Excessive Internet Use: Implications for Sexual Behavior

Home , Computer addiction, Evil clown, Internet sex addiction, Sex shop

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MARK GRIFFITHS, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

The Internet appears to have become an ever-increasing part in many areas of people’s day- to-day lives. One area that deserves further examination surrounds sexual behavior and excessive Internet usage. It has been alleged by some academics that social pathologies are beginning to surface in cyberspace and have been referred to as “technological addictions.” Such research may have implications and insights into sexuality and sexual behavior. Therefore, this article examines the concept of “Internet addiction” in relation to excessive sexual behavior and Internet pornography, as well as examining newer areas of Internet sexuality such as “online relationships” and sexually-related Internet crime (e.g., “cyberstalking”).

SEXUALLY-RELATED USES Buying or selling sexually-related goods for OF THE INTERNET further use offline. This includes the buying or selling of goods for (a) educational pur- EFOREEXAMININGTHE “addictiveness poten- poses (e.g., books, videos, CD-ROMs, etc.), Btial” of the Internet and its relationship (b) entertainment/masturbatory purposes with sexuality, it would appear wise to exam- (e.g., magazines, books, videos, CD- ine all the different ways that the Internet can ROMs, etc.), and (c) miscellaneous pur- be used for sexually-related purposes as it is poses (e.g., sex aids/toys, contraception, probably the case that only some of these ac- aphrodisiacs, etc.). tivities may be done to excess and/or be po- Visiting and/or purchasing goods in online tentially addictive. The Internet can (and has) virtual sex shops. Visiting a virtual sex shop been used for a number of diverse activities may be done for either voyeuristic pur- surrounding sexually motivated behavior. poses (“window shopping”) or for the sole intention of actually buying goods for use Seeking out sexually-related material for edu- offline. cational use. This includes those seeking Seeking out material for entertainment/mas- information regarding (a) sexual health turbatory purposes for use online. This can ei- promotion (e.g., information about con- ther be primarily image-based (e.g., traception, sexually transmitted diseases, pornographic websites offering picture li- etc.), (b) self-help/diagnosis (e.g., advice braries, video clips, videos, live online about sexual dysfunctions, sexual dis- strip shows, live voyeuristic Web-cam eases, etc.), and (c) scientific research (e.g., sites, etc.) or text-based (e.g., chat rooms, reports of studies in the area of sexology, Usenet discussion groups, etc.) national reports on sexual behavior, etc.). Seeking out sex therapists. This may involve These may take the form of either stand- either individuals or couples seeking out alone Web pages or may be incorporated an online sex therapist for advice about sex within Usenet discussion groups. and/or relationship problems.

Psychology Division, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, U.K.

537 538 GRIFFITHS

Seeking out sexual partners for an enduring tions,1,2 there is now a growing movement 3–6 relationship (i.e., a monogamous partner) to view a number of behaviors as potentially via online dating agencies, personal ad- addictive including many behaviors that do not vertisements/”lonely hearts” columns involve the ingestion of a drug. These include and/or chat rooms. behaviors as diverse as gambling, overeating, Seeking out sexual partners for a transitory sex, exercise, and computer game playing. 6 In- relationship (i.e., escorts, prostitutes, ternet addiction is another such area because it swingers) via online personal advertise- has been alleged by some academics that social ments/”lonely hearts” columns, escort pathologies (i.e., technological addictions) may agencies and/or chat rooms. be beginning to surface in cyberspace. 7–18 Seeking out individuals who then become vic- Technological addictions are operationally tims of sexually-related Internet crime (online defined as non-chemical (behavioral) addic- sexual harassment, cyberstalking, pae- tions that involve human–machine interaction. dophilic “grooming” of children). They can either be passive (e.g., television) or Engaging in and maintaining online relation- active (e.g., computer games) and usually con- ships via E-mail and/or chat rooms. tain inducing and reinforcing features that may Exploring gender and identity roles by swap- contribute to the promotion of addictive ten- ping gender or creating other personas dencies.19 Technological addictions can be and forming online relationships. viewed as a subset of behavioral addictions 5 Digitally manipulating images on the Internet and feature core components of addiction, (i.e., for entertainment and/or masturbatory pur- salience, mood modification, tolerance, with- poses (e.g., celebrity fake photographs drawal, conflict and relapse). 6,20 Any behavior where heads of famous people are super- (e.g., Internet use) that fulfils these six criteria imposed onto som eone else’s naked are operationally defined as addictions. These body). core components are expanded upon below in

relation to Internet sex of whatever type it hap- On first examination—and by evaluating the pens to be (e.g., downloading pornography, relatively sparse literature in this area—it cypersex relationships, etc.). would appear that excessive, addictive, obsessive, and/or compulsive Internet use only ap- Salience—This occurs when Internet sex plies to some of these behaviors. The most becomes the most important activity in the likely behaviors include the use of online person’s life and dominates their thinking pornography for masturbatory purposes, en- (preoccupations and cognitive distor- gaging in online relationships, and sexually-re- tions), feelings (cravings), and behavior lated Internet crime (e.g., cyberstalking). Before (deterioration of socialized behavior). For looking at these three areas in more detail, a instance, even if the person is not actually brief overview of Internet addiction will follow. on their computer engaged in Internet sex they will be thinking about the next time they will be. INTERNET ADDICTION Mood modification —This refers to the subjective experiences that people report as a One area that Internet sexuality has been dis- consequence of engaging in Internet sex cussed academically is that of “Internet addic- and can be seen as a coping strategy (i.e., tion.” Research into this area is at present they experience an arousing “buzz” or a sparse but growing. For many people, the con- “high” or paradoxically tranquilizing feel cept of Internet addiction is something that of “escape” or “numbing”). they cannot accept because of their mindset Tolerance—This is the process whereby in- that addiction involves the taking of drugs. In- creasing amounts of Internet sex are re- deed, most official definitions concentrate on quired to achieve the former mood modi- drug ingestion. Despite opposition to the con- ficating effects. This basically means that cept of behavioral (i.e., non-chemical) addic- for someone engaged in Internet sex, they EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE 539

