visitors come across hundreds of educational programmes and workshops which museums offer, but it is the exhibition itself that counts the most. They are the core of museums, as they build a ‘bridge’ that connects the audience and cultures (Hooper-Greenhill 1995, 37). However what seals this connection is the use of digital media, since it enhances the understanding (Awayda 2018, 1-2). Evidently, learning coincides with experience reinforced by the use of digital media and new technologies (Davis and Trant 1996, 9-10). The versatility and expanded use of digital media such as animations, 3D reconstructions or 3D printing, reinforce the museum experience. This occurs by creating a visitor’s experience fundamentally with the dissemination of information, through the combination of image, text, sound, and the sense of ‘reality’ digital media can provide visitors with. All these result in triggering the emotions, the memory, the participation, the imagination, the curiosity and the aesthetical value, thus learning is achieved through visitor’s stimulation (as will be further discussed in the aesthetics chapter) through a new perspective and approach with the advent of ‘new media2’ (Jewitt 2012, 74; Cameron and Kenderdine 2007, 36-37; Hooper-Greenhill 1995, 36-37; vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 12). Furthermore, the primary role of digital media as a means of communication is that it acts as a catalyst between the provided information of the exhibited objects and the impact they have on the audience since they reinforce and transform the learning experience (vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 4). In order to deepen our understanding of past civilizations, the combination of sound and imagery can help to add a multi-dimensional aspect to our learning experience. To put it differently, by unravelling the history of museums display techniques, it is noticeable that digital media are, in a way, the contemporary version of dioramas or models, with the exception the advanced use of technology and the computer-based owing to the development of the world (Geismar 2018, xvii). However, the point which is underlined here

2 The term new media is used to distinguish the computer-based media such as the 3D reconstructions from the old or traditional media such as the radio (Tribe et al. 2009, 6; Moser 2013, 188).

21 is that the display techniques of museums change with the passage of time but the original notion and scope remain the same. That is none other than to reinforce the educational character of the objects and the respective culture in question. Nonetheless, we are far away from the era of the ‘static’ dioramas or models, since new media alter the perspectives, they are multifarious and can trigger and stimulate through the combination of visual and sound, different ‘reactions’ such as imagination or emotions (Holdgaard and Simonsen 2011, 102; vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 12). As new media are a compelling feature of our era, and as museums endeavour to keep pace with new opportunities provided through technology (Myrczik 2014, 178), it should be taken into account that new media have their audience, which often consists of digital communities (vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 10). This happens, particularly when new generations are concerned and are created primarily for leisure and personal interest, but the learning value is not excluded. For example, online collections of artefacts, sculptures or paintings are ubiquitous in social media, such as Pinterest, where a user can create a profile and upload a collection of personal interest with the respective commentary. Obviously, these communities continue to develop and represent a form of self-learning and interaction with other users, while museums with their digital collections are attracting new visitors but (re)introduce to the old. Furthermore, except the online collections of museums other online platforms such as Google Art Project or Europeana, where the digital representation of masterpieces takes place, have also emerged and have their own impact on the public (Agostino 2013, 99). These platforms work as complementary to the exhibitions, thus to the museum experience but concurrent as independent as well (since they can be accessed even without having visited the museum). Through the free access they provide to the public, the latter can explore, learn and observe in detail numerous masterpieces (Agostino 2013, 146). As for Social Media, I firmly believe that they are worth an investigation of their own. Nonetheless, the impact of them is ubiquitous and of utmost importance, since they have turned into a powerful communication tool between museums and the public.

At this point, however, the issue which arises is the absence of materiality and authenticity through the digital representation of the exhibits and its impact in the learning experience. Materiality is of the utmost importance, as it is the core of museums (Dallas 2007, 35) but the point which is underlined here is that first of all, media have their material hypostasis themselves, as they are tangible and they acquire their position and interpretation in the exhibitions (Cameron and Kenderdine 2007, 38). Secondly, if we take into account that they are used to reinforce the museum experience and the meaningful value, if used correctly then they do not differ from the original artefacts’ presentation. To put it simply, artefacts are enclosed in showcases for security reasons, and the information is usually accompanied by texts which consist of no more than a few lines of information. In contrast, digital media can provide visitors with more information than a few lines, and the ability to observe artefacts in great detail, whose extent depends on each visitor’s capacity and eagerness of learning (Stogner 2009, 389). Thirdly, the experience is reinforced by physically walking through the exhibition (Bruno 2014, 158). Senses are triggered through the combination of the physical presence of the artefacts and the digital representation of them, where visitors can observe artefacts in great detail and thus the learning experience is enhanced (Dumitrescu et al. 2014, 102; Agus et al. 2017, 18). Fourthly, according to the aforesaid, digital media have their own method of communication with the public and ways of contributing to knowledge construction (Biedermann 2017, 282). Fifthly, as it will be illustrated in the next chapters and particularly to the case studies of this dissertation, digital media can reinforce the educational aspect, by reconstructing more effectively the archaeological context of the artefacts, through their unique ability to combine multiple sources of the exhibited culture such as the visualisation of the geographical location of them or of the techniques used for their creation (in case of a ceramic for example). To exemplify this, I would like to discuss one of the most paradigmatic exhibitions of the use of technology for educational purposes; the project, ‘Pottery goes public’ organised by the University of Amsterdam. The project took place in Allard Pierson Museum in 2015, and its chief aim was to identify

23 the manufacturing techniques of ancient pottery through 3D analysis, visualisation and printing, while its second aim was to engage the public throughout the research process (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 62; Revello-Lami 2016, 421-422). The notion behind this innovative project was on the one hand to build a bridge between archaeologists and non-relative audience and on the other hand, to provide them with a complete context based on experience, making this possible through the participation of the public (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 62). This project was a multidimensional one, owing to the fact that it combines a virtual museum with a physical experience (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 64). Archaeologists used Italian black gloss ceramics and endeavoured to figure out the method used for the stamps in the ceramics. Noteworthy at this point is that the choice of this particular kind of ceramics was not made randomly. On the contrary, these ceramics are rarely displayed in museums (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 67). The public’s participation concentrated on the experience of creating the stamps (fig.1) on clay sheets (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 71). In this way, the museum’s visitors were able through this process not only to engage with the ceramics’ art but to understand in-depth their construction and decoration.

Figure 1. The 3D printed sheets of clay with stamp imprints of museum visitors. Photo: L. Opgenhaffen (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 71 figure 3). Furthermore, in order to reinforce knowledge multimedia installations also took place including the use of videos displaying ceramics manufactures from contemporary life and in this way it was possible to shed light on further techniques. In addition, visitors had the chance to interact with the artefacts and observe them from different angles by means of a touch screen where 3D models of the ceramics were illustrated as well as through the 3D printing, where through reconstruction of the artefacts the unique chance of physical

contact was provided (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 73-74). Therefore, through the use of technology and the combination of the senses, visitors experienced multilateral aspects of gaining knowledge. Through the in-depth understanding of the exhibition, with the aid of digital media, uncharted territories can also be discovered in terms of information and collections (King et al. 2016, 85). For example, maritime archaeology has successfully reached an audience through the virtual experience. Except for the underwater archaeological sites, the public has the ability to explore and learn about marine life as well. (Bruno et al. 2018, 92). Regarding the use of digital media in museum exhibitions, however, it is of the utmost importance that an interdisciplinary team makes the design and the content of the digital media as it is a very complicated procedure when it comes to the educational approach (Economou 1998, 182-183). As Economou points out: ‘‘Before making the decision to use multimedia interactives, museums need to consider carefully whether this medium is the one best suited to the task in hand, taking into account the technical, financial, aesthetic, and pedagogical implications’’ (Economou 1998, 185). In other words, using Economou’s point, there is a diversity of factors that must be taken into account regarding digital media as part of exhibitions. Nonetheless, what is underlined in this point is that the use of digital media as part of exhibitions must be considered with care; they should primarily be designed based on learning theories and approaches (Duncan et al. 2012, 952-954), following the artefacts of the exhibition (Hooper-Greenhill 1995, 92). Since they act in a complementary fashion, they should follow the aim and the scope of the exhibitions, in order to fulfil their purpose that is the learning experience (Davis and Trant 1996, 13). All these will be further illustrated in the case studies of this dissertation. 2.3.Education and Digital Heritage

To explore the concept of Digital Heritage, UNESCO’S statement can further aid us: ‘‘Digital heritage is made up of computer-based materials of enduring value that should be kept for future generations. Digital heritage

25 emanates from different communities, industries, sectors and regions. Not all digital materials are of enduring value, but those that require active preservation approaches if continuity of digital heritage is to be maintained’’, (www.unesco.org). Nowadays, the concept of digital heritage is widely-shared. In this transitional era, the urge to preserve and protect cultural and natural heritage has become more intense than ever. Digital heritage is an indispensable component of education, since through the digital form of artefacts and sites, especially when the originals no longer exist, manages to sustain their ‘presence’ and ensure their educative value (Karvonen 2010, 215). Archaeological sites and artefacts are particularly vulnerable as they are threatened by a variety of unpredictable situations such as climate destructions or terrorist attacks (Munshi et al. 2011, 156). Digital heritage and its methods offer solutions which help preserve and secure archaeological sites and artefacts for future generations (Munshi et al. 2011, 156). An example of this derives from the Nineveh exhibition, in the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, which took place in 2017 in cooperation with UNESCO (in particular parts of the exhibition such as the ‘image’ of Iraq today). Nineveh is a significant Assyrian city of antiquity (Petit and Morandi- Bonacossi 2017a, 8), which today has suffered immensely from vandalism and terrorist attacks. Part of this exhibition was made with the use of digital media such as 3D reconstruction, 3D printings or animations of the palace. It deliberately focused on the aesthetic value of the landscape in order to provide visitors with the visuality of the city in the past (fig.2). Through the scientific reconstructions, however, the exhibition enables visitors to comprehend further and explore, while simultaneously managing to inspire and educate them (Personal communication with Mr Petit and Mrs de Wit).

Figure 2. Part of the exhibition Nineveh, in the National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: (https://kunst-hart.nl). Part of this exhibition was the 3D reconstruction of the artefacts that were held in Mosul Cultural Museum (Personal communication with Mr Petit and Mrs de Wit). In 2015 Mosul Cultural Museum came under attack by a terrorist organisation commonly known as Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham or ISIS. The majority of the museum’s artefacts were destroyed and these images were broadcast to the world (Petit and Morandi-Bonacossi 2017a, 132; www.theguardian.com). The artefacts that were easily movable had already been transferred to the National Museum of Iraq in Bagdad after the looting during the Iraq war in 2003. Artefacts that were larger and heavier had remained in the Mosul Museum, until their destruction in 2015. These artefacts would have been lost forever, if the Mosul project3 (also known as Rekrei), funded by the European Union had not been established (Petit and Morandi- Bonacossi 2017b, 275). The principal aim of the project was to create a digital representation of the artefacts in order to ensure their ‘existence’ for present and future generations. The researchers managed to collect Mosul Cultural Museum visitors’ old photographs of the artefacts, in order to create the 3D reconstruction of the artefacts (Petit and Morandi-Bonacossi 2017b, 277). The next aim of this project is to create 3D printings of the artefacts, in order for the public to be further engaged (https://ec.europa.eu/programmes). The 3D reconstructions of the artefacts were part of the Nineveh exhibition, in order to

3 Founded by Matthew Vincent and Chance Coughenour, both PhD candidates (Petit and Morandi-Bonacossi 2017b, 275).

27 create a meaningful experience for the audience and to inspire them (Personal communication with Mr Petit and Mrs de Wit, Appendix 8). Similarly, there are several other projects where the principal aim is to protect and promote Iraq’s culture. For instance, the Iraq project which was created in order to ensure access for the public to the artefacts due to the armed conflict of 2004 when the museum was looted and closed. The result was the creation of a virtual museum for present and future generations (Chiodi 2007, 101-104). Albeit, at this point, the issue of authenticity arises, along with the high costs of digital media (Karvonen 2010, 215), examining the digital representation of the artefacts is not this research’s primary focus. Nonetheless, this example was put forward to illustrate the importance of Digital Heritage, as well as to indicate the future of digital archaeology, and its educative significance. The memory of the destruction of the artefacts of Rio de Janeiro’s National Museum in Brazil caused by fire, on the 2nd of September of 2018 (www.theguardian.com), serves as a further example to support this argument. The collections of the museum were available in the online platform of Google Art Project before the destructive fire took place. The visitors can navigate to the collections of the museum through a virtual tour on both the website and the mobile application of the project, ensuring this way the preservation of the collections for present and future generations (https://artsandculture.google.com). Unfortunately, unpredictable factors make it impossible to prevent cultural heritage from destructions or looting. However, Digital heritage is a contemporary method which contributes to the safekeeping of the digital form of the artefacts and sites, and thus to the education of society. In a nutshell, in this chapter the main focus was on the educative experience, digital media can provide museum visitors with. Firstly a brief insight into the history of education in museums was explored in order to understand the beginning of the acquisition of collections or the first educative attempts in museums. Secondly, digital media and their educational value as part of museums’ display techniques were investigated through different

28 examples and perspectives. In addition, the impact of digital media and the lack of materiality, are also discussed. Last but not least, since digital heritage is a rising field, it is inextricably correlated with education and digital preservation of not only artefacts or archaeological sites but of heritage under threat as well, as it is illustrated in the case study of the Nineveh exhibition.

III. The value of Aesthetics

In this chapter, the concept of aesthetics will be explored and discussed. Since aesthetics play a pivotal role not only to archaeology, digital archaeology or museum exhibitions but to education as well, it was not possible, not to include a chapter in this dissertation. Furthermore, it must be taken into account that aesthetics are an inextricable part of daily life and therefore are of utmost importance in the museums’ world. To put it differently, when it comes to museum exhibitions, and from the visitors’ perspective, artefacts are associated with personal aesthetics. For instance, some artefacts do not appeal to visitors’ aesthetics (always depending on personal preferences). Hence a tendency of ignorance and indifference is often created. On the contrary, when an artefact captures the visitor’s imagination, then extended observation and more intense desire to acquire more knowledge on the specific artefact is noticed. On account of aesthetics, visitors who may have visited a museum out of curiosity only will indisputably memorise an artefact of their preference and its details through observation. Nevertheless, in order to speak about aesthetics, we must first examine it as a term, then its correlation with archaeology and finally make the connection with the main topic of this dissertation, the digital media in the exhibitions.

