REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION

ISSN: 2146-0353 ● © RIGEO ● 11(5), SPRING, 2021 www.rigeo.org Research Article

Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments in the City of Hilla

Fadhel Abbas Fadhel Jadoua1 Zaman Sahib Jawad Hanawan2 Babylon Education Directorate/Iraq Babylon Education Directorate/Iraq [email protected] [email protected]

Qasim Hasan Darb3 Babylon Education Directorate/Iraq [email protected]

Corresponding author: Babylon Education Directorate/Iraq Email: [email protected]

Abstract The wholesale trade activity is one of the important activities in the study area, although the wholesale trade activity can be considered a secondary activity in the commercial function provided by the city of Hilla. The study concluded that the geographical distribution of Hilla trade institutions has been affected by several factors, as it has been affected by the extension of transport routes and the ease of access to these institutions, as well as by the prices or the value of the land, as well as the benefit from the factor of neighboring wholesale trade institutions, and the activity of wholesale trade has recently witnessed a clear growth that represents The increase in the number of these institutions and their geographical distribution over the study area, and this is due to the improvement of the standard of living of the population, the development of production and the ease of importation, as well as the continuous increase in the number of the city's population. Which predicts a continuous growth of this activity in the coming years.

Keywords Wholesale trade establishments, retail trade, commercial function, Hilla city

To cite this article: Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments in the City of Hilla. Review of International Geographical Education (RIGEO), 11(5), 2167-2192. doi: 10.48047/rigeo.11.05.121

Submitted: 11-10-2020 ● Revised: 13-12-2020 ● Accepted: 16-02-2021 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021

Introduction

Commercial activities are among the most important jobs that the city provides, not only to its residents, but to groups that reside outside its borders, and it is also one of the main reasons that attract people to live in cities and urban centers (Hussein, 1977). Commercial activities of all kinds and forms are also one of the main drivers that lead to a continuous change in the appearance of the city, especially when this sector witnesses a remarkable development and expansion in the city, as it is characterized by distinctive urban patterns such as multi-storey buildings as well as its works on the sides of streets, roads and intersections. The activity of wholesale trade is one of the components of commercial activities besides the activity of retail trade (singular), exchange offices, banks, banks and others. Despite the small area occupied by the wholesale trade activity in the city compared to the area occupied by the activities of retail establishments, its presence in the city is very important, as the greater the area of wholesale trade activity, the greater the commercial and economic importance of the city and it became a major center for shopping by retailers in its region Geographical, and this importance may extend beyond that region, as is the case for the cities of Baghdad, Basra and Mosul. The importance of the presence of wholesale institutions in the city also comes to the fact that it represents the financier for the head of most retail institutions in the city itself and its surroundings and the neighboring urban centers. Therefore, the study of wholesale trade activity in the city has its justification and importance. It is noted that most of the studies that studied commercial activities in cities were mostly limited to studying the activity of retail establishments and their geographical distribution. As for our research, it will be limited to studying the activity of wholesale trade in the city of Hilla in terms of its spatial distribution, analyzing that distribution geographically and indicating the factors affecting it.

Research Problem: The Main Problem of Research Is the Following Question

1- How are the wholesale trade establishments distributed spatially in the study area? And secondary problems are the following:

A- What are the factors affecting the spatial distribution of wholesale institutions in the study area? B- Are there potentials for developing wholesale trade activity in the study area?

The research hypothesis: the hypothesis is the hypothesized answers to the problems that have been identified in the research problem. From this it is represented by the following:

1- Wholesale trade establishments are distributed in the study area mainly in the main commercial centers in the city represented in the central business district and its margins, in addition to the secondary commercial centers (Bab Al-Mashhad, Bab Al-Hussein, the small side (the eastern side)) and along the ring streets and main roads in the city Some of them are overlapping in some residential areas. 2- The spatial distribution of wholesale institutions in the study area was affected by a number of factors or determinants that determined their current locations, excluding other sites in the city, the most prominent of these factors and determinants are the proximity of wholesale institutions to retail trade establishments, the value of land, as well as easy access to the location of the wholesale enterprise. 3- The study area has a number of capabilities necessary for the development of wholesale trade activity in the study area, the most prominent of which is the continuous growth of the population of the city and its geographical region, and the development of means and methods of transportation and import processes for materials and commodities from the place of origin to the place of work of wholesale institutions.

Research objective: The research aims at knowing and determining the spatial distribution of wholesale trade establishments in the study area, showing the factors affecting it, and finding appropriate means and methods for developing and developing wholesale trade activity in the city.

2168

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… Spatial and temporal boundaries of the research: The study area is represented by the municipal spatial boundaries of the city of Hilla, which is located within the basic design of the city, which represents the administrative center of Babil Governorate and is located in a site roughly in the middle of Iraq. See Map (1)

Map 1. The Location of The City of Hilla from Iraq and Babil Governorate

The study area is one of the largest urban centers in Babel Governorate and one of the large urban centers in its geographical region (the central Euphrates region). The area of the study area is about (5681 hectares) and (34%) of the area of Al Hilla district, which is about (16,709 hectares) (Al Asadi & Al–Tufaili, 2018). It is located between the two display circles(30´32º) and (27 32º) north and between longitude (27 44º) and (23´44 º) east, see map (2). It is noticeable recently that the municipality of Hilla divided the city into residential sectors with four sectors, namely (Al-Firdaws, Al-Fayhaa', Al-Salam, Al-Furat and Al-Zuhoor). See Map (2). As for the temporal boundaries of the study, they are represented by the current reality of wholesale trade activity in Hilla for the year 2019.

Map 2. Administrative Map of The City of Hilla According to Its Residential Sectors Source: From the work of researchers depending on: Republic of Iraq, Ministry of Municipalities and Public Works, Hilla Municipality Directorate, Geographical Information Systems Division, updated map of Hilla city for the year 2014.

Research methodology: The research relied on the descriptive approach to determine the dimensions and trends of the research problem and try to describe it more accurately as possible,

2169 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 in addition to supporting this description with the survey method, where the means of field study and questionnaire were used to collect information and data related to the study in order to investigate the components of the wholesale trade and its Spatial distribution and analysis that distribution in the study area.

Research structure: The research consisted of two topics. In the first topic we dealt with a historical and geographical definition of the city of Hilla and its natural and human characteristics, while in the second topic we studied the spatial distribution of wholesale trade institutions and analyzing that distribution geographically, with an explanation of the factors affecting that distribution and a statement of the growth factors of trade activity Sentence in the city.

Study sample: In order to obtain some of the data needed to complete the research, we are asked to prepare a questionnaire form (Appendix 1) and distribute it to a sample organized according to the commercial areas in which the wholesale trade establishments are concentrated, where the number of distributed forms reached (152) forms on (152) institutions. A sentence in the city, see Table (1), out of (262) wholesale institutions throughout the study area, with a confidence level (95%) and an error rate (5%)

Table 1 Number of questionnaire forms according to commercial areas distributed to wholesale trade establishments in Hilla for the year 2019 Margin of the Ring The Central Secondary residential central streets Total commercial business commercial areas business and main area district areas district roads Number of 34 36 32 38 12 152 forms percentage % 22 24 21 25 8 100% Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Group A / 1 The questionnaire included all types of wholesale establishments in the study area, and as noted in Table (2).

Table 2 Preparing the questionnaire forms and their percentages distributed according to the commercial items of wholesale establishments in Hilla for the year 2019 Classify First commercial Second class Third class Fourth class Fifth class Total class enterprises the number 59 31 37 18 7 152 percentage% 39 20 24 12 5 100% Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Group A / 2.

The First Topic

Historical and Geographical Definition of The City of Hilla

Introduction

When studying any geographic study city, we must know the historical background of that city in terms of the conditions of its emergence and its spatial and urban growth, especially when the study relates to commercial activity regardless of its type and category, as well as related to a city with an Islamic historical dimension, namely, the city of Hilla, which founding dates back to the fifth century AH (eleventh century AD) in the year (495 AH / 1102 AD) by its founder Saif al- Dawla Sadaqah bin Mansour bin Debais,, and that was during the era of the Abbasid Caliphate and the control of the Seljuks (Turks) over the affairs of the Arab Islamic state at that time. . Especially since the commercial activity is of great importance and a prominent role in the growth of Arab Islamic cities. Some researchers in the affairs of Arab Islamic cities believe that the 2170

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… originality of the Arab Islamic city lies mainly in its commercial structures and that the market is the distinctive characteristic and the most obvious sign of Islamic cities (Masters, 2013). Therefore, we consider it necessary to study the history of origin of the study area and its growth factors.

First: The Genesis of The City and Origin of Nomenclature

Hilla as stated in the Book of the History of Hilla (An-Najjar, 2019), means the following:

1- Folk go down, including the many. 2- Thorny trees smaller than thistle. 3- A proper name for several places, namely: A- Hillat Bani Qayla, on Maysan Street, between Wasit and Basra. B - Hillat Bani Dabis bin Afif Al-Asadi near Al-Hawizeh between Wasit, Basra and Ahwaz. C- Hillat of Bani Mazyid, which is the intended point here, and it is a city between Kufa and Baghdad, and it was called (Al-Jamme'en), before the Banu Mazyaid came to it (Al-Suwaidawi & Al-Mohammadi, 2021).