gradually build up the amount of the time use the Internet excessively as a medium to fuel they spend in front of the computer en- other addictions. Griffiths argues that a gam- gaged in the behavior. bling addict or a computer game addict is not Withdrawal symptoms —These are the un- addicted to the Internet. The Internet is just the pleasant feeling states and/or physical ef- place where they engage in the behavior. The fects that occur when Internet sex is dis- same argument can be applied to Internet sex continued or suddenly reduced, (e.g., the addicts. However, there are case study reports shakes, moodiness, irritability, etc.). of individuals who appear to be addicted to the Conflict—This refers to the conflicts be- Internet itself. These are usually people who tween the Internet user and those around use Internet chat rooms or play fantasy role them (interpersonal conflict), conflicts playing games—activities that they would not with other activities (job, social life, hob- engage in except on the Internet itself (some of bies, and interests) or from within the in- which are sex-related). These individuals to dividual themselves (intrapsychic conflict some extent are engaged in text-based virtual and/or subjective feelings of loss of con- realities and take on other personas and social trol) that are concerned with spending too identities as a way of making themselves feel much time engaged in Internet sex . good about themselves. Relapse—This is the tendency for repeated In these cases, the Internet may provide an reversions to earlier patterns of Internet alternative reality to the user and allow them sex to recur and for even the most extreme feelings of immersion and anonymity which patterns typical of the height of excessive may lead to an altered state of consciousness. Internet sex to be quickly restored after This in itself may be highly psychologically many years of abstinence or control. and/or physiologically rewarding. The anonymity of the Internet has been identified Young21 claims Internet addiction is a broad as a consistent factor underlying its excessive term that covers a wide variety of behaviors use.17,23. This is perhaps particularly relevant and impulse control problems. She claims is to those using Internet pornography. There further categorized by five specific subtypes. may be many people who are using the medium of the Internet because (a) it over- Cybersexual addiction: Compulsive use of comes the embarrassment of going into shops adult websites for cybersex and cyber- to buy pornography over the shop counter, and porn. (b) it is faster than waiting for other non-face- Cyber-relationship addiction: over-involve- to-face commercial transactions (e.g., mail or- ment in online relationships. der). Anonymity may also encourage deviant, Net compulsions: obsessive online gam- deceptive, and criminal online acts such as the bling, shopping, or day-trading. development of aggressive online personas or Information overload: compulsive web surf- the viewing and downloading of illegal images ing or database searches. (e.g., pornography) 24. The issue of Internet Computer addiction: obsessive computer pornography will be returned to in a later game playing (e.g., Doom, Myst, Solitaire , section. etc.) Survey research on excessive Internet use for Only two of these specifically refer to poten- sexual purposes tial sexually-based addictions (i.e., cybersexual addiction and cyber-relationship addiction), There have been few studies of excessive In- but Young’s classification does raise the ques- ternet use although two studies have examined tion of what people are actually addicted to. On excessive Internet use among a student popu- a primary level, is it the sexually-related be- lation and found that a small proportion of havior or is it the Internet? In reply to Young, users admitted using the Internet for sexual Griffiths22 has argued that many of these ex- purposes. Morahan-Martin and Schumacher 15 cessive users are not “Internet addicts” but just examined what they termed “pathological In- 540 GRIFFITHS ternet use” in 277 college students using a 13- an overview) conclusively show that Internet item questionnaire (all those who scored four addiction exists or that Internet sex addiction or more affirmative answers were defined as is problematic to anyone but a small minority. pathological Internet users). Pathological In- At best, they indicate that Internet addiction ternet users accounted for 8.1% of the total sam- may be prevalent in a significant minority of ple and were more likely to be male (12.2% individuals but that more research using vali- males; 3.2% females) and to use technologically dated survey instruments and other techniques sophisticated channels and online games. (e.g., in-depth qualitative interviews) are re- Other defining characteristics of pathological quired. Griffiths 22 has also noted that the prob- Internet users were that they were more likely lem with the criteria in most of the survey stud- to use a wide variety of Internet services, and ies to date is that they (a) have no measure of were more likely to use the Internet to meet severity, (b) have no temporal dimension, (c) new people, get emotional support, talk to oth- have a tendency to overestimate the prevalence ers with the same interest, to play interactive of problems and (d) take no account of the con- games like MUDs (Multi-User Domains), to text of Internet use. Case studies of excessive gamble, and to engage in net-sex. Internet users may provide better evidence of Scherer and Bost 25 surveyed 531 students whether Internet sex addiction exists by the fact about their Internet use and developed a check- that the data collected are much more detailed. list of 10 clinical symptoms to parallel the Even if just one case study can be located it in- symptoms of substance abuse and dependency. dicates that Internet sex addiction actually does Students who reported three or more symp- exist—even if it is unrepresentative. Grif- toms were classed as “Internet dependent” fiths10,27 has also argued that excessive usage (ID). Results indicated that 49 respondents in a majority of cases appears to be purely (13%) of weekly Internet users scored three or symptomatic but that for what appears to be more on the dependency checklist and that the an exceedingly tiny minority, the Internet may majority of these were male (71%). It was also be addictive. Whether this is a bona fide addic- reported that the ID participants used less pop- tion or not, some research 8,9,17,18,21 has ob- ular services on the Internet (games, bulletin served that heavy Internet users gradually boards, IRC, MUDs, etc), and that they were spent less time with real people in their lives more likely to have online relationships. Al- in exchange for solitary time in front of a com- though unrepresentative of the general public, puter and/or in online relationships. college students are considered high-risk for Internet problems because of ready access and flexible time schedules. 26 PORNOGRAPHY ON THE INTERNET Young17 found that serious relationship problems were reported by 53% of the 396 case It is often said that “sex sells” and nowhere studies of “Internet addicts” interviewe d, with is this more true than on the Internet. There are marriages and intimate dating relationships also those who might argue that “sex drives most disrupted due to cyberaffairs and online innovation” particularly when the case of sexual compulsivity. Further to this, in a study pornography on the Internet is examined. From of Internet users, Cooper, Putnam, Planchon, the earliest days of photography to the latest and Boies13 found that (a) 8.5% manifested innovations in real-time, one-to-one video con- signs of sexual compulsivity, and (b) 22% had ferencing, sex has played a defining role in the engaged in online sexual pursuits that had ac- development and advance of new communica- tually jeopardized at least one important di- tion technology. 28 Although the pornography mension of their lives. Cooper et al.13 went on industry cannot be credited with inventing to claim that a significant minority of Internet these new technologies, they were certainly the users are likely to be addicted to either the In- first to put them to profitable use. Pornogra- ternet, cybersex, cyber-relationships, or some phers have always been the first to exploit new combination of the three. publishing technologies whether it be photog- None the surveys to date (see Griffiths 10 for raphy, videotape, or the Internet. EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE 541

