CHIEF EDITOR ADVISORY BOARD

Job Kozhamthadam (Founder-President, Association of Science, Philip Sloan Society and Religion, Pune; Former Member, (Notre Dame University, Indiana, USA) Indian National Commission for the History of Science, Indian National Science Academy) Kuruvilla Pandikattu (Jnana Deepa Vidyapeeth, Pune) EDITORIAL BOARD Ignacimuthu S. K. Babu Joseph (Former Vice Chancellor, (Former Vice Chancellor, Cochin Madras University) OMEGA University of Science and Technology) INDIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION K. S. Radhakrishnan James Purathail Vol.5 No.1 June 2006 (Vice Chancellor, (Augsburg, Germany) Sri Sankaracharya University, Kalady) Doris D’Souza Mathew Chandrankunnel (Principal, (Dharmaram Vidya Kshetram, Bangalore) Patna Women’s College, Patna)

H. S. Virk (Department of Physics, George V. Coyne Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar) (Director, Vatican Observatory, Vatican City) Francis Xavier (Loyola College, Chennai) R. C. Pradhan S

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(Member Secretary, Indian Council of H

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Augustine Pamplany Y S

Philosophical Research) N

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(Little Flower Seminary, Aluva)

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U R Zaki Kirmani Paul Ratnasamy T (Founder, The Centre for Studies (Director, on Science, Aligarh) National Chemical Laboratory, Pune)

Sarojini Henry BOOK REVIEW EDITORS (Former Professor of Theology, Tamil Nadu Theological Seminary,Chennai) Jose Panthackal (Little Flower Seminary, Aluva) Jose Thachil Martin Kallungal (St. Joseph’s Pontifical Seminary, Aluva) (Institute of Science and Religion, Aluva) Institute of Science and Religion Omega - Indian Journal of Science and Religion is an interdisciplinary Little Flower Seminary, Aluva - 683 101, Kerala, India. journal published biannually in June and December. The opinions expressed by the individual authors do not necessarily reflect the views of Phone : 0484 2623437, 2626204 the editorial board. E-mail : [email protected] URL: www.lfseminary.org/htm/omega.htm Contents

The Editorial 3 Editorial Articles Since any dialogue presupposes some common ground between The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life: the parties in dialogue, many critics of science-religion dialogue used to Historical and Theological Perspectives 6 believe that the scope of such a dialogue was discouragingly limited. John Hedley Brooke These prophets of doom went further to predict that with the development Interface between Technology and Religion 23 of science the common ground between science and religion would shrink Mathew Illathuparampil further. However, they have been proven false prophets, thanks to many recent developments in science. Far from narrowing the scope of this Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics 41 dialogue, these developments have broadened and deepened it. Gradually Job Kozhamthadam it is becoming clear that as the domain of influence of science is becoming broader, the area of science-religion dialogue is also broadening. Many The Cloning Controversy a Decade After Dolly 58 thinkers in the past had predicted such an outcome. For instance, already Ronald Cole-Turner in the early part of the 20th century Alfred North Whitehead had observed: Science, Mathematics and Truth 67 “It is no exaggeration to say that the future course of history depends on K.K. Jose the decision of this generation as to the relation between religion and science.”1 Fritjof Capra also expressed a similar sentiment: “Science Science, Religion and Social Transformation: The Struggle does not need religion; religion does not need science; but humans need Against the Evil Practice of Witch-hunt in Jharkhand 91 both.”2 The six original papers of this issue of Omega, in a way, illustrate Ann Moyalan the widening horizon of science-religion dialogue since they discuss how this dialogue can be creatively carried out in six different areas. Review Article Recent developments in astronomy have shifted extraterrestrial The Encounter of Faith and Science in life from the world of speculation to that of serious scientific research. Interreligious Dialogue 107 Today it is estimated that our universe consists of about 100 billion galaxies. Phil Edwards Each galaxy has on the average about 100 billion stars with their share of planets and other heavenly bodies. Hence, there is a good chance of finding some planets in this myriad of heavenly bodies having the same conditions as of the earth. Hence the probability of extraterrestrial life is very high, although the actual spotting of one may still elude us for quite some time. The paper, “The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life: Historical and Theological Perspectives,” by John Hedley Brooke discusses some how mathematics is revolutionizing science by its contribution in computer of the theological consequences of the discovery of extraterrestrial life, science, information technology, artificial intelligence, neural networks, and how it will impact science-religion dialogue. bioinformatics, gene sequencing, etc. In particular it points out how these developments, far from making mathematics closed and inward-looking, Technology is science’s attempt to touch and transform society. render it open and ready to interact with other areas, including religion Today we live in a world that is seeing wonders wrought by technology. and values. What is the relationship between technology and science-religion dialogue? How does religion influence technology? Does technology The final paper “Science, Religion and Social Transformation: The have a scriptural root, more specifically a biblical root? These are some Struggle against the Evil Practice of Witch-hunt in Jharkhand,” by Ann of the concerns of the paper, “Interface between Technology and Moyalan, is a case study of how science-religion dialogue can impact Religion,” by Mathew Illathuparampil. It discusses the views of Lynn society and bring about a social transformation. It is based on her own White and Max Weber on the matter. It also engages in an exploration personal experience of several years. Her strong grounding in medical of the official position of the Catholic Church on the role and importance science coupled with her deep commitment to religious values enabled of technology. her to see the baselessness of the heinous practice of “witch-killing,” and fight against it for years. The example of her commitment inspired A keen interest in science-religion interaction was not a many others to follow her mission, and together they were able to bring phenomenon confined to certain individual scientists or religious believers. about a social transformation. There have been religious orders and other large communities keenly interested in it. The Society of Jesus, popularly known as the Jesuits, These six papers, varied and coming from different disciplines was one such religious order in the Catholic Church, whose members and backgrounds, have one important message: science-religion dialogue were at the forefront of science-religion dialogue for centuries. The is not for any particular, esoteric group; it is for everyone. Just as science paper, “Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics,” by Job is for everyone, and religion is for everyone, science-religion dialogue is Kozhamthadam is a detailed study of science-religion dialogue in action also for everyone. by the Jesuits, based on a recent book by George Bishop. The paper also presents a critical study of the attempts made by the Jesuits in India - Job Kozhamthadam to bring about a constructive interaction between science and religion. Notes Today the genetic revolution is transforming not only the field of 1. A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York: Free Press, genetics and biosciences, but also the field of science itself. This revolution, 1967), p. 181. in a way, is redefining the role of science. In the past science was 2. F. Capra, The Tao of Physics (New York: Bantam Books, 1984), p. 297. The concerned with what humans have and want to have; today it is in a author uses mysticism instead of religion. position to decide what humans are and want to be. The Human Genome Project and cloning, etc., are primarily responsible for this turnaround. The paper, “The Cloning Controversy a Decade after Dolly,” by Ronald Cole-Turner is a short but incisive study of cloning, and the controversy it raises in the context of science-religion dialogue. The fifth paper, “Science, Mathematics and Truth,” by K.K. Jose takes science-religion dialogue to the world of mathematics. It discusses

