Dendrochronology and Alpine Fire History in Mt. Revelstoke National Park

Stuart P. W. Higgs, Allison J. Dickhout, Christina N. Service, and Thalia M. Christou

University of Victoria, Physical Geography Field Course GEOG 477

For Dr. Dan J. Smith

Abstract: Our understanding of the historical fire regime in Mount Revelstoke National Park is growing. A fine scale fire history study in Mount Revelstoke National Park was undertaken to better understand patterns of fire on the landscape at the study site. The study was conducted using dendrochronology to build a living chronology and date dead trees stands to identify fire events. Five fire events between the dates of 1945 and 1999 were identified in three stands within the site. A large degree of variation was observed within the samples kill dates. Cooler and wetter weather patterns and fire suppression from park policies may explain the small spatial extent of the fires. The fire events found in this study were not recorded in other fire studies within the area. Results from this study provide an intriguing illustration of the broader interplay between anthropogenic and abiotic processes in alpine environments.

INTRODUCTION the area. Therefore, wild fire and its frequency is important to fire management policies within Understanding regional fire history is critical the national park as well as cultural land for creating effective fire policies that reflect management practices. historical regimes. In order to implement appropriate fire policies, the interplay between This regions ecological assemblage includes both anthropogenic and abiotic processes need the red listed mountain caribou (The mountain to be understood. Utilizing dendrochronological Caribou Technical advisory committee, 2002) methods, this study investigates the recent fire (Rangifer tarandu), wolverine (Gulo gulo history of the summit of Mount Revelstoke, in luscus), old growth alpine forests, and alpine Mount Revelstoke National Park (MRNP). meadow flower communities (Parks Canada Fundamentally, this involved determining if the 2000). Major shifts in cultural relationships fire events within our study area were clustered with this region have also impacted its fire in time and/or space. Fire history studies are of history (Gottesfeld, 1994). Mount Revelstoke particular relevance to this region as fire is a was impacted by first nations’ traditional land significant disturbance regime to the ecology of management practices (Mah, 2000) and saw

1 western industrial activity at the turn of the origin (Johnson et al., 1990). During century (Johnson et al., 1990). Now, the MRNP construction of the CP railroad (1882-1886), landscape is being shaped by its contemporary several large fires occurred (1883, 1885, and stewards, Parks Canada (Parks Canada, 2001). 1886) in the Rogers Pass Corridor just 48 km The shifting nature of this region’s land use has east of Mt. Revelstoke (Johnson et al., 1990). forged a unique character for the area, Railroad construction commonly caused fires particularly in respect to the dynamic role of from sparks from wood and coal-burning fire. engines. Although there were instances of European caused fires, which affected the immediate area at the time, Europeans did not Cultural Significance and Management partake in any kind of consistent burning Regimes regime (Johnson et al.,1990).

Prior to the 1800s, the Mount Revelstoke The stigma around forest fires has changed region was burnt by the Ktunaxa First Nations significantly over the last century, driving more to ensure food availability (Minore et al., progressive policies within National parks 1979). Periodic burning by the Ktunaxa (Parks Canada, 2001). In 1909 park wardens enhanced at least 17 different culturally were hired primarily to put out wildfires. Fire important plant species (Turner, 1991). Fire was seen as a destroyer of natural beauty and disturbance is fairly infrequent in subalpine wildlife and a threat to forest conservation ecosystems, with a natural fire cycle between (Parks Canada, 2009). For these reason fire 50-200 years (Agee, 1993). Burning in was extinguished on the landscape as quickly as subalpine communities, however, has been possible. Over the last 65 years, the area observed to convert potentially forested sites burned in the Rocky Mountain national parks into huckleberry fields (Agee, 1993). has dwindled to less than 10% of historic levels Aboriginal peoples were reported to have used (Parks Canada, 2009). these fields for berry picking during summer In 1986 Parks Canada developed a new months (Minore et al., 1979). directive and comprehensively reviewed their Disturbance by Ktunaxa people around fire policies (Weber & Stocks, 1998). Parks Mount Revelstoke would only have occurred Canada has now begun to recognize that fire is prior to the late 1800s as European settlement an essential and natural part of ecosystems and in the late 1800s initiated the reserve system in they are working to sustain fire-dependent Canada, which created the present permanent ecosystems while still providing fire protection communities (Gottesfeld, 1994). The B.C. (Parks Canada, 2001). After an in depth study Forest Service established a fire suppression of MRNP, LaMorte concluded that the role of policy in the 1930s that made aboriginal wildfire in ecological integrity is perhaps one of landscape burning illegal (Gottesfeld, 1994). the most important vegetation management issues confronting Parks Canada today. Despite After the late 1800s, anthropogenic fires in public intolerance for smoke, program costs, Mt. Revelstoke were primarily of European and risk of escape, fire remains a fundamentally