As a consequence, online sexual services in- its to be made. 28 In fact, two particular devel- clude the conventional (e.g., Internet versions opments in current use (pay-per-click banner of widely available pornographic magazines advertisements and real-time credit card pro- like Playboy), the not so conventional (Internet cessing) were both developed by technical ex- versions of very hardcore pornographic maga- pertise from within the pornographic industry. zines), and what can only be described as These developments have had significant im- the bizarre (discussion groups such as alt.sex. pacts on the accessibility afforded to Internet bondage.goldenshowers.sheep). Further to this, users. Theoretical 24-hour constant access has there are also pornographic picture libraries the potential to stimulate excessive use which (commercial and free-access), videos and video may in some circumstances lead to addictive clips, live strip shows, live sex shows and and/or compulsive activity. voyeuristic Web-cam sites. It is estimated that One of the main reasons that the pornogra- the online pornography industry will reach phy industry has such a vested interest in this $366 million by 2001 28 though other estimates area is that the buying of most products is already suggest it is worth $1 billion. 29 Further hassle-free and anonymous over the Internet. to this, the research company Datamonitor re- However, buying pornography in the offline ported that sex accounts for 69% of spending world may be embarrassing or stressful to the on the Internet. 29 consumer particularly if they have to go to Sprenger28 has argued that the 1980s saw venues deemed to be “unsavoury.” If pornog- three main types of Internet user—governm ent raphy consumers are given the chance to cir- officials, university academics, and pornogra- cumvent this process, they invariably will. phy-seekers (groups that Sprenger argues were Pornography and its distribution are now not necessarily mutually exclusive). Today’s widespread on the Internet but how prevalent online pornography community has its roots in is Internet pornography? In the UK, a survey the bulletin board systems that evolved sepa- carried out by University of Middlesex in 1995, rately from the Internet in the 1980s. They gave and replicated in 1997, analysed a million word way to Usenet groups and free file transfer pro- searches on an Internet search engine and re- tocol (FTP) formats whereby users could ex- ported that over half of them were aimed at lo- change files over the Internet. The earliest cating pornography. 30 The top eight word pornography sites on the Internet were FTP searches were all pornography related. The sites run from college and university campuses. study also reported that the pornography was The pornography industry were one of the first more than just pictures of naked people but industries to take advantage of this medium as also included more worrying material. For in- they realised that the Internet had a huge mar- stance, there was information for paedophiles keting potential—especially with the illegal on how to entrap and (in some instances) kill trade of in-copyright pictures on the free FTP children. It was also claimed that some bulletin sites and the eclectic mix of text, visuals, and board sites gave information on how to have FTP capabilities. There seems to be no precise intercourse with amputees and accounts of record of when free pornographic FTP sites child sexual abuse (which appeared to have were overtaken by the pay-per-view sites but been put there by the abusers themselves). Fur- it was in 1995 that they started to spring up in ther to this, unsubstantiated reports by family noticeable numbers. campaigners have claimed that in between As the pay-per-view sites became more so- 1997 and 1999 there was a 40% increase in the phisticated, the pornography industry was the number of UK Internet users who were regu- first to experience some of the problems such larly accessing hardcore pornography and pae- as overloaded servers and credit card process- dophilic material. 31 Academic researchers also ing. All the problems that e-business and e- claim that “sex” is the most searched for topic commerce ventures face today, were first ex- on the Internet, 14 and as many as one-third of perienced by the pornography industry who all Internet users visit some type of sexual site. 32 continually pushed the envelope of streaming Research has also revealed that Internet surf- technology because of the potential huge prof- ing has many parallels with road traffic. There 542 GRIFFITHS appear to be identical patterns of congestion icy Center35 reported that 75% of parents were and “solid block motion” w here everyone is anxious about what their children might be ex- forced to advance at the same speed. 33 One posed to on the Internet. To what extent is this web-traffic researcher, Bernardo Huberman fear justified? The media has certainly played (who works for Xerox Palo Alto Research Cen- a role in heightening parents’ fears as two- ter) analyzed more than 500,000 visits to a ma- thirds of all newspaper articles about the In- jor web portal and came to the conclusion that ternet highlight negative aspects and one in the Internet sex sites are the “undisputed four mentioned child pornography. 35 kings” in selling advertizing space. Huberman This is not without some real fear as it is not noticed that Internet surfers typically click once at all difficult to access—especially with the de- or twice and then get out of a site. However, velopment of powerful yet easy-to-use search Huberman noted that some people were click- engines. In fact, a survey by the National Opin- ing up to 200 times and that nearly all of these ion Poll (NOP) in June 1999 found that one- instances were people accessing Internet sex third of children in the United Kingdom had sites. Further investigation revealed an amaz- found content on the Internet that upset or em- ingly sophisticated structure that led surfers barrassed them—up from 20% in the previous deeper and deeper into the site. 33 The “click survey.34,35 Of this material, 58% was described counts” data collected by Huberman suggest as being “rude.” Given that the same NOP poll that there is an almost compulsive element in found that one in four UK children aged 7–16 accessing online pornography and that some years old (i.e., 3 million children) are regular people are very heavy users of these services. Internet users with half of them doing it from Such research cannot show that Internet home,34 it therefore appears there may be wide- pornography addicts exist but is at the very spread cause for alarm. least indicative of repetitive, habitual, and/or There are many steps a parent can take to pathological behavior. prevent their child from accessing pornogra-