In other words, the site of (Al-Jammee'n) represents the first location for the emergence of the city, upon which it was established and grew as it was established in the month of Muharram of the year 495 AH / 1102 AD by Saif al-Dawla, Prince Sadaqa bin Mansur bin Debis al-Mazidi al-Asadi, after the Nile was the center of the emirate. This is what Yaqut al-Hamwi mentioned: ((The first person who went to Hilla and its age is Saif al- Dawla, Sadaqah ibn Mansur bin Debais al-Mazidi al-Asadi, for his fathers' homes were in the Nile and he moved to the Al-Jammee'n in a place west of the Euphrates with his family and soldiers in Muharram from the year 495 AH / 1102AD, and a clump of lions housed in it ,and he built venerable housing and luxurious houses in it, and it became the most luxurious and best country in Iraq. )) (ibid)It should be noted that there is a difference between the historical sources in determining the first location for the emergence of the city of Hilla, and that the continuous changes in the course of the Euphrates River since the earliest times are behind the difference in determining the location of the city, and despite all this, Al-Jammeen are the first nucleus of the city, and after he settled in it Prince Sadaqah bin Mazyid and his family became called Hilla or (Hillat Bani Mazyid), and after he settled there, Prince Sadaqah proceeded to dig a trench around the city on its western side in 498 AH / 1104 AD, then built a wall for it in 500 AH / 1107 AD in order to protect it from attacks by tribes (Al-Thahab). When planning the city, its founder, Prince Sadaqa, intended to spare the city internal conflicts among its residents that might arise after their settlement there, as the army of Sadaqa was made up of Arabs and Kurds (Jawan), the Arabs' homeland was lost in Al-Jammee'n south of the city, and the Kurds settled north of the city in a locality known by their name they are two shops in the city (Hussein, 1977). Currently, there are two shops in the Old City bearing these two names, namely (Al-Jammeen) in the south of the city and (the Kurds) in the north of the Old City on the western side of the city and within the Old City. This means that the city consisted of two residential nuclei, in the middle of which is the Great Market, which is in the middle of the Great Mosque, and this urban and morphological organization corresponds to the morphology of Arab Islamic cities, as it is in the middle of the mosque, then the markets, and the rest of the city’s administrative facilities.

Second: The Placement and Location () of the City of Hilla and Their Importance

When studying any city, geographers are concerned with identifying, studying and indicating the characteristics of the placement and location of this city from all natural and human aspects, in order to show the factors of the emergence, stability and growth of the city through the stages of its history and up to the present time. It is noted that the studies related to the description of the geographical location of urban areas have been numerous in the issue of the geography of cities since this issue was crystallized, as the general characteristics of many sites in cities have been studied separately, and that these studies were based on the existence of direct relationships between the characteristics of the site and the growth of the city (Hussein, 1977).The study area is located between latitude (30-32) and (27-32) north and between longitude (27-44) and (23-44) east, and that this astronomical location affected the temperatures, the rate of precipitation and

2171 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 the amount of solar radiation, as The dry and continental characteristic prevails over the city’s climate, a characteristic that prevails in most of the cities of Iraq in the sedimentary plain, and according to the Koppen classification, the city’s climate falls within the hot desert climate (BWh) (Jirjees, Seeyan, & Fatah, 2020).The placement of the study area is a part of the sedimentary plain area, which is characterized by fertile soil and flat surface, and the flatness of the surface facilitates the process of urban city growth in all directions, but at different levels from one side to the other. The height of the western and eastern sides of the city ranges between (27-34 m) above Sea level, as in the case of the outstanding gardens (Wen et al., 2016). It is located in the far eastern end of the Old City on the eastern side, in a low-lying area, the height of which does not exceed (31 m) (ibid). It is called locally (Al Naziza) because of the large number of groundwater appearing above the surface of the earth, especially in the winter season, and the eastern side decreases further as we head east, and this decrease in the surface of the earth and the proximity of the groundwater to the surface of the earth on the eastern side may be one of the reasons for the reduction and slow expansion of the city’s urban and urbanism expansion In this aspect, especially in the years before 1995, in this year a network of taps was designed at the outskirts of urban areas to drain groundwater, which helped make these areas suitable for urban expansion and growth .(ibid) It is clear from the above that the surface of the study area is characterized by flatness, and that the level of the study area heights is not an obstacle to growth and urban expansion in the study area, including the problem of groundwater, which today does not represent an obstacle to urban construction in front of the technical, scientific and architectural development that the world is witnessing, which facilitated the growth The city in this aspect, and the share of commercial use from it was large, as it accompanied the orientation of the population towards those areas, whether on the western or eastern side of the city, as large commercial centers were established in the eastern side (the small side) of the city specialized in the activity of wholesale trade. The location of the study area is also characterized by the presence of a continuous water resource for the city and its inhabitants and the neighboring areas, namely (Shatt al-Hilla), which penetrates the city from its west and then bends towards the south, and the effect of this river on the city’s shape, especially the beginning of its inception as it is characterized by its rectangular shape, in addition to that it led to the city’s part on two sides (eastern and western), his presence in the study area and the surrounding and surrounding rural areas led to the residents of these areas practicing various agricultural activities, in addition to the factor of good soil fertility in the sedimentary plain area and its suitability for agricultural production, which led to the presence of agricultural and animal products in it. These products are exported to the study area and then they are discharged either inside the city or exported outside the city to the urban center near it and even far from it such as (Al Mahawiel, Abu Gharq, Al Kifal, Al Madhatyah, Al Musayyib) and to a number of governorates including (Baghdad, Diwaniyah, Karbala,Najaf, Kut etc.). This led to the study area being linked to commercial relations with neighboring cities and governorates, as well as its contribution to providing the city's residents' needs of vegetarian foodstuffs without the need to import them from another place outside the city in most cases. This made the study area one of the important commercial centers in its region in particular and Iraq in general. The importance of the positives of the placement is not complete except with the presence of other positives for the geographical location in which the city is located, as in addition to being the administrative center of Babil Governorate, it is located in the central region of Iraq, and it is linked with neighboring cities and governorates with a network of transportation routes, thanks to which it has become an important node for the complex roads In the region and facilitated the process of trade exchanges between the study area and its neighboring regions and cities, as well as its ease of communication with other governorates. See Map (3). The study area is further from the city of Baghdad, which borders it on the north side by a distance (100 km), from the city of Karbala, which borders it on the west side (45 km), from the city of Najaf from the south and southwest side (65 km), and from the city of Diwaniyah from the southeast side (85 km), and from the city of Kut from the east a distance (140 km) and the city of Ramadi from the northwest a distance (120 km) . (ibid). The extension of the Baghdad-Basra railway network, which passes through the study area, provided another means of transportation as well. About auto roads. These main roads are one of the main pillars in the future development of the wholesale trade sector.

2172

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments…

Map 3. Roads and transportation network in Babil Governorate

We can also add another positive feature to its location and location at the same time, namely that the study area is located in the heart of the ancient historical cities such as (Babylon, Kish, Peres (Nimrod)) and others (Tahir-Kheli, 2018). . It is within what is historically known as (Babylon Province), where the historic city of Babylon is located to the northeast of it and at a distance of (10 km), It is full of antiquities, and archeologists have found a lot of antiquities that they benefited from, just as the Helenians benefited from its bricks (its stones), because most of their homes are built of those stones (ibid). It seems that the founder of the city of Hilla, Prince Sadaqah bin Mansour, took into consideration the choice of the strategic, economic and commercial importance of the historical city of Babylon that it enjoyed at the time, so he chose this site and location to be his metropolis (Hilla) adjacent to that city and the historical cities on one side, and on the other side. Within the historic, fertile and prosperous province of Babylon, all of this has positively affected the city and its inhabitants. It seems that for more in the establishment of the city of Hilla had a clear influence on most of the urban changes in a number of cities in the central Euphrates region, meaning that the city has maintained its importance since the year 495 AH, at a time when the importance of other cities such as Babylon and Sura decreased in addition to the city (Qasr Ibn Hebira) (). There is no doubt that this is due to its geographical location, which caused its continuing importance, the concentration of villages and localities near and around them, and the crowding of the population in them, all of which are important factors that contribute to the permanence of the city (Jayyusi, Holod,

2173 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 Petruccioli, & Raymond, 2008).