2 important ecological process that directly serves time (Parks Canada, 2001). Within MRNP 98% the mandate of ecological integrity (LaMorte & of fire are less than 10ha, a statistic that is Associates, 1996) highly skewed from the natural fire regime due to fire suppression policies (Parks Canada, Fire Ecology 2001).

MRNP is dominated by cool, wet interior The temporal and spatial restrictions placed temperate rainforests and as a result fire events by fire suppression on natural fire activity have are relatively infrequent. The historical tremendous effects on the biotic components of disturbance regime of subalpine forests such as ecosystems. These effects can include impacts those found at the study site is low frequency, at the individual, population and community high magnitude crown fires, with cycles level (Knight & Wallace, 1989). These impacts between 50-200 years (Agee, 1993). This stem from changes in the distribution of disturbance infrequency results in older age organisms and subsequent modifications in class stands as the dominating vegetation interactions, such as predation and competition type. Generally in subalpine ecosystems, (Knight & Wallace, 1989). smaller magnitude, more frequent surface fires happen in the time between large crown fires, but affect only small parts of the forest or are limited to site specific habitats such as tree lines STUDY SITE (Reineking et al,. 2006). These small extents The summit meadows of Mount Revelstoke can also be attributed to the full suppression (51º03’00.00Ē N, 118º08’30.00Ē E) lie at the management policies in addition to high focus of Mount Revelstoke National Park precipitation in the region. (MRNP). This internationally recognized Driven primarily by lightning ignition, the subablpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and engelman fire regime of the Columbia Mountains, in spruce (Picea englemannii) dominated alpine which Mount Revelstoke is nestled, is affected region sits at the northern end of the Selkirk range in the Columbia Mountains. The 260 by a very short fire season, extreme elevation 2 and dissected landforms (Wierzchowski et al., km of MRNP is classified as an Interior Cedar 2002). The vitality of park ecosystems are Hemlock ecozone (ICH), forming part of the threatened by: 1) a decline in biodiversity, 2) world’s only inland temperate rain forest (Parks aging vegetation, 3) overgrowth and continuous Canada, 2010). This high precipitation region cover, and 4) increasing fuel load, all of which is also located within a recognized lightning can be addressed through the return of a more belt (Wierzchowski et al., 2002). natural fire regime (LaMorte & Associates, MNRP lies immediately north west of the 1996). city of Revelstoke, above the confluence of the Fire fuels of MRNP are heavy, characterized Columbia and Illecillewaet rivers, by large snags often with hollow centers. As a approximately 160 km east of Kamloops and result when a fire is ignited, it does not spread 150 km west of Golden along the Trans Canada prolifically but will maintain burning for some Highway. The study site is located on the

3 summit of Mt Revelstoke, at an elevation of parkway. It is the gateway for most visitors to 1850m asl, with the surveyed study area MRNP and a network of trails extends into the covering approximately 0.450 km2. A historic study site. Figure 1 shows the location of our fire tower built in 1927 sits at the summit, a study site within MRNP. remnant that speaks to the long history of human presence at this site, both that of western peoples and first nations. The site is situated at the end of the 26km Meadows-in-the-sky