phy. Children and Internet pornography One of the biggest fears among parents who Reading guidelines for parents that detail are thinking of using the Internet is that their issues and possible approaches for over- children will be exposed to pornography par- seeing Internet use by children. These in- ticularly because over 17 million children are clude those produced in offline versions using the Internet worldwide. 34 Issues sur- (see Table 1) or those that can be found on- rounding censorship are high on the moral line. These include such sites as the Net- agenda but preventing access to such sites is parents resource collection ( www.netpar- difficult. A major survey undertaken in 1998 in ents.org/parentstips/resources.html) , NCH the United States by the Annenberg Public Pol- Action for children site ( www.nchafc.org.

TA BLE 1. GUIDELINESFOR CH ILD REN O N HO W TO BE SA FE O N TH E INTE RN ET 1. Never tell anyone that you meet on the Internet your home address, telephone number, or school’s name unless you are given permission by a parent or carer. 2. Never send anyone your picture, credit card, or bank details (or anything else). 3. Never give your password to anyone—even your best friend. 4. Never arrange to meet anyone in person that you have met on the Internet without first agreeing it with your parent or carer. 5. Never stay in a chat room or in a conference if someone says or writes something that makes you feel uncomfortable or worried. Always report it to your parent or carer. 6. Never respond to nasty, suggestive or rude E-mails or postings in Usenet groups. 7. If you see bad language or distasteful pictures while you are online, always tell your parent or carer. 8. When you are online, always be yourself and do not pretend to be anyone or anything you are not. 9. Always remember that if someone makes you an offer that seems too good to be true—then it probably is.

Note: From NCH Action for Children, Children on the Internet: Opportunities and Hazards , 1998. EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE 543

uk/internet/index.html ), and Schoolzone’s it appears that many people are now looking resources ( www.schoolzone.co.uk/resources/ for love online. 38 Now that Nora Ephron’s film safety_frame.htm ). You’ve Got Mail has seeped into public con- Be with your children at all times when sciousness, the idea of online relationships ap- they access the Internet. pears to be coming a more socially acceptable Join an Internet service provider that pre- activity. It is hard to estimate the number of on- vents its users from accessing such things. line relationships but one British newspaper Install one of the many different types of reported that there had been more than one blocking package on the market that filter thousand weddings as a result of Internet meet- content in some way. 36,37 These include ings.39 From the outside it appears that the In- those that use lists of key words that you ternet has opened up a whole new world for can define (e.g., Net Nanny), software “chat room conquistadors” and “e-mail femme packages that can block certain areas of the fatales” w ith some media commentators claim- Internet such as Usenet groups or which ing that cyberspace is becoming another singles restrict access at certain times (e.g., Cyber bar as there are now numerous sites aimed at Patrol), packages that have a built-in cen- those who want romance and/or a sexual liai- sor to certain categories as defined by the son. Some of these are aimed at single people maker of the package ( SurfWatch) or pack- (e.g., Widows, Thirtysomething UK , and Married ages that block access to certain file types with Kids) while others appear to encourage like GIF and JPEG (most pornographic im- and facilitate virtual adultery (e.g., Mar- ages are GIF or JPEG files). However, there riedM4Affair, Cheating Wife , or Lonely Husband ). may be a “technological generation gap” Young, Griffin-Shelley, Cooper, O’Mara, and as the recent poll by NOP reported that Buchanan40 define an online relationship (a children knew more about filtering soft- “cyberaffair”) as a romantic and/or sexual re- ware than their parents (Thompson, 1999). lationship that is initiated via online contact and maintained predominantly through elec- Despite packages like Surfwatch and Net tronic conversations that occur through E-mail Nanny, which block access to pornographic and in virtual communities such as chat rooms, sites, such packages can still be circumvented. interactive games, or newsgroups. Young et There are also other packages like Babewatch al.40 assert that what starts off as a simple which do the exact opposite (i.e., locate noth- E-mail exchange or an innocent chat room en- ing but pornographic sites for the user). 36,37 It counter can escalate into an intense and pas- appears to be the case that parents are not as sionate cyberaffair and eventually into face-to- vigilant about their children’s Internet use as face sexual encounters. Further to this, those in they could be. For instance, a survey of 500 on- online relationships often turn to mutual erotic line households by the U.S.-based National dialogue (often referred to as “cybersex”). In Center for Missing and Exploited Children this instance, cybersex involves online users found that 20% of parents did not supervise swapping text-based sexual fantasies with each their children’s Internet use, while 71% of par- other. These text-based interactions may be ac- ents with children aged 14 or older said they companied by masturbation. Online chat had stopped monitoring their children’s Inter- rooms provide opportunities for online social net use.34 gatherings to occur almost at the push of a but- ton without even having to move from your desk. Online group participants can—if they so ONLINE RELATIONSHIPS desire—develop one-to-one conversations at a later point either through the use of continu- Probably one of the most unexpected uses ous E-mails or by instant messages from chat surrounding the growth of the Internet con- rooms. It could perhaps be argued that elec- cerns the development of online relationships tronic communication is the easiest, most dis- and their potentially addicting nature. Turned inhibiting, and most accessible way to meet po- off by the sleazy hustling of offline singles bars, tential new partners. 544 GRIFFITHS