3.1. The concept of aesthetics in archaeology and museum exhibitions

The initial concept, as well as the etymology of Aesthetics, derives from Ancient Greece, mainly from Philosophers such as Plato’s or Aristotle’s theories and the word ‘‘αἰσθητικός (aisthētikós, the perception of the senses)’’, which for Ancient Greeks was also associated with the perception of the beauty (Wilson 2006, 20 -21; Hausken 2016, 85). Nevertheless, it was the German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, who established and included the term in Philosophy in the 18th century (Wilson 2006, 20; Noordegraaf et al. 2013, 81). Ever since, the philosophy of Aesthetics has been a field of interest for a plethora of scientists and authors, evidenced by innumerable publications, in which the term has

been analysed in depth. Aesthetics have been correlated above all with the discipline of art history and art in general (Taylor et al. 1994, 265). Moreover, nowadays aesthetics are an integral part of human’s daily lives and this becomes evident to a large extent through an individual’s personal preferences (Skeates 2017, 611). However, it is remarkable that the divergent aspects of aesthetics depend not only on personal preferences but mainly on what the eyes of the individual come across (without eliminating the other senses like hearing). In other words, the experience of senses depends on what we see (or feel), (Zettl 1998, 86). As an illustration, there is a different perception of aesthetics when a visitor beholds a picturesque landscape, then when this same person observes a museum artefact. There is a variety of emotions that are triggered as well as senses that are stimulated (Irvin 2008, 29-31). Hereupon, in respect to museum exhibitions, we must consider that it is the personal aesthetic that a visitor brings with them to the museum. One of the principal aims of the museum should be to stimulate visitors by creating other aspects of the aesthetic and trigger the emotions. Consequently, in most exhibitions, the aesthetical result of the museographic structure plays a pivotal role, and it is not possible not to include this significant part. Aesthetics and archaeology were first related by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in his famous publication, “Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums”4 in the 18th century, where he classified and dated ancient artworks, underlined the significance of them, and at the same time endorsed the idea that the aesthetical understanding and interpretation has a leading role regarding the analysis of the artworks observations (Skeates 2017, 607-608). As a result of this, the market value of the era for a part of archaeological objects was influenced by his observations (Skeates 2017, 607-608). For instance, it was Winkelman who pointed out that vases considered to be Etruscan were in truth Greek (fig.3), and through his reassessment, he boosted the demand of the ‘Etruscan vases’ as well as their worth and their aesthetic value (http://slll.cass.anu.edu.au). What followed was a significant increase in the demand of Etruscan vases by private collectors, in the respective period (Smith 2017, 5; Burn 1997, 248).

4 History of Ancient Art.

Figure 3. Red-figured kylix with the scene of Music lesson, c.465-460 BC, manufactured in Attica, found in Vulci. Photo: (Halbertsma et al. 1989, 72). Nevertheless, it was private museum collectors and the intrinsic aesthetic value of their collections among other factors such as curiosity that enabled the ‘birth’ of museums (Swain 2007, 20-23). Since the era of the Renaissance, collections of artefacts were held in what was known as cabinets of curiosities until the 18th century and collections were exhibited with the consent and understanding of the respective collector (Lidchi 2013, 122-123). The establishment of public museums was based on the bequests or donations of the aforementioned private collectors (Swain 2007, 20-23; Macdonald 2006, 341). However, it should be pointed out that the motive for the acquisition of artefacts or masterpieces, aside from factors such as the value of the objects, the historical or archaeological (e.g. Greek, Egyptian), was based on the aesthetic value as well (Letowski 2010, 6). Furthermore, aesthetics in archaeology are correlated with the factor of materiality, as artefacts are the key components of the discipline of archaeology and thus of museum exhibitions. However, concerning materiality combined with aesthetics, the belief that seeing artefacts as ‘objects’, either in the discipline of archaeology or in museum exhibitions and the isolation of aesthetic value, over other aspects (Taylor et al. 1994, 252- 255), does not correspond with the central beliefs of this research’s argument. Chiefly, all objects were created by manufacturers in a particular period of time and by specific cultures (Taylor et al. 1994, 265). For instance, there are notable differences between the cultures and their artefacts such as the ceramics of daily use in Pre-historical Greece and the Pre-Columbian ritual purpose ceramics. Noticeably, there are divergences in material, in technique, in the era, and even more, on the basis of their respective uses. Hence, in order to

32 examine an artefact, all aspects must be combined, and factors such as the aesthetic should not be isolated, nor should their archaeological or their technical values. By presenting one aspect, it confuses not only the scientific staff but visitors’ perception as well, since there is not a complete understanding (Gosden 2001, 163). Therefore, we must take into account under which circumstances, and where each artefact was created as well as which period it concerns (Taylor et al. 1994, 259).

3.2. Aesthetics and Digital Media

With the advent of new technologies and the rise of New Media, a new term for aesthetics was introduced namely ‘‘New aesthetic’’ (Moser 2013, 190). Another term that is widely used is Digital Aesthetics, to define the new perception of the senses in relation to the digital context. Old and new media are distinguished by new media’s digital and computational relation (Moser 2013, 187; Tribe et al. 2009, 6). For this reason, in this discussion, two principal issues will be developed. The first is the digital copies of the artworks or artefacts and the ‘‘absence of aura’’, while the second is the use of media in museum exhibitions regarding the aesthetical value. One of the most significant issues now is that through the use of technology such as social media or digital photography, the majority of museum acquisitions are easily accessible. In order to discuss this issue, reference will be made to the publication of Walter Benjamin "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction". Walter Benjamin is a key figure when aesthetics, perception and use of technology intertwine with art. Numerous authors of having devoted time regarding analyse Benjamin’s work through a variety of perspectives (Conty 2013; Dini 2017; Haxthausen 2004;). However, even though this book was published in 1936, and apparently the technological progress which has been achieved today, is unequivocally vast, it has been considered heretofore a work of utmost importance, owing to the prevailing notion that analyses art and the ‘‘reproduction’’ of it through technological means. Furthermore, the book is a

33 valued critique of the rise of Fascism and that particular political credo’s manipulation of the public through art (Eiland and Jennings 2002). One specific idea Walter Benjamin refers to is that through the reproduction of artworks the public could gain access to art that hitherto was out of bounds and that through the process of reproduction the artworks lose their ‘‘aura’’ (Eiland and Jennings 2002). To support this argument, a contemporary example will be used that derives from the ancient Greek sculptures, widely known as Kore (Greek: Κόρη). Korai (plural) common in the Archaic period (700-480 BC) as offerings or grave markers, for the goddesses or wealthy young girls that lost their lives before marriage. In ancient Greek sculpture, and particularly in the statues of Korai, colour and especially polychromy played a crucial role (fig.4) since its principal use was to illustrate the clothes, jewellery and even the hairstyle of the statues (Plantzos 2011, 110-111). Thus, statues through the use of polychromy obtained a narrative and emblematic character, (Plantzos 2011, 110-111). In the present day, the majority of the museums worldwide with Greek exhibits, not only of Korai but sculpture in general, do not illustrate this significant colourful part of the sculptures. Nevertheless, as it is impossible to restore today's faded white marble statues with their original colours, for a multitude of reasons not least of an ethical nature, and so the use of technology has been a welcome solution, in order to show to the public the original appearance of Korai.

Figure 4. 3D model of the "Peplos Kore" with its original colour. Photo: (www.theacropolismuseum.gr). This can be effected either through digital reproduction, using social media for example or through supplementary media in situ, in juxtaposition

with the original sculptures in the museums that they are exhibited. In this way, the lost archaeological context can be reconstructed and the statues can be made ‘meaningful’ to the viewing public. Furthermore, the aesthetical perspective can dramatically change as there is a notable difference between the perception that is created by a white marble statue and that with its ‘original’ colour. Through the attribute above of the colours of the statues which combine all the principal aspects of beauty, materiality and taste of aesthetics, the public can better understand the statues and the purpose they serve. Notwithstanding all this, the essential core of the work of Walter Benjamin is concentrated on the absence of ‘‘aura’’ in reproductions of artworks. What he describes is that every artwork has an individual ‘‘aura’’, which is closely related to the authentic artwork (Eiland and Jennings 2002). Therefore, by copying them and making them familiar to the public, they lose their ‘‘aura’’, and thus their aesthetic perception. Similarly, Berger pointed out that artworks ‘‘lose their power’’ (Berger 1974, 32-33) or in other words their influence. Nevertheless, in the Kore example can be noticed that the ‘‘aura’’ is ‘restored’ through the digital reproduction of the statues. Since the original colours have faded away with the passage of time, it is through the digital display of the original colours of statues, that the sense of ‘‘aura’’ can be transmitted to the public. The belief that through technology masterpieces can become part of our daily lives, and thus alter our aesthetic perception, does not coincide with this research argument. On the contrary, even though prior to visiting a museum there are artefacts or artworks that might be familiar to the visitors (Berger 1974, 19-21), the perception and the experience change, as they depend on the museographic structure, museum environment, and the artworks or artefacts themselves. For instance, the Mona Lisa5 (fig.5), perhaps the most famous painting of Leonardo da Vinci, and one of the principal reasons for visiting the Louvre Museum (Sassoon 2001, 2) is an artwork that has permeated the fabric of people’s existence by many means; from wallpaper on a computer screen to

5 Mona Lisa is part of the permanent exhibition Department of Paintings: Italian painting, in Louvre Museum, Paris, France.

35 a chocolate brand’s name, Mona Lisa remains one of the most famous works worldwide (Sassoon 2001, 15-16). Nonetheless, from the number of visitors flocking to the Louvre for the express purpose of seeing the real Mona Lisa, it is clear that the public is not jaded by the ubiquitous copies of the artwork (Sassoon 2001, 2). Instead, there is a real desire to see the authentic work in person.

Figure 5. Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, 1503–06,77 cm × 53 cm, oil on panel, Louvre Museum. Photo: author of the thesis. It is evident that the digital reproduction of the Mona Lisa helped to facilitate the public familiarise with painting. However, it is through the ubiquitous ‘advertisement’ of the painting that the Mona Lisa remains one of the most famous paintings (Sassoon 2001, 6-17). Concurrently, it is not the digital reproduction of the painting that has changed the aesthetic value. In contrast, new values have been added. In combination with the advertisement of the painting, it has been transformed into a ‘pop-art object’. As Sassoon states: ‘‘So how could Lisa Gherardini fail? Painted by a genius, bought by a king, set in the heart of Paris, worshipped by intellectuals, kidnapped by an Italian, sent up by the avant-garde, chosen to represent France by de Gaulle, worshipped by the Americans and the Japanese, and backed by a worldwide international advertising industry. It is also, I think, quite a beautiful painting’’, (Sassoon 2001, 16-17). In other words, in the case of Mona Lisa, the ‘‘aura’’ of the painting has been distorted by the prestige the painting acquired throughout the years.

With the use of media or multimedia installations in museum exhibitions, regarding the aesthetic value, the main argument is that new senses are stimulated and experienced, as new means of technology have emerged (Tavares 2011, 11; Barker 2012, 98), such as augmented reality, virtual reality, combination of audio, movement and visual, or special effects. Therefore, the aesthetics have a strong influence, as the stimuli, the perception, the communication method, the interpretation and the interaction between media and the public has changed. However, extensive research and focus could shed light on another significant aspect, concerning in particular, the relationship that is created between human perception and technology. For instance, on the one hand, media do not satisfy all museum visitors, but on the other hand, new generations and particularly children who have grown up at this time of rapid technological development are especially keen on using media. Hereunto, it should be pointed out that aesthetics also depend on the kind of digital media. For instance, interactive media such as touchscreens, have notable differences from the 3D installations, as visitors will discover different aesthetical aspects or senses to be stimulated. Examples for this can be derived from the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden. In one of the permanent exhibitions of the museum, in the Egypt department, sarcophagi and mummies are hosted in a vast showcase. A crocodile mummy is accompanied by an interactive screen (fig.6), illustrating different aspects of the mummy such as x-ray or the skeleton mode. By having the chance to see the inner part of the crocodile, rotate, zoom in or out, the usefulness of the interactive screen is clear to perceive, as visitors learn that inside the single crocodile mummy there are several crocodiles, mummified together.

Figure 6. Visualisation of the inner part of the Crocodile Mummy, on Skeleton mode, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: author of the thesis. In combination with the original mummy, located behind the interactive screen (fig.7) visitors have a clear and complete image of the mummy and the inner part of it. In this case, the use of technology enhances the visitor experience regarding the mummy crocodile, providing visitors with an elucidated archaeological context and reinforcing their aesthetical perception. Evident is the fact, that the aforementioned would have never been achieved in that level without the use of digital technology.

Figure 7. The Crocodile mummy in the background and the visualisation of its inner part in the front, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: author of the thesis. In the same museum, in the central hall where the temple of Taffeh is exhibited, a brief, four-minute animation (fig.8), providing an introduction with the museum’s history, is projected on to the temple.

Figure 8. Scene from the light show on the temple of Taffeh, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: author of the thesis. Whilst animations such as video installations are considered by some as a merely passive experience (Caraceni 2014, 52) the introductory light show to the museum, that combines the attributes of storytelling through audio, movement and visual, demonstrates that different emotions and feelings such as awe or curiosity can be triggered compared to the use of the interactive screen, but are still able to stimulate the aesthetical perception anew. Over the last decade, the approach of many museums has changed to exhibiting artefacts as ‘storytellers’, to create a dynamic relationship and a new aesthetic between visitors and cultures (Henning 2006, 91). As media are mediums of communication, it is obvious why museums have rapidly adopted them as a supportive role to the original artefacts. In conclusion, aesthetics are a variety of aspects and depend on personal preferences as well. Nonetheless, personal preferences are subjective and are consequently related to every human’s taste, experiences, educational level, profession (Berger 1974, 10; Henning 2006, 110-111). In other words, aesthetics, and taste can be objective and subjective at the same time. An object that might be objectively ‘ugly’, can at the same time please the aesthetics of a percentage of the public for a diversity of reasons, since the perception of the senses differs. Marcel Duchamp’s fountain, which is, in fact, a urinal, is famous not for its beauty or aesthetic value (Taylor et al. 1994, 265). The fact is that its artistic value along with its influence changed the art scene and the

39 perception of it in general. This leads us to another factor which plays a pivotal role in the aesthetic perception; the one of the ‘prestige’ of objects, something that is maintained by museum and heritage experts and results in Western mentality value (Taylor et al. 1994, 265-266). In other words, a starry high- value object will gain more attention compared to an object less ‘known’ by the public. When it comes to museum exhibitions, it is without a doubt that vision, one of the primary human senses which precedes any other sense, is a fundamental aspect of aesthetics, or to put it in other words as Berger said ‘‘Seeing comes before words. The child looks and recognises before it can speak’’ (Berger 1974,7). As most museum visitors are not familiar with archaeology as an academic discipline, although some of them are genuinely interested in learning something about the depicted artefact or civilisation, it is a fact that first impressions are based on their senses. It is how they experience the artefact through their senses, which makes the artefact important to every visitor. Thus, when it comes to digital media there are visitors that will ignore such technological tools, but there are others that embrace the combination that most multimedia offer today, such as audio, or 3D experience, and it is through the senses that we can be led to experience other aspects such as knowledge or memory. It is this combination of different aesthetics, one deriving from the artefacts itself, and the other from the digital media that can create a powerful archaeological context and a unique museum experience. After all, as interpreters of the past, this is the core of museums existence and museum exhibitions.