4Omega June 2006 5 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life

In the conclusion to his book, The Fifth Miracle, the popular science writer Paul Davies comments on the search for life elsewhere in the universe. The search for extraterrestrials, he suggests, is the “testing ground for two diametrically opposed worldviews.”2 One is the worldview of “orthodox science, with its nihilistic philosophy of the pointless universe, of impersonal laws oblivious of ends, a cosmos in which life and mind, science and art, hope and fear, are but fluky incidental The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life embellishments on a tapestry of irreversible cosmic corruption.” The Historical and Theological Perspectives alternative view he describes as “undeniably romantic but perhaps true nevertheless.” This is the vision of a “self-organizing and self- 1 - John Hedley Brooke complexifying universe, governed by ingenious laws that encourage matter to evolve towards life and consciousness.”3 To find life elsewhere in the universe, especially if there were a lot of it, would support the second Abstract: The author begins with the observation of Paul Davies that view more than the first. the search for extraterrestrials is the testing ground for two diametrically opposed worldviews: firstly, the nihilistic worldview of orthodox science Faced with such a choice, I suspect that many religious thinkers which sees a purposeless, rudderless, chance universe; secondly, the might begin to feel uncomfortable. The nihilistic worldview that Davies view of a self-forming universe governed by ingenious laws. He points associates with orthodox science would be particularly objectionable. out that both these options render most religious thinkers uncomfortable. However, the author argues that these competing worldviews of Davies But the alternative might also be unattractive. The idea of “ingenious” do not exhaust the possibilities. The paper also discusses historically laws might be suggestive of divine ingenuity. Yet to speak of a self- the different views on extraterrestrial life, together with their theological organizing and a self-complexifying universe seems to imply a completely and other implications. Given the enormous scientific developments that autonomous system operating independently of any transcendent power. have been unfolding before us, one might be tempted to conclude that Faced with the choice Davies describes, a Christian theologian might they have changed the ET scenario considerably. However, the author, feel compelled to embrace extraterrestrial life, in order to escape from as a well-informed historian of science, believes that no substantial the pointless universe of “orthodox science.” Yet to do so would bring change has taken place with regard to the ideas, concerns, arguments its own problems. Within the Christian tradition the gravitational pull of surrounding ET. At the same time he thinks that four contexts in the anthropocentric concepts has been very strong. It has also been contemporary world have made the ET debate particularly relevant: 1) reinforced by the doctrine that human beings were made in the image of Developments in astronomy and astrophysics, thanks particularly to the breakthroughs in telescopic investigations, 2) attempts to revive a God and therefore uniquely privileged in the universe. Theologically natural theology, 3) the Intelligent Design movement, 4) the interest in speaking, there is an uncomfortable dilemma. We may populate other anthropic coincidence arguments. He also points out the challenges worlds to make our own less accidental, less pointless; but, in our embrace and difficulties each one of these entails.. of intelligent aliens, do we not shake the older foundations of faith? - Editor This dilemma, I shall argue, is not new. The possibility of Key Words: Extraterrestrial life, SETI, David Brewster, William Whewell, extraterrestrial life has been debated since antiquity, and for centuries Argument from design, Evolution Christian theology has shown an ambivalent attitude towards the person of ET. Historical scholarship has much to teach us about the issues. It also helps us to understand the reasons why speculation about life on