Infidelity online—how and why does it occur? would also appear that virtual environments have the potential to provide short-term com- There are a number of factors that make on- fort, excitement, and/or distraction. line contacts potentially seductive and/or addictive. Such factors include the disinhibiting Access. Access to the Internet is now com- and anonymous nature of the Internet. Fur- monplace and widespread, and can be done thermore, online relationships can be culturally easily from the home and/or the workplace. diverse given the global nature of the Internet. Given that prevalence of behaviors is strongly This may be very exciting to those engaged in correlated with increased access to the activity, an online affair. Disinhibition is clearly one of it is not surprising that the development of reg- the Internet’s key appeals as there is little doubt ular online use is increasing across the popu- that the Internet makes people less inhib- lation. Increased accessibility may also lead to ited.41,42 Online users appear to open up more increased problems. Research into other so- quickly online and reveal themselves emotion- cially acceptable but potentially addictive be- ally much faster than in the offline world. What haviors (drinking alcohol, gambling, etc.) has might take months or years in an offline rela- demonstrated that increased accessibility leads tionship may only takes days or weeks online. to increased uptake (i.e., regular use) and that As some have pointed out, 43 the perception of this eventually leads to an increase in problems— trust, intimacy, and acceptance has the poten- although the increase may not be propor- tial to encourage online users to use these re- tional.44 lationships as a primary source of companion- ship and comfort. Affordability. Given the wide accessibility of Some researchers have made attempts to ex- the Internet, it is now becoming cheaper and plain how and why infidelity occurs online. cheaper to use the online services on offer. Al- 12 Cooper proposed the Triple A Engine (Ac- though very excessive use will still lead to large cess, Affordability, and Anonymity), which he monthly bills, for most people, the cost com- claims helps to understand the power and at- pared to either a telephone call and/or postage traction of the Internet for sexual pursuits. will be cheap to moderate. Young24 also claimed to have developed a vari- ant of the Triple A Engine which she called the Anonymity. The anonymity of the Internet ACE model (Anonymity, Convenience, Es- allows users to privately engage in erotic text- cape). Neither of these are strictly models as based exchanges without the fear of being neither explains the process of how online re- caught by a partner. This anonymity may also lationships develop. They do, however, pro- provide the user with a greater sense of per- vide in acronym form, the main variables that ceived control over the content, tone, and na- account for acquisition and maintenance of on- ture of the online experience. 40 The anonymity line relationships. In order to understand the of the Internet often facilitates more honest increased incidence of sex and infidelity online, and open communication with other users. 43 Young claims her ACE Model explains how cy- Anonymity may also increase feelings of com- berspace creates a cultural climate of permis- fort because there is a decreased ability to look siveness that actually serves to encourage and for, and thus detect, signs of insincerity, dis- validate sexually adulterous and promiscuous approval, or judgment in facial expression, as online behavior. 24 The variables that can lead would be typical in face-to-face interactions. 40 to virtual adultery outlined by Young and Cooper (i.e., anonymity, access, convenience, Convenience. Interactive online applications affordability and escape) do appear to provide such as E-mail, chat rooms, newsgroups, or the explanatory building blocks for the devel- role-playing games provide convenient medi- opment of emotional and/or sexual relation- ums to meet others. Online sexual behaviors ships on the Internet. These are briefly looked will usually occur in the familiar and comfort- at in turn as well as other reasons such as so- able environment of home or workplace, thus cial acceptability and long working hours. It reducing the feeling of risk and allowing even EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE 545 more adventurous behaviors that may or may with adverts from prostitutes, hard-core porn not be potentially addictive. actresses, and minors looking for sex. 31 Ac- cording to some recent press reports, many Escape. For some, the primary reinforcement men who have used the Internet to find a part- to engage in an online affair and/or cybersex ner have found that seemingly innocent come- is the sexual gratification they experience on- ons turn out to be from women looking for men line. However, the experience of an online re- who are willing to pay for sex. Policing the clas- lationship itself, may be reinforced through a sified section is extremely difficult as those op- subjectively and/or objectively experienced erating such services take their clients’ word on “high.” The pursuit of mood-modificating ex- trust. If these people are deliberately keeping periencies is characteristic of addictions. 6,20 The the truth from the operator there is little the op- mood-modificating experience has the poten- erator can realistically do. tial to provide an emotional or mental escape and further serves to reinforce the behavior. Ex- Long working hours. In the UK, people are cessive involvement in this escapist activity working longer hours and can have social re- may lead to addiction. 10 While sexual fulfill- lationships from the desktop. For these people, ment may provide either the initial or subse- the Internet is ideal. Dating via your desktop quent reinforcement, the more potent rein- may be a sensible option for workaholic pro- forcement is the ability to cultivate a subjective fessionals of the 1990s. It is effectively a whole fantasy world. Online romantic and/or sexual new electronic “singles bar” that breaks down behavior can provide a potent escape from the physical prejudices because of its text-based stresses and strains of real life. These activities nature. For others, Internet interaction takes fall on what Cooper, Putnam, Planchon, and away the social isolation that we can all some- Boies13 describe as a continuum from life-en- times feel. There are no boundaries of geogra- hancing to pathological and addictive. phy, class, or nationality. It opens up a whole new sphere of relationship-forming. As men- Social acceptability. Social acceptability is also 45 tioned previously, the whole process is also dis- another factor to consider in this context. To inhibiting. People open up emotionally very some extent, online relationships (like the per- quickly on the Internet as it is not as threaten- sonal advertisements that are found in both lo- ing as a letter, phone call, or face-to-face en- cal and national newspapers) can lead to many counter. For those in online relationships, it is meetings and introductions. What is really in- not usually an abnormal or online addiction— teresting is how the perception of these types It is just a different way of living and interact- of activities have changed over the years. It was ing. Laying the foundations for a relationship not long ago that personal advertisements and in this way has become far more socially ac- dating agencies were accused of preying on so- ceptable and will continue to be so. Most of cial inadequacy and emotional vulnerability. these people are not societal misfits as is often However, it is now accepted that there are lots claimed. They are simply using the technology of reasons why people are not in relationships as another tool in their social armoury. these days. There are high-powered individuals who are career-minded and have little Types of online relationships leisure time, others who have exhausted their social networks, and those who feel uneasy A number of researchers have forwarded ty- making contact with a stranger. It could also be pologies of the different kinds of Internet users a sign of things to come as children are exposed in relation to sexual and/or relationship activ- to technology earlier and so become used to so- ity.13,21,39 Cooper et al.13 suggest there are three cializing using computers as tools. types of cybersexual user (recreational, at risk, and compulsive) but this tells us little except One problem with “lonely hearts” looking about frequency of use. However, Griffiths 39 for romance on the Internet is that there is some has outlined three basic types of online rela- anecdotal evidence that they be bombarded tionships in relation to actual online behavior. 546 GRIFFITHS