Part II

IV. Introduction

In this part, two case studies, the Tomb of Christ exhibition and the Nasca will be presented and discussed. The case studies were chosen based on several factors, such as the availability of the exhibitions, the archaeological nature and most importantly, the digital installations. The theoretical background of part I was crucial in order to understand the structure of the exhibitions and the use of digital media in these exhibitions. For these reasons, a flashback on the educational history of museums as well as an insight into the learning experience regarding digital media was mandatory for both case studies. Furthermore, Nineveh exhibition and the concept of digital heritage, aid to scrutinise the case study of the Tomb of Christ and to clarify the importance of the preservation of heritage for future generations. Aesthetics on the other hand, and particularly New Aesthetics contributed to the case studies by helping to understand the perception of the senses in relation to the digital media. Digital media have become a powerful display tool, and therefore they cannot be ignored. They are ubiquitous in hundreds of exhibitions around the globe. However, without researching the impact of them in action, it is not possible to estimate their influence and the role they have come to play in this field. Furthermore, taking into consideration the fact that digital media are a trend of the era, an important question which arose was to what extent they serve the educational value. The relationship between the trend and purpose was challenging to define. Since the dissemination of knowledge is now easily achieved due to digital media, the primary aim was to see in action if this is happening. Notably, because computer-based media are particularly favoured by new generations, to children of all ages, the educational approach and its impact, regarding this fact, are of utmost importance. To serve this purpose, two archaeological case studies were chosen with considerable care, as they have differences, particularly when it comes to

the use of digital media6. The Nasca exhibition concerns a civilisation of Peru’s pre-Hispanic cultures and the Tomb of Christ, regardless of its religious component, is a historical monument. What followed was an investigation to find out the impact digital media of these exhibitions have on visitors and how they perceive this new learning experience. Unfortunately, even though this was relatively easily achieved in the Nasca exhibition, as far as the Tomb of Christ exhibition is concerned, it was less satisfactory since no permission was granted from the respective museum. Nonetheless, this exhibition was chosen due to its unique content, since it combines a historical monument, its restoration and rehabilitation works. In the Nasca, exhibition questionnaires were completed by visitors, and enlightening discussions also took place. The primary goal was to make a comparison between the two exhibitions based on visitors’ experience, which for the reasons above was not possible. However, the observations, the interviews and the literature enabled this research to investigate the educative aspect of digital media used in these exhibitions. Both case studies start with a brief introduction regarding historical and archaeological information, in order for the content of digital media to be understood. Since these case studies lie in the exhibitions themselves, and as no literature can be found, and due to the fact that these are temporary exhibitions, a detailed description was given. The aim is to familiarise the reader with the museographic structure of the exhibitions. Moreover, the discussion follows the description in both case studies. Repeating information was inevitable, as the reader is not physically present in any of the two case studies. Therefore, the descriptions and discussions had to be given with clarity and accuracy.

6 Since the Nasca exhibition includes mainly multimedia installations, while the Tomb of Christ is a virtual exhibition.

4.1.The case study of the Tomb of Christ

4.1.1. Introduction to the Tomb of Christ7

The Tomb of Christ, where Jesus is understood to have been buried and raised from the dead is located in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It is also known as the Church of the Resurrection8 (Greek: Church of the Anastasis) in Jerusalem, in Israel. For Christians, it is considered to be the most sacred place, a marker for Christianity. Jerusalem is an essential city as three different religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam coincide there9. The tremendously significant monuments of Jerusalem and the old city itself have been included in UNESCO’S World Heritage list since 1981 (https://whc.unesco.org). Whilst there is considerable contention as to whether the Tomb of Christ in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the site of the original burial place of Jesus, the belief of the authenticity of the Tomb has been embraced by millions of pilgrims and scientists worldwide. As the Gospels provide us with few details regarding the burial place of Jesus, the question of authenticity has puzzled researchers for centuries. Furthermore, as it is described in the Gospels, and as the traditions of the era indicate, the initial location of the Jesus burial place was outside the city walls (Powers 2004, 3). In contrast, today The Tomb of Christ is within the city, owing to the urban expansion over the centuries. Fortunately, the restoration of the Edicule10 (fig.9) that contains the Tomb of Christ which took place in 2016 by the team of the National Technical University of Athens with Mrs Antonia Moropoulou as the leading figure brought some fresh discoveries to light. National Geographic and the archaeologist - in residence, Fredrik Hiebert were invited to document every

7All information included in this chapter is a combination from the literature, the National Geographic’s documentary: Secrets of Christ’s Tomb: Explorer Special, where every step of the process such as the rehabilitation works are displayed, and the exhibition itself. 8 The name of the Church took its name from the Greek language (Ναός της Αναστάσεως), Church of the Anastasis (Resurrection), thus is called Church of the Resurrection. 9 Information from the exhibition. 10 The word Edicule derives from the Latin word aedicula (aedēs, aedis=temple and -culus), and is used to define the small buildings or shrines (www.merriam-webster.com). In this case the Edicule is the small building that includes the Tomb of Christ, and although it is part of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as it is built in the inside of it, it is an independent edifice.

43 step of this restoration process and disseminate it to the world (Esterson 2018,10).

Figure 9. The Edicule and its architectural components. Photo: (www.nationalgeographic.com). The Tomb of Christ was near the hill (fig.10) of Golgotha (also known as Calvary) where Jesus was buried (Powers 2004, 6), and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was erected. The historical unfolding of the Tomb of Christ dates back to the time of the Roman emperor Hadrian in 136-137 AD, who constructed a temple dedicated to Goddess Aphrodite upon the Tomb of Christ (Powers 2004, 10-11). This fact is considered as an endeavour by the Romans to fight Christianity and eliminate every proof of Jesus existence.

Figure 10. The original landscape of the crucifixion and burial of Jesus, 30 A.D. Photo: (www.nationalgeographic.com). It was not until the era of the emperor Constantine I (or Constantine the Great) in 4th century AD that the capital city and thus the ‘heart’ of the Roman empire was transferred from Rome to Constantinople (Istanbul) and in the

44 process converted his faith to Christianity. One of his main tasks was to seek the place where Jesus was buried (information from the video installations of the exhibition). Certain historians claim that Constantine I succeeded in finding the Tomb of Christ, due to the oral tradition of local Christian communities (Powers 2004, 10). The burial place, which was covered by the temple of Aphrodite, managed to remain indelible in people’s memories and its location was thus passed from one generation to the other, until the day it was revealed to Constantine I (information from the video installations of the exhibition). The excavations that were conducted in the years of Constantine I resulted in the exposure of the Tomb of Christ, and the destruction of the surrounding landscape, including the hillsides. Furthermore, the first Church, a Rotunda with an Edicule in its interior (fig.11) was constructed to host, protect and mark the Tomb of Christ (Esterson 2018, 21-22).

Figure 11. Details of the Constantine’s Rotunda. Photo: (www.nationalgeographic.com).

After the time of Constantine I, the Tomb of Christ suffered great destructions and through the centuries that followed an enormous part of it has inevitably been damaged, destroyed and reconstructed (Table II).

Edicule’s Timeline 136-137 AD Construction upon the Tomb of Christ of Roman Emperor Hadrian the temple of Aphrodite. 325-326 AD Discovery of the Tomb of Christ. Emperor Constantine I Construction of the first Rotunda and Edicule, to include and protect the Tomb of Christ. King Khosrow II of Persian Sassanid 614 AD Conquest of Jerusalem, and destruction Empire by fire of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Patriarch Modestus of Jerusalem 617 AD Reconstruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Fatimid caliph al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh 1009 AD Conquest of Jerusalem and complete destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Constantine IX Monomachus 1042-1048 AD Reconstruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Crusaders 1099 AD Chapel of Saint Helena is built. Also, the Chapel of Angel is added in the antechamber of the Tomb of Christ, which according to Gospels is the point where the Angel stood after the burial of Christ. Also, Golgotha is enclosed as the Church expanded. Μamālīk Sultanate (Cairo) 1244 AD Desecration of the Tomb of Christ. Boniface of Ragusa of Franciscan friars 1555 AD Reconstruction of the Edicule and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Kalfas Komnenos 1808-1810 AD Reconstruction of the Edicule, in the original architecture. National Technical University of 2016-2017 AD Restoration of the Edicule. Athens The Tomb was opened for 60 hours after many centuries. Table II of the historical evolution of the Tomb of Christ. (The table was created by the author of the thesis combining the information of the exhibition itself, the documentary by National Geographic and the literature).

Regardless of the religious beliefs, the Tomb of Christ is recognised as a monument of World Heritage and Culture, and when in 2016, it was found to be in peril, significant decisions had to be made. The fear that the Edicule could fall at any moment, and could result in harm or even the death of pilgrims, led the three leading Christian church bodies of the Greek Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Armenian Orthodox Church to the decision to invite Mrs Moropoulou and her team from the National Technical University of Athens in order to assign them the restoration of the HolyTomb (https://news.nationalgeographic.com). Due to the fact that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is visited daily by hundreds of people, it was not possible to close the Church because of the restoration. This became even more important at Easter and especially at the midnight of Holy Saturday11 when according to the Orthodoxy’s tradition the celebration of Jesus resurrection takes place (fig.12). Hence, this period is of utmost importance for the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The three bodies of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre granted the Greek restoration team a deadline of nine months to complete their project12.

Figure 12. The Edicule on the Holy Saturday, surrounded by the pilgrims and the light deriving from their candles. Photo: (https://news.ge).

11According to the tradition, the Patriarch of Jerusalem enters the Tomb of Christ on the Holy Saturday at 12:00 ‘at noon and prays. With the power of prayer, flames spontaneously jump out of the Holy bed, known as ‘Holy Fire’. Afterwards, the Holy Fire is spread to all Orthodox countries, in order to be shared by midnight, where the symbolic resurrection of Christ along with the message of hope for the entire humanity takes place. 12 The name of the project conducted by the National Technical University of Athens is: "Conservation, reinforcement and repair interventions for the rehabilitation of the Holy Aedicule of the Holy Sepulchre in the All-Holy Church of Resurrection in Jerusalem".

The restoration team used every available advanced non-invasive means of technology and worked mainly at nights. However, besides the restorations what are equally noteworthy are the discoveries made throughout the restoration process and which brought us one step closer to the belief that this is the original burial place of Jesus (https://news.nationalgeographic.com). The Greek team during one of the restoration processes wanted to find out what was underneath the marble walls of the Edicule. The result was a momentous discovery. Inside the walls of the Edicule, was solid rock, which belonged to the original cave wall of the burial site. Constantine I who according to the historical sources had flattened the landscape (Fig.13 & 14), had left the two sides of the walls intact and covered. To mark this discovery, and to make it accessible to future visitors, scientists opened a window in the wall, in order for the solid rock to become visible (Esterson 2018, 19).

Figure 13. The original cave where Jesus was buried. Photo: (https://www.nationalgeographic.com).

Figure 14. Design of part of the original cave, the today’s solid rock inside the walls of the Edicule with the bedrock in the middle. Photo: (http://www.hddocumentary.com).

Nevertheless, the peak moment of the restoration process was when the Tomb was opened for sixty hours. Greek scientists discovered damage caused by water, underneath the walls of the Edicule, and as the traditional restoration methods were not viable, they came up with a solution to correct the damage with liquid cement. However, another obstacle arose, and this was the fact that the liquid cement risked being inadvertently poured into the Holy Bed and causing damage. Thus, with the consent of the Church, the only solution was to open the Tomb in order to put a moisture barrier around it. The Tomb remained open for sixty hours. What came to light was a slab above the original limestone bedrock that had an engraved cross (fig.15). After the laboratory examinations of Mrs Moropoulou’s team, it was confirmed that the marble slab dated from Constantine’s era. On the one hand, this discovery could be seen as indisputable proof of the authenticity of the Tomb, while on the other hand, the possibility that the cross could have been engraved by the crusaders remains open. Nonetheless, the authenticity of the Tomb deserves research of its own.

Figure 15. The slab with the engraved cross. Photo: (http://www.hddocumentary.com). Last but not least, as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands in a fault line, scientists fear that it might collapse in the event of an earthquake. Notably is the fact that through the 3D reconstruction of the Church, the monument will be preserved at least in its digital form for future generations through the Digital Heritage.

4.1.2. The exhibition of Tomb of Christ: the monument and the project.

The exhibition of the Tomb of Christ (Appendix 9) was created by the two teams that participated in the project, the Greek team and the National Geographic, and runs simultaneously in the National Geographic Museum in Washington DC and the Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens Nonetheless, despite the common character of the exhibitions, there are vast differences between them, which will be demonstrated in the next chapter. In this chapter, the primary focus will be on the visit by the author of the thesis, to the exhibition in Athens. Nevertheless, both are virtual exhibitions, with media being the The exhibition in the Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens is divided into four halls (Appendix 1). The first two halls are designed and curated by the archaeologist in residence of National Geographic, Fredrik Hiebert; the other two are designed by the National Technical University of Athens, illustrating their nine-month work in Jerusalem. The first thing visitors come across is a long corridor (Appendix 1) with three screens, which provide an introduction to the exhibition, simultaneously displaying scenes from the work of the restoration and the interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Afterwards, they are transferred to the aforementioned two first halls, where video installations are projected. The first hall is dominated by a large screen, displaying a video relating the history of the city of Jerusalem (fig. 16), as well as the brief history of the discovery, of the numerous destructions and reconstructions (described in the previous section), of the Tomb of Christ and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Table II). The audience sits in front of it in rows of chairs much akin to a movie theatre. As the duration of the video is almost five minutes, a brief but well structured ‘idea’ about the history and the importance of both Jerusalem and the Tomb of Christ takes place.

Figure 16. The first hall with the introductory video installation and the smaller complementary screen in front. Photo: author of the thesis. Notably, many of the scenes in this video are identical to the documentary by National Geographic entitled: ‘The Secrets of Christ’s Tomb’. Furthermore, as the original language was in Greek another smaller scale screen in front of the bigger one was added with English subtitles. The smaller screen beside the English subtitles was also displaying images complementary to the video such as topographical maps, or 3D images such as the Temple of Aphrodite erected by Hadrian in 136-137 AD (Table II). When the video comes to an end, the audience is called to visit the second hall where a 3D video installation takes place (fig.17). Between the two halls of the video installations, a small corridor is created, where the walls illustrate the entrance of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 3D printing. The aim of this is to give the audience the realistic sense of entering the Church (Personal communication with the tour guide of the exhibition). Hereupon, the second hall, which is similar to the first, is dominated by a big screen, with the vast difference that this screen is semi-circular. Hence, the combination of the semi-circular shape with the 3D reconstruction of the interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Edicule where the Tomb of Christ has been included triggers the viewer’s emotions masterfully, giving the audience a sense of ‘reality’.