Figure 1 - Study site location at the summit of Mt Revelstoke

This location was selected for study because an intriguing illustration of the interplay of its unique ecology as an alpine, inland rain between anthropogenic and abiotic processes in forest ecosystem, and because of the visible alpine environments. The selection was also signs of recent fire events at the summit. As a based on anecdotal suggestions that extensive culturally high-profile location, it also provides fire effects were visible in this area and that a

4 systematic fire history study had not yet been Specifically, samples were collected from conducted in the area. dead trees with split crowns (indicating possible lightning strikes) as well as those with charred or blackened trunks or bark, especially those METHODS where charcoal was visible. Care was taken to distinguish between surfaces blackened by Field Methods: carbon deposits, indicating fire, and those blackened by decompositional processes such In the course of this work, 65 ring-width, as fungal and lichen growth. Carbon deposits increment core samples were collected from were most often found on dead, standing Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii in the timber. study area at MRNP. Of these samples, 25 cores were collected from standing snags or A few trees at the site, both living and dead dead fall that showed signs of wild fire. The standing, also had distinct cat’s eye scars in remaining 40 samples were collected in their trunks. Samples were also collected from collaboration with a second research team from the scarred trees, in case fire was the scaring living trees in order to build a living agent. These cores were bored from the center chronology. Of these 40 samples, 20 cores of the scar, through the entirety of the tree, to were collected from each species, Abies the far outer bark. All other samples were lasiocarpa and Picea englemannii. The spatial collected at chest height, using a 5.1mm distribution of all 65 samples, excluding the increment bore, perpendicular to the ground Eva Lake living samples, is illustrated in figure from a bark-covered portion of the trunk to pith 3. Due to the scale of the figure, samples are when possible. Ancillary data was collected grouped by fire stand. along with each sample. This included its location, aspect, species as well as general A systematic survey was conducted on foot, comments about the site and sample. starting at the western edge of the sample site, and working northeast. Cores were collected from all standing or downed stems that showed signs of being affected by a fire event1. Spatial Distribution

The geographic location of each sample was 1 Two readily apparent stands of fire-killed collected using a Garmin eTrex (Garmin Ltd.) timber existed within the study site, labeled hand held GPS unit. This data was collected to Stand 1 and 2 in Figure 3. At these two understand spatial trends in the samples’ kill locations, cores from approximately half the dates. The accuracy of each point varied, standing stems were collected and thus not all of the snags were sampled. This was due to although all fell between approximately +/- 5 to time restrictions and as an effort to minimize +/- 15 meters. Inferences that can be drawn the impact of sampling out of respect for park from the distribution of the samples are limited policy. Outside of these two stands, all the fire- by this degree of accuracy. effected trees that were found were sampled.

5 Data Preparation: Climate Data Methods:

Using the forty samples collected from living Weather influences soil moisture, vegetation samples, two ring-width chronologies for the and fuel structure. It is considered a significant site were constructed. Two main features of factor in the initiation and development of this chronology were subsequently examined: wildfire. This is especially true for fire regimes the kill dates and spatial distribution of the in sub alpine and boreal ecosystems in the samples. First, common kill dates observed Cordillera (Krawchuk et al., 2006; Bessie et al., across multiple samples were identified as 1995; and Wierzchowski et al. 2002). For this possible fire events and then the spatial reason, seasonal climate records from the years distribution of these samples were evaluated. identified as possible fire events in the chronology as well as average climate indices Upon return from the field, both the living for Revelstoke were obtained from the National and suspected fire kill samples were prepared Climate Data and Information Archive using standard core handling procedures (Fritts, (Environment Canada, 2010). 1976; Pilcher, 1990) Each core was affixed to a wooden baseboard, sanded to a fine polish No single Environment Canada weather using a series of abrasives (from 100 to 800 grit station offers a record spanning all observed kill sandpaper), and scanned as 32-bit colour TIFF dates, 1945 to 1999. Therefore data from two images at 1800 dpi resolution using an Epson stations in Revelstoke, located at the airport and Expression 10 000 XL (Epson America, Inc.) town site, as well as data from a third high flat bed scanner. elevation station at Mount Fidelity in Glacier National Park, were used. The average climate The scanned images of the core were then values were calculated by Environment Canada imported to WinDENDRO 2008d (Regent using data collected at the Revelstoke airport Instruments Inc.) and ring widths were from 1971 to 2000. No dramatic differences in measured to 0.01 mm. Digital output data was climate are observed in the Mount Fidelity then complied using the software Convert and record or are reported to exist between the EDRM. Finally, Cross-dating was performed earliest kill dates in 1945 and the sample period using the statistical, dendrochronological beginning in 1971. Furthermore, Johnston et al. verification software Cofecha (Holmes, 1983). (1990) suggest that there has not been a shift in A number of samples could not be the 110 year fire cycle observed in the Selkirk’s incorporated into the choronology, for example since 1888. Therefore, these values should the most fragmented and degraded samples as remain valid when extrapolated back to the well as those with very low correlation values. earliest kill dates. Justification for their exclusion is expanded The characteristics of the three weather upon in the discussion. stations are shown in Table 1. The Mount Fidelity station is located approximately 35 km to the NE of the study site, while the Revelstoke stations are approximately 10 KM to the SW as shown in Figure 2. The Mount