The first one is purely virtual and involves two was 17 hours and cost them £330. 46 They would people who never actually meet. They engage spend an average of 7 hours a day typing to in an online relationship that goes further than each other over the Internet and the male of the being pen-pals as the exchanges are usually partnership went bankrupt. very sexually explicit. Neither person wants to With regards to “addiction,” it is only the meet the other person and are engaged in the first type outlined here that may be addicted to interaction purely for sexual kicks. It is not un- the Internet. The latter two types are more common for these individuals to swap gender likely to be addicted to the person rather than roles. The “relationships” m ay be very short the activity—particularly as their Internet us- lived and the people involved will usually have age stops almost completely when they meet real-life partners. These people prefer the dis- up offline with their partner. tance, relative anonymity, and control offered by the Internet and will prefer to confine the relationship to cyberspace. As far as these peo- The downside of online relationships ple are concerned, they do not feel they are be- Online infidelity has accounted for a growing unfaithful. ing number of divorce cases according to the The second type of online relationship is President of the American Academy of Matri- where people meet online but eventually want monial Lawyers. 47 This is backed up by the relationship to move from the virtual to the Young17 who claims that cyberaffairs exacer- actual after becoming emotionally intimate bate face-to-face relational problems and al- with each other online. The shared emotional most always adversely impact ongoing, long- intimacy often leads to cybersex and/or a term face-to-face relationships and cause strong desire to communicate constantly with marital discord, separation, and can even con- each other on the Internet. For many, the on- tribute to divorce. line relationship will progress after sending Although many people who have not en- photographs of each other into secret phone gaged in an online relationship fail to under- calls, letters, and offline meetings. Once they stand the pull and attraction of such an activ- have met up, and if they are geographically ity, it quite clearly can have detrimental near each other, their Internet use will usually consequences for some people who do. An on- decrease considerably as they will spend far line relationship can lead a loving and com- more time actually (rather than virtually) with passionate individual to become uncaring to- each other. ward their partner and/or family, evasive, and The third type of relationship is where two demanding privacy online. In an effort to help people first meet offline but then maintain their both couples and therapists, Young et al,40 pro- relationship online for the majority of their reduced a list of early warning signs in the de- lationship. This is usually because they are ge- tection of a suspected online relationship. ographically distant and may even be living in These include (a) a change in sleep patterns, (b) separate countries. These people only meet up a demand for privacy, (c) ignoring other re- a few times a year but may spend vast amounts sponsibilities, (d) evidence of lying, (e) person- of time “talking” to their partners on the In- ality changes, (f) loss of interest in sex, and (g) ternet most nights. As they are geographically declining investment in the relationship. distant, the relationship only continues for Griffiths27 has also reported case studies of those who have the time, the budget, and the excessive Internet users engaged in online re- travel opportunity to maintain the nominal lationships. However, these were not deemed physical contact. There are however possible by Griffiths to be addicted to the Internet. He downsides. For instance, there is anecdotal ev- claimed the excessive usage in these cases were idence that love over the Internet may lead to purely symptomatic with the Internet being financial problems. One couple reported used to counteract other deficiencies in their spending £7000 on their Internet relationship lives (e.g., lack of human contact, physical ap- where their longest single conversation online pearance, disability, coping, etc.). However, it EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE 547 is interesting that most case studies cited in the lar, has provided for new innovations in, and academic literature used the computer exces- an expansion of, the field of criminality (and sively for social contact. As these cases show, more specifically in the area of sexually-related text-based relationships can obviously be Internet crime). 49–52 rewarding for some people. It is perhaps In the UK, most people’s perceptions about refreshing that in some circumstances, online sexually-related Internet crime are probably relationships could be deemed to be psycho- based around either the distribution of illegal logically healthy because they break down prej- pornography on the Internet and/or the use of udices in that these intimate relationships are the Internet for paedophilic purposes (for ei- not based on people’s physical appearance. ther distribution of child pornography or using the Internet to contact children with the pae- dophile pretending to be another child). The SEXUALLY-RELATED INTERNET CRIME latest police guidelines in the United Kingdom also advise that anybody found to have used Despite the seemingly marked absence of se- the Internet to view or circulate child pornog- rious consideration, sexually-related Internet raphy should be investigated as to whether crime seems set to become increasingly impor- they are abusing children. 53 tant to all those involved in the administration These perceptions are further enhanced from of criminal justice. The actual extent of this type high profile cases such as the recent imprison- of crime remains a somewhat elusive figure. ment of Graham Waddon. Waddon, the United However, most commentators assert that the Kingdom’s largest pornography operator, was extent of sexually-related Internet crime is on given an 18-month prison sentence for over- the increase and that some of the perpetrators seeing a large number of “cyber sin” sites from may be addicted to the criminal activity in ques- his house. In a short time, he made £126,000 tion and/or develop obsessions about their In- from designing websites featuring extreme ternet victims. In the broadest possible sense, pornography, bestiality, coprophilia, and tor- sexually-related Internet crime can be divided ture (e.g., Farmsex, Europerv, and Schoolgirls-R- into two categories—(a) display, downloading Us) that were sent to Internet service providers and/or the distribution of illegal sexually-rein the United States for publication on the lated material and (b) the use of the Internet to Web.54 The case will have wide ramifications sexually procure and/or intimidate an individ- as it is the first time a U.K. court has said that ual in some way (e.g., online sexual harrass- the authorities can prosecute those who pub- ment, cyberstalking, paedophilic grooming). lish obscene material even if they do it through Charlesworth 48 noted that criminal law and Internet service providers abroad. One of the those who enforce it have taken time to come main problems is that any country’s attempt to to terms with the implications of change with interdict cross-border flows of pornography regards to Internet crime. Those in the criminal would be defeated by advances in communi- justice system continue to rely on their own fa- cation technology—especially data transmis- miliar scheme of reference when attempting to sion.28,55 The police crackdown on Internet comprehend the criminal behavior. For the pornography has been argued by some to be most part, they have some understanding of futile as it could drive it underground. 56 Part the mode of operation, likely benefits to the of- of the Internet’s appeal is its subversive nature, fender, and costs to the victim of the criminal for it crosses frontiers, language barriers, and activity presented before them. However, the is not policed by any one country. unfamiliarity of sexually-related Internet crime Besides these serious offences, one area that denies those in the criminal justice system all has been given little consideration is that of on- important access to their own scheme of un- line harassment in its many guises—some of derstanding. The reality is that advancements which can escalate into full-blown stalking. in computer technology generally, and the in- This controversial area is examined in more decreased availability of the Internet in particu- tail in the following section. 548 GRIFFITHS