6 Omega June 2006 7 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life other worlds has recurred in many generations. I shall therefore begin defence of the Copernican system was grounded in the analogies he with a few perspectives from recent historical research. It will then be drew between the earth and the planets. His contemporary, Johannes possible to expose the tensions and divisions within the Christian tradition Kepler, was perfectly willing to admit other civilisations in the solar system, as different thinkers have addressed the problems in radically different though he could not renounce the idea that the human race was the most ways. The question I wish to address is whether the modern search for privileged – especially since it occupied the central orbit among the signs of intelligent life has introduced anything significantly new into the planets.5 A critical point is that discussion of extraterrestrials became an discussion. Claims for the immensely important implications of new attractive device in the teaching and popularisation of astronomy. From discoveries are often made. On closer inspection they introduce nuances the time of Kepler to the present, the question whether life might be that have been assessed many times before. But, unlike the author of possible on Mars or other planets has been the perfect vehicle for the book of Ecclesiastes, I shall not conclude that there is nothing new introducing information on the physics and chemistry of heavenly bodies. under the sun. Beyond the sun, exciting new discoveries are constantly Serious astronomers have sometimes dismissed talk of extraterrestrials being made, reinvigorating a debate that touches many aspects of precisely because it has always been speculative. But one interesting discourse about science and religion. My final question will be whether result of historical research has been the realisation that beliefs about a there are new contexts today in which extraterrestrials may still maintain plurality of worlds have actually shaped the content of astronomical a high profile. science and have sometimes inspired new research programmes. For example, Descartes’s conviction that the stars are suns resembling our Extraterrestrials and their Uses own sun appears to have been reinforced and certainly popularised by the belief in many planetary systems.6 The immense success of In antiquity the postulation of other inhabited worlds was associated Fontenelle’s Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes (1686) ensured with the atomists Democritus, Leucippus and Epicurus. Their worldview, that, from the late-seventeenth century onwards, extraterrestrials were captured in Lucretius’s poem De Rerum Natura, stood in sharp contrast admitted into polite society. to the popular religious beliefs of their day. As Lucretius put it, nature could run by itself and had no need of gods. Worlds came into being and The interplay between the physics of astronomy and the passed out of being by collisions and combinations of atoms. There was metaphysics of multiple worlds has often been subtle. It has sometimes no steering arm of divine providence, no intervention by the gods. In worked to the advantage of astronomy, sometimes to its detriment. In a sixteenth-century Europe, when the text of Lucretius was rediscovered recent analysis of four case studies, Michael Crowe has argued that the and passed through many editions, atomism and the possibility of many giant telescopes that enabled William Herschel to identify some two worlds were linked together. This means that one use for extraterrestrials thousand five hundred nebulae had been built in the first place to satisfy was to attack the Christian religion. They were assembled for that his curiosity about life on the moon. Less productively, Herschel also same purpose in works of social criticism, as when Cyrano de Bergerac believed that the sun is inhabited. This required the theory that the sun described the state of civilisation on the moon (1657) and the sun (1662). and stars are cool earth-like spheres surrounded by a bright glowing It was an ingenious device to expose what was defective in earthly layer. Sunspots, on this somewhat eccentric view, were simply openings society.4 When a visitor from the earth asks his audience what they in the surface layer, allowing glimpses of the cool interior. Crowe’s think of Moses, they burst into laughter. other examples include William Whewell, the Cambridge philosopher whose doubts about extraterrestrials shaped his interpretation of the An impulse to discuss extraterrestrials came from the science of nebulae. Whewell rejected the idea that they were distant island-universes astronomy itself, especially after the Copernican innovation. In the new containing many worlds. They were rather stars in the process of sun-centred universe, the earth became a planet, inviting the suggestion formation, offering no foothold for life. Crowe’s argument is that that other planets, like the earth, might be inhabited. Much of Galileo’s 8Omega June 2006 9 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life