Third: The Growth of The Population of The City of Hilla

The population of the city expresses the size of that city, and this number is considered a composite indicator and a general measure of the city's weight, because the size of the city is affected by many controls that work to make that city take the size that it has now and develop this size, or it negatively affects it and decreases it if the circumstances Unfavorable to its growth and development, which calls for the migration of a number of its residents to other cities or regions (Bunge, 1973). Historical sources indicate that the population of the study area during the past centuries was greatly affected by economic disasters (drought and floods, deterioration of agriculture), as well as the spread of epidemics and diseases that led to the death of large numbers of the population such as (plague, smallpox, etc.), on June 17, 1635 The plague occurred in Hilla, that is, five years after the Persians controlled the city, causing death and destruction in its people, and many of its residents fled to other cities in Iraq and other families were completely destroyed (Mekhlef, Hameed, & Khudhair, 2017). The Turkish traveler (Ali Bey), who visited the city in 1907, confirmed that drought had affected the agricultural lands in the Hilla district due to the shifting of the main course of the Euphrates to lower- level lands in the Al-Hindiya region (Mekhlef et al., 2017). These problems led to the migration of large numbers of residents city and its region to other regions, but life began to return to it at the beginning of the twentieth century Abbas , with the return of the flow of water to the city of Hilla and other cities and regions located on the coast of Hilla, and this led to an increase in its population, as it reached in 1920 about (30) thousand people (Bourke & Skinner, 2016). The study area appeared as an administrative unit at the end of the nineteenth century, but it remained a sanjak belonging to the state of Baghdad and then Diwaniyah until before the First World War, and some of its administrative units that we know today belong to other cities such as Musayyib and al-Kifl, which were subordinate to Karbala. It is noted from Table (3) that the population of the study area reached about (227902) in the 1987 census, then the number increased during the period between (1987-1997) to (257,495) people, with an increase of (29,593) people, and a growth rate of (1) It is noticed that the population growth and increase in the population of the study area during that period is slow and this is due to the occurrence of adverse migration from the city to the countryside due to the political and economic conditions (the imposition of the economic embargo on Iraq since 1991-2003) that he experienced The country, which caused difficulty in living in urban areas, and the population preferred to live in rural areas, which led to a migration from the city to the countryside, but this did not continue, It is noticed that the number of the city’s population during the period between (1997-2007) increased with an increase of (63,272) people and a population growth rate of (2.18%), and the number of the city’s population during this period reached about (320,767) people, see Table (3) This population increase is due to the political conditions that the country went through after the year (2003 AD), especially the forced displacement and migration from regions and cities that witnessed terrorist operations and security instability north of the city, as well as some governorates north of the city (such as Mosul, Salah al-Din and Diyala governorates) And some areas of Baghdad governorate and others (where some residents of those cities immigrated to the study area and live in it later, due to the security stability that this city witnessed during that period of time, and we cannot overlook the role of the natural increase in the population) The high number of births contradicts the number Mortality) for the study area. The population of the city continued to increase, as the period confined to the years (2007-2008) witnessed a remarkable population increase of (455741) thousand people, with an increase of (134,974) thousand people, and a growth rate that increased over the common period, reaching about (3.16%), see table (3) This increase is due to the increase in the number of births and the decrease in the number of deaths, in addition to the abnormal increase in the population, which is migration, whether from the regions and cities of Babel Governorate or outside the governorate, as well as the migration of large numbers of people in the countryside near and far from the city in search of About job opportunities in the city, This is after the great deterioration in the agricultural sector and its inability to support large numbers of the rural population, in addition to the service and economic differences between the countryside and the city (paving roads, drinking water, health and educational services, economic and industrial projects), which were concentrated in 2174

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… urban areas and to a much lesser extent in The countryside, which caused a clear imbalance in the balance of population distribution between rural and urban, not only at the study area level but also at the level of Iraq, which requires government intervention to restore the numerical balance between rural and urban.

Table 3 Population numbers, the amount of population increase and the growth rates of the population of Hilla city for the period (1987-2018) Years population Duration How much to increase )%( Population growth rate 1987(1) 227902 - - - 1997(2) 257495 1987 – 1997 29593 1,2 2007(3) 320767 1997- 2007 63272 2,18 2018(4) 455741 2007- 2018 63272 3,16 Source: From the researchers' work, depending on:

(1) Republic of Iraq, Central Bureau of Statistics, 1987 census results, Hilla Center (urban). Quoted from: Saad Abdul-Rizq Mohsen, Analysis of the characteristics of the ecological composition of the population of Babil Governorate for the period (1987-2007), Journal of the College of Basic Education, University of Babylon, Issue 3, 2010, p. 223. (2) The Republic of Iraq, the Central Bureau of Statistics, Babil Statistics Directorate, Preliminary Results of Building Numbering and Population Census for the year 1997, unpublished data, Hilla Center (urban). (3) The Republic of Iraq, the Central Bureau of Statistics, Babil Statistics Directorate, 2007 estimates, unpublished data, Hilla Center (urban). (4) The Republic of Iraq, Directorate of Population and Manpower Statistics, Central Statistical Organization, 2018 estimates, Hilla Center (urban). And that the increase in the population of the study area was accompanied by a clear and remarkable development in the field of commercial use within the city, through an increase in the number of individual trade establishments, and wholesale trade institutions witnessed a clear growth in the study area, which made us look into the distribution of these institutions, their types and the reasons Spatial signature and this is what we will study in detail in the next topic.

The Second Topic

Spatial Distribution of Wholesale Trade Establishments in The City of Hilla

Introduction

Wholesale trade is one of the types of commercial operations that includes besides it the retail trade (singular), as well as banking operations, banking, exchange, communications and others. The wholesale trade activity is distinguished by the fact that it needs a greater number of workers in a single establishment than the retail (singular) one also. The field study showed that the number of workers working in the activity of wholesale trade varies from one institution to another, and it is noted from Table (4) that the number of wholesale establishments whose number of workers ranges between (4-8 people) amounted to about (103) establishments and a rate of (68%) Of the total total of the study sample, these establishments came first in terms of the number of workers in them, and this applies to foodstuff establishments such as those in the Al-Jabal region, as well as to establishments for trade in construction and building materials.

Table 4 The number of workers employed in wholesale establishments in Hilla for the year 2019 Number of Workers 1-3 person 1- 8 people 9 people or more Total Number of institutions 29 103 20 152 percentage% 19 68 13 100% Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1), second group / Q7

It is noted from Table (4) that the number of establishments in which the number of workers ranges 2175 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 between (1-3 people) came second with (29) establishments and a rate of (19%), and this includes in most cases relatively small sized enterprises that need a small number of workers In its daily business activity. Finally, the establishments in which the number of workers ranged between (9 persons or more) by (20) establishments at a rate of (13%) only, and this includes large-sized enterprises, especially government institutions, including the General Company for Textile Industries in Nader area and the Coca-Cola plant in the south of the old city and factories The flour (mills) located on the Hilla-Najaf road, and date presses, as well as other industrial workshops and factories in the city, which also deal in wholesale and need a relatively large labor force. Wholesale trade establishments constitute an important element in the composition of the city and are considered one of the basic functions performed by many cities, it is difficult to define what is meant by wholesale trade and to limit the institutions that fall within this category, but in general it can be said that wholesale trade includes commercial establishments that specialize in selling or Preparing goods for retail and industrial establishments instead of selling them directly to consumers, so these establishments bring buyers and sellers together, as well as the selling function (Hussein, 1977). The spatial distribution of wholesale institutions varies from one place to another influenced by several factors that have contributed to their spatial distribution within the city, which means they have a great impact on the internal structure of the city, in this topic, we will deal with the study of the spatial distribution of these institutions and the factors affecting that distribution.

First: Spatial Distribution of Wholesale Trade Establishments and Their Varieties in The City of Hilla:

Wholesale trade establishments are distributed in specific areas within the internal structure of the city, and it is one of the commercial establishments that occupy a spatial space within the commercial use area in the city, as it is distinguished by its diversity in terms of the materials and commodities it trades in. The field study showed that the number of wholesale trade establishments in the study area amounted to about (263) (The field study on 2/28 - 23/3/2019).various commercial establishments, which practice their activities in different areas within the city, and provide their services to the residents of the city and the neighboring and near regions and cities, as well as some other governorates such as (Baghdad, Karbala) As a result of the diversity of these institutions and to facilitate their study, we can divide them into categories according to importance and the number of times of revision, see Table (5), which are as follows:

1- The first category: It is represented by the establishments that trade in foodstuffs, vegetables, fruits, beverages, rice, grains, spices, milk and its derivatives, meat, fish, live chicken, cigarettes, mineral water and washing powders. See map (4).

Table 5 Number of wholesale trade establishments according to categories in Hilla, 2019 Item Number of wholesale trade establishments percentage% First class 120 45 Second class 43 16 Third class 51 20 Fourth class 38 14 Fifth class 11 5 Total 263 100% Source: The field study conducted by researchers during the period (9/4 - 28/10/2019)

2- The second category: It includes establishments that sell new ready-to-wear clothes, second- hand clothes (bale), shoes, belts, bags, fabrics, household items, metal and plastic items, children's toys, sewing materials, youth and women's accessories, watches, gold and silver jewelry, perfumes. , Cosmetics, books, book printing and publishing. They were concentrated more in the central business district and its margins, and with the extension of the main roads and streets in the city. See Map (4)

2176

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… 3- The third category: It includes establishments that trade in electrical devices, electrical materials, smart and electronic devices, accessories for smart and electronic devices, home furniture and furnishings. Most of them are concentrated in the margins of the central business district and along the main roads and streets in the study area, and to a lesser extent in the central business district and regions. Secondary commercial. See map (5).