Figure 17. The second hall with the semi-circular screen. Photo: (https://www.lifo.gr). This digital representation powerfully creates the sense for the visitor that he or she was inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The 3D tour displayed through the projector in the semi-circular screen, takes the public on a journey in the interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Edicule with the Tomb of Christ, starting once again from its history (Table I). The video installation placed in the first hall has many similarities with the 3D tour of the second. Nevertheless, one of the vast differences is the fact that in the 3D tour, scenes from the video installation are displayed and replaced by 3D reconstruction, presenting to us the interior of the Tomb of Christ. Moreover, in the 3D tour, more detailed information is provided, such as the ceremony of the Holy Saturday, the core of the Orthodox religion. Since objects are absent and media are omnipresent in this virtual exhibition, the following two halls were also filled with 3D projections and images in combination of sound. In both halls, the media and particularly the screens that dominated the two halls (hall three and four, Appendix 1) were divided into themes. Screens were placed in the halls where images from the restoration process conducted by the Greek team were displayed and accompanied by a narrative description by Mrs Moropoulou. For instance, in the third hall, complementary to the screens illustrating images and to the 3D depictions of the Edicule, a detailed ‘diary’ of the restorations were placed as

wallpaper. In addition, the architectural design of the Edicule, with its precise dimensions was depicted on the floor. Furthermore, the interactive touch screen with the 3D model of the Edicule, where visitors could zoom in or out or rotate the Edicule, in order to observe it from all angles is an example of the use of digital media that deserves to be noted. On the contrary, it was not possible for visitors to apply the same technology in the interior of the Edicule, where the Tomb of Christ is located. Likewise, another 3D screen displays the Edicule, where visitors can observe it by wearing 3D glasses. Moreover, another video installation offers to the viewers another digital journey, where once again the work of the Greek team is displayed as well as the completion ceremony. Noteworthy are the 3D prints of the Tomb of Christ and the wall of the Edicule, whereas referred in the introduction of this chapter, the scientists opened a window in order for the original solid rock that encloses the Tomb of Christ to be seen by the viewers. In the first 3D printing the entire part is displayed, illustrating the Holy Bed and its surroundings, allowing visitors to experience the dimensions as well as the ‘original’ sense of the Tomb.

4.1.3. Discussion13

The Tomb of Christ: the monument and the project, is an innovative exhibition owing to its virtual character. As described in the previous chapter, the exhibition takes place in two museums. The principal elements of the exhibition held in Greece are the video installations in the first two halls designed by National Geographic, in cooperation with the museum guides who explain to the public. In the first hall, where a video installation with the history of the city of Jerusalem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre where the Edicule and the Tomb of Christ are located, takes place. In a video of just under five minutes, a brief introduction is provided regarding the history of the city of Jerusalem, and the respective sacred places and monuments of the three religions above, such as the Western Wall14, the holiest site of Judaism. The

13 All the arguments in this chapter are a result of observations and discussions with visitors. 14The western wall is located in the Temple Mount. The first temple was erected by king Solomon and was known as Solomon's Temple and subsequently destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BC.

main focus is on the historical evolution of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Tomb of Christ (Table II). The video installation informs visitors about the six religious groups that have the control of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, namely the Greek Orthodox, the Armenian Apostolic and the Roman Catholic, followed by Ethiopian Orthodox, the Syriac Orthodox and the Coptic Orthodox. The last part of the video installation elucidates that the damage to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre had led the six orders to agree and give their permission for the restoration to occur, such as the natural destructions caused by humidity or by the human invasion such as the smoke from the candles. The video installation provides the audience with crucial introductory information, that is both concise and apt and which attunes visitors to the exhibition’s theme. The existence of a smaller screen in front of the screen that presents the video installations acts in a complementary way since it depicts drawings and photographs (fig.18). However, the combination of the two media above does distract the attention of the visitors resulting in some confusion.

Figure 18. The first hall with the two screens and the door which leads to the corridor with the 3D printing of the entrance. Photo: (https://www.lifo.gr).

The Second Temple was built upon the remnants, and replaced the Solomon’s Temple in the 6th century. The Western Wall is part of the Second temple, after the latter’s renovation from Herod the Great, where it was also destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE (Grabbe 2010, 2-26).

Between the two first halls with the video installations, there is a corridor, with 3D printing on the walls, depicting the entrance of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (fig.19). In combination with the following second hall, where the 3D tour of the interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre takes place, the 3D printing is one of the most impressive and vivid, when compared to other exhibitions, in as far as the sense of ‘reality’ that it creates. Since the first video installation ends by welcoming the visitors to the exhibition, informing them that the virtual tour in the monument is about to begin, one of the main considerations is that the 3D printings of the entrance, are a medium, whose use is meaningful as it provides visitors with the sense of the ‘real’ entrance, since it is closer to its natural dimensions than in the video installations and the photographs. All these are fundamentally a result of the museographic structure of the exhibition, to the location of the 3D printing in the exhibition (between the two halls, with the video installations), and secondly to its ability to create a virtual reality for the visitor. However, the rapid transfer from the first hall to the second prevents visitors from fully comprehending what the 3D printing depicts and neither is this pointed out by the guides since the question had to be asked what the 3D printing depicts and why is included.

Figure 19. The 3D printing of the entrance. Photo: author of the thesis.

The second hall features a video installation, a 3D tour of the interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Edicule, which includes the empty Tomb of Christ (fig.20). No 3D glasses are needed. In this hall, there is a semi- circular screen, where the 3D tour of the interior is depicted and because of its shape, it gives the sense of embracing the audience, and thus they become part of the monument. Thus, as referred to above (chapter 4.1.2.) the sense of ‘reality’ is again successfully attained.

Figure 20. Scenes from the 3D tour (Second Hall) of the interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Edicule. From top to bottom: 1. Church of the Holy Sepulchre 2. The southern part of the Church with the mural of the Descent from the Cross 3. The Tomb of Christ. Photo: author of the thesis. The third and fourth hall as referred to above (chapter 4.1.1.) is dedicated to the restorations that took place in 2016-2017 by the Greek scientists (fig.21). In my opinion, both halls were too cramped to present this

56 number of digital media. Furthermore, in both halls, every part of the wall was occupied by the exhibits such as the digital media or the 3D printings.

Figure 21. The third hall. Photo: (https://www.lifo.gr). In the third oblong room, a combination of media both traditional and digital is found. On the two facing walls, screens show the 3D display of the Edicule. On the northern wall (Appendix 2) from the entrance of the third hall, a touch screen illustrating the Edicule along with instructions of use was placed. In this computer-based media, visitors could rotate and zoom in and out, in order to observe the Edicule from every angle, choosing the degree of proximity they wished (fig.22). This experience which was offered to the audience, satisfied only part of their curiosity as it did not reveal the architectural structure and details of the Edicule or the decorations. Behind the touch screen, the wall was covered with numerous printed photographs from the restoration time of the Edicule. New or additional information was placed behind the screens, in the form of texts and printed images in both halls (third and fourth), resulting once more in potential distraction of attention.

Figure 22. The touch screen in the northern wall. In the background, the additional printed images can be seen. Photo: author of the thesis. Opposite the aforementioned wall with a screen, on the southern wall (from the standing point of the entrance, see Appendix 2) there is another screen displaying the Edicule and its interior in 3D (fig.23), before and after the rehabilitation works, where this time 3D glasses were provided, in order for the audience to observe the changes in the monument in high resolution.

Figure 23. Detail from the interior of the Edicule depicted in 3D, where 3D glasses are provided. Photo: author of the thesis. On the corner of the eastern wall (Appendix 2), there is a further digital screen displaying photographs from the process of the restoration. The rest of the wall and complementary to the digital screen, is a calendar from the restorations, with images in circular form, accompanied by short texts of information, about the procedure of the restorations step by step. The room was

dominated by the audio of Mrs Moropoulou narrating the procedures of the rehabilitation work from the beginning to the end, once again step by step. The audio is part of the video installation of the fourth hall. On the day of the visit, the audio of Mrs Moropoulou was overlaid by another audio relating to another exhibition close by. The result was confusing and irritating as the sounds blended and distracted the visitors. The highlight in this hall was the plan of the Edicule and its surroundings on the floor in 1:1 scale, providing visitors with an elaborative description of the architectural structure. The fourth hall was similar to the third, dominated by digital screens, displaying scenes from the rehabilitation works, the interior of the Edicule in 3D, the opening of the Tomb for sixty hours, and the completion ceremony. In two facing screens, the same video installation was displayed. Furthermore, the majority of the scenes are part of the National Geographic documentary (fig.24) already referred to above (chapter 4.1.1.). Nonetheless, of utmost importance in this fourth hall (Appendix 1&2) are the 3D printings of the Tomb of Christ and of equal importance is the one part of the wall where a window (fig.25&26) had been opened by scientists (chapter 4.1.2.).

Figure 24. Detail from the fourth hall illustrating the digital screen with overall information regarding the Tomb of Christ such as the discoveries by the Greek team (Chapter 4.1.1.). The surrounding photographs and information are from the completion ceremony in the form of wallpaper. Photo: author of the thesis.

Figure 25. The 3D printing of the Tomb of Christ. Photo: author of the thesis.

Figure 26. The 3D printing of the window depicting the solid rock, in one of the walls in the interior of the Edicule, where the Tomb of Christ is located. Photo: author of the thesis. The 3D printings are crucial since visitors can visualise the sense of the material of the Tomb of Christ and understand in depth its characteristics such as its dimensions. The combination of computer-based media and the materialisation of the exhibit through 3D printing enrich the learning and the museum experience at the same time. Owing to the small size of the halls the use of media are overloaded and tiring for the audience. This can be supported by the least time visitors spent on observing the installations. Despite the innovative character of the exhibition, the concurrent use of screens, audio and texts (mainly behind the screens) leads

60 to a chaotic result, since the visitor is distracted and cannot concentrate and pay attention to one and only media. Albeit the exhibition with the repeated media has a well-structured learning method, its museographic structure comes in contrast. For instance, the use of fewer media or more spacious halls would have made the exhibition more organised, thus the information would have reached the audience easier and with more clarity. Furthermore, the fact that the main focus is on the rehabilitation works with elaborative descriptions; it makes it difficult for the audience to comprehend and keep up. This exhibition largely focuses on the religious aspect and rehabilitation works of the monument, and thus excludes in-depth archaeological information of the monument that the visitors can have access to. In contrast, the exhibition in Washington DC has vast differences from the one in Athens. From online research conducted by the author of the thesis, using the hashtag Tomb of Christ and Tomb of Christ exhibition in the Social Media (such as Facebook or Instagram) for both exhibitions crucial differences were spotted. In the Greek exhibition photographs and posts are below the number of ten. In contrast, in the Washington DC exhibition, they are numerous. The point here is that even though the character and the content of the exhibitions are the same, and its creators were part of the project in situ (National Geographic and Greek scientists), a significant difference is found in the museographic structure and the focus. The museographic structure of the exhibition regarding media is better organised in the space in Washington DC. First of all the restoration phases are well described and divided step by step. Secondly, digital media are organised and divided by theme (fig.27), with their respective additional information. Moreover, complementary exhibits such as scientific tools (fig.28) used in the project are also exhibited. More in-depth archaeological and historical knowledge are provided such as the images with the architectural evolution of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which are not present in the exhibition of Athens.

Figure 27. Detail from the exhibition in the National Geographic Museum. Photo: Instagram, using the hashtag Tomb of Christ.

Figure 28. The scientific tools that were used during the restorations exhibited in the National Geographic Museum. Photo: www.tripadvisor.com. The fact that the Greek exhibition was designed focusing mainly on the work and discoveries of the Greek scientists makes us understand why the two last halls of the exhibition are dedicated exclusively to it. However, the use of scientific vocabulary (fig.29) for the explanations of the restorations, which is not understandable by the majority of the public, the lack of in-depth knowledge and the insufficient use of media in the Greek exhibition are components of a high degree of diversification relating to the Washington DC exhibition.

Figure 29. Detail from the Greek exhibition depicting part of the restorations procedures with the use of scientific vocabulary. Photo: author of the thesis. Nonetheless, a general glance at the importance of the virtual exhibition of the Tomb of Christ is required, despite its religious character and all the arguments above regarding its content and structure. There is a variety of reasons why this exhibition is important for the Heritage and Museums sector. Firstly, the potential of illustrating a monument with the use of technology and particularly digital media such as 3D is well documented in this case. To further investigate this exhibition and to have a more diverse result, it will be compared with one that derives from art history. A great example is the virtual exhibition of the Van Gogh Alive - the Experience15 (fig.30) fundamentally on multimedia installation and created by the private company, Grande Exhibitions.

Figure 30. Detail from the virtual exhibition Van Gogh Alive-The Experience. Photo: Grande Exhibitions (from shared file).

15 Van Gogh Alive-the Experience was visited in Athens by the author of the thesis in December 2017. As the main idea for this research pre-existed a prior research was conducted in relatively virtual exhibitions to observe the potentials that could be used and compared to virtual archaeological exhibitions.

This is a virtual travelling exhibition which has already been hosted by several countries such as Singapore or Dubai. The combination of visualisation of the masterpieces of Van Gogh in virtual form and the sound of classical music are the dominant components of this exhibition (fig.31). The various masterpieces are depicted on vast screens that occupy the entire room16, providing visitors with the ability to observe the paintings and particular aspects such as the colours, in high resolution as they walk through. The immense size of the virtual paintings, which is in contrast with the small or regular size of most of the original paintings, enables the audience to appreciate the works fully.

Figure 31. Detail from the virtual exhibition Van Gogh Alive-The Experience. Photo: Grande Exhibitions (from shared file). Furthermore, all the above elements along with quotes from the creators of the exhibition and sourced from the literature Vincent Van Gogh left us (fig.32), such as the letters between him and his beloved brother Theo, trigger the emotions and inquisitiveness of the audience (personal observations). This exhibition aims to virtually plunge the public into Van Gogh’s ‘world’ through his paintings and his quotes to come close to his mentality (from shared file). Thus the senses are stimulated as the aesthetical and educational aspects are enhanced particularly by the existence of the combined traditional media located in a separate room (the first room visitors come across) such as the calendar (fig.33) in the form of a wallpaper depicting Van Gogh’s life and work.

16 The exhibition was held in Athens Concert Hall, but the exhibition has also been exhibited worldwide in historical monuments such as at the church of Santo Stefano al Ponte, Florence, in 2015.

