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Mixed-Race Māori Identity and the Influence of Legislation and Legal Administration C

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Mixed-Race Māori Identity and the Influence of Legislation and Legal Administration C “Even though I am Māori sometimes I feel like a bit of a fraud”: Mixed-Race Māori Identity and The Influence of Legislation and Legal Administration c. 1850-1950 By Kiriana Siobhan Haze (Ngāti Pikiao, Te Arawa, Pākehā) A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History Victoria University of Wellington 2019 Abstract In 1910, Āpirana Ngata stated that both he and the Young Maori Party were proponents for children born from a Māori – Pākehā mix. Ngata believed the children would then have the prime characteristics of each parent. This thesis explores how such rhetoric about mixed-race children was a consequence of the symbiotic influence Pākehā legislation and legal administration had on Māori identity. This influence was relevant to both mixed-race Māori historically, and today. Too often, mixed-race people are questioned for their lack of authenticity. This questioning began the moment Pākehā people first came to New Zealand and courted interracial relations with Māori. Therefore, the period of 1850 to 1950 is where this thesis’ substantive research and analysis lies as here the construction of legislation and legal administration to do with mixed-race Māori was most visible. The themes this timeframe is considered through are ‘marriage and land’, ‘native schools’ and ‘enumeration.’ These themes are the best mechanism to display the ways in which the law has worked and continues to work to maintain a mixed-race dichotomy of privilege and disadvantage. This thesis draws on a wide range of legislative and administrative sources, to demonstrate the mentioned dichotomy crafted into the law. It contextualises these sources through consideration of existing literature, and oral interviews with self-identifying mixed- race Māori today. This work tracks Māori reclamation of the control to self-identify and the recurring indicators of colourism and dehumanisation which contributed to the speed bumps along this journey. II In memory of my grandfather, Gerrit “Gerry” Haze. I love you and I miss you, but I do not miss our driving lessons. III Table of Contents Front Matter .............................................................................................................................. I Abstract .......................................................................................................................... II Dedication .................................................................................................................... III Contents ........................................................................................................................ IV Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... V List of Figures .............................................................................................................. VI A Note on Terminology and Language ....................................................................... VII Te Reo Used .............................................................................................................. VIII Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... IX Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 Chapter Two: Marriage and Land .......................................................................................... 13 Chapter Three: Native Schools .............................................................................................. 34 Chapter Four: Enumeration ................................................................................................... 56 Chapter Five: Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 81 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 86 IV Acknowledgements I would not have been able to complete this work without the generous support of so many people. Firstly, my supervisors, Professor Jim McAloon and Dr Arini Loader. You both told me that it will be both a blessing and a curse having two supervisors. I can only say that you both complemented each other so well and I always felt supported during this process. Arini, I am indebted to you for telling me to just “keep going” and to “feed” you more writing, no matter how much I resisted. Jim, I have always found your intelligence both amazing and intimidating but getting to know you has shown me that your kindness outshines that. I want to thank you both for your feedback, invaluable insights, and assistance in the development of this project. I look up to both of you. To the academic and administrative staff in the Victoria University History Department, thank you for pretending not to see me pour staff-only milk into my coffee. I need to especially acknowledge Dr Cybèle Locke and Associate Professor Kate Hunter; it may not have been obvious but thank you both for making me recognise that history was something that I was OK at as a 19-year-old undergraduate. Without your initial push I would not have done this thesis. Also, Associate Professor Dolores Janiewski; thank you for the late night laughs while we both kept nocturnal hours in the department. Thank you to my fabulous peers in the 2017 history honours cohort and the 2018/2019 history MA cohort. Particularly Rachel and Max for putting up with me in the master’s office and starting before me. I believe they did this, so I knew what not to do, of which I then proceeded to do anyway. My gratitude goes to my proof-readers (Emma, Isabella, Rachel, Will, and Harriet) for your assistance in the editing stages. Errors that remain in this work are my own. The utmost appreciation must also go to my interviewees in this project; Chelsey, Jordan, Maddison, Matthew, Vanessa and Rhianna. Ultimately, this is for you. To my Mum, Wendy, I owe you everything, all I ever want is for you to be proud of me. To my brother, Jamie, I have idolised you my entire life and your continuous belief (and annoyance) towards me has been (somewhat) appreciated. Thank you also to my extended family, best friends, and workplaces for being so accommodating during this period of my life. I must also mention my cats, past and present; Tom, Lucious, Penélope and O’Malley. V List of Figures Figure 1: Page 1. ‘Whymper’ illustration featured in Arthur S. Thomson, The Story of New Zealand: Past and Present – Savage and Civilized, Volume 2 (London: John Murray, 1859), p. 306. Figure 2: Page 13. Alexander Cowan with his wife Mere (née Whakamairu) and son Peter. Iorns, Bennett, 1883-1977: Photographs relating to Masterton and the Wairarapa. Ref: PA1-q-131- 32-1. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. Figure 3: Page 34. Illustration from Richard Taylor, The Past and Present of New Zealand; With its Prospects for the Future. With Numerous Illustrations, (London and New Zealand: William Macintosh and Henry Ireson Jones, 1868), p. 87. Figures 4, 5 and 6: Page 50. ‘Table No. 3’, ‘Summary of Table No. 3’, ‘Table No. 8’ from ‘Education in Native Schools’, AJHR, Session 2, E-3, 1909. Figure 7: Page 56. Jane Maria Gray with her children. Ref: 1/2-137188-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23010883. Figure 8: Page 76. Te Arawa Iwi Registration Form as at 2019 from Te Arawa Lakes Trust: https://tearawa.iwi.nz/; accessed 1 July 2019. Figure 9: Page 81. Auckland Māori Community Centre, 1960s: Photograph by Ans Westra. Ref: AAMK W3495/28H. Archives New Zealand - Te Rua Mahara o te Kāwanatanga. VI A Note on Terminology and Language: I am not fluent in te reo Māori. To the best of my ability throughout this work I have used macrons and spelling in accordance with ‘Te Aka Māori-English, English-Māori Dictionary and Index.’1 I have kept source formatting when using direct quotes. I have omitted using macrons in my own writing when they were not used in their time (i.e. The Young Maori Party). I have refrained from using [sic] within quotations for te reo that is variable, or unconventional by current standards, but frequently used in their time (i.e. the pluralisation of Māori to ‘Maories’). When talking about the children from interracial relationships I use the term ‘mixed- race.’ I will not use any other derivative. This is due to its current societal acceptance and negative connotations with other terms. When terms such as ‘half-caste’ are used it is solely attributed to the quote/context it is from. This work will use the label ‘Pākehā’ to refer to ‘European’ or ‘takata pora’ unless quoted or contextually appropriate. ‘Pākehā’ encompasses white arrivals to New Zealand in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and their descendants. I do not use the term ‘takata pora’ or “people of the ships” which was popular with South Island iwi, Ngāi Tahu.2 ‘Takata pora’ referred to “strangers who were especially associated with the world of the ocean and with a European maritime technology.” 3 Its usage in the South Island was strong until the late nineteenth century when Pākehā became more commonly used.4 ‘Pākehā’ was in wide usage in the North Island from the outset of contact. Though not synonymous, it is not necessary for this thesis to differentiate the subtleties. Thus, I use Pākehā to encompass all white arrivals to New Zealand
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