Map 4. Spatial distribution of wholesale trade establishments (first and second classes) in Hilla for the year 2019 Source: Researchers based on: Republic of Iraq, Ministry of Municipalities and Public Works, Hilla Municipality Directorate, Information Systems Division, updated map of Hilla city, 2014.

4- The fourth category: includes establishments that trade in construction materials, building materials, flooring materials (kashi, ceramic, porcelain, alabaster) materials used for walls and ceilings such as (secondary ceilings - cork - wallpaper - wooden and metal panels, aluminum sheets) and some of its products Counters, doors and windows), wooden doors, bedrooms. Most of them are concentrated along main roads and streets, as well as secondary commercial areas. See map (5). 2177 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021

5- Fifth class: It includes pharmaceutical stores, medical and health supplies, herbal aromatic natural (herbal medicine). It is concentrated in the margins of the central business district and along the main roads and streets. See Map (5).

Map 5. Spatial distribution of wholesale trade establishments (third, fourth, and fifth classes) in Hilla for the year 2019 Source: Researchers based on: Republic of Iraq, Ministry of Municipalities and Public Works, Hilla Municipality Directorate, Information Systems Division, updated map of Hilla city, 2014.

It is noted from table (5) the diversity of wholesale trade establishment the study area with the variation in their numbers and proportions, as the number of first class establishments reached about (120) establishments with a rate of (45%) of the total wholesale trade establishments, and 2178

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… the field study showed that the study area is distinguished by the greater number of The first class establishments over other commercial establishments, and this is due to the association of most of the materials of these institutions with the daily human food and his life uses, in addition to the continuous increase in the number of the city’s population, which requires the provision of their nutritional and life requirements, so this has led to the increase and expansion of the first class institutions in ongoing way, in addition, the study area is located in an agricultural region, where the neighboring rural areas export their agricultural and animal products to the city and then distribute these products to cities and regions near and far from them within the Babil governorate such as (Al Mahawil, Al-Kifl, Abi Gharq, Al-Musayyib, Alexandria) Or those products are discharged inside the city, in addition to distributing agricultural and animal products to other governorates such as (Baghdad, Diwaniyah, Najaf, and Karbala). As for the institutions of the second category, they amounted to about (43) diversified establishments, at a rate of (16%) of the total commercial establishments that deal in wholesale, and the number of establishments of this category witnessed a remarkable development and expansion in their spatial distribution within the city, and this increase is due to the development of the standard of living of citizens, which This led to an increase in the number of retail trade establishments whose establishments deal with second- class materials from the wholesale trade, and in return the number of wholesale establishments that meet the needs of retail establishments that deal with goods and materials of this class increased. While the number of the third category establishments amounted to about (51) commercial establishments, which constituted a percentage of (20%) of the total establishments, table (5) looks at the other, which witnessed a remarkable development and increase within the city, and this is due to the development in the field of technology and business that led to the emergence of Goods and materials that did not exist before 2003 or that some of them were very limited and few, but after 2003 the work in these goods increased and the demand for them increased until they became necessary commodities for most citizens, such as electronic devices, smart devices, some electrical appliances and home furniture, so institutions appeared a sentence that deals with these materials to cover the needs of retail establishments that sell these materials and other third class materials helped them in that the ease of importing from abroad. It is noticed from Table (5) that the number of Class Four establishments amounted to about (38) commercial establishments at a rate of (14%), and the other witnessed a diversity in the materials they deal with, and that the improvement of the standard of living of citizens and the expansion of the urban movement and government projects contributed greatly In the expansion of the fourth class institutions to meet the needs of retail trade establishments in the study area that trade in the materials of this class inside and outside the city, and some of them sell directly to citizens, in addition to the development in the field of construction and the use of modern building materials and others to increase the aesthetics and durability of the building, whether it is a house, commercial establishments or Governmental projects, such as (ceramics, porcelain, kashi, alabaster, secondary ceilings, cork) and others. While the number of the fifth class institutions reached about (11) institutions, at a rate of (5%) of the total institutions, see Table (5). These institutions cover the needs of private health centers, pharmacies and medical clinics with what they need in terms of medicines, supplies, equipment and medical materials.

Second: Geographical Analysis of The Spatial Distribution of Wholesale Trade Establishments in The City of Hilla:

The field study showed the variation and difference in the spatial distribution of wholesale trade establishments within the urban space of the study area, see map (6). We can divide the commercial areas in which the wholesale trade practices its commercial activity in the study area into the following sections:

The Central Business District: It is represented by the Grand Market and its branches such as Harge Market, Al Qasabeen Market, and Gold Market as well as Al Maktoum Street and to the south of it until the Indians Bridge, as well as part of Babel Street and Abu Al-Qasim Street, especially the beginning of these two streets because they are adjacent to the central business district, and are characterized by the density of passers-by and shoppers. From table (6), the central business district contains (66) institutions specialized in wholesale trade, i.e. 25% of the total number of establishments, as the number of first class establishments reached about (31) establishments, most of which were concentrated at the end of the western big market near Al-Jabal region.

2179 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021

Map 6 Spatial distribution of wholesale trade establishments in Hilla, 2019 Source: From the work of researchers based on: Republic of Iraq, Ministry of Municipalities and Public Works, Hilla Municipality Directorate, Geographic Information Systems Division, the updated Hilla city map for the year 2014.

The shops of this part of the market are distinguished by their large sizes to accommodate the largest possible amount of goods and materials for this type, in addition to the benefit of the owners of these institutions from the low rental prices for these institutions compared to the commercial establishments located at the beginning and in the middle of the large market, and the percentage of first class establishments in this region reached ( 47%) of all establishments in this region, see Table (6). Whereas, the number of the second-class establishments reached about (15) establishments, at a rate of (22%) of the total number of wholesale establishments in the central business district, most of them were concentrated in the Haraj market, the gold market, the Saffair market, Babel Street and Abu al-Qasim Street, as well as the market and stores selling used clothes (Bala). It is noticed from Table (6) that the number of the third class establishments reached (13) establishments and at a rate of (20%) of the total establishments in this region, most of them were concentrated in the libraries street, especially the sale of smart and electronic devices and their accessories, which is almost as this street specializes in selling these goods, whether it is Wholesale or retail, and establishments of this type spread in Abu Al-Qasim Street and Babel Street, especially home furniture and bedrooms, using some of the houses in the Old City as stores or workshops. As for the fourth-class establishments, their number has reached about (4) establishments only, at a rate of (6%) of the total number of establishments in this region, and most of these establishments own warehouses near or far from the place of work, due to the small size of commercial stores in that region. It appears from table (6) that the number of institutions of the

2180

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… fifth category amounted to about (3) institutions only at a rate of (5%) only, and they are concentrated within the area of doctors' clinics. 2- The margin of the central business district: It is represented by Al-Jabal area, Al-Rai Street, Abu Al-Fadil Street and its historical value, taking advantage of its proximity to the central business district or it is within the old city of the study area, as it is characterized by the presence of ports and corridors to facilitate entry and exit operations, as well as the unloading and loading of materials and commodities this region. The number of institutions reached (58), i.e. a rate (22%) of the total number of wholesale establishments in the study area, and it was characterized by the diversity and variation in its distribution, this area, most of which was concentrated in al-Jabal region, taking advantage of the area of large commercial establishments in this region, as well as the possibility of entering small and medium-sized cars to this region for the purpose of unloading and loading operations, as for the second class institutions, their number reached about (5) institutions only, at a rate of 9 %) Of the total wholesale establishments in this region, most of them were concentrated in Babel Street, Abu Al-Fada'ail Street, Al-Ray Street and Al-Jabal region. It is noted from the table (6) that the number of the third class establishments amounted to about (6) establishments only, at a rate of (10%) of the total wholesale establishments in this region, most of which were concentrated in Al-Rai Street, especially aluminum sheets and its products, including (Kounters, doors, windows) As for the institutions of the fourth class, the field study showed that their number reached about (7) institutions in this region only, at a rate of (12%) concentrated in the area of Al-Jabal, Al-Rai Street and Abu Al-Fadil, while the number of the fifth class institutions reached about (2) only, at a rate of (3%) is concentrated in Babel Street and Al-Rai Street, near the area where clinics and medical complexes are concentrated on Babel Street and the beginning of Al-Rai Street Al-Sharqiya.