Figure 32. Detail from the virtual exhibition Van Gogh Alive-The Experience in Athens, the quote says ‘‘I am seeking, I am striving, I am in it with all my heart’’. Photo: author of the thesis.

Figure 33. Detail from the calendar in the form of a wallpaper. Photo: author of the thesis. Similar to the above example and using the case of the Tomb of Christ, we can (re)evaluate the potential that digital archaeology can provide museums and exhibitions with. The ability to create virtual exhibitions of monuments all over the world can significantly contribute not only to the dissemination of knowledge, learning and exploration of the past, which is after all the main aim of museums but to the sensitisation of the audience to issues of heritage under threat as well. After all museums, above all are places of inspiration. Secondly, no other method would have the same degree of adequacy of results for displaying monuments and sites such the Tomb of Christ providing virtual transference to the audience in order to give the sense of ‘reality’,

combining education and ‘entertainment’ at the same time. Despite the fact that these types of exhibitions can lead museum and heritage professionals to question whether the audience will continue to visit a monument or not, I firmly believe, and after conversations on this matter with visitors (particularly on the Nasca exhibition see next Chapter) that virtual exhibitions can captivate an audience and provide even greater motivation to visit the original place of the monument even more. On the other hand, virtual exhibitions provide an opportunity for people who cannot travel to see a monument or site. Culture, heritage, dissemination of knowledge and humans are transformed and this is made possible with the use of digital or virtual means of technology in museums. Thirdly, the background history of excavations, discoveries, rehabilitation or preservation works of a monument or site is an integral part not only of archaeology and heritage but of humanity as well. Without the restoration works most of the monuments would have been destroyed. Therefore, the focus on the rehabilitation works in the Tomb of Christ exhibition is as crucial as the monument itself regarding education. As far as the exhibition of Tomb of Christ is concerned, despite its high educational value which is a key to its success, the overloading of the digital and traditional media as well as its museographic structure, in combination with the lack of archaeological information in-depth led to an unsatisfying result17. In contrast, the well-structured museography of the Van Gogh Alive- The Experience sets an example of dissemination of knowledge and stimulation, despite the different character of the exhibition. On the other hand, the Tomb of Christ exhibition can be seen as an example of what museums can achieve in order for the dissemination of such prestigious events as the rehabilitation of the Tomb of Christ to be spread around the world and other monuments as well.

17 Personal communication with colleagues, which visited the exhibition.

V. The case study of Nasca

5.1. Introduction18 to the Nasca culture

The Nasca civilisation flourished between 200 BC - 650 AD (Table III) in the southern Peruvian desert. It is one of the most significant civilisations of Ancient America while simultaneously remaining one of the most enigmatic. The geographic distribution of the Nasca is located in Palpa, Nazca19 and the Ica valleys, with the Rio Grande Basin considered as the central area (Appendix 3), where the civilisation was cultivated (Proulx 2006, 1-2; Lambers 2006, 23). The Nasca culture was ‘brought to life’ in the twentieth century when it was discovered by the archaeologists. As with most of the archaeological discoveries of the previous centuries, Nasca artefacts were acquired in the 19th century and travelled to Europe, by private collectors, while intrigued young researchers such as Max Uhle (1856-1944) took the first incremental steps that led to significant discoveries in Peru regarding the Nasca culture (Pardo et al. 2017, 338; Lambers2006, 23; Conlee 2014, 237; Proulx 2006, 19-21). From then on and through the process of scientific research, the civilisation is known today for its complex structure, its textiles, its colourful ceramics, and above all, its massive lines20, universally known as geoglyphs (Pardo et al. 2017, 338). Due to a lack of written evidence, the Nasca civilisation has remained a challenge for the archaeologists heretofore (Proulx 2006, 54). Nasca is considered to be the successor of the Paracas culture as they have inherited the main characteristics from this past culture, which flourished between 800 BC-100 BC and dramatically influenced the Nasca civilisation at all levels (Lambers2006, 24; Conlee 2014, 234). Therefore, it is impossible to draw a line between the end of the Paracas and the beginning of the Nasca, as this period is a transitional. Because of the strong correlation between these two civilisations, the focus on the differences they exhibit was inevitable. An

18 All information in this chapter derive from the literature and the exhibition itself. 19 This dissertation follows the example of the Nasca exhibition, where the civilisation is indicated with 's' (e.g. Nasca culture) and the geographical area with ‘z’ (e.g. Nazca valley). 20 Today, the Nasca Lines are worldwide known, as they have also been added since 1994 to UNESCO’S World Heritage List (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/700).

indicative paradigm derives from the geoglyphs. Paracas culture encompasses geoglyphs respectively (Lambers 2006, 119). Hereunto, the reasons why Paracas created the geoglyphs lie in the fact that they were primarily a form of landscape art and therefore were located in the hillsides. Conversely, Nasca geoglyphs were created for ritual acts and played a crucial role in the Nasca culture (Lambers 2018, 20).

Chronology21 Civilisation Period / Characteristics Ceramic Phases 550 BC. Paracas Early 400 BC. Paracas Middle -Initial geoglyphs on hillsides. 200 BC. Paracas Late -Evolution of Paracas art style 50 AD. Paracas-Nasca Initial Nasca / Ceramic -Pre-fire clay slip painting. one phase 50-300 AD. Nasca Early / Ceramic two -Figurative geoglyphs. -Cahuachi: ceremonial centre. and three phase 300-450 AD. Nasca Middle / Ceramic four -Massive geoglyphs. -Movement from upper valleys to middle and five phase valleys. 450-650 AD. Nasca Late / Ceramic six and -End of Nasca culture due to climate seven phase change. 1000 AD. Wari -Replacement of past civilisation. Chronological Table III22 of the pre-Hispanic cultures is indicating the dominant attributes at each period. The core of all actions of the Nasca civilisation was Cahuachi23, the primary archaeological site of the civilisation, where the deceased were interred. Cahuachi is located between the Andes foothills and the Pacific coast (Pardo et al. 2017, 345-346). The direct access to geoglyphs underlines the correlation between the site, the Nasca civilisation and the choice of Cahuachi as a centre. Nevertheless, Cahuachi was replaced following the emergence of

21 The distinction of the periods is based on the changes of ceramic styles, which are subdivided into seven phases. The seven phases are Nasca 1-7 as illustrated in the Table II. Albeit, two more ceramic phases were proposed, eight and nine, they have been rejected nowadays as the archaeologists concluded that these two phases belong to Wari civilisation (Pardo et al. 2017,343). 22 The table was made by the author of the thesis, based on the exhibition information combined with the relative literature. 23 Cahuachi was considered to be above all a ritual centre, playing a pivotal role in the Nasca culture.

other centres, as the archaeological evidence24 indicates, such as Los Molinos and La Muña, during the Early Nasca period and Middle Nasca Period respectively (Proulx 2006, 5-7). The reasons why Cahuachi ceased to be the prime centre vary. The Nasca settlement was established in one of the driest regions of the planet. The Peruvian desert shares the attribute of the environmental factor, particularly in the southern valleys, as the rivers of the valleys run underground and in combination with the rare rainfalls (Proulx 2006, 1) result in limited access to water (Pardo et al. 2017, 355). Furthermore, as water is of vital importance, its absence leads to dryness and by extension impacts on agriculture, one of the most dominant sources of nutrition for a plethora of ancient civilisations. The solution that was provided by the Nasca dwellers was the construction of irrigation systems25 (Lambers 2006, 24) which are called puquios26 and most of them remain in use to the present day (Pardo et al. 2017, 355). Moreover, it is considered that puquios also had a symbolic meaning. Rainwater is symbolised as masculine, while spring water as feminine. Archaeologists believe that there is a correlation between feminine, whales and the puquios, as all three are linked with water, expressing the mentality of the Nasca people around it (Pardo et al. 2017, 357). All these emblematic symbols are expressed not only through the geoglyphs or the ritual practices they are correlated with (Lambers 2006, 18) but to the artistic value of the artefacts as well, such as the figures in the ceramics (Pardo et al. 2017, 383). Inhabitants were able to cultivate the land, particularly in the Middle Nasca period (Proulx 2006, 1-5) where the widespread use of puquios takes place, as there is a movement of the population in that specific period, from the upper valleys to the middle valleys. Thus, agriculture and to a significant

24 For example the infrastructure or the abundance of ceramics founded in these locations (Pardo et al. 2017, 346). 25 These irrigation systems are considered as simple constructions, which allowed the dwellers to manage water from underground into the fields. A puquio is an open trench, more than ten meters depth, which filled the reservoirs (kocha) with water, which were constructed in spots where water was needed, and from there water was spread into the fields through the irrigation channels (Pardo et al. 2017, 355.) 26According to Spanish-English dictionary puquios means spring or fountain, (http://www.spanishdict.com/translate/puquios).

degree trade27emerged as the fundamental elements of the Nasca economy. Respectively, the primary occupation of the settlers of the coast was fishing (Pardo et al. 2017, 344). Ceramics and textiles are also an integral part of the Nasca culture as they were associated with the religion (Pardo et al. 2017, 383). The ceramics are known for their polychromatic aspect, and their high artistic value (Proulx 2006, 1). Even though ceramics were used chiefly in the ceremonies, they were also used in domestic life. Therefore, apart from the depicted figures and scenes of ritual practices such as mythical beings, scenes from the daily life of the civilisation such as fishermen with nets are illustrated as well (Pardo et al. 2017, 383; Lambers 2006, 24). The extraordinary textiles were usually used for burial purposes, to wrap around the bodies of the deceased. Of utmost importance is the fact that owing to the environmental factors such as the desert conditions, most of the artefacts, as well as the geoglyphs, have been preserved in good condition (Pardo et al. 2017, 342-343; Lambers 2006, 22). Another significant component of Nasca culture are the geoglyphs. Located in the Peruvian desert, about 200 miles southeast of the capital of Peru, the city of Lima, in the pampa, the flat areas (Lambers 2006, 17), geoglyphs cover kilometres of distance with their immense human, supernatural or animal figures. The construction of the Nasca lines is surprisingly simple, as they removed the oxidised dark colour stones in order for the underlying light colours and layer to be exposed (Lambers 2006, 22). With more than 800 straight lines and 300 geometric figures and shapes, with the starring of the zoomorphic figures, geoglyphs have attracted worldwide attention (www.nationalgeographic.com; Lambers 2006, 22). A significant number of research projects have taken place in order to understand what the geoglyphs meant for Nasca people. Nowadays, the investigations have shed light on this phenomenon, and a correlation has been demonstrated among the geoglyphs, the ceremonial, the social structures and the ritual purposes (Lambers 2006, 39). The numerous ceramics in association with the ceremonial practices such as the walks along the geoglyphs (Lambers

27 Trade was based between the dwellers of highlands and coast. This fact is substantiated by the archaeological evidence, based on food remains, where products of the coast such as marine animals have been found in highlands, and vice-versa (Pardo et al. 2017, 344).

2006, 100), which are related to water and fertility led the researchers to adopt the theory of the ritual purpose of the geoglyphs. Owing to the desert environment and the relative paucity of rainfall, geoglyphs were able to be preserved for over 2.000 years (Pardo et al. 2017, 363-366). Last but not least there is a core element of the Nasca culture, where all the aforementioned cultural elements are interwoven, and that is religion. Central to Nasca beliefs was the worship of their ancestors, the communication between this world of the living and the other of the divine and spiritual ‘dwellers’, as well as the cult of natural elements as supernatural such as the ocean or the sun. The supernatural is an integral part of these beliefs, as expressed through the ceramic depictions, the textiles or the geoglyphs (Proulx 2006, 8-9). Besides, as it has already been referred to above, there is a strong correlation between religion, supernatural and ceremonial practices regarding the geoglyphs. The end of Nasca era is estimated around 600 AD, due to environmental factors such as drought (Pardo et al. 2017, 343-344).

5.1. The exhibition Nazca. Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert28. This exhibition (Appendix 9) was a joint venture of the Museo de Arte de Lima, the Museum Rietberg in Zurich along with the collaboration of the Bundeskunsthalle in Bonn. The selection of more than 200 objects by the curators29 travelled from Peru to Zurich and finally to Bonn. Noteworthy is the fact that it is the first time in history where most of the Nasca artefacts have been exhibited outside Peru. The artefacts of the Nasca culture were combined with multimedia installations30 such as animations depicting artefacts, ceramics and the figures of them or 3D maps of the location and topography of the geoglyphs31. When entering the exhibition visitors come across an open space

28 The exhibition Nazca. Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert was visited by the author of the thesis at Bundeskunsthalle in Bonn in May and twice in July 2018. 29 The curators of the exhibition were Mrs Cecilia Pardo (Museo de Arte de Lima, Peru) and Mr Peter Fux (Museum Rietberg, Zurich). 30 In this research selected multimedia installations by the author of the thesis will be presented, as it is not possible to refer them all. 31 Geoglyphs cover a huge area in the Peruvian dessert and naturally it was not possible to illustrate them all in the exhibition. Instead a small sample was displayed that derived from the Nasca, Pampa and the Palpa Pampa (Personal communication with Mrs Pardo).

where a projected video installation (fig.34) on a wall familiarises them with the Peruvian landscape and the ritual aspect of geoglyphs.

Figure 34. Detail from the entrance with the video installation depicting the landscape and the geoglyphs. Photo: author of the thesis. The following hall was, as anticipated, dominated by the projections on the wall, illustrating the geoglyphs and the landscapes accompanied by 3D topographic maps underneath (fig.35). The 3D map models displayed the Palpa region, where most of the geoglyphs are located. This was a combination of video installations, similar to the ones in the entrance of the exhibition, and 3D maps under the video installations, both focusing on the display of the geoglyphs as well as in their geographical and spatial distribution.

Figure 35. The video installations projected on the wall with the 3D topographic maps underneath. Photo: author of the thesis. In both the video installations and the 3D maps, the precise notion of the location of geoglyphs was depicted, since the landscape was illustrated, as well as the shapes and the figures of the geoglyphs. The respective illustration

72 followed the geoglyphs depicted in the video installation in the 3D maps below. A small drawing (fig.36) was complemented by the coordinates of their location, upon a colourful satellite map, changing due to the illustrated geoglyph and area in the 3D maps, providing visitors with spatial and topographic information.

Figure 36. The small drawing of the 3D topographic maps. Photo: author of the thesis. Of particular interest is the multimedia installation where the history of the climate changes of the era in relation to the consequences upon the civilisations, is visualised on a screen. Through the scientific research that has been conducted over the past years regarding climate changes and the influence of them on the civilisations, it is known today that periods of drought increased and the desert expanded. Thus, the transition period from Paracas to Nasca is justified, as well as the extinction of Nasca (600 AD) and the domination of Wari civilisation (Pardo et al. 2017 342-343). Consequently, it is clear that climate played a pivotal role in the cultural changes of these civilisations. The visualisation illustrates the environmental factors of each of the civilisations, as well as an overview of the region. An example is a demonstration between the era of the Nasca and the Wari (fig.37) when regarding the former, the summer rain fell only in the highlands, fed the rivers of the Western Andes, and this led to floods, while in the case of the latter, rainfall decreased and the phenomenon of aridification reached its peak.