Christian convictions lay behind Whewell’s unease, particularly his and whether his belief in an infinite universe containing an infinite plurality understanding of God’s Incarnation in the person of Christ, and what of worlds was a significant heresy. Perhaps he was burned at the stake that meant for the earth as a unique theatre of redemption. A similar as a magician, as Frances Yates proposed9 or because of the many sensibility is shown in another of Crowe’s subjects, Edward Walter blasphemies with which he was charged. Maurice Finocchiaro has Maunder who, early in the twentieth century, rejected the evidence for recently discounted these possibilities because Bruno denied that he had Martian life based on the appearance of the canals made famous by been guilty of deviation on such matters as the person of Christ. On Giovanni Schiaparelli and Percival Lowell.7 I have drawn attention to theological matters he professed a willingness to submit to the authority Crowe’s study because it shows how difficult it is to generalise about of his Church. It was the philosophical issues on which he refused to the consequences for science when metaphysical and religious move. Bruno stubbornly maintained that it was not heretical to propose predispositions colour and even shape what is acceptable. It reminds us an infinite universe containing an infinite plurality of worlds. According that heated debates about life on other worlds are not new and that to Finocchiaro, it was his refusal to submit on this point that, in the eyes theological preferences have found expression in scientific debate. of his judges, confirmed a more comprehensive guilt.10 Edward Maunder’s extermination of the Martians went hand in hand with his membership of a small Pentecostal church. He was convinced If this interpretation is correct, it raises the question how Bruno that “it was no mere lucky chance that brought together so many could be so confident that an infinite plurality of worlds ought not to be qualifications, each of them essential to our welfare, in this planet of condemned as heretical. Part of the answer may lie in the argument he ours, whilst larger, brighter orbs possess no such fitness for our use.”8 used to defend his position. For Bruno it was not enough that an omnipotent God could have made many worlds. An infinitely powerful It was the contrast that threw into relief the “infinite care” with God would surely have exercised and expressed that power in creating which the earth had been fashioned. Maunder’s conservative religious an infinite number of worlds. His judges did not agree, but we see here position does not coincide with either of the two worldviews defined by the makings of both divisiveness and ambivalence within the Christian Paul Davies, with which I began. For Maunder and many Christian church. Bruno’s argument was an extension of scholastic reasoning11 thinkers there are deep religious meanings in the drama of human life on and variants of it would later find favour with Christian pluralists. More earth without having to populate the heavens in order to preserve a conservative minds would side with the sentiment expressed by the Dutch sense of purpose. Let us look a little more closely at the theological philosopher Gerhard De Vries: to invoke God’s omnipotence to sanction issues. men on the moon was the “common refuge of those who presumed to defend absurd and false opinions of every kind as truth.”12 Theological Ambivalence The nature and relevance of biblical authority contributed to another Within the Christian traditions, both Catholic and Protestant, source of ambivalence. There is no doubt that extraterrestrial life was attitudes towards extraterrestrial life have been diverse, divisive and often excluded on biblical grounds. The architect of Lutheran educational ambivalent. Scholastic philosophers often had to balance on a tight- priorities, Philp Melanchthon, favoured astronomical and mathematical rope. In antiquity Aristotle had argued that there could only be one studies, but his Protestant scholasticism militated against a plurality of cosmos. But this was a dogma condemned among many others by worlds.13 Etienne Tempier, bishop of Paris, in 1277. Henceforth it would be dangerous to suggest that an omnipotent God could not have made more The Bible indicated that, after the labour of Creation, God had worlds had He wished to do so. But to assert that He had in fact made rested on the seventh day. He had not begun work on other worlds. more was even more dangerous, as Giordano Bruno discovered to his Melanchthon’s resistance also sprang from his reflections on Christ’s cost. There has been a lot of discussion concerning Bruno’s execution, death and resurrection: “It must not be imagined that there are many 10Omega June 2006 11 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life worlds, because it must not be imagined that Christ died and was Christ’s death on earth not be efficacious for their redemption? But it is resurrected more often.”14 Evidently the question whether Christ might precisely this last conjecture – the universal significance of Christ’s death have to visit every inhabited world led to an uncomfortable train of thought. and resurrection – that highlights the dilemma. How would the fallen on other worlds know of Christ’s redeeming work? Given what one can However, the use of the Bible to dismiss extra-terrestrials was by only assume to be their very different histories, how could Christ’s life no means universal among Christian scholars. The most active populariser on earth have the same significance for them? Denis Edwards has of Copernican cosmology in England, John Wilkins, agreed that the Bible again pinpointed the problem: “It is hard to see how they can be thought said nothing about life on other worlds. But this was a fact that could be of as sharing our earthly economy. If this is so, then we cannot rule out turned to advantage. The silence of the Bible was simply explained that God might deal with them according to an economy that is distinct since the Scriptures were concerned only with God’s involvement in from ours, and we need to allow that this economy could involve some human history. Precisely because it said nothing about extra-terrestrial form of incarnation.”18 life, it could not be used to rule out the possibility.15 Wilkins was writing in the middle of the seventeenth century when it was increasingly difficult While the admission of other incarnations has often been resisted, to believe that all significant knowledge was either contained in or more open views have also been countenanced by Christian thinkers. indicated by Scripture. By the middle of the nineteenth-century, when Thomas Aquinas, while arguing for a single unified cosmos, nevertheless other habitable worlds were widely accepted, the Bible was even used insisted that more than one incarnation must be considered possible for to uphold them. In his book More Worlds than One [1854], the Scottish God.19 His contemporary, the Franciscan theologian Bonaventure, allowed physicist and evangelical Christian David Brewster exploited Christ’s that God could make a hundred worlds like ours, and could also have remark that “in my Father’s house are many mansions,” and Christ’s made a world that embraced them all. He even considered that other reference to “other sheep, not of this fold.” The silence of scripture, worlds might have existed in time frames prior to our own.20 once a source of ambiguity, was for Brewster not a real silence. There were hints of many mansions in the universe.16 The depth of the metaphysical debates of the past can still take us by surprise. At the heart of the theological debate has been the doctrine of Incarnation. We have already seen Melanchthon’s discomfort at the Divisions within the Christian tradition can also be exposed by thought that Christ might have to visit other worlds. The problem runs reference to natural theology. In his Astro-Theology of 1714, William quite deep because it is in the nature of the concept of Incarnation that Derham rejoiced in the possibility of multiple worlds because to take the the human Jesus of Nazareth could not be understood as God incarnate idea seriously was spiritually liberating: it marked an emancipation from for an extraterrestrial species. As the Catholic theologian Denis Edwards the naïve view that everything had been made for the benefit of man. has asserted, “if an extraterrestrial community is to experience The affirmation of other worlds was sometimes helpful in the construction Incarnation, this would seem to require that God be revealed in of an intelligible universe. Galileo’s telescopic observations had posed extraterrestrial flesh.”17 Here we can detect another source of an acute problem: what purpose could there be for the many stars invisible ambivalence among Christian commentators. When John Wilkins to the naked eye? One way of protecting a teleological reading of nature addressed the issues in seventeenth-century England, he minimised the was to imagine that stars, of no use to us, did after all have a purpose if threat from other worlds by observing that they might not be occupied they shone on their own planetary worlds. This way of rationalising by intelligent life. He added that, even if they were, that life might not be what would otherwise seem gratuitous elements of creation goes a long human. Even if it was, it might be a form of human life that had not way towards explaining the popularity of extraterrestrials in eighteenth fallen from grace. And even if it had fallen from grace, why should and early nineteenth-century works of natural theology. As David Brewster argued in his dispute with William Whewell, for God to have