3- Secondary commercial centers: which are represented in Bab Al-Mashhad, Bab Al-Hussein and the small side ((the eastern side of the city)). The field study showed that the number of wholesale establishments in these commercial centers reached (40) establishments, i.e. 15% of the total The total institutions in the study area, and it is noticed from the table (6) that the first class establishments amounted to about (15) ten institutions with a percentage of (38%) of the total establishments of these commercial centers, most of them concentrated in the Bab al-Mashhad and al-Ammar market in the small side, and the Sharia area Specialized in selling vegetables and fruits, as well as Al-Alawi region, where farmers frequent them to sell their products and agricultural crops, as it is concentrated in the small side ((eastern side)) Caesarean section specialized in buying and selling food grains, animal feed and dates, most of which are in Al-Ammar market. It is noted from Table (6) that the number of the second class establishments amounted to (7) establishments only, at a rate of (17%) of the total number of wholesale establishments in these commercial centers, most of which are concentrated in the Bab al-Mashhad and Bab al-Hussein areas, while the third class establishments amounted to about (10) Establishments, with a percentage of (25%), took most of them from the Bab Al-Mashhad and Bab Al-Hussein area to practice their commercial operations, taking advantage of the connection of these commercial centers to the outskirts of the study area as well as some retailers who prefer to shop from these commercial centers to avoid the interior areas in the city that is characterized by traffic congestion And the difficulty of unloading and loading goods and materials. It appears in Table (6) that the number of the fourth category establishments amounted to about (5) establishments only, at a rate of (12%) of the total establishments of these commercial centers. As for the fifth class establishments, their number reached (3) only, at a rate of (8%) of the total Wholesale establishments in secondary commercial centers.

4- Commercial axes (main roads and ring streets): They are represented by (60th Street, 40th Street, Jameiya Street, Imam Ali (PBUH) Street, Hilla Road - Karbala, Hilla - Najaf, Hilla - Diwaniyah, Hilla - Baghdad, Hilla - Tahmaziya, 80th Street). The field study showed that the number of wholesale establishments in these axes amounted to about (71) institutions, at a rate of (27%) of the total wholesale institutions in the study area, and it was characterized by the diversity and Spatial asymmetry in its distribution and number, the first numbered about (22) institutions, at a rate of (30%) of the total institutions of these axes, taking advantage of the ease of access to them and the capacity of institutions in these axes , in addition to the presence of large empty spaces in which they are still used as warehouses or large institutions specialized in wholesale, and most of their services are provided to shoppers coming from the outskirts of the city and rural areas that are also witnessing a clear growth in the number 2181 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 of trade establishments Retail to serve the population in those areas, just as most of the retailers coming from the cities of Babel Governorate and some cities in the governorates of Najaf and Diwaniyah, which are relatively close to the city of Hilla, prefer to shop from the establishments of these commercial hubs without going to the central business district or its margin, which is characterized by traffic congestion and the difficulty of entry, exit and unloading from the institutions of those regions. Also, some governmental commercial establishments are located on these axes, such as the mills of the General Company for Foodstuffs, most of which are located on the road - Hilla - Najaf) and the date press which is located on the road (Hilla - Baghdad), while the second class establishments amounted to about (10) establishments Commercial, with a percentage of (14%) of the total establishments of these total commercial axes, most of them concentrated in (Street 40) and Al-Jamaya Street, especially new ready-made clothes, cosmetics, antiques, industrial roses, bags and shoes, as for the third class establishments, their number reached (18) institutions, at a rate of (26%) ) Out of all the wholesale establishments in these commercial hubs, Most of them are concentrated in (Street 60) and (Street 40) and (Imam Ali Street (PBUH), Street 80, Hilla- Tahmaziya Road), especially electrical appliances, electrical materials and home furniture, while mechanical backup materials establishments are concentrated on Hilla-Diwaniyah road within the industrial district of the city, It is noticed from Table (6) that the number of the fourth class institutions amounted to about (18) institutions as well, at a rate of (26%). Spatial space in the city, such as construction materials, building materials, metal and wood panels, taking advantage of the capacity of commercial establishments in those commercial axes and their ease of access, as well as their connection to the outskirts of the city and other cities such as Al-Mahawil, Diwaniyah, Karbala, Najaf, Al-Museeb and others, It provides its services not only to city residents, but to other regions and cities in the city’s region. While most car accessories establishments focus on the Hilla-Diwaniyah Road, due to the presence of the industrial zone on this street, and some of them are concentrated in the Bab al-Mashhad area, along with the retail establishments that exist in this area and some repair and douchema workshops for cars, and some of them in Al- Jabal region, taking advantage of the presence of Traffic in cars in that area. It is noticed from the table (6) that the number of institutions of the fifth category amounted to about (3) establishments only, at a rate of (4%) of the total wholesale establishments in these commercial axes, concentrated in (Street 60) and (Street 40) next to pharmacies, medical complexes and hospitals In these areas, as well as the advantage of easy access to it by shoppers coming from outside the city, as well as the low rental prices in these areas compared to other areas.

5-Inside residential areas: They are the areas in which commercial use is involved, taking from the presence of some empty land, renting or buying residential homes as a place to practice wholesale trade within residential areas, taking advantage of the low rental or purchase prices in those residential areas, especially those that are relatively far from the central business district The margin of the central region, and the field study revealed the existence of (28) specialized wholesale commercial establishments in these areas, at a rate of (11%) of the total wholesale establishments in the study area, distributed on the eastern and western sides of the city, It is noted from Table (6) that the number of first-class establishments amounted to about (14) establishments at a rate of (15%) of the total wholesale establishments in these residential areas, most of which are concentrated in Mustafa Ragheb areas, including foodstuff establishments as well as the Shawi area on the western side of The city, while some of the other first-class establishments are concentrated in Al-Bakrli area, It appears in the table (6) that the number of the second class establishments amounted to about (6) establishments with a percentage (22%) of the total number of wholesale establishments in these regions. As for the third class institutions, their number reached (4) establishments with a rate of (14%), concentrating Most of them are in Al-Shawi areas, such as electrical appliances and electrical materials, as well as in Al-Bakrli area, Babel district, Al- Thila area and Nader area, It is noticed from the table (6) that the number of the fourth class establishments amounted to about (4) establishments only, at a rate of (14%) of the total number of wholesale establishments in these residential areas, concentrated in Nader and Al Shawi areas and in some neighborhoods and small Commercial, in addition to retail trade establishments, have begun to threaten the residential job in some residential neighborhoods due to the lack of proper planning and in the area of determining and planning the expansion and growth of commercial employment in the study area by the Directorate of Hilla and the concerned

2182

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… authorities in this regard. We conclude from the above that the wholesale trade establishments have concentrated more on the commercial axes represented by the ring streets and external roads, as their number reached about (71) institutions with a percentage (27%) of the total number of wholesale institutions in the study area, and this is due to the ease of access to them, taking advantage of the flexibility of movement Cars and transportation in these streets and roads, as well as the connection of these commercial axes to areas outside the study area, whether it is rural areas or cities belonging to Babil Governorate or even some cities belonging to the governorates adjacent to Babel Governorate, and as mentioned above, In addition, the owners of these institutions benefit from the low rental and purchase prices of land in those areas and the existence of empty lands that were used later in the practice of wholesale trade, benefiting from the historical dimension of this region, and the Western roads specializing in the big market with foodstuffs and grains increased the number of wholesale establishments in them, in addition to the specialization of Al-Maktbat Street with smart and electronic devices and their accessories. In addition to that, the gold market, in which wholesale gold sales establishments are concentrated in addition to retail establishments, and it is noticed from table (6) that the margin of the central business district came in third place with (58) institutions and a rate of (22%) of the total number of wholesale establishments in the business area Central, especially Al-Jabal region, which is almost specialized in selling various commodities and foodstuffs, in addition to the presence of some electrical equipment and materials institutions, except for the possibility of cars reaching most of these institutions in their presence and staying in this region, As for the secondary commercial centers, they came fourth, with (40) establishments and a rate of (15%). These institutions have benefited from their presence in those areas from easy access to them and because they are areas where the streets intersect and consider them as entry points to or exit from the city center, as well as the distance The historical moral of these areas, which were the gates of the Old City Wall, where the Mashhad Gate towards the city of Najaf and Bab Al Hussein towards the city of Karbala, As for the small side area, especially the Al-Ammar market, it is complementary to the large market in the western side, as well as the eastern side benefited from its direct contact with the agricultural areas that export agricultural products to the city, then the city exports these products and distributes them to retail establishments inside and outside the city. It is noticed from Table (6) that the scattered areas that included neighborhoods and residential stores finally came in the fifth rank with (28) establishments and a rate of (11%) only.

Third: Factors Affecting the Growth and Expansion of Wholesale Trade in Hilla

The commercial activity of wholesale trade is affected by several factors whose availability in the city leads to the numerical and spatial growth of those institutions within the urban space, as these factors have affected their spatial signature within the urban space of the study area. We can define those factors as follows:

A- Population increase: The growth and expansion of any job within the city is affected by the growth and numerical increase of the population in the city, the more the population increases, the greater its requirements and the multiplicity of which it is imperative for the jobs provided by it also to multiply and expand to meet the requirements and needs of the growing population, as well as the suburbs and outskirts of the city. And even the small urban centers nearby it may depend The larger cities must meet most of their needs, as is the case in the study area, As its commercial services are provided to the residents of the city and to the inhabitants of the neighboring regions, as well as to cities and small urban centers that are located within its region, such as (Al Mahawil, Al-Nile, Al-Mashrwa', Al-Kifl, Al-Musayb, Al-Hashemite district cities, and others). The study area has, in recent years, enjoyed a continuous increase in the population. As we explained earlier, see Table (3). This led to an increase in the number of commercial establishments that deal in retail (singular) and that the increase in the number of those institutions pushed some capital owners and merchants to move towards building and constructing commercial establishments that deal in wholesale. In 2003, at a rate that reached (64%) of the study sample size, distributed between (40% and 24%) in the time period between (2003-2013) and (2014-2020), respectively, and the number of merchants amounted to (61.36) straight. See Table (7).