Figure 37. Visualisation of the Climate history in relation to the cultures. Photo: author of the thesis. Similar to the aforementioned multimedia installation was another visualisation, in the section dedicated to burials and monumental graves displaying the Elite graves from La Muña area (fig.38), providing visitors simultaneously with images and information.

Figure 38. Visualisation of the elite graves in La Muña area. Photo: author of the thesis. Notwithstanding all of the above, the real highlight of the exhibition was the ceramic ceremonial drum (fig.39), with scenes deriving from the complex mythology of Nasca (Appendix 4). The ceramic is distinguished from the other artefacts and is accompanied by the multimedia installation. Nasca ceramics can be easily identified owing to their iconography, colours and techniques. The Nazca culture, which is known for its polychromatic ceramics, produced the most impressive ceramics such as double-spout bottles, vases, cups, depicting animal form or human form, mythical creatures and more, with more than 15 colours in each.

Figure 39. The ceremonial drum, with the multimedia installation in the background. Photo: author of the thesis. The object was placed centre stage in the room while positioned behind it was a screen with the digitalisation of it, in the form of animation (fig.40). Owing to the fact that the ceremonial drum comes from a private collection, the lack of archaeological context has led to limited background knowledge. Hence, it is the depiction of the ceramic that aids the archaeologist to conclude its ritual use. On the drum which is made of clay, a mythical scene is depicted, with a variety of colours and shapes. In this scene, musical instruments blend with mythical beings. Therefore, in this area, the music, which is heard throughout the exhibition, is combined with the rhythm of animation.

Figure 40. The ceremonial drum. Photo: author of the thesis. The figures on the ceremonial drum (fig.41), are dominated by five figures portrayed in masks (Appendix 4), which are dominant figures of the Nasca art. These anthropomorphic creatures which are considered as mythical

beings are illustrated with masks and white whiskers32. On the left side of the central depiction, three other masked creatures are seen that symbolise birds such as the hummingbird33, holding the warriors by the hand, as they are about to become a human sacrifice as a procedure of the ritual practice. Up to the right, from the main scene, we experience this process, as one of the victims has already become an ancestor, since its decapitated head is illustrated. Next, to it, one of the masked mythical beings is upside down, and a human skeleton can be seen nearby. This scene, characterised by its diversity, has led archaeologists to the conclusion that the drum was used for ceremonial purposes (Personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8).

Figure 41. The depicted scene from the ceremonial drum. Photo: author of the thesis. In the ceramic, the figures are interwoven creating a complex structure making it difficult to observe the figures clearly. Hence, in the animation, the figures are displayed in isolation giving the opportunity to the visitors to observe the image and its figures in greater detail. Moreover, as it is an animation figure ‘moving’ rhythmically in combination with the displayed music, a ‘reconstruction’ of Nasca music34 (personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8) and the central theme of this section of the exhibition, it is also associated with the rhythm, music and movement in the ritual practices.

32 Whiskers resemble the Pampa cat, the largest predator of the region (Personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8). 33 Hummingbird is another frequently used symbol in the Nasca iconography (information from the exhibition). 34 Based on the archaeological findings, there was an abundance of music instruments such as the antara, the clay pipe. Curators, in cooperation with musicians were able to ‘reconstruct’ the Nasca music, one of the most fundamental parts of the Nasca, ceremonial practices, (personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8).

The geometrical shapes of the geoglyphs such as zigzag lines were made on purpose, in order to be walked along during the ritual practices, because through this process of walking in different geometrical shapes, so the body was forced into a particular rhythmic movement. They were followed by the corresponding music. Thus, senses were triggered, and in combination with psychoactive substances such as Mescaline, extracted from the San Pedro cactus, a psychological state known as synaesthesia35 could be attained (Reindel and Fux 2018, 32). Thus, the various depictions on the ceramics, such as supernatural beings, are made comprehensible. Similar to the above example, is another animation (fig.42) at the end of the exhibition, illustrating the ceramic of a mythical ancestral being (Appendix 5). In this ceramic, the synaesthesia can be better observed. From the bulging eyes of the mythical ancestor and shoots of the San Pedro cactus which are depicted on the shoulders, it can be seen how the use of psychoactive substances is suggested (personal communication with Ms Pardo, Appendix 8). Owing to the fact that the ceramic has ‘arms’ and ‘legs’, the animation depicts the mythical ancestral being as if he were running to underline the psychological condition he is in.

Figure 42. Figural vessel of a mythical ancestral being, accompanied by its animation. Photo: author of the thesis.

35 The word derives from the Greek language σύν+αἴσθησις (together + feeling). It is the phycological condition where the stimulation of a sense, can be experienced by triggering concurrently other senses. In other words is the condition in which sensory input becomes distorted and confused, such as sounds may be experienced as touch (Hayes 2000, 372). In the case of Nasca, synaesthesia was reached after the use of psychoactive substances such as the San Pedro cactus (Reindel and Fux 2018, 32; Proulx 2006, 8-9).

The next multimedia installation regarding the burials and the textiles is an animation which is a mixture of burial practices and textiles which depict a deceased from the Wari Kayan necropolis from the Paracas36 era, excavated by Julio C. Tello. In the animation, the burial custom is illustrated,where the deceased is positioned in a seated position, wrapped in a variety of textiles37 which can be traced to the early Nasca period, (it can be inferred that the bundle that was created through this process was finally placed in a basket) where more layers of decorative textiles were added (Pardo et al. 2017, 350- 351). The animation displays the procedure above (fig.43), in great detail, starting from the seated position and wrapping process of the deceased, step by step. Thus, this burial ‘custom’ is illustrated to visitors with clarity.

Figure 43. Visualisation of the Mummy Bundle 378 by Wari Kayan. Depicting the phases of the burial ritual ceremony, covering the dead body with textiles. Photo: author of the thesis. Regarding the textiles, most of them were conserved for the exhibition (personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8). Since the textiles are also a crucial component of the Nasca culture, the figures that are depicted on them are connected with religion. Owing to the small size of the figures (fig.44), the curators decided once again to isolate them and illustrate them through multimedia installations.

36 As referred above, the Nasca are linked with the Paracas culture. Hence, both civilisations are blended in this exhibition, indicating not only the differences between them, but the correlations as well by underling the common characteristics such as the textiles or funeral ‘traditions’. 37 The common attribute regarding the textiles between Paracas and Nasca is the iconography depicted on them.

Figure 44. Purple mantle from an offering, founded in Cahuachi. Depicting flying birds and insects. Photo: author of the thesis. To complement the exhibition, it was possible to visit a further room with other media such as photographs once again from the field survey of the archaeologists. Another more spacious room with a large screen displayed a documentary entitled ‘‘AbenteurArchaeologie: Das Geheimnis der Nasca- Linien38’’. Last but not least, the virtual reality game must be mentioned, where visitors, wearing virtual reality glasses were able to ‘fly’ above the field of the geoglyphs. In this fashion, they could experience not only the landscape and their precise location but the geoglyphs as well.

5.3. Discussion

The Nasca case study is a representative example of the use of technology as part of display techniques in museum exhibitions. This potent combination of technology, visualisation, sound and information gives a unique angle and provides visitors with a general archaeological knowledge, deriving from a part of the multimedia installations (such as the multimedia installation with the History of the Climate) which is lacking in most exhibitions such as the Tomb of Christ: the monument and the project, case

38 ‘‘Adventure Archaeology: The mystery of the Nazca- Lines’’.

79 study that is discussed in the previous chapter. This fact, the reinforcement of the archaeological knowledge and learning experience through the inclusion of digital media, depicted in this exhibition, is compelling evidence of what museums can achieve. However, even though the majority of the multimedia installations that were included in the exhibition had according to my opinion a successful archaeological and educational aspect, the minority of them had a different use and scope. The aim of the multimedia installation depicting the geoglyphs such as the video installations, accompanied by the 3D topographic maps (Fig.45) was to create a ‘meaningful’, learning experience for the public (Mr Fux answer to questionnaire, Appendix 6), since geoglyphs are both an integral and crucial component of the Nasca culture and are correlated not only with their religion or the ritual practices that took place in the Peruvian landscape but with every form of artistic expression of their culture such as the depictions on the ceramics. Equally important are the video installations for Museo de Arte de Lima, since most of the visitors had never visited the original location, despite that geoglyphs are located only six hours from Lima (Mrs Pardo answer to the questionnaire, Appendix 6). Notwithstanding this, the fact that with the use of video installations, which were captured with the meticulous aid of drones (personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8), it was possible to show the geoglyphs in great detail, in order to familiarise the public and to make them understand in depth not only the geoglyphs themselves, such as their precise size or shape but their accurate location, the distances between them and finally the landscape too. Similarly, the 3D maps below the video installations, with the aid of colour such as brown for the mountains or green for the agricultural areas (fig.46), provided visitors with an accurate ‘image’ regarding the Peruvian landscape. The reason for the addition of the 3D maps is to stimulate the visitors and enhance their experience through the combination of virtual (video installations) and the physicality or materiality of the landscape model (Mr Fux answer to the questionnaire, Appendix 6). Thus, visitors were able to connect the geoglyphs with its geographical location. According to my observations and discussions with them, the 3D maps and the video installations were the multimedia installations that they spent the most

80 time exploring in combination with the other multimedia installations, and the ones that they found most interesting and engaging, as they contributed significantly to their understanding (visitors responses, Appendix 7).

Figure 45. The video installation illustrating the landscape (above), and the topographic maps (below). Photo: author of the thesis.

Figure 46. The topographic map with colours. Photo: author of the thesis. When it comes to prehistoric civilisations like the Nasca, which are not widely known in Europe, and where the landscape is intimately entwined with the civilisation in question, it is clear why it’s included it and illustrated to the public. Moreover, Andean archaeology can be very complicated to the European public. Consequently, the difficulty of presenting it to the public can be challenging for the curators. Thus, the use of computer-based media is necessary in order to present the landscape to the public vividly. To put it differently, the educational aspect of the geoglyphs and the landscape would not have been perceived fully without the multimedia installations, since computer-based media have the unique ability to virtually immerse the audience and provide them with the sense of ‘reality’, and spatial sense, while other media such as the digital medium of photography cannot.

Likewise, the visualisation of the climate in the region of the era in question is of utmost importance, since the climate was a crucial factor for the pre-Columbian civilisations. Ergo, the depictions of the climate alterations in combination with the influences on the civilisations, such as the Paracas, the Nasca and the Wari, elucidates to the visitors, not only the transitions from one culture to the other, but provides them with the accurate knowledge of the climate history, which had an impact on each civilisation. Hereunto, each of the civilisations is related to specific climate changes, indicated by this multimedia installation, in order for the audience to understand why these changes emerged such as the expansion of the desert due to aridification which led to the end of the Nasca culture in 600 AD (Pardo et al. 2017, 343). Furthermore, the animations that depicted the complex figures from the ceremonial drum and the ceramic of the mythical ancestral being (fig.47, Appendices 4&5) were created by the curators in order to familiarise the audience with the Nasca iconography, to trigger their emotions and to stimulate their imagination, in order to understand that the figures in the ceramics are not merely representations, but an actual part of the Nasca ideology (Mr Fux answer to questionnaire, Appendix 6) as the depicted figures are central not only to the iconography but to the ‘philosophy’ of Nasca culture as well (Townsend 1985, 119).

Figure 47. Detail from the multimedia installation depicting the mythical ancestral being. Photo: author of the thesis. Regarding the animation (fig.48) of the ceremonial drum, the complexity of the figures which are overlapping prevents the visitors from observing them. Nonetheless, the rhythmical isolation of the figures renders

82 visitors able to see them with clarity. Therefore, the educational approach in both cases is to enable the public through the use of animations, to recognise and distinguish the Nasca iconography (personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8).

Figure 48. Scenes from the animation of the ceremonial Drum. Photo: author of the thesis. It is important to note that the iconography cannot be understood without the audio guide. Therefore, this animation can be completed with the combination of the audio guide, where the iconography and the figures such as the mythical beings are elucidated. Without the audio guide, familiarisation with the images of the figures is not possible. What is underlined at this point is the fact that not all visitors purchase an audio guide as it has an additional cost and not all visitors have prior knowledge regarding the Nasca culture. Albeit the labels and texts in the exhibition do explain most of the meanings of the iconography or symbols, but not all visitors read them, particularly children, and even if one of them is skipped it makes it difficult to follow the meanings. Hence, without the clarification and explanation of what these figures symbolise and mean, the conclusion is reached, that the animation does not serve its purpose, as it merely consists of a series of images without any further explanation. Moreover, as Proulx points out, one of the main researchers of Nasca images, iconography is inextricably linked with the archaeological context (Proulx 2006, 56). In contrast, the multimedia installations depict the figures from the mantles, in a moving form, in contrast with the ceremonial drum where the figures are static, as a representation of playing the music (fig.49). The fact

though that the figures are tiny concerning the large mantle makes them difficult to be observed. However, there are vast differences between the multimedia installations of the mantle and the ceramics. Therefore, the question which arises at this point is if the iconography of Nasca will suffice in order for the visitors to be familiarised with it. Do they fully comprehend it or will it just remain a vague memory? Besides, everyone must bear in mind that the iconography is an integral part of the Nasca culture. It expresses their ideology such as their observations from nature or aspects of their daily life. Taking into consideration all these, this animation, particularly without the audio guide, only partially achieves its learning or its educational purpose. Instead, it is based on the artistic and aesthetical aspect, which especially in this case, predominates over the archaeological. Since digital media are a computer-based form of ‘story-telling’, they enable us to convert texts and labels, thus offering direct information through animations to a broader audience. Moreover, these multimedia installations were the ones that visitors spend little or no time on according to personal observations, and through discussions although they did find them interesting, as they could observe the figures in great detail, they did not find them especially engaging and they only contributed to a lesser degree in the acquisition of knowledge.