12Omega June 2006 13 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life created so many suns with no worlds of their own to illuminate would be towards the production of life in many cosmic niches. But such a prospect unthinkable. It would leave serious flaws in the economy of creation. It was distasteful because, in the last analysis, Whewell could not accept would be as if a railway entrepreneur sent trains running all over Europe that the human mind, with its ability to uncover scientific truth, was the having many carriages illuminated but only one occupied. It would be product of merely natural forces. In this he was not alone. The same terribly wasteful.21 Whewell took a very different view, partly because can be said of Darwin’s mentor Charles Lyell, and of Darwin’s co- of his Christological concerns, partly because he saw how the assumption founder of the theory of natural selection, Alfred Russel Wallace. of inhabited worlds could easily be used to promote a naturalistic evolutionary philosophy that was theologically dangerous. From the Past to the Present The debate between Brewster and Whewell took place in the It may be tempting to dismiss the debates of the past because 1850s before Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species was published. But they took place without the advantage of modern scientific instruments a naturalistic theory of human evolution had already reached a large and without the luxury of sophisticated programmes for the detection of public. In 1844 a book was published anonymously with the title Vestiges portentous signals. But given the richness of the earlier discussions it is of the Natural History of Creation. Its author, Robert Chambers, time to ask whether modern resources have introduced anything radically proposed that there was a law of development in the biological world new. Newspaper headlines often imply that they have; but on closer similar to Newton’s law of gravitation in the physical. Although Chambers inspection the arguments produced seem nothing more than variants of ascribed the law to a deity, his thesis was shocking to many because it what has gone before. There is an old joke that one of the strongest treated mental phenomena and human behaviour as if they were rooted arguments for belief in the intelligence of life elsewhere in the universe in material causes. Whewell’s colleague at Trinity College Cambridge, is that it has chosen not to visit us! That, too, must not be forgotten. Adam Sedgwick, described the book as a work of “base materialism” Any suggestion that we might have to contemplate the prospect that destroyed the basis for moral responsibility. It was the kind of book of extraterrestrial intelligence more seriously today than in previous that created a dilemma for scholars. If one attacked it, as Sedgwick did centuries hardly bears examination. When Whewell questioned the in an extravagantly long review, one only succeeded in drawing attention evidence for ET in 1853, he was attacking a belief that had become to it. As James Secord has recently shown, Vestiges was read firmly entrenched within popular scientific culture. Just a few years everywhere – from coffee houses to colleges, from drawing rooms to earlier the Scottish evangelical writer Thomas Dick had published his railway carriages.22 Although its many readers read it differently, there estimate of the total population of the solar system, which included the was a message for those interested in a plurality of worlds. Given the inhabitants of Saturn’s rings. Extraterrestrials were more prevalent in right material conditions on other worlds, the same law of development 1837 than now, even though no films had been made about them. Dick that produced life on the earth would have led to the emergence of allocated a population to each planet according to it size, and with eloquent comparable life elsewhere. Echoing earlier attacks on Christianity by precision calculated a total population of 21,891,974,404,480.23 Surely deists such as Tom Paine, Chambers associated a plurality of worlds our modern science has taught us to be less, not more, credulous. with a naturalistic metaphysics that he knew would be an embarrassment to certain Christian sensibilities. I believe that Whewell saw more clearly It could be claimed, reasonably enough, that recent science has into the future than many of his contemporaries. He saw that any helped to sustain the vision by giving us more real planets to play with. evidence for extraterrestrial life could now be turned into evidence for After centuries of speculation we have at last identified planets orbiting an evolutionary account of human origins. He foresaw the correlation other suns. Speaking of this development, the British Astronomer Royal, enshrined in the less nihilistic of Paul Davies’s two worldviews. He Sir Martin Rees, has recently noted that “We shall be especially interested foresaw that it might be possible to argue for a law, biased in some way in possible ‘twins’ of our earth – planets the same size as ours, orbiting