2183 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 Table 7 The period of time during which some traders started working in wholesale trade and the period of time in which their current workplace was established in the city of Hilla for the year 2019 The period of time in which the activity of before 2013 -2003 2019 -2014 Total wholesale trade started 2003 The number of wholesalers 55 61 36 152 percentage% 36 40 24 %100 The period of time in which the wholesale Before 2013-2003 2019-2014 Total institution was established 2003 The number of wholesalers 58 67 27 152 percentage% 38 44 18 %100 Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q1, Q2

This is due to the improvement of the standard of living of some families in the Iraqi society due to the increase in their monthly income, which encouraged them to buy and shop and create effective commercial activity and movement in the markets, which encouraged some merchants to practice wholesale trade activity to cover the increasing requirements of retail establishments (singular) in the city. As for the time period prior to 2003, the percentage of merchants working there was about (36%) only, and the number of merchants reached about (55) merchants. See Table (7). While the number of wholesale trade establishments that were established before 2003 reached about (58) establishments, at a rate of (38%) of the sample size, while in the period between (2003-2013), their number reached (67) establishments, at a rate of (44%). In the period between (2014-2020), the number of their establishments reached about (27) institutions, at a rate of (18%) of the sample size. We conclude from the foregoing that the number of wholesale trade establishments and the number of dealers in these establishments increased after 2003 due to the increase in the number of retail trade establishments (singular) to provide the goods and materials needed by these establishments and to be close to them and to avoid retailers the trouble of traveling to cities far from them to shop as well as Material benefit, as lower transportation costs from wholesale institutions to retail establishments, and this achieves more material profit for both parties, whether wholesalers or retailers, as well as an improvement in the monthly income level for some layers of Iraqi society.

B - Ease of import: After 2003, Iraq witnessed a great openness to the countries of the world in all fields, including economic and commercial, and some merchants and capital owners signed commercial contracts with foreign companies and factories in order to import industrial products to Iraq, as well as the tremendous development in means of transportation and communication that contributed greatly to the ease of transporting goods and commodities from the place of origin to Iraq, In addition to the development of the means of communication as the country became the importer, but that uncontrolled, uncontrolled and studied openness by the state led to the flooding of the market with imported goods and goods of different proportions and efficiency at low prices compared to the local products that became unable to confront the importer as well as the stopping of many The local factories, companies and factories are not working for various reasons, the field study revealed that the number of establishments that deal with local goods and materials for manufacture amounted to about (28) establishments with a percentage of (18%) of the total study sample, see table (8), the sources of most of the commodities and goods in which they trade are imported, amounting to about (124) enterprises, at a rate of (82%) of the total sample of the study, which indicates that import constitutes the vast majority of the goods and materials offered in the local markets.

Table 8 The sources of most of the goods and materials that wholesale establishments trade in Hilla for the year 2019 Source Sweetened Imported Total Number of commercial establishments 28 124 152 percentage% 18 82 %100 Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q14

Fourth: Factors affecting the spatial distribution of wholesale trade establishments in the city of Hilla 2184

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments…

The spatial distribution of commercial establishments is affected by several factors that contribute to the spatial distribution of these institutions within the urban space, and we can define those factors in the study area as follows:

The value of the land: the financial value of the land is affected by its spatial location in terms of distance and proximity to the central business district, streets, main roads and road intersections within the urban space of the city, and that the majority of businessmen prefer to choose the locations from which they expect to dispose of the largest possible amount of goods and services that achieve the largest possible financial return, and if the institution is not able to achieve a profit that makes it remain in its position, then its owner or responsible for it can succeed in occupying the site, or in other words, the new institution must be able to pay the site rent and achieve a certain amount of interest in order to continue its site (Hussein, 1977). That is, the price of the land has a clear effect on the signature of the commercial establishment, especially since we know that the wholesale trade needs a larger area than the area of the retail trade establishments (singular). The field study showed that the price of land recorded an increase in the central business district, as it ranged between (9-13) million Iraqi dinars per square meter, see Table (9).

Table 9 Land prices in the city of Hilla according to commercial areas and main streets in Hilla for the year 2019 The name of the commercial area Price in million per m2 Central business district 13 – 9 Abu Al Qasim Street 6,5 – 4,5 Secondary commercial areas (Bab Al Hussein, 5-8 Bab Al Mashhad, and Little Sop) 60th Street 5-10 40th Street 6-11 Source: The field study conducted by researchers on 2/5/2019

This is due to the historical value of this area, as it is one of the oldest areas of the city practicing commercial activities thanks to the presence of the large market (the covered market) as well as the intensity of the movement of shoppers in it from inside and outside the city, which gives a greater opportunity for the owners of commercial establishments to sell their goods, as for Abu Al- Qasim Street, the price ranges One square meter ranges between (4.5 - 6.5) million dinars per square meter, while the price of one square meter in Al Maktoum Street ranged between (6-9) million Iraqi dinars, which is high compared to the rest of the city streets because it is part of the business central area. It decreases in Al-Rai Street, where the price per square meter ranged between (3-5) million Iraqi dinars due to its relative distance from the central business district. As for the secondary commercial areas (Bab Al Hussein, Bab Al Mashhad, and the small side , the price per square meter ranged between (5-8) One million Iraqi dinars, due to its remoteness from the central business district with active commercial movement thanks to its attraction to those who are shopping. Given the expansion of commercial activity in the city and the rise in the price of land in the central business district and its margin, therefore commercial activity, including wholesale trade activity, resorted to occupying both sides of the main streets and roads in the city, which led to great jumps in the price of land in those areas, where the price per square meter ranged in a street 60 between (5-10) million Iraqi dinars, while the price per square meter in Street 40 ranged between (6-11) million Iraqi dinars, see Table (9), so it is one of the important commercial centers in the study area, and the streets and roads have become The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is a center of attraction for wholesale trade establishments due to the presence of larger spaces capable of accommodating the goods and goods of wholesale trade establishments, as well as the ability of commercial use to compete with other uses due to its ability to pay the highest financial values of the land. It is noted from Table (11) that there are a number of advantages and benefits that the commercial establishment’s site has benefited from, as the proximity to retail trade establishments (singular) is the highest, as the number of wholesale establishments that benefited from this advantage amounted to about (81) institutions, at a rate of (54%). ) From the total study sample, 2185 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 as is the case in Al-Jabal region, the central business district and the secondary commercial areas, as the proximity of these institutions to retail trade establishments provides greater opportunities for goods and commodities disposal.

Table 11 The best features and benefits that the spatial location of wholesale trade establishments in the city of Hilla has benefited from for 2019 Proximity to Lower rental Proximity to the Advantage or retail Ease of access or purchase merchant's Total benefit establishments price residence Number of 81 37 23 13 152 institutions percentage% 54 24 15 7 %100 Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q12

While the number of wholesale establishments that benefited from the advantage of accessibility reached about (37) institutions with a rate of (24%) of the total sample of the study, and most of them are concentrated on the main streets such as Street (40), Street (60), Imam Ali Street (PBUH), and al-Jamiya Street and others, as the location of these institutions benefited from the flexibility of the movement of cars for the purpose of unloading and loading easily, and the location on these streets and external roads provided easy access for shoppers from outside the city, it is noticed from Table (11) that the number of wholesale establishments whose location benefited from the advantage of the decrease in the value of the land is about (23) institutions with a percentage of (15%) of the total study sample, as most of these institutions are looking for lower wages for the land due to the capacity of the area that this needs The institutions were located at the outskirts of the central business district and the external and residential roads, while only (13) institutions benefited from the proximity of the institution’s site to the residence of its protector or its owner, with a percentage of only (7%) of the total study sample. The price of the land affects the size of the institution, the higher the price of the land, the smaller the size of the institution, and this is evident in the size of the establishments of the central business district in the study area, where the commercial establishments in them are characterized by their small area, and despite this, the size of wholesale establishments is larger than the size of retail establishments, and that Because it needs more spaces to carry out its activities in a smooth manner, and the amount of goods and materials is the other, it needs a large space to absorb it. The field study showed the difference in the area of the institution from one place to another, and it is noticed from table (12) that the number of wholesale establishments whose size ranges from (7 meters or more) is the highest number as it reached (7) establishments with a percentage of (47%) of the total sample The study and that, as we previously explained that the nature of the work of wholesale institutions needs relatively large areas, and this is evident in the establishments in Al-Jabal area and the external streets and roads, where the price of land is low and the existence of areas subject to increase the size of the commercial institution, It appears from table (12) that the number of commercial establishments whose size ranged between (4-6 meters) came in second place with (44) establishments and a percentage of (29%) of the total number of the study sample, while the number of commercial establishments whose area ranged between (1-3 meters) about (37) institutions, at a rate of (24%) of the total, with the size of the sample, and it came in the third and last place, because wholesale establishments cannot practice their activities in small-sized establishments. And when asked the wholesalers surveyed about the area of the current workplace, is it sufficient to accommodate the amount of goods and materials that they trade in? Mostly, some wholesalers display samples of the goods and merchandise they trade in at their workplace, provided that the shopkeeper is provided with the quantities he wants from another place, namely the stores belonging to the wholesaler, and (93) merchants who were included in the questionnaire indicated a percentage of (61%) From the total of the study sample, see Table (13).

