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COSMOLOGY, MYTHOLOGY and MYSTICISM in the NOVELS of SALMAN RUSHDIE ROGER YOUNG CLARK BA, the University of Calgary, 1982 MA

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COSMOLOGY, MYTHOLOGY and MYSTICISM in the NOVELS of SALMAN RUSHDIE ROGER YOUNG CLARK BA, the University of Calgary, 1982 MA COSMOLOGY, MYTHOLOGY AND MYSTICISM IN THE NOVELS OF SALMAN RUSHDIE ROGER YOUNG CLARK B.A., The University of Calgary, 1982 M.A , The University of Calgary, 1984 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT, OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of English : V We accept this thesis as conforming • to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OFBRITISH COLUMBIA January 1996 © Roger Young Clark, 1996 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT Otherworldly constructions such as "the Mountain of Qaf1 or "the Serpent" are seldom the focus of Rushdie criticism, yet they are integral to Rushdie's narrative structures and to his assault on coercion, division and violence. In particular, Rushdie uses Attar's Sufi poem Conference of the Birds to supply Grimus and Haroun with narrative structure, cosmic topography and iconoclastic ideals, and to supply Midnight's Children and The Satanic Verses with mystical ideals which persist in symbolic opposition to tyrannical and demonic figures. In the fantastical other world of Grimus, the iconoclastic journey of Flapping Eagle to the peak of Mount Calf/Qaf structures the novel and provides an ontological and epistemological framework for a multidimensional universe, a conflated cosmology made up of Sufi, Dantean, Germanic and Hindu elements. In the magical yet historical world of Midnight's Children, otherworldly constructions create a shifting, uncertain cosmos, one in which mysticism furnishes Saleem and his nation with moon-high ideals and with paradoxical meanings, and one in which clashing mythic constructions exacerbate the ambiguity with which the novel ends. In contrast to Midnight's Children, Shame depicts a focused dynamic between the worldly and the otherworldly: Raza's fundamentalist regime forces democratic, sexual and other expressions beneath the geographic and psychological "landscape" of Pakistan, from where they rise in the demonized form of the Beast/Kali, a satanic yet scourging counterforce to Raza's God-centred, monotheistic regime. In The Satanic Verses Rushdie pushes the role of the Beast a dangerous step further by allowing a "satanic narrator" to swoop in and out of a text dominated by satanic revisions of cosmology and morality, by a rhetoric which makes Satan look heroic, and by the hellish visions of the conveniently schizophrenic "archangel" Gibreel Possessing Chamcha and manipulating events so that Chamcha plays the parts of Iago and the Devil, the satanic narrator drives the archangel to murder Alleluia, who yearns to ascend Everest/Qaf. Rushdie's fiction thus becomes increasingly dominated by coercive, violent, divisive and demonic figures, yet the children's fantasy Harotm and the Sea of Stories marks a return to the triumphant mystical values and to the conflated cosmologies of Grimus. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Table of Contents iv List of Abbreviations v Acknowledgement vi Chapter One Introduction 1 Chapter Two Grimus: An Infinity of Dimensions 22 Mystical Journeys The Devil and the Dervish Destroying the God-Object Eschatology and Cosmogony Chapter Three Midnights Children: The Road from Kashmir 74 A Mythic Cycle The Snake Man and the Lotus Goddess Mystical Personas The Forces of Death and Regeneration Chapter Four Shame: An Other World Strikes Back 131 Raza's State Borders of the Godly Subterranean Angels and Impossible Mountains Sufiya as the Beast/Kali Chapter Five The Satanic Verses: Dreamscapes of a Green-Eyed Monster 174 A Dangerous Experiment Satanic Revisions and Invasions Debating the Satanic Narrator Previous Satans Blaspheming Muhammad, God and Angels The Satanic Lives of Saladin Chamcha and Mirza Saeed Raising Hell Shirking Revelation Murdering Alleluia Chapter Six Conclusion 258 Bibliography 265 V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS G Grimus H Haroun and the Sea of Stories IH Imaginary Homelands MC Midnight '.v Children S Shame SV The Satanic Verses ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to thank Aruna Srivastava, Graham Good, Margery Fee and Jackie Tahara for their helpful comments. If it were not for the patient interest of my supervisor, Ronald Hatch, and if it were not for his home-made ale or his wife Veronica's delicious scones, I am not sure we would have made it to the end of this project. I would also like to thank my family and friends for their unflagging support. My wife, Ruby Mah, deserves a medal for perseverance Her sympathy and good cheer have made the writing of this thesis a joy rather than a chore. 