14Omega June 2006 15 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life other sun-like stars, and with climates where water neither boils nor which they thrive, although extreme to us, might be indicative of what stays frozen.” He adds that “by analysing such a planet’s faint light, we Earth was like 3.8 billion years ago.”27 could infer whether it might have a biosphere.” His question is whether some of these planets could “harbour life-forms far more interesting As rhetoric in favour of life elsewhere, however, there is nothing than anything we might find on Mars.” His answer, however, still looks new in the argument. In the nineteenth-century debate between Brewster to the future: “I think biologists will understand enough about life’s origins and Whewell, Brewster used essentially the same argument to maintain to be able to tell us whether it is a fluke, or whether it is near-inevitable a healthy population on other worlds. Wherever one looked on the earth, life of some kind seemed able to survive, however extreme the conditions. in the kind of initial ‘soup’ expected on a young planet. They might even Brewster even gave the argument a theological flourish by insisting that have answered the harder question: what are the odds against it evolving an omnipotent God would be able to devise life forms different from into something that we would recognise as intelligent?”24 those found on the earth yet adapted to the extreme conditions of other If we ask whether the debate has been transformed by the spheres.28 discovery of these new planets, there is perhaps one sense in which it A further claim might be that what we know about the age of has. It is no longer possible to hold any kind of metaphysical predisposition planets in other star systems has transformed the terms of the debate. against their reality – the kind of metaphysical predisposition that Stanley The recent discovery of a gas giant, 800 times the size of the earth and Jaki exposed among thinkers previously committed to their reality.25 In formed apparently some 13 billion years ago, has attracted the attention other respects it is difficult to detect any decisive change. The majority of science journalists. This planet orbits a double star in the M4 cluster of the new planets appear to be too close to their stars or to have orbits 26 visible in the direction of the constellation Scorpio. The fact that it was of such a shape that it would be unduly optimistic to populate them. formed just a billion years after the ‘big bang’ has encouraged speculation Decisive evidence remains as elusive as ever. In the quotation above that planets could form much more readily than is generally believed. the astronomer looks to the biologist for help, reminding us again of the That would increase the probability of finding some with earth-like two possibilities supposed by Paul Davies. Yet the issue might not prove characteristics. Could the first life in the universe have evolved 13 so easily resolvable. On the view that life on earth is a lucky fluke, it is billion years ago on the earliest planets and then become extinct? It is a fluke that could presumably still occur elsewhere. the possibility of extinction that captured the newspaper headlines. One A claim might be made to the effect that new discoveries headline was “Old planet shows ET may be dead.” This was sensational concerning life on earth have made it more probable that life of some news. And yet it adds very little to the terms of the debate as conducted kind could exist elsewhere. This is a reference to the organisms that during the nineteenth century. The point was made then that recent have been named “extremophiles” because they can survive in the most advances in paleontology showed that the earth itself had been devoid extreme conditions found on the earth. We now know of microbes that of life for much of its history. Many species had also become extinct. can survive under Antarctic ice-sheets, in extremes of alkalinity, under The inference was drawn then that other worlds might not be inhabited now, though they might once have been. Or they might not be inhabited intense radiation and under intense pressure. If they can cope with such now but could be in the future.29 extremes, need we be so precipitate in dismissing the physical matrices of other planets as inhospitable? The possible significance of these Either way, the prospect of conversation with a living ET had to resilient superbugs has been described by Paul Davies: “Some superbugs be moderated. seem to be extraordinarily ancient and primitive, and there is a growing feeling among scientists that they could be living fossils, the nearest Modern critics of the SETI (Search for Extra Terrestrial thing alive to the universal ancestor. If so, the rigorous conditions in Intelligence) project have found in science itself a justification for their