Figure 49. The multimedia installation of the moving figures from the purple mantle. Photo: author of the thesis. The importance of the Nasca exhibition regarding digital media is attributable to a number of points. First of all the multimedia installation of the ceremonial drum, was designed ten years ago as it was part of another

84 exhibition in the Museo de Arte de Lima regarding Nasca (personal communication with Mrs Pardo, Appendix 8). That proves that digital media can be recycled and included in future exhibitions. This fact brings to light many issues regarding the high costs of digital media and the significance of the reuse, which is irrelevant to this case study. However, the core belief is that this is clear proof of the potential of digital media in terms of digital heritage, as this is a way to secure the existence of the artefacts, at least in a digital form for present and future generations, as happened in the Nineveh example (chapter 2.3). First of all, digital media can travel with great ease and be added to any exhibition anywhere in the world, thus reinforcing the museum and learning experience. For instance, museums are used to exchanging and lending each other artefacts. When an artefact has been lent to another museum, the possessor of the artefact places a label, usually in the empty showcase, with the relevant information of the missing artefact. The ideal solution, however, would be if the digital form of the artefact exists (like in the ceremonial drum case), to ‘replace’ it with its digital form or vice versa. Secondly, the museographic structure and the display techniques are well structured and organised. Exhibitions are designed by curators advisedly, in order for each exhibited artefact to be seen and easily understood. Therefore, there is an ‘interaction’ between the artefacts and the visitors. In this concept, digital media are added as part of the display techniques. In the exhibition in question, multimedia installations were carefully positioned in the space, in balance with the artefacts, not only by their number but by their content too. Thirdly, it must be taken into account that both museums, the Museo de Arte de Lima and Museum Rietberg in Zurich, that created the exhibition, including the multimedia installations are in fact museums of art. Ergo, even though this is an archaeological exhibition, through the iconography, art is mainly emphasised here. This sheds light on why one of the highlights of the exhibition, the ceremonial drum, is displayed so prominently. In addition, its animation concentrates on the iconography and figures, isolating them and presenting them in rhythm. I firmly believe that using an art methodology in an archaeological exhibition, regarding the design of multimedia installation, the

learning experience is automatically eliminated. For instance, in art history, the artistic periods are divided by their characteristics and can thus be explained to the public. For example, expressionism is presented as a movement from the past century, where one of its main characteristics is the vigorous use of colours for the expression of emotions (Pantazi 2014, 8-9). When it comes to archaeology the urge to apply the methodology above is common, but in every case, it loses its archaeological meaning. To support this argument we can examine the case of Greek ceramics which feature a multitude of scenes and figures — the tendency by museums of art is to regard and analyse ceramics mainly as part of art history and thus minimising their archaeological hypostasis (since they were part of the daily lives of ancient Greeks, created and used for a purpose such as to store food or wine). The prominently displayed Greek ceramics can prove this; the accompanying texts concentrate merely on the depicted scenes, on the artistic aspects of them39. Last but not least, regarding the static figures of the ceremonial drum animation, it is essential to put forward the definition of ‘Multimedia Learning ‘ that Mayer provides us with: ‘‘Multimedia learning occurs when people build mental representations from words (such as spoken text or printed text) and pictures (such as illustrations, photos, animation, or video)’’(Mayer 2005, 3). In other words, Mayer supports that with the combination of visualisation and verbal sound, the learning process is reinforced; what he calls the Multimedia Learning Hypothesis. Without the combination of the two means, and according to the human mind function, the knowledge cannot be acquired in- depth (Mayer 2005, 43). In a nutshell, it is far too apparent that the curators made a significant effort in order to create an archaeological approach to this exhibition, aiming to trigger the visitors’ feelings with various stimuli. However, the educational character of this exhibition is defined by the use of media both traditional and new, as well as by the combination of materiality through objects, digitalisation, 3D maps, photographs of the excavations and by the landscape as a documentary along with the procedure of discovering Nasca.

39 Observations in combination with prior knowledge from the educational background.

5.4.Visitors’ responses

Even though museum and heritage professionals provide their expertise, the visitor's voice is equally important. Without the latter’s opinion, it is not possible to know in depth the impact these display strategies have. Therefore, in the Nasca exhibition, a questionnaire (Appendix 7) was provided for completion by fifteen visitors40; with this tool, it was possible to have a complete notion regarding the use and, most of all, the educational value that digital media have on visitors. The main questions are summarised in this section. In the first question regarding the educational value of the multimedia installations the 73% of the respondents (Graph 2) that answered ‘high educational value’ (Graph 3) explained that the visualisation enables them to understand in depth the depicted artefacts such as the mantles or in the case of the 3D maps, it aids them in understanding how large the area where Nazca flourished was and secondly, that they were impressed by the knowledge that was imparted to them through the visualization of the landscape, as they could precisely place in their mind the spatial distribution and the civilization itself. Moreover, they suggested they could now recognise the geoglyphs and through the visualisation remember them in detail. Another point, specifically associated with the educational aspect was the short length of the video installations, as they were both highly appropriate but not so long as to tire the audience. The highest educational value regarding the multimedia installations appeared to be experienced by visitors with no prior knowledge of the Nazca civilisation. They claimed that through the combination of visualisation and sound not only did they understand something of the civilisation but they learned as well.

40 The graphs illustrate the answers by the fifteen visitors that participated in the survey. In the fifteen completed questionnaires the percentage of 100% was used (15=100%), in order for the graphs to be easily understood by the reader.

Graph 2. Visitor responses from the questionnaire.

Graph 3. Visitor responses from the questionnaire. Despite the main aim of this thesis being to investigate educational value, it was impossible not to include the general impression digital media (Graph 4 and 5) have made on visitors, in order to comprehend and explore other aspects such as the possibilities for future research. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that the last question was consciously asked as a small sample and as a first step in scrutinising the present and future possibilities of digital and virtual exhibitions.

Graph 4. Visitor responses from the questionnaire.

Graph 5. Visitor responses from the questionnaire. In conclusion, most of the personal observations were similar to the visitors’ answers. I consider visitors’ views equally crucial to the exhibition creators’ views. After all, exhibitions are created for the public and serve a purpose. Furthermore, an advised use of multimedia installations should be applied in the future since not all of them have a sufficiently well-defined educational purpose. Digital media do not all serve the same purpose and have different impacts on the audience, such as in the ceremonial drum, where the aesthetical and artistic values are prioritised. However, the video installations and the 3D maps illustrating the geoglyphs and the landscape were the most favourable to the audience, and concurrently they had high educational values

(personal communication with the audience in combination with the research). Ergo, by designing the digital media according to the prioritising value such as the aesthetical or archaeological, or the combination of them, it aids to construct a ‘strategy’ regarding the educational aspect and the combination of the learning theories, thus the result can be a high educational aspect without eliminating the others, for instance, the artistic value.

V.I. Conclusion

In this thesis, the intimately interwoven relationships of two values, namely educational and aesthetics, along with the digital media were investigated. Aesthetics is a multifaceted value where our sensory activity and haptic sense are deeply involved with an educational role when exhibitions are visited, but they can also be applied to human’s daily lives, as has been discussed in the respective chapter. Educating visitors has been an intrinsic and preeminent role of museums since the early days, and this role has inevitably undergone many changes as museums have evolved. It is very apparent that, over the years, display and presentation techniques have been transformed, as a result of museums' endeavours to keep up with the times and become more ‘contemporary’. Nowadays, digital media serve as a means for the enhancement of the learning experience and the visitors’ stimulation. Furthermore, digital media ensure the protection of heritage, particularly for future generations, as shown in the Nineveh example. Museums exhibitions are the core means of communication and aim at educating the public by interpreting the past. Therefore, technology is a powerful tool for utilisation at museums’ disposal. Museums tend to promote by every means the highlights of their exhibition; apart from their historical and archaeological value, the aesthetical value of the artefacts plays a crucial role as well. In any case, aesthetics should not be isolated from the other values of the artefacts such as the archaeological. Furthermore, New Aesthetics have emerged that are correlated with the new media. The digital reproduction of artefacts enables us to familiarise ourselves with them and to observe them from another perspective, which in some cases is closer to their original presence in the past, such as the example with the Korai. Through the use of digital media, which can provide visitors with multifaced experiences, the aesthetical aspect is reinforced along with the educational. In the two case studies, observations were made of the digital enhancements alongside the artefacts. Even though there are vast differences between them a general conclusion has been made. By combining experience

91 empirically with the physical presence, and through observations and discussions with the visitors conducted by the author of the thesis, it has been made clear throughout this dissertation as it is the main conclusion, that a strategy design regarding digital media is necessary. First of all, digital media should be advisedly and evenly distributed in the museum space, in order not to overshadow one another and thus avoid being tiresome for visitors. Secondly, during the designation of digital media, some factors must be taken into consideration. Questions have to be asked such as what is needed to be illustrated as the core ‘message’ or which learning theory must be followed. Thirdly, as it was proved, digital media need an interdisciplinary intervention in order to reach their purpose which is none other than to stimulate visitors through the combination of visuality and sound and to reinforce their learning experience. Its success depends fundamentally on the museographic structure, but also on their content, design and their place in the exhibition, the strategy followed and on the combination technique of all the above. Notwithstanding this, as it was demonstrated in the case studies, digital media make their own impact on visitors, transmitting the ‘traditional’ relationship among them, as new perspectives have emerged such as the trigger of emotions through the sense of ‘reality’, digital media can provide visitors with. The question which arises is if this impact is strong enough and if this is what we intend to achieve. Fourthly, what was also demonstrated in the case studies is that the use of digital media also depends on the nature of the museums, since there are vast differences among them. For instance, art museums focus more on aesthetical aspects, while archaeological museums do this less so, resulting in image-based digital media versus information based material. However, information and its dissemination should also be filtered in terms of pedagogical or didactic approaches. We cannot overload visitors with knowledge as we cannot, referring to the case study of Tomb of Christ, overload a room with digital media (and traditional media) since this has a negative impact on the provision of information.

Fifth, I believe that the advised design of digital media should be applied according to the purpose they are destined to fulfil. This is attainable since museums can put more emphasis on the entertainment aspect in comparison to the educational aspect of their exhibitions. Digital media such as the animation of the drum in the Nasca case study, based itself entirely on the inherent artistic value and by aiming at the aesthetical aspect, even though the primary purpose was to familiarise visitors with the iconography of the Nasca culture without the archaeological and historical context of the meaning of the figures, the educational goals were limited. On the other hand, in the same exhibition, the 3D maps and the video installations of the landscape did fulfil their educational purpose. Ergo, the categorisation should be made bearing in mind how educational an exhibition wishes to be, along with the primary focus and purpose the exhibition creators intend to present to the visitors. To achieve this, steps must be taken; learning theories must be combined, strategies and design advice must be followed. Questions should be asked such as how the culture on display can be comprehended by the public with the reinforcement of the digital media. As interpreters of the past one of the main concerns is to create exhibitions that are comprehensible to the public, to create correlations between the past and the present in order to disseminate knowledge since one of the museums principal functions is the education of the masses through their collections. Undoubtedly, with the diverse possibilities digital media provide us with, new horizons can be explored. Undeniably, the internet, online collections and free access to information, all contribute significantly to the above statement; when it comes to exhibitions, this is reinforced. In any case, I firmly believe that since culture and heritage are equally addressed to all people, to those who are interested and to those who are not, to those who have prior knowledge and to those who visit museums as tabula rasa, an exhibition’s structure and mainly its accompanying digital media should be designed in order to engage all visitors. Independent of the reason for visiting or the status of visitors, digital media achieve results, such as the triggering of emotions; they enhance the museum experience and encourage visitors, even

93 those who do not spend much time on an exhibition, to acquire some knowledge. In essence, what counts the most is the fact that media serve as a form of dissemination of knowledge and communication to the audience, depending on a variety of conditions. As it was already discussed in the previous chapters and particularly within the discussion chapters, the importance of the design of the media is based on what the respective culture is and how that culture is displayed. Subsequently, what is of the utmost importance is the position they acquire within the exhibition itself. In other words, museum environment, space and museographic structure play an equal role for the dissemination of knowledge. Thus, when including digital media in exhibitions, all these factors must be understood in depth, and consequently, a display strategy should be followed in accordance with these factors in order for the educational purpose of the exhibition to be fully realised.

6.1. Evaluation of the thesis

This dissertation explored a practical aspect of the use of computer- based media regarding the educational feature. In the Nasca case study, a satisfactory result was reached, owing to the multifaceted approach including the employment of visitor's questionnaires and curator's interviews. Due to a lack of permission, it was not possible to apply the same methodology in the second case study, that of the Tomb of Christ; thus, the results are fundamentally a product of personal observations and online research in the social media. Nonetheless, a concrete result was reached. In all respects, the results would be complete if further investigation was possible. Even though the principal research questions have been answered, this research has presented many issues for future investigation. First of all, the impact of digital media on visitors and how they perceive the learning experience should be further researched. This can be achieved by conducting visitors’ surveys such as online questionnaires on the museums' websites or on the exit of the museums.

Secondly, the strategy and learning theories regarding digital media design will continue to develop. Thirdly, this research has motivated me to further inspect the technical parts of the digital media in combination with the theoretical, to discover more possibilities and potentials. In order to achieve that field research and communication with visitors are mandatory.

Abstract

The educational aspect of museums exhibitions comes to focus in this thesis as computer-based media, display techniques and strategies now play a vital role converting the experience visitors had so far into a new enriching and innovative adventure. The concept of aesthetics as it derives from its theoretical background taking into consideration the impact of digital media in relation to the educational factor is fully explored in contemporary exhibitions worldwide. Since the core of this research is that education and aesthetics are deeply connected, their relation to digital media was a semantic parameter that came to play its part. In order to prove the importance and impact of this part of digital media two archaeological case studies were chosen and visited, where further, more detailed research took place — the exhibition Nasca, Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert in Bundeskunsthalle, Bonn and the virtual exhibition of the Tomb of Christ:the monument and the project in Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens. The first exhibition of Nasca civilisation includes primarily multimedia installations that vary. Moreover, their impact on visitors is made evident through a visitors’ questionnaire, discussions and observations. The case study of the Tomb of Christ differs though, as it is a virtual exhibition, which was created due to the restoration works that took place in the monument in 2017. This event was made widely known when it was presented concurrently in two museums; the one in Athens referred above and that of the National Geographic Museum in Washington D.C. However, the vast differences between these two exhibitions, despite their common character are adequately described in the respective chapter. Undoubtedly, the unfolding of the presented digital media such as 3D reconstructions or animations offers a new approach and potential. Despite the variety of the conclusions, what is established through this research is that digital media should be included in museum exhibitions after an advisedly and thorough designation adjusted to an interdisciplinary combination of educational strategies, museographic structures and the content of culture in question is made.

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41 Translated from the Greek language by the author of the thesis. Original title: Πλάντζος, Δ., 2011. Ελληνική Τέχνη και Αρχαιολογία (1100-30 π.Χ.). Αθήνα: Καπόν.

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Reindel, M., and P. Fux, 2018. Was uns Nasca zu erzahlen hat. Antike Welt 1(18), 29-32.