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Over the last fifteen years Rushdie's fiction has provided critics with innumerable points of reference for their studies in metafiction, narratology, cultural identity, postcoloniality and postmodernism. Mehdi Abedi and Michael Fischer's Debating Muslims: Cultural Dialogues in Postmodernity and Tradition provides a striking case in point. The authors note that "Rushdie was always a reference figure along with James Joyce and Thomas Pynchon for notions of encyclopedic postmodern novels." They also suggest that with the publication of The Satanic Verses Rushdie becomes almost inescapable in any exploration of postmodernism as it pertains to Islamic culture: Increasingly, the essays [in Debating Muslims] seemed to provide important background in understanding the furious struggle for political appropriation and interpretation of Rushdie's book; and inversely, the Rushdie literary imagination seemed to complement our own intercultural crossreadings, providing one powerful example of the various sorts of hybridization we see emerging, (xxxiii-xxxiv) In a more cautionary vein, Revathi Krishnaswamy observes that Rushdie "stands foremost among those [...] who have been elevated by global media-markets and metropolitan academies as the pre-eminent interpreters of postcolonial realities to postmodern audiences." He adds that since writers such as Rushdie are "increasingly forming the critical archival material of alternative canons in the metropolitan academy, the language of migrancy has gained wide currency among today's theorists of identity and authority" (127).1 Not 1 One could quote from a wide variety of sources praising Rushdie's postcolonial and postmodern sensibility, yet 1 quote from Krishnaswamy because he highlights some of the problems created by giving too much importance to Rushdie's position as the "insider-outsider endowed with a unique, although splintered, sensibility " While seeing reality in fragments may sit well with the 2 surprisingly, Rushdie's novels figure prominently in postcolonial studies such as Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin's The Empire Writes Back (the title of this work is taken from an article by Rushdie) and in postmodern studies such as Akbar Ahmed's Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise and Linda Hutcheon's two general studies on postmodernism (The Politics of Postmodernism and A Poetics of Postmodernism; History, Theory, Fiction). Rushdie's fiction is also the subject of some twenty books,2 and of at least 1001 articles, '"postmodernist epistemologv of the fragment''--the "affirmation of the partial nature of all perception" (141-143)~one must also ask. What are the criteria the migrant writer uses to choose certain fragments and to leave out others? How do such choices marginalize the experience of those who have not migrated? By giving too much prominence to "immigrant writers," critics run the risk of overlooking "alternative strategies for change [and for] dismantling the dichotomy between margin and centre" (144). 1 agree with Krishnaswamy here, although I wish he would elucidate these "alternative strategies." Also, Rushdie's metafiction, his constant questioning of his own texts, exonerates him somewhat from the charge of setting himself up as an "insider-outsider" authority on subcontinental culture as it pertains to postmodern identity. In general, it is Rushdie's genius as a writer, rather than his migrant perspective, which makes him stand out. His popularity results from his humour, his verbal dexterity, his idiosyncratic characters, his structural complexity, his metafictional explorations, and his ability to frame difficult questions of ontology and epistemologv in ways which challenge readers from all sorts of philosophical and cultural backgrounds. Jean-Pierre Durix points out that much of "the pleasure produced by Rushdie's work" derives from his "play on verisimilitude" and from his "adept juggling with different levels of'reality.'" This juggling is "meant to confuse and entertain readers, who hesitate between fully accepting the conventions of fiction—consequently forgetting that this is fiction--and realizing that they remain in a world of make-believe" (1984:454). I will explore the way Rushdie plays with different levels of reality, yet I focus less on the metafiction of his texts than on the interplay of worldly and otherworldly versions of reality. The metafiction in Rushdie could easily constitute a study in itself, and it remains crucial to my
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