6 Fidelity station was included, despite its average values calculated from data collected at geographic removal from the study site, Revelstoke. because of the similarity between its elevation and that of the study site. However, elevation and location are expected to produce cooler temperatures and greater precipitation than the

Table 1 - Weather Station name, location, span in years of the weather record, station elevation in meters above sea level and approximate distance from the study site in Kilometres

Station Latitude Longitude Years Elevation Distance Revelstoke Airport 50º57’12.00Ē N 118º09’59.00Ē W 1969-1999 450 11 Revelstoke 51º00’00.00Ē N 118º12’00.00Ē W 1953-1969 456 7 GNP: Mt Fidelity 51º14’10.05Ē N 117º42’03.03Ē W 1969-2008 1879 35

Figure 2 - Proximity of study site to the Revelstoke town site and weather station.

7 RESULTS spatially or temporally the same as the fire events recorded in this study. Explanations The results from Cofecha showed that the for this discrepancy are provided in the master correlation for the living fir discussion. chronology with the dead cores is 0.522. The average mean sensitivity for this study Table 2 shows end year, event tree age is 0.199. Two fire stands were identified and correlation values for each of fire about 20m apart, Stand 1 and Stand 2 shown samples from the first patch of burnt trees. in figure 3. The third stand was about 1km The end years are clustered around two away and consisted of three burnt trees dates: between 1962-1965 (Event A) and (Stand 3). between 1982-1992 (Event B). Event X, is demarked by a single sample, REV101 with Figure 3 shows the geographic location an kill date of 1945. The ages of the trees Stand 1, 2 and 3 within the study site. Past vary from 84 years to 121 years. The fire records are plotted on the map using correlation values range from 0.291-0.578. their GSP locations along with their dates. The historical recorded fire events are not

Table 2 - Fire History Results from Stand 1

Tree ID Kill Date Event Age Correlation 10REV001 1962 A 91 0.425 10REV002 1992 B 109 0.291 10REV005 1982 B 124 0.578 10REV007 1991 B 122 0.524 10REV008 1986 B 84 0.390 10REV101 1945 X 97 0.447 10REV102 1984 B 121 0.396 10REV103 1965 A 100 0.331 10REV104 1964 A 98 0.342 10REV105 1987 B 121 0.341

The end years, corresponding events, age correlation values range from 0.427- and correlation values for the second stand 0.659.colour of the symbol. The physical are displayed in Table 3. The end years all distribution did not contradict the events cluster between 1998-1999 (Event C). predicted by the kill dates. REV041A was sampled from a burnt tree in a separate location and has the end year Figure 4 maps the samples collected from 1996 (Event D). There were two other burnt stand 1 and 2 grouped by event. Table 4 trees around sample REV041A, but they indicates whether the tree died in the early could not fit into the living chronology. The summer or late summer and if there was

8 bark present on the sample. Samples that ending on a dark section of the tree ring end on a light section of the tree ring indicate that tree died in the late summer indicate that the tree died during the early between August and September. summer between June and July. Samples

Figure 3 – Geographic location of fire stands, living core samples and historical fire record.