Online harassment and cyberstalking net users, had been sent pornographic material or been harassed or stalked on the Internet. 59 Online harassment is certainly not a new Three percent of these messages were highly phenomenon as there have been reported cases personal and sexual, and 35% of the messages throughout the 1990s. For instance, Maxine were unsolicited pornography. Such unwar- Morse gave up her £60,000-a-year job when ranted attention is intrusive and is a serious male colleagues at the company she worked at cause for concern. bombarded her E-mail address with images of CyberAngels (www.cyberangels.org) is a bestiality and naked men taken from the Inter- branch of the Guardian Angels and was set up net. She was awarded £22,000 in compensa- in 1995. To date, it has dealt with over 200 cases tion57 (also see Dibbell 58). of cyberstalking—tw o of which ended in the Stalking has been a high-profile crime in the rape of the victims according to their Senior Di- 1990s, leaving victims with a shattered sense of rector, Colin Gabriel Hatcher. 51 The organiza- security and well-being. It now seems to be the tion claims that cyberstalking usually occurs case that stalkers are moving with the times with women who are stalked by men, or by and starting to harass and stalk in cyberspace. children who are stalked by adult predators. As a direct result of the increased accessibility Typically, the victim is new online and there- of the Internet worldwide, the incidence of cy- fore typically ignorant of “netiquette.” In most berstalking will almost certainly increase. Very cases, people just receive unsolicited junk-mail recently, the first prosecution case of cyber- but it can turn sinister. The risk of harassment stalking or harassment by computer occurred intensifies if someone enters a chat room. In when Gary Dellapenta, a 50-year-old security most instances, the online harassment and guard, was arrested for his online activities in stalking have eventually escalated offline. This Los Angeles. 59 Although such a phenomenon is done by tracing the victim’s telephone num- is by definition a global one, it was the Cali- ber and their address. Hatcher makes the point fornian legal system that took the lead in an ef- that cases such as these should not be trivial- fort to combat it. ized as the paranoia of a small group of com- It all began when Dellapenta was rebuffed puter users. 51 In the United States, libel and by his 28-year-old victim Randi Barber. As a re- defamation are taken very seriously, but stalk- sult of this rejection, Dellapenta became ob- ing is sometimes perceived as a crime related sessed with Barber and placed adverts on the to women’s hysteria. Internet under the names “playfulkitty4U ” and In relation to cyberstalking, the normal po- “kinkygal30” claiming she was “into rape fan- lice reaction (in the United States at least) ap- tasy and gang-bang fantasy.”59 As a result of pears to be one of non-seriousness. It is not un- these postings, she started to receive obscene common for police to advise the victim to phone calls and visits by men to her house mak- simply shut off of their computer. One infa- ing strange and lewd suggestions. Many other mous quote was attributed to a policeman who cases of cyberstalking and/or persistent and said “Are you afraid he’s going to climb out of unwanted E-mail messages have also been re- the monitor?” which completely missed the ported.60,61 point. Cyberstalking forces people off the In- ternet, but the Internet is now an established Cyberstalking: How big is the problem? part of many people’s lives. In the future, the In 1998, Novell (one of the world’s leading whole criminal justice system is going to have providers of network software) began a study to treat this issue far more seriously. in the United Kingdom into “spamming” (i.e., One of the problems with Internet use is that the receiving of unwanted and unsolicited cy- there are always more novices than those ex- ber junk mail). The focus of the study was to perienced, so the novices are not being taught estimate the cost in business terms of time and the ways that they can protect themselves from money wasted. However, one of the unex- being exploited. At least with obscene phone pected findings of the research was that a large calls there is a voice and with letters there is minority of women, 41% of the regular Inter- handwriting, with E-mails there is nothing to EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE 549 go on, no clue as to the personality of the per- nal law and those who enforce it must come to son involved. To some this makes the whole terms with the implications of change with re- thing creepier. What’s more, these “new” crim - gards to computer crime. It could be argued inals perhaps would never have interfered in that the technical complexity associated with other people’s lives and committed such acts in cybercrime combined with the limited number a face-to-face scenario. of prosecutions has permitted criminal justice practitioners the luxury of ignorance. Cyberstalking: What can be done to Sparrow and Griffiths 30 have stated that if combat the problem? computer-related crime is to occupy a position of increasing importance in the range of of- The development of computer technology is fending behavior, then criminal justice practi- producing new categories of crimes in which tioners must be willing to familiarize them- the perpetrator believes they can hide behind selves with such activities in order to make the seemingly anonymous computer screen in judgements about the offender and the nature an attempt to intimidate, threaten and spread of their offending. One day cyberstalking may hatred. These people appear to be naïve about be viewed in the same way that other more exactly how anonymous they can be because “traditional” criminal acts are currently specialists in this field can trace almost any viewed. electronic trail back to a computer. Every time a person visits a website, they are leaving their e-mail address behind as a calling card. If that INTERNET SEXUALITY: person take part in any Internet discussions on FUTURE RESEARCH a Usenet site, they are again leaving their identity. Where new crimes occur, new methods are One of the objectives of any future research used to combat it. For instance, a police officer should be to determine the object of the Inter- was recently caught attempting to solicit mi- net sex addiction. If some people appear ad- nors over the Internet when pretending to be a dicted to the Internet, what are they addicted 13-year old girl. 59 This was easier to do over to? Is it the medium of communication (i.e., the the computer than it would have been in real Internet itself)? Aspects of its specific style (e.g., life. The International Web Police (www.Web- anonymity, disinhibition etc.)