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Contested Concepts in Cognitive Social Science Contested Concepts in Cognitive Social Science Alan Schwartz University of California, Berkeley May 1992 Copyright © 1992 by Alan Schwartz. All rights reserved. Distribution of any or all of this material is permitted for research or educational purposes, providing it is distributed with this page intact. The publication or sale of this material for profit is strictly prohibited. Requests for reprints can be directed to the author: Alan Schwartz Department of Medical Education (mc 591) 808 S. Wood St., 986 CME University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, IL 60612 (e-mail: [email protected]) Acknowledgements A project such as this is never a solitary effort, and I am indebted to a number of people for their assistance. In particular, I would like to thank: • Jane Espenson, who has often helped me better understand the field of linguistics and sparked new ideas. Her comments have been invaluable during the writing of this thesis. • Laura Stoker and David Collier of the Department of Political Science at UC Berkeley whose support has been unceasing. • Alison Gopnik of the Department of Psychology at UC Berkeley, who served as the second reader for this thesis. • The Institute for Cognitive Studies at UC Berkeley, which has provided me with facilities and equipment. Contested Concepts in Cognitive Social Science is dedicated above all to George Lakoff, who is in many ways the founder of the program of cognitive social science. George has given me both enormous opportunities and a sense of scientific responsibility. I can think of no better mentor. Abstract Concepts and categories are of critical concern to the social sciences, where there is often significant lack of consensus about the proper definition or application of a concept. It has been suggested that such conflict results from the nature of the concepts in question (for example, democracy, art, science, or feminism) themselves; concepts which provoke such arguments are said to be “essentially contested.” (Gallie 1956) By applying the results of cognitive science, particularly cognitive linguistics, to these concepts, we discover that they are characterized by oversimplified or clustered idealized cognitive models and belief systems which extend and instantiate these models into the full-fledged concepts used in social science discourse. These extensions may be either principled, based on independently existing belief systems, or ad hoc, based on belief systems specific to the concept in question. This analysis has serious consequences for the social sciences. The objectivist paradigm (Lakoff 1987) which underlies classical social science can not accommodate such cognitively-based concepts. Efforts by social scientists to sharpen conceptual discrimination are similarly flawed by this paradigm. A cognitively-based social science would more accurately reflect the actual processes by which people understand concepts. Table of Contents Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... 1 Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 2 Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. 3 Foreword: Cognitive Social Science ................................................................................ 4 Brief history of cognitive science ......................................................................... 4 Social Science Applications ................................................................................. 6 Chapter 1 - The problem of social science concepts ........................................................ 8 The Objectivist Paradigm in Social Science ........................................................ 9 Problems with objectivism ................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2 - Contested Concepts ....................................................................................... 14 The work of W.B.Gallie ....................................................................................... 14 Connolly’s return to Gallie ................................................................................... 18 Chapter 3 - A Cognitive Analysis of Contested Concepts ............................................... 20 Frame Semantics .................................................................................................. 22 Metaphor .............................................................................................................. 23 Idealized Cognitive Models .................................................................................. 24 Cluster Models ..................................................................................................... 24 Radial Categories ................................................................................................. 25 An ICM account of Contested Categories ............................................................ 26 Chapter 4 - Social Science’s own attempts: The work of Giovanni Sartori ..................... 34 Sartori’s method ................................................................................................... 34 Philosophical underpinnings ................................................................................ 36 Failings of the method .......................................................................................... 40 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 47 Feminism: A case study of a contested concept ............................................................... 49 Folk theories of gender ......................................................................................... 51 Oversimplified Feminism ..................................................................................... 55 The belief systems and their corresponding feminisms........................................ 56 Feminist Methodologies ..................................................................................... 65 Feminisms and Feminists ...................................................................................... 67 Entailments in Conflict ......................................................................................... 68 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 72 Foreword: Cognitive Social Science Brief history of cognitive science Since I began studying cognitive science I have often been asked to explain what the discipline is about. While cognitive science is still new enough that it is not popularly familiar, its history can be traced back to 1641, when Rene Descartes asked the question that has challenged cognitive scientists since: What is the nature of the mental, and how is it related to the physical? Put into modern terms, how do people perform mental activities (e.g. linguistic communication, thinking, problem-solving, or categorizing), and how are these activities related to the buzz of neurochemical activity which takes place in the brain? Descartes’ question founded the study of the philosophy of mind. Three answers were immediately available: all substance is mental substance (idealism), all substance is physical substance (materialism), and different physical and mental substances exist (dualism). For a number of reasons, not the least of which are irresolvable difficulties with idealism and dualism, the materialist account has attained preeminence, and nearly all cognitive scientists accept the material (neurophysiological) basis of the mind. Philosophy has often driven science, and the science of mind was no exception. The philosophical revolution of logical-empiricism in the 1930’s and 1940’s shaped the study of cognition in many important ways. The logical-empiricists’ emphasis on science as a mathematically verifiable activity strongly influenced cognitive science, and much cognitive research still posits formal symbol manipulation as the basis of thought and language. This position, however, was not without its challengers, of whom J. L. Austin and Ludwig Wittgenstein are the best known. The inauguration of the modern discipline of cognitive science came in 1956, as a result of a number of significance events. The MIT Symposium on Information Theory that year featured ground-breaking papers by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (who described their computer program which could perform mathematical proofs) and Noam Chomsky. (who proposed that syntax could be formally represented by a system of transformations of linguistic structures.) In addition, a seminal summer institute at Dartmouth brought together the pioneers of artificial intelligence and established a community of researchers into machine thinking. (Gardner 1985:28-3 1) Cognitive research continued through the 1960’s and 1970’s, when it received a major boost from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, which invested 20 million dollars over seven years in research grants. In 1977, the journal Cognitive Science was founded, the society of the same named soon followed. (Gardner 1985:36) And field still continues to grow. Cognitive science has applied its interdisciplinary methodology to a number of interesting problems in cognition, including perception (especially vision), computer reasoning and
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