9 Table 3 - Fire History Results from Stand 2 and 3

Tree ID Kill Date Event Age Correlation 10REV011 1998 C 136 0.514 10REV013 1998 C 106 0.500 10REV014 1999 C 138 0.659 10REV015 1999 C 120 0.427 REV041A 1996 D 82 0.502

Table 4 – Season of final ring and bark presence in samples

Event Tree ID Seasonality Bark Present A 10REV001 Late wood Bark present A 10REV103 Late wood No bark A 10REV104 Late wood No bark B 10REV105 Late wood No bark B 10REV002 early wood No bark B 10REV005 Early wood No bark B 10REV007 Late wood No bark B 10REV008 Late wood No bark B 10REV102 Early wood No bark X 10REV101 Early wood No bark C 10REV011 Late wood No bark C 10REV013 Early wood Bark present C 10REV014 Early wood Bark present C 10REV015 Late wood Bark present D 10REV041A Late wood No bark

Several samples were not able to fit into the chronology. Table 5 lists the samples that could not fit in and any potential problems with the samples.

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Table 5 - Samples that could not be given an end date and potential issues

Tree ID Issues 10REV003 Rotten in the centre, many gaps and cracks 10REV009 Very broken near the end, huge gaps, potentially rings missing 10REV010 Rotten in the centre, rings very faint and hard to distinguish. Last rings very close together. 10REV012 Rings extremely faint and difficult to measure. Rings complacent. 10REV016 Short sample, only 29 rings. Large gap at the end 10REV042 Short sample 10REV106 Rings very even, complacent growth

Figure 4 – Map of samples from Stand 1 and Stand 2

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In stand 1, there were many trees that had scars. None of the scar samples were able to scars on the trees on the northern side of the correlate in the chronology due to their short tree. Figure 5 shows the appearance of the length. The number of ring from the pith to scars on the trees. Samples REV005, the scars ranged between 46 to 76. The scars REV008, REV101, REV103, REV104, were present in both in samples from both REV105, REV106 were all from tree with the first and second fire event in stand 1.

Figure 5 - Appearance of scars on the trees

12 Climate Results

Figure 6 - Climate records for 1999 show a Figure 7 - Climate records for 1996 show a cooler, wetter year than average cooler, wetter year than average

Climate Data Corresponding with 1965 Fire Event

50 120 45 110 40 100 90 35 80 30 70 25 60 20 50 40

Temperature (C) Temperature 15

30 (mm) Precipitation 10 20 5 10 0 0 April May June July Aug Month

Daily Average Temperature Observed Temperature: Revelstoke Average Precipitation Observed Precipitation: Revelstoke Figure 8 - Climate records for 1992 show a dryer Figure 9 - Climate records for 1965 show a year and slightly warmer year than average with about average mean summer temperatures, and less precipitation.