? The information Police.org) are well-placed to fight this rela- that can be obtained (e.g., hard-core pornogra- tively new type of crime. The executive Direc- phy)? Specific types of activity (gender- tor of the organization, Jeff Meyer, says they swapping, role-playing games, playing sex have been addressing stalkers since 1986 al- computer games, cyberstalking)? Talking/ though very few of these cases concern cyber- fantasizing to others (in chat rooms or on In- stalking.59 ternet Relay Chat)? Perhaps it could even be a complex interaction between more than one of Cyberstalking: Some conclusions these. It is most likely that the Internet provides At present very few cases of cyberstalking a medium for the “addiction” to flow to its ob- have reached U.K. courts although U.K. law is ject of unhealthy attachment (i.e., a secondary adequately equipped to deal with such scenar- addiction to more pervasive primary prob- ios because of the recent 1997 Protection From lems). The Internet can easily be the focus of Harassment Act. There is no specific mention excessive, addictive, obsessive and/or com- of computers in the Act but the definition of pulsive behaviors. One thing that may inten- harassment is based on the “reasonable man” sify this focus are the vast resources on the In- test (i.e., any action that would reasonably be ternet available to feed or fuel other addictions considered to be harassment are caught within or compulsions. For example, to a sex addict or the Act). This so-called “stalking act” sets out a stalker, the Internet could be a very danger- to create both criminal and civil sanctions for ous medium to users and/or recipients. There harassment, and in so doing, builds upon ex- is also the problem that the Internet consists of isting common law nuisance actions. 51 Crimi- many different types of activity (e.g., e-mailing, 550 GRIFFITHS information browsing, file transferring, social- from life-enhancing to pathological needs to be ising, role-game playing etc.) and it could be replicated and further refined. There are very the case (and probably is the case) that some few areas surrounding excessive Internet use of these activities (like Internet Relay Chat or and its relationship with sexuality that do not role playing games) are potentially more ad- need further empirical research (e.g., online dictive than some other Internet activities. It is sexual addiction, Internet and computer ad- also worth noting that there has been no re- diction, and online relationship dependency search indicating that sexually-related Internet and/or virtual affairs). More remains to be crimes such as cyberstalking are addictive. done in cyberspace to more clearly understand However, the small number of case studies both the risks and benefits for Internet users, that have emerged do appear to indicate that couples, and society as a whole. cyberstalkers display addictive tendencies at More research is also needed to examine the the very least (salience, mood modification, structural characteristics of the Internet and the conflict etc.) although further research is things that appear on it. Griffiths 19 has specu- needed to ascertain whether these excessive lated the structural characteristics of the some behaviors could be classed as bona fide behav- kinds of software might promote addictive ten- ioral addictions. dencies. Structural characteristics (i.e., features With regard to online relationships and af- that manufacturers design into their products) fairs, these behaviors present a new dimension promote interactivity and to some extent de- in couple relationships. These sexually-related fine alternative realities for the user and allow Internet behaviors appear to range from them feelings of anonymity in features that healthy and normal through to unhealthy and may be very psychologically rewarding. For in- abnormal (i.e., use, abuse, and addiction). 13 The stance, determinants of the decision to engage Internet is anonymous, disinhibiting, easily ac- in a particular activity not only include the per- cessible/convenient, affordable, and escape- son’s biological and psychological constitution friendly. These appear to be some of the main and the situational variables, but also the struc- reasons for online infidelity. The detection of tural characteristics of the activity itself. As online affairs may be difficult, but that does not Griffiths63 points out, the structural character- mean it should not be given serious consider- istics of particular activities are responsible for ation in either an academic or practical context. reinforcement, may satisfy users’ needs and These groups, along with those who engage in may actually facilitate excessiveness. By iden- or who are on the receiving end of such be- tifying particular structural characteristics it, haviors, need to recognize that the Internet may be possible to see how (a) needs are iden- adds a new dimension to relationships. This tified, (b) information about the Internet is pre- has implications for assessment and treatment sented (or perhaps misrepresented), and (c) of couples who may, knowingly or unknow- cognitions are influenced and distorted (see ingly, undergo a relationship breakdown due Griffiths63 for an overview on structural char- to the impact of excessive online communica- acteristics). tion. However, as was noted earlier, text-based There is no doubt that Internet usage among relationships can obviously be a positive and the general population will continue to increase rewarding experience for many people. It is over the next few years. Social pathologies re- also an area in need of future research. lating to Internet sexual behavior do exist. This Interestingly, there is no clear evidence about is certainly an area that should be of interest the effects of pornography on users. 62 How- and concern not only to psychologists but to all ever, Young et al.40 quite rightly assert that fu- those involved in clinical health issues. Exces- ture research is needed to more clearly delin- sive use of the Internet is not problematic in eate the identification and classification of most cases, but the limited case study evidence problematic online sexual activities and that available does suggest that excessive Internet Cooper, Putnam, Planchon, and Boies’13 pro- usage is a real addiction and of genuine con- posed continuum of Internet sexual activities cern for some individuals. EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE 551

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