2186

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments…

Table 12 The size of some wholesale trade establishments and their ability to accommodate materials and goods in Hilla, 2019 Area in meters m3-1 m6-4 7and more Total What is the total area of Number of institutions 37 44 71 152 the workplace? percentage% 24 29 47 %100 Is the space sufficient to the answer yes No Total hold materials and Number of institutions 49 103 152 goods? percentage% 32 68 %100 Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q3 (49) Of them answered with (yes), i.e., only (32%) of the total of the sample size, while (103) people answered (no) with (68%) of the total sample, see table (12).

They own warehouses to store materials and commodities in excess of their current workplace capacity, while (59) merchants (39%) only indicated that they do not own a store, and that they display all their materials and goods at their current workplace, perhaps they own large commercial establishments that are able to accommodate all the materials they trade in. Note that some stores occupy the upper floors of some multi-storey buildings and others occupy some residences close to or adjacent to commercial areas, especially the old city dwellings such as shops (Kurds, Jabawen, Mahdia, Al-Taiys, Gibran, Al-Jamee'n, Al-Kalaj, Al-Wardia, etc.), which threatens some of the heritage houses to turn into commercial use and others have been demolished, which requires the intervention of the concerned authorities to preserve the privacy of the old city.

Table 13 The number of stores owned by some wholesalers in Hilla, 2019 The answer Yes No Total The number of merchants 93 59 152 percentage% 61 39 %100 Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q4

2- Ease of access: The results of the field study showed that most of the wholesale trade establishments are looking for a site that is characterized by easy access and flexibility of movement in it, especially the movement of cars, because it is used for the purpose of unloading and loading on the one hand and on the other hand it facilitates the retailer's access to the wholesale shop for shopping, especially those coming from outside The study area, as most of them use large-loaded cars for the purpose of shopping from wholesale institutions in the study area, it is noted from Table (14) that (71) commercial establishments use large-sized and loaded cars (Kia or larger) to transport their goods from the wholesale store to the retailer (single) store, with a percentage of (47%) of the total study sample, and most of these are coming from Outside the study area, whether it is rural areas or the center, and small urban cities such as Al-Nile, Al Mahawil, Al-Mashroa, Al-Musayyib, Al-Kifl and others, while the number of wholesale establishments that use medium-load cars (pick-up or similar) is about (39) institutions with a percentage of (25%) of the total study sample, and most of these are from inside the city where they ride Close distance between them and wholesale institutions in the city movement, . It appears from table (14) that the number of wholesale trade establishments that use small-load vehicles (salons, stalls, and trolleys that are driven by people) reached about (43) establishments with a percentage of about (28%) of the total study sample, and most of these institutions are those nearby From retail establishments, As the owners of retail stores use these means to transport the goods that they shop from the wholesale store to their place of work, such as wholesale trade establishments in the Al-Jabal region, Al-Rai Street and Abu Al-Qasim. And the central business district in which the owners of the retail stores located in these same areas shop to save the effort, transportation fees and time in moving the goods from the wholesale store to the retail store.

2187 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021

Table 14 Types of transportation used in transporting goods from wholesale establishments to the place of retail trade establishments (singular) in Hilla for the year 2019 Large Medium load Small to carry (Salon, Mode of transport pregnancy (KIA (pick-up or Total Satota, or push cart) or larger) similar) Number of 71 38 43 152 institutions percentage% 47 25 28 100% Source: Results of the questionnaire form Appendix (1) / Second Group / Q13

The results of the field study showed that the number of retailers shoppers from wholesaling stores in the study area varies from one place to another, and this difference is due to the nature and type of the material in which the wholesaler trades, as well as the factor of ease of access to it and the easy and flexible shopping of it by the retailer, it is noted from the table (15) that the number of wholesale establishments, of which the number of daily shoppers is about (9) institutions only, at a rate of about (6%) only of the total study sample, and most of these institutions are those that work with building materials and floors, while the number of institutions Commercial, in which the number of retail shoppers ranged between (11-20) people, about (26) institutions, and a percentage of (17%) from the total study sample, while the number of wholesale establishments in which the number of retailers shoppers per day reached (21-30) The number of persons reached (42) institutions, at a rate of (28%) of the total study sample, As for the number of establishments whose number of retail traders ranged between (31 persons or more), their number reached (75) institutions with a rate of (49%) of the total study sample, see Table (15). Food establishments are the most reviewed by retailers for their association with human food.

Table 15 The number of retailers from wholesaling establishments approximately daily in Hilla for the year 2019 31 people and The number of retailers 10 So below 20-11people 30 -21people Total more Number of wholesale 9 26 42 75 152 establishments percentage% 6 17 28 49 100% Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q6

In addition to the occurrence of some wholesale trade establishments adjacent to retail trade establishments (singular), as shopping is made from the neighboring wholesale establishments in most cases, such as foodstuff establishments in Al-Jabal area, Bab al-Mashhad, and the small side that mix and approach retail establishments, which is one of the advantages provided by the location of these institutions next to the wholesale institutions, the results of the field study showed that the work areas of most of the wholesale shops in the study area are from retail stores near or adjacent to wholesale establishments in any commercial area of the study area, as the number of these establishments reached about (59) institutions with a percentage of (39%) from Total study sample, see table (16), while the number of wholesale establishments whose housing or work is from the same city or its outskirts is about (34) institutions with a rate of (22%) of the total study sample, and this includes retailers who own commercial shops in urban residential areas or in rural areas Affiliated to the study area. It is noticed from the table (16) that the number of wholesale establishments in which most of the shoppers live or work from outside the city are about (22) institutions, with a percentage of only (15%) of the total study sample, and this includes those who come to the study area from cities and urban centers. Located within the region of the study area, such as (al-Nile, al-Mahawil, Al-Mashroua, Al-Musayyib, Al-Kifl and others), while the number of wholesale establishments in which the work of retail owners and shoppers from these institutions is of all the above mentioned, their number reached about (37) institutions with a percentage of (24%) of the total of the study sample, Usually, shoppers from wholesale institutions from the study area return to separate areas, whether inside or outside the study area, and this in turn is a positive aspect of the wholesale trade activity and its development and development in the future in 2188

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… order for these institutions to provide their services not exclusively to the residents of the governorate, but exceed even the urban centers and cities Others located outside Babil Governorate, such as some cities (Najaf, Karbala, Diwaniyah and Wasit).

Table 16 Work areas of most retailers who shoppers from wholesale institutions daily in Hilla city for 2019 Retail business Of the retail stores From the same city or its Out of Of all Total areas near my work outskirts town that Number 59 34 22 37 152 percentage% 39 22 15 24 %100 Source: Results of the questionnaire (Annex 1) / Second Group / Q8

The availability of the advantage of easy access to the wholesale institution’s website or to any site within the study area sometimes leads to the presence of some of those institutions’ concentration and their convergence between them. The field study showed that some of these institutions are adjacent to each other and others are far from each other. Table (17) shows that the number of institutions adjacent to each other reached about (35) institutions with a percentage of (23%) of the total total of the study sample, as is the case in the region Al-Jabal, which is characterized by the collision of wholesale trade establishments with each other, as well as the establishments of spare materials and car accessories in the industrial zone on the Hilla- Diwaniyah road, and the new garment sales establishments in Abu Al-Qasim Street and the central business district. Table (17) indicates that the number of wholesale establishments whose distance between them is between (1-5 meters) reached (38) institutions with a percentage of (25%) of the total number of the study sample, and this is evident in some of the ring streets and external roads in which the wholesale institutions are located, such as (Al-Makateb Street, Al- Jamayia Street, Imam Ali Street (PBUH) and Street (60).