13 DISCUSSION

The master correlation acquired was Variation in the Data 0.522. This included all twenty of the living chronology samples, and fifteen of the fire Rings could be missing in the samples for samples from three different sites. The various reasons. The integrity of the core master correlation is above the significant samples was a common problem, and could correlation value of 0.328 (Holmes, 1983), account for missing rings as well as the therefore our results are meaningful. The reason why our correlation is not higher. mean sensitivity of our samples was 0.199. Many of the cores were broken, cracked and Sensitivity is a measure of how the trees had large gaps where rings could be missing. react to changes in the environment, The very centre of the tree (the pith) was not developing distinct patterns (Grissino- reached on all of the samples and some were Mayer, 2001). 0.199 is a fairly low result, rotten in the middle. Some of the tree rings indicating that the trees were not highly were very faint or very close together reactive to the changing environment and making them hard to distinguish on the therefore ring widths were fairly even and scanned image. It is possible that there was complacent. human error when measuring these tree rings. Many of the cores had uniformly Five different fire events were discovered spaced rings indicating complacency. The through our results in three different stands. lack of pattern in the rings makes it difficult Stand 1 had three events, 1992, 1965 and for the software program, Cofecha, to place 1945. The end dates for the first event dated them into the living chronology. Many of at 1992 had end years ranging from 1982 to the samples did not have bark present on the 1992 (Table 2). The second event dated at end. This decreases the certainty that the last 1965 had end years dating from 1962 to ring is true because there could be rings 1965, and the third event was an anomaly missing from the end. with a single tree dated at 1945. Stand 2 had one event dated at 1999, with variation of The tree cores in the living chronology end dates from 1998 to 1999 (Table 3). came from two different sites. Ten of the Stand 3 was comprised of a single tree core living cores came from a site fairly close to dated at 1996. The latest dates were chosen our study area, and the other ten came from to represent when the event occurred Eva Lake which is 4.32 km away. A higher because if a tree was dated later than that it number of samples in a living chronology would have to be part of a different event. improves the robustness of the correlation End dates earlier than the events can be value and allows for more fire cores to fit in explained by missing tree rings in the core with a higher accuracy. All of the cores fit samples. together with a significant correlation. It is possible that Eva Lake experiences slightly different climatic conditions than our study area, affecting how the fire samples fit into

14 the living chronology. This could account ended up being too short to fit into the living for some differences in end year dates. chronology.

Only fifteen out of twenty two cores The scars could explain the anomalous taken from burnt trees were used in the event dated at 1945. There could have been chronology. Seven fire samples would not an earlier fire in 1945 that killed one tree fit into the chronology due to the cores being and caused the other trees to scar but not die. in bad shape. As shown in Table 5 there The scars may have also been caused by a were various issues that may have cause the different type of disturbance event that samples not to correlate with the injured the trees such as insect caused chronology. The reasons are similar to disease. causes of variation in the end dates of the correlated samples. The issues include rotten It was not possible to draw any centres, gaps, faint rings, short samples and conclusions about the scars because the scar complacent growth. Each of these issues cores are too short to date. When a sample is degrades the integrity of the samples and too short it cannot be used in Cofecha increases difficulty in correlation. because the program uses 50 years with a 25 year overlap to match up the patterns with the living samples. The scar samples did not have 50 years of tree rings, and therefore Scars could not be used. Comparing 30 years with Two separate events were expected to be 15 years of overlap was tried, but there were recorded in stand 1 because of the still no clear end dates suggested. appearance of scars on several of the trees. The hypothesis was that the trees with scars may have died from a later fire event than Seasonality the trees without scars. The first fire event could have killed some trees giving a kill For stand 1 all of the samples for fire date and just scarred other trees while a event A had a dark coloured late wood, second, later another fire event could have which suggests that fire event A took place killed all of the remaining trees. in September or October after the trees had a chance to develop a full ring (Table 4). Two discrete events were recorded, but However, only the sample with the latest kill trees with scars appear in both events which date is particularly relevant for explaining disproved our hypothesis. This means that the seasonality of the fire since the other the event which caused the scars happened samples may be missing rings. Only one of earlier than both of the fire events recorded. the three samples had bark present on the Cores from within the scars were sampled to core samples so the degree of certainty in date them to see if the scars would be the the seasonality of the fire is low. same age as the first fire event, but the cores Three of the samples in fire event B showed early wood and three of the samples