16Omega June 2006 17 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life scepticism. A warning note had been sounded by the evolutionary that the evolution of the human mind was only explicable if there had biologist George Simpson as early as 1964: “The assumption, so freely been some form of guiding intelligence behind the evolutionary process.33 made by astronomers, physicists, and some biochemists, that once life On this point he had diverged from Darwin, to the latter’s consternation. gets started anywhere, humanoids will eventually and inevitably appear is plainly false.”30 Why? Because humans are themselves the product Three conclusions are I think permissible from these various of countless historical accidents. More recently Carl Sagan was faced examples. One is that the two competing worldviews as described by with same objection from evolutionary biology. In a debate with Ernst Paul Davies do not exhaust the possibilities. A contrast between what Mayr he was confronted with the fact that on the earth, among millions is found on the earth and what might be found in the heavens has served of lineages or organisms, and perhaps 50 billion speciation events, only the “romantic” view he describes, albeit in a circumscribed space. A one had led to high intelligence.31 Another sceptic, Stephen Jay Gould, second conclusion is that there is no simple correlation between has become well known for his thought experiment that even if the theological positions and attitudes towards ET. The diversity and evolutionary tape were played again on the earth, the chance of anything ambivalence that I have tried to illustrate suggest the absence of relations like a human being emerging would be effectively nil. of entailment. My third and more provocative conclusion is that the basic philosophical and theological issues have been rehearsed so many How new is this sceptical argument? Once again it had been times in the past that we should be suspicious of apocalyptic claims presaged in the past, by an earlier evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel made for the present. Wallace. In an appendix to his discussion of Man’s Place in the Universe, Wallace challenged those who blithely assumed that intelligent New Contexts for ET beings similar to man would appear in planets whose physical Rather than finish on that cynical note, I should like to refer briefly configuration was similar to that of the earth. Their assumption was to four contexts in which extra-terrestrials may take on a new lease of facile because the course of evolution on the earth had depended on life. The most obvious context is that of telescopic improvement. One repeated processes of divergence from common ancestors, each step of the missions in which the Vatican Observatory Research Group is contingent on the contingencies that had preceded it. Wallace emphasised involved is to use the large binocular telescope under construction at the the “number of very complex and antecedently improbable conditions University of Arizona to take pictures of extrasolar planets. Reporting which are absolutely essential for the development of higher forms of an interview with Father George Coyne, Director of the Vatican life from the elements that exist upon the earth or are known to exist in Observatory, Margaret Wertheim notes a “lovely twist of fate” – that the universe.” One had to recognise “the enormous rate at which the Roman Catholic Church has paved the way for instruments that improbability increases with each additional condition which is itself may finally enable us to detect life on other worlds.34 improbable.”32 Superficially it may seem strange that one of the first proponents of a naturalistic theory of evolution should have turned the She is particularly startled by Coyne’s reference to stars as God’s theory against intelligent extraterrestrials. But his position is all the more sperm. Asked whether he believes there will be other populated worlds, interesting because he again falls outside the two competing worldviews he replied that stars, like sperm, have the potential to produce life; but, as presented by Paul Davies. For Wallace there was a definite bias also like sperm, few may fulfil their potential. The analogy is striking, towards the production of human intelligence on the earth. He found though again not radically new. When Whewell resisted the dogma of this conclusion all the more compelling because of the absence he extra-terrestrial life one hundred and fifty years ago, he drew similar proposed elsewhere. Unlike predecessors who had contrasted the finely analogies between the physical processes of worlds in the making and tuned earth with the barren heavens, Wallace was not writing as a the abortive aspects of organic reproduction.35 Christian. But he had taken an interest in spiritualism and had concluded