Table 17 The distance between a wholesale institution and the one closest to it in Hilla, 2019 Adjacent to the 1-5 -6meter 21 Meter and distance 20 -11meter Total workplace meter 10 more Number 35 38 21 18 40 152 percentage% 23 25 14 12 26 100% Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q5

Whereas the number of establishments whose distance between the wholesale location and the nearest place ranges between (6-10 meters) and (11-20 meters), the number of these establishments reached about (21-18) institutions respectively, with a percentage of (14, 12%). %) Respectively of the total of the study sample, as for the institutions that reach the distance between the place of the sentence and the nearest place of another sentence on it between (21 meters or more), the number of those institutions reached about (40) institutions with a percentage of about (26%) of the total number of institutions The study sample, which is the largest percentage, We conclude from this that there are commercial establishments that are distinguished by being adjacent to each other, or that they are clustered in one place according to specialization in the type of materials in which they trade and the type of retail establishments adjacent to them, it is noticed that most of the wholesale establishments in the margins of the central business district are of the first type, including foodstuffs, meat of all kinds and food grains, due to the proximity of retail establishments that deal with these materials from them. The field study showed that the nature of the spread of wholesale institutions in the study area is close in distribution in the first place, as it appears from Table (18) that the number of those who indicated that the nature of the spread of wholesale establishments in the work area of the owner of the questionnaire of the type of convergent distribution amounted to about (51) An institution with a percentage of (34%) of the total of the study sample, and in the second place came the type of (divergent distribution) with a number of (42) institutions with a percentage of (28%), while the type (grouped in one place) came third with a number of (31) institutions with a percentage It reached (20%) of the total of the study sample, and the type of (random distribution) came finally by (28) institutions and at a rate of only (18%) of the total of the study sample. It is worth noting that the presence of a commercial area specialized in the activity of wholesale

2189 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 trade in the study area or specific areas within the basic design of the city, gives the city great importance in commercial activity at the level of its region, as the presence of such areas contributes to attracting retailers from different regions of that region because The proximity of wholesale establishments to each other and their concentration in a specific location greatly facilitates the process of shopping by the owners of retail establishments due to the ease of movement, abundance and diversity of institutions in that region, as it creates competition between wholesalers in terms of the diversity of goods and materials they trade in, as well as the quality of those materials, And lower prices for those materials, in order to gain the largest number of reviewers.

Table 18 The nature of the spread of wholesale establishments in the work areas of some wholesalers in Hilla for the year 2019 Type of Clustered in Spaced Convergent Randomization of the Total spread one place distribution distribution distribution Number 31 51 42 28 152 percentage% 20 28 34 18 100% Source: Results of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) / Second Group / Q9

3 - Adjacent of retail establishments: Most of the wholesale trade establishments are located in locations adjacent to the retail trade establishments (singular), and this feature contributed to the expansion of wholesale trade in the study area in a clear and large way, the field study showed that the establishments with a specialized activity in wholesale trade whose location benefited from the advantages of proximity to retail trade establishments came first with (81) establishments and a percentage of (54%) of the total number of the study sample. See Table (11), This is evident in the margins of the central business district, represented by Al-Jabal District and Street, where wholesale trade establishments specialized in foodstuffs and food grains have benefited from the vicinity of the central business district with great commercial activity, It is noticed from table (16) that most of the institutions specialized in the activity of wholesale trade, most of the retailers of which are from neighboring or near retail stores, and as we explained earlier, as the number of those institutions that benefited from this advantage reached about (59) establishments, at a rate of (39%) Of the total study sample. The field study also showed that the working hours of wholesale trade establishments differ from one place to another. Table (19) notes that the number of establishments whose work is from morning to afternoon came first, with (67) institutions and a rate of (44%) of the total number of the study sample, This applies to some establishments in Al-Jabal region and the industrial zone on the Hilla-Diwaniyah road, while the establishments whose work is from morning to evening came second with (46) institutions and a rate of (30%), as many of the establishments located in the back streets and external roads are Their work from morning to evening is like building materials and flooring businesses on Al-Jabal Street and 60th Street, In addition to the establishments for trading electrical appliances and smart device accessories in Imam Ali Street (PBUH) and Al Maktabat Street, it is noted from Table (19) that the establishments whose activities are from morning to noon (midday) finally came with (39) establishments and a rate of (26%) Of the total of the study sample, most of these institutions are represented in Al-Jabal region and the big market, most of which are specialized in the trade of foodstuffs and agricultural and food grains.

Table 19 The daily activity hours of the wholesale establishments in Hilla for the year 2019 The hours of activity of From morning to From morning to From morning to wholesale Total evening afternoon evening establishments Number 39 67 46 152 % percentage 26 44 30 100% Source: From the researchers' work based on Appendix 2 / Group Two / Q15

Conclusions

The study reached a set of conclusions in light of what has been studied in the body of the 2190

Jadoua, F, A, F.; Hanawan, Z, S, J.; and Darb, Q, H. (2021) Spatial Analysis of Wholesale Trade Establishments… research. We can summarize them as follows: 1- The study area is characterized as an attractive city for residents and various economic activities, including commercial activity, thanks to the advantages of its position and geographical location. 2- Wholesale trade establishments are distributed in separate areas within the study area and relatively far apart, they are mainly distributed on the external roads and ring streets, in addition to the main business district and its margin, the secondary commercial areas, and the residential areas to a lesser extent. 3- The spatial distribution of wholesale trade establishments in the study area was affected by a number of controls or factors, which are adjacent to retail trade establishments and the value of the land as well as the ease of access factor. 4- The first-class institutions formed the largest number among the other wholesale establishments, by (120) establishments and at a rate of (45%) of the total number of wholesale establishments in the study area, and this is due to the fact that the establishments of this category include institutions of various foodstuffs, vegetables, fruits, etc, of the food items that are related to the life and diet of the population. 5- The study area enjoys the availability of the elements for the development of wholesale trade activity in it, as the distinctive geographical location is located in the middle of the Middle Euphrates region with fertile soil, good agricultural production and high population density, and the study area is connected to a network of external roads linking it to cities and urban centers located within its region, in addition to For its connection to the neighboring and near governorates, such as Baghdad, Najaf, Diwaniyah, Karbala, Kut and Anbar.

Recommendations

Based on the results of the study and on what has been covered in the body of the study, we can formulate a number of recommendations and suggestions that can be taken up by the relevant authorities, as follows:

1- The study proposes the establishment of areas specialized in wholesale activity in the study area, taking into account a number of factors, including the functional specialization of the area or place, the type of adjacent retail establishments, ease of access and appropriate distribution in the city areas.

2- The overlap of commercial use with residential use in cities is an uncivilized phenomenon, as it affects the residential job through the encroachment of the commercial function on the dwellings adjacent to the commercial establishments or the central commercial area, which increases the housing crisis in the city by giving up their housing owners in favor of commercial use Especially the old city dwellings, which suffer from creeping commercial use, especially the wholesale trade activity, as some of the dwellings in them have turned into stores of materials and goods for wholesalers, so we suggest to the concerned authorities the necessity to stop this phenomenon.

3- The study recommends that the concerned government agencies make the best use of the available potentials through which the wholesale trade activity can be developed in the study area.

References

Abbas, H. G. EFFECT OF MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATIONS ON THE RELIGIONS OF ARABS BEFORE ISLAM. Retrieved from https://kirj.ee/trames- publications/?filter[year]=2021&filter[issue]=435&filter[publication]=3343 Al-Suwaidawi, H. K. C., & Al-Mohammadi, O. A. Z. (2021). Historical References to the Calendar Words and Their Connotations in the Southern Arab Kingdoms in the Light of Written Sources. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology, 5914-5932. Retrieved from https://annalsofrscb.ro/index.php/journal/article/view/9060/6622 Al-Thahab, A. A. L. Housing Everyday Life of Local Communities The case of Mahallat al-Mahdia in the Old Hilla. Journal of Interior Designing and Regional Planning, 3(3). doi:http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1996654

2191 © RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(5), SPRING, 2021 Al Asadi, A. M. A., & Al–Tufaili, H. M. A. (2018). Population increase and its impact on the area expansion in the City of Hilla. Journal Of Babylon Center for Humanities Studies, 8(3). Retrieved from https://www.iasj.net/iasj/article/146341 An-Najjar, A. M. A. (2019). History of Poetry in Hilla. Al-Muhaqqiq Journal, 7(2521-4950). Retrieved from https://www.iasj.net/iasj/article/172121 Bourke, R., & Skinner, Q. (2016). Popular Sovereignty in Historical Perspective: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=jV-cCwAAQBAJ. Bunge, W. W. (1973). The geography. The Professional Geographer, 25(4), 331-337. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1973.00331.x Hussein, A. R. A. (1977). Geography of Cities. Asaad Printing House, Baghdad. Jayyusi, S. K., Holod, R., Petruccioli, A., & Raymond, A. (2008). The City in the Islamic World (2 vols.): Brill. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=tO55DwAAQBAJ. Jirjees, S., Seeyan, S., & Fatah, K. (2020). Climatic analysis for Pirmam area, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. The Iraqi Geological Journal, 75-92. Retrieved from http://igj-iraq.org/ Masters, B. (2013). The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: A Social and Cultural History: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=4x09OvMBMmgC. Mekhlef, A. K., Hameed, I. H., & Khudhair, M. E. (2017). Prevalence of Physical Injuries on the Head, neck and Entire body in, Hilla, Iraq. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology, 10(10), 3276-3282. doi:Prevalence of Physical Injuries on the Head, neck and Entire body in, Hilla, Iraq Tahir-Kheli, S. (2018). Trip to Iraq Before the Age of Prejudice (pp. 359-373): Springer. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8551-2_37 Wen, Q., Zhang, Z., Shi, L., Zhao, X., Liu, F., Xu, J., . . . Zuo, L. (2016). Extraction of basic trends of urban expansion in China over past 40 years from satellite images. Chinese Geographical Science, 26(2), 129-142. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-016-0796-z

2192