15 showed late wood (Table 4). There was also and do not directly support our findings. no bark present on any of these samples. Although the conditions are wetter, this Many samples did not have bark because it climate pattern could indicate more storms had burned or fallen off of the tree while and more lightning to ignite wild fires. The standing. Therefore, it is not possible to wet conditions could also explain the small suggest a whether fire event B happened in area of the fires; stand 3 in particular only early or late summer. comprising of three burnt trees. If the vegetation was wet, the fire could not have Stand 2 had bark present on three of four spread very far. samples which increases certainty in the results. Two of the samples had lighter The short time frame of the study coloured early wood on the last tree ring and restricted the spatial area surveyed and the two samples had darker coloured late wood recorded burn sites by Parks Canada near on the last tree ring as shown in Table 4, so our study site (shown in figure 4) were not it is undetermined whether the tree died observed. The parks fire records did not earlier in the summer in June-July or later in have any documentation of the three fires the summer in August-September. we observed. The fires included in this study could be too small scale for Parks Canada to Stand 3 consisted of three burnt trees and record and include in their documented fire only one core was able to be measured and history. analyzed. The last tree ring was darker late wood indicating the tree died late in the Historically fire has been seen as a summer between August and September. destroyer of natural beauty, wildlife and a There was no bark present on this sample threat to conservation of the forest (Parks though so there is low certainty of the Canada, 2009). For this reason fire was results. extinguished in National Parks as quickly as possible. In 1986 Parks Canada developed a new review of their fire policies, Results in Context of Regional Data recognizing fire as an essential and natural part of ecosystems (Weber & Stocks, 1998). Climate Records from 1999 and 1996 While there was an indepth review of fire suggest that conditions at the study site were management policies in 2001, the entirety of cooler and wetter than average, while MRNP has remained as a full suppression records from 1965 and 1992 suggest zone due to its proximity to the town site conditions were dryer and warmer (Tables 6, and high visitor use (Walker, 2010). There 7, 8 & 9). Forest fires tend to correspond are some prescribed burns set by Parks with dry warm temperatures, therefore 1965 Canada in MRNP, but fewer compared to and 1992 climate data support our findings. other mountain national parks because of The 1999 and 1996 records which show concern of smoke and haze levels affecting higher precipitation levels over the summer the health of the Revelstoke community season are less favourable to fire ignition (Walker, 2010). Any natural fires in MRNP

16 are controlled and extinguished as quickly as REFERENCES possible, which could explain the small size of the fires observed in our study. This could Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire Ecology of the Pacific also have implications on the number of Northwest. Island Press, Washington fires detected as there would be less D.C. evidence of fires compared to if they were Bessie, Wc, and Ea Johnson. The relative left to burn. importance of fuels and weather on fire behavior in subalpine forests. Ecology 76, no. 3 (1995): 747–762. CONCLUSION Enviornment Canada, 2010 Small scale fire history studies within http://www.climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/ Mount Revelstoke National Park help park Welcome_e.html managers to be better understand in detail past patterns of fire. By understanding fire Fritts, H.C., 1976. Tree Rings and Climate. Academic Press, London, p. 567. regimes, park managers can make appropriate policies to maintain healthy ecosystems and ensure public safety. Gottesfeld, Leslie M. Johnson. 1994. Currently, as their understanding of fire Aboriginal burning for vegetation within the park has increased in the last management in northwest British decade, MRNP is in the process of Columbia. Human Ecology 22(2):171 - reviewing its fire policies to allow for more 188. natural fire regimes to persist. Grissino-Mayer (2001) Evaluating Crossdating Accuracy: A Manual and Tutorial for the Computer Program ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS COFECHA. Tree-Ring Research, 57, We are grateful for Dr. Dan Smith, Kara 205-221. Pitman, Bethany Coulthard and Jill Harvey Holmes, R.L. (1983). Computer Assisted instruction and assistance with this project. quality control in tree-ring dating and Your help in the field and in the lab was measurement. Tree Ring Bulletin, 43, 69- invaluable. Thanks to all of our Geography 78 477 peers for the fantastic experience. Thanks to Gregg Walker, fire specialist at Johnson, E.A., G.I. Fryer, and M.J. MRNP, for his insights into park Heathcott. The influence of man and management. A special thanks is due to the climate on frequency of fire in the Eva Lake Cabin group for agreeing to share interior wet belt forest, British Columbia. living chronology samples with us. The Journal of Ecology 78, no. 2 (1990): 403-412.

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