Revello-Lami, M., L. Opgenhaffen and I. Kisjes, 2016. Pottery goes digital: 3D laser scanning technology and the study of archaeological ceramics, in S. Campana, R. Scopigno, G. Carpentiero and M. Cirillo (eds.), CAA2015: Keep the Revolution Going: proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. Oxford: Archaeopress Publishing 1, 421-431. https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/17453146/Pottery_goes_digital.pdf

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Skeates, R., 2017. Towards an Archaeology of Everyday Aesthetics. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 27 (4), 607-616. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774317000622

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Online Sources

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/jesus-christ-tomb-burial-church-holy- sepulchre/, accessed on 10 August 2018. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/jesus-tomb-opened-church-holy-sepulchre/, accessed on 10 August 2018. https://www.archaeological.org/news/279, accessed on 10 August 2018. http://www.holysepulchre.custodia.org/default.asp?id=4553, accessed on 17 August 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/archaeology/nasca-lines/, accessed on 26 August 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/south-america/peru/how-to-see- nasca-lines-peruvian-desert/, accessed on 27 August 2018. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/700, accessed on 27 August 2018. http://www.fox5dc.com/news/294523270-video 29.8, accessed on 27 August 2018. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/148, accessed on 30 August 2018. https://www.cnsnews.com/commentary/eric-metaxas/history-revealed-jesuss-tomb- discovered-church-holy-sepulchre-empty, accessed on 30 August 2018. https://www.livescience.com/56700-original-bedrock-of-jesus-tomb-revealed.html, accessed on 30 August 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/21/jesus-tomb-to-be-unveiled-to-public- after-4m-restoration, accessed on 30 August 2018. http://slll.cass.anu.edu.au/events/winckelmann-and-appreciation-greek-vases, accessed on 5 September 2018. https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/content/archaic-colors-1, accessed on 5 September 2018. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aedicula, accessed on 5 September 2018. https://icom.museum/en/activities/standards-guidelines/museum-definition/, accessed on 5 September 2018. https://kunst-hart.nl/2017/10/21/nineveh-rmo-leiden-geeft-verwoeste-stad-geschiedenis- terug/, accessed on 13 October 2018. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-to- knowledge/preservation-of-documentary-heritage/digital-heritage/concept-of-digital- heritage/, accessed on 13 October 2018. https://www.britishmuseum.org/about_us/the_museums_story/general_history/sir_hans_s loane.aspx, accessed on 20 December 2018. https://artsandculture.google.com/project/museu-nacional-brasil, accessed on 29 December 2018.

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Figures

Figure 1. The 3D printed sheets of clay with stamp imprints of museum visitors. Photo: L. Opgenhaffen (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 71 figure 3)…………………………………….24 Figure 2. Part of the exhibition Nineveh, in the National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: (https://kunst-hart.nl)...... 27 Figure 3. Red-figured kylix with the scene of Music lesson, c.465-460 BC, manufactured in Attica, found in Vulci. Photo: (Halbertsma et al. 1989, 72)…………………………..32 Figure 4. 3D model of the "Peplos Kore" with its original colour. Photo: (www.theacropolismuseum.gr)...... 34 Figure 5. Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, 1503–06, 77 cm × 53 cm, oil on panel, Louvre Museum. Photo: author of the thesis……………………………………………………..36 Figure 6. Visualisation of the inner part of the Crocodile Mummy, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………………….38 Figure 7. The Crocodile mummy in the background and the visualisation of its inner part in the front, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: author of the thesis……...38 Figure 8. Scene from the light show on the temple of Taffeh, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………………….39 Figure 9. The Edicule and its architectural components. Photo: (www.nationalgeographic.com)...... 44 Figure 10. The original landscape of the crucifixion and burial of Jesus, 30 A.D. Photo: (www.nationalgeographic.com)...... 44 Figure 11. Details of the Constantine’s Rotunda. Photo: (www.nationalgeographic.com)...... 45 Figure 12. The Edicule on the Holy Saturday, surrounded by the pilgrims and the light deriving from their candles. Photo: (https://news.ge)...... 47 Figure 13. The original cave where Jesus was buried. Photo: (https://www.nationalgeographic.com)...... 48 Figure 14. Design of part of the original cave, the today’s solid rock inside the walls of the Edicule with the bedrock in the middle. Photo: (http://www.hddocumentary.com)...... 48 Figure 15. The slab with the engraved cross. Photo: (http://www.hddocumentary.com)...... 49 Figure 16. The first hall with the introductory video installation and the smaller complementary screen in front. Photo: author of the thesis……………………………...51 Figure 17. The second hall with the semi-circular screen. Photo: (www.lifo.gr)...... 52 Figure 18. The first hall with the two screens and the door which leads to the corridor with the 3D printing of the entrance. Photo: (https://www.lifo.gr)...... 54 Figure 19. The 3D printing of the entrance. Photo: author of the thesis…………………55

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Figure 20. Scenes from the 3D tour of the interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Edicule. From top to bottom: 1. Church of the Holy Sepulchre 2. The southern part of the Church with the mural of the Descent from the Cross 3. The Tomb of Christ. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………………………………………..56 Figure 21. The third hall. Photo: (www.lifo.gr)...... 57 Figure 22. The touch screen in the northern wall. In the background, the additional printed images can be seen. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………….58 Figure 23. Detail from the inner of the Edicule depicted in 3D, where 3D glasses are provided. Photo: author of the thesis……………………………………………………..58 Figure 24. Detail from the fourth hall illustrating the digital screen with overall information regarding the Tomb of Christ such as the discoveries by the Greek team (Chapter 4.1.). The surrounding photographs and information are from the completion ceremony in the form of wallpaper. Photo: author of the thesis……………………...... 59 Figure 25. The 3D printing of the Tomb of Christ. Photo: author of the thesis………….60 Figure 26. The 3D printing of the window depicting the solid rock, in one of the walls in the interior of the Edicule, where the Tomb of Christ is located. Photo: author of the thesis……………………………………………………………………………………...60 Figure 27. Detail from the exhibition in the National Geographic Museum. Photo: Instagram, using the hashtag Tomb of Christ…………………………………………....62 Figure 28. The scientific tools that were used during the restorations, exhibited in the National Geographic Museum. Photo:(www.tripadvisor.com)...... ………...……….62 Figure 29. Detail from the Greek exhibition depicting part of the restorations procedures with the use of scientific vocabulary. Photo: author of the thesis…………………….....63 Figure 30. Detail from the virtual exhibition Van Gogh Alive-The Experience. Photo: Grande Exhibitions (from shared file)…………………………………………………...63 Figure 31. Detail from the virtual exhibition Van Gogh Alive-The Experience. Photo: Grande Exhibitions (from shared file)………………………………………………...…64 Figure 32. Detail from the virtual exhibition Van Gogh Alive-The Experience in Athens, the quote says ‘‘I am seeking, I am striving, I am in it with all my heart’’. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………………………………………...…………….65 Figure 33. Detail from the calendar in the form of a wallpaper. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………………………………………………………….…..65 Figure 34. Detail from the entrance with the video installation depicting the landscape and the geoglyphs. Photo: author of the thesis…………………………………………...72 Figure 35. The video installations projected on the wall with the 3D topographic maps underneath. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………...………………...72 Figure 36. The small drawing of the 3D topographic maps. Photo: author of the thesis...73 Figure 37. Visualisation of the Climate history in relation to the cultures. Photo: author of the thesis……………………...…………………………………………………………..74

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Figure 38. Visualisation of the elite graves in La Muña area. Photo: author of the thesis……………………………………………………………………………………...74 Figure 39. The ceremonial Drum, with the multimedia installation in the background. Photo: author of the thesis…………………………………………...…………………...75 Figure 40. The ceremonial Drum. Photo: author of the thesis………………..………….75 Figure 41. The depicted scene from the ceremonial Drum. Photo: author of the thesis…76 Figure 42. Figural vessel of a mythical ancestral being, accompanied by its animation. Photo: author of the thesis…………………………………...…………………………...77 Figure 43. Visualisation of the Mummy Bundle 378 by Wari Kayan. Depicting the phases of the burial ritual ceremony, covering the dead body with textiles. Photo: author of the thesis……………………………………………………………………………………...78 Figure 44. Purple mantle from an offering, founded in Cahuachi. Depicting flying birds and insects. Photo: author of the thesis…………………………………………………..79 Figure 45. The video installation illustrating the landscape (above), and the topographic maps (below). Photo: author of the thesis………………………………………...……...81 Figure 46. The topographic map with colours. Photo: author of the thesis………….…..81 Figure 47. Detail from the multimedia installation depicting the mythical ancestral being. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………...……………………………...82 Figure 48. Scenes from the animation of the ceremonial Drum. Photo: author of the thesis……………………………………………………………………………………...83 Figure 49. The multimedia installation of the moving figures from the purple mantle. Photo: author of the thesis………………………………………………………………..84

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Tables

Table I Process of the investigation of the case studies…………………………………15 Table II of the historical evolution of the Tomb of Christ. (The table was created by the author of the thesis combining the information of the exhibition itself, the documentary by National Geographic and the literature)…………………………………………..…..46 Chronological Table III of the pre-Hispanic cultures indicating the dominant attributes at each period…………………………………………………………………………….68

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Graphs

Graph 1. Graphic of the thesis structure and research question……………...…………..11 Graph 2. Visitor responses from the questionnaire…………………………………...….88 Graph 3. Visitor responses from the questionnaire………………...…………………….88 Graph 4. Visitor responses from the questionnaire……………...……………………….89 Graph 5. Visitor responses from the questionnaire…………...………………………….89

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Appendices

Appendix 1. Layout of the Tomb of Christ exhibition. Hall 1 and 2 are designed by the National Geographic (Video installation and 3D tour respectively) and Hall 3 and 4 by the National Technical University of Athens (digital media and 3D printing). Photo: author of the thesis……………………………………………………...... 114 Appendix 2. Layout of Halls 3 and 4. Photo: author of the thesis……………………...115 Appendix 3. Map of the Nazca area in Peru………………………………………..…..116 Appendix 4.Drawings of the ceremonial Drum……………………………………...…117 Appendix 5. Drawing of the ceramic of the Mythical Ancestral Being………………...118 Appendix 6: Curators questionnaire (Mrs Pardo and Mr Fux)………………………....119 Appendix 7: Visitor’s questionnaire……………………………………...……...... 120-121 Appendix 8: Interviews………………………………………………………………....122 Appendix 9: Exhibitions……………………………………………………………...... 123

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Appendix 1

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Appendix 2

Appendix 2. Layout of Halls 3 and 4. Photo: author of the thesis.

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Appendix 3

Appendix 3. Map of the Nazca area in Peru. Source: Pardo et al. 2017, 44, fig.9.

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Appendix 4

Appendix 4. Drawings of the ceremonial Drum. Above: Pardo et al. 2017, 240, fig. 103.

Below: Proulx 2006, 62, fig.5.1.

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Appendix 5

Appendix 5. Drawing of the ceramic of the Mythical Ancestral Being. Source: Pardo et al. 2017, 255, fig. 134.

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Appendix 6: Curators questionnaire (Mrs Pardo and Mr Fux).

1. What is the purpose of the multimedia installations in the Nazca exhibition? (e.g. videos)

2. What is the purpose of the 3D Maps? What do they illustrate?

3. Why did you choose to involve multimedia installations and the 3D maps in this exhibition?

4. Have the multimedia installations an educational purpose? If yes which is it and how do they achieve their purpose?

5. How does the audience responses to the multimedia installations? (e.g. they find them helpful in order to understand better the Nazca civilisation).

6. Please make any comment that you believe that will be useful for this research regarding the multimedia installations.

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Appendix 7: Visitors questionnaire.

1. What motivated you to visit the exhibition today?  Visit other exhibitions in Bundeskunsthalle.  Spend time with friends/family.  Conduct research/school assignment.  Personal fulfilment (to learn, for fun, etc.).  Entertain out-of-town visitors.  Other: ______2. What aspect of the exhibition did you find more interesting?  Artefacts  Multimedia installations  Documentary  Other:______3. What is your opinion about the multimedia installations (e.g. the 3D maps)? ______4. Please, select the option that best corresponds with your opinion: I found that the multimedia installations had…  High educational value  Fair educational value  Basic educational value  No educational value Can you explain why?______5. I found the multimedia installations  Very entertaining  Fairly entertaining  Mildly entertaining  Not at all entertaining Can you explain why? ______6. What do you consider more important in a multimedia installation in a museum? The educational value, or the entertaining value? Why?  Educational value ______ Entertaining value ______7. Do you think that the multimedia installations helps visitors to understand the Nazca civilisation better? (Please give a reason)  Yes______ No______8. Have you been to a similar exhibition with multimedia installations before? If yes which one?  Yes

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 No

If you answered YES; how does the multimedia installations in this exhibition compare to others you have seen before? ______9. What is your overall assessment of the multimedia installations? (Please circle one answer).

Inadequate Not Interesting Average Interesting Excellent 10. Would you have still visited/enjoyed the exhibition if it was based only in the multimedia installations, without the “real” archaeological artefacts? Please give a reason.  Yes because ______ No because ______11. Do you think that Museums should include more multimedia installations in their permanent or temporary exhibitions?  Yes  No Are there any final comments you would like to make? ______

Age group:  15 – 20  21 - 29  30 - 40  41- 50  51 - 60  60 - 70  71 – above

Education level:  Primary  Lower Secondary  Upper Secondary  College / University

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Appendix 8: Interviews

Interviews Museum/Institution Participant Place Date Duration

Bundeskunsthalle Susanne Bonn, 5July 2018 45’ Annen Germany

Exhibition Manager

(In-person interview)

National Museum of Anna de Wit Leiden, the 22 August 44’ Antiquities Netherlands 2018 Exhibition Manager

(In-person interview)

National Museum of Lucas Petit Leiden, the 22 August 44’ Antiquities Netherlands 2018 Curator Department Ancient Near East

(In-person interview)

Museo de Arte de Cecilia Lima, Peru 24 August 25’ Lima – MALI, Peru Pardo 2018

Deputy Director

(Skype interview)

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Appendix 9: Exhibitions

Exhibition Museum/Institution Duration Day of visit Chapters

Department of Louvre Museum, Permanent 14 March 2015 3.1 Greek, Paris, France exhibition Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities: Hellenistic Art (3rd-1st centuries BC) Department of Louvre Museum, Permanent 14 March 2015 3.2 Paintings: Paris, France exhibition Italian painting Van Gogh Alive- Athens Concert Hall, 7 November 10 December 4.1.3 The Experience Greece 2017- 4 March 2017 2018

Nasca, Divine Bundeskunsthalle, 10 May 2018- 13 May 2018; 5. drawings, Bonn, Germany 16 September 5-6 July 2018 Archaeological 2018 Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert Egypt National Museum of Permanent 3 July 2018; 3.2 Antiquities, Leiden, exhibition 17 July 2018 the Netherlands Tomb of Christ: Byzantine and 21 May 2018- 30 September 4. the monument Christian Museum of 31 January 2018 and the project Athens, Greece 2019 Nineveh National Museum of - 2.3 Antiquities, Leiden, the Netherlands

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