18Omega June 2006 19 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life

Do such references to unrealised potential, or to abortive features Notes of creation undermine arguments for design? Attempts to revive a natural 1. Prof. Dr. John Brooke holds the Andreas Idreos Professorship of Science theology constitute a second context in which discussion of ET continues and Religion within the Faculty of Theology at Oxford University. His several to be relevant. Modern scientific theory makes it extremely difficult to books include Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives believe in a God whose relationship to evolutionary processes is that of (Cambridge University Press, 1991); Thinking about Matter: Studies in the a micro-manager. But those who wish to argue for design may still History of Chemical Philosophy (Ashgate, 1995); Reconstructing Nature: claim that a universe was designed in which it was possible for intelligent The Engagement of Science and Religion (T. & T. Clark, 1998); Science in life to evolve somewhere; the location did not have to be the earth. Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions (ed. with Margaret Osler and Jitse van der Meer) (University of Chicago Press, 2001). In Oxford Professor The ‘intelligent design’ movement that has recently gained Brooke is Director of the Master of Studies Programme in Science and momentum in the United States provides a third context in which ET has Religion , and a Fellow of Harris Manchester College, Oxford. made an appearance. Here the question is different: can criteria be 2. Paul Davies, The Fifth Miracle (London: 1998), p. 255. specified for the detection of ‘intelligent design’ in the world? If there 3. Davies, 1998, p. 256. are features of biological systems that exhibit what Michael Behe has called “irreducible complexity,” if they cannot be explained either by 4. Cyrano de Bergerac and Savinien, The Comical History of the States and chance or by natural laws, then is it not reasonable to posit the role of Empires of the Worlds of the Moon and Sun (London: 1687). intelligent design?36 This is a deeply problematic argument,37 with which 5. Edward Rosen, Kepler’s Conversation with Galileo’s Sidereal Messenger I have little sympathy; but the claim that it is ‘scientific’ to search for (New York and London: 1965). intelligent design is sometimes justified by reference to the SETI project. 6. Dick Steven, Plurality of Worlds (Cambridge: 1982), pp. 106-41. If it is ‘scientific’ to look for traces of extraterrestrial intelligences in world-systems we do not know, why should it not be ‘scientific’ to look 7. Michael Crowe, “Astronomy and Religion (1780-1915): Four Case Studies for traces of intelligence in the biological systems we do know? Involving Ideas of Extraterrestrial Life,” in Osiris 16, 209-26 (2001). 8. Edward Maunder, “Is Mars Inhabitable?,” in Sunday Magazine, n.s. 11: My fourth context is defined by the continuing interest in the 102-4, 170-2 (1882), p. 172. anthropic coincidences – in the seemingly remarkable fact that for 9. Frances Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (Chicago: 1964). intelligent life to have evolved at all several physical parameters had to lie within an extremely narrow range. The fact that such an improbable 10. Maurice Finocchiaro, “Philosophy versus religion and science versus combination of values occurred at all has been claimed as evidence for religion: the trials of Bruno and Galileo,” in Giordano Bruno: Philosopher design. To that kind of argument there is always the possibility of an of the Renaissance, 81-2 (2002), pp. 51-95. Epicurean response – that countless universes may have come into 11. Robert Westman and J. E. McGuire, Hermeticism and the Scientific existence, very few proving viable or productive of life. Instead of Revolution (Los Angeles: 1977). speaking of design we should count our lucky stars. In one respect we 12. Cited by Steven Dick, Plurality of Worlds (Cambridge: 1982), p. 122. have then come full circle, because the issue in antiquity was not so much whether there are other intelligent races within our one universe 13. John Dillenberger, Protestant Thought and Natural Science (London: 1961). but whether there might be many completely separate universes (more 14. Dick, Plurality of Worlds, p. 89. strictly separate cosmoi). The difficulty, now as then, is simply this: if 15. John Wilkins, The Discovery of a World in the Moone (London: 1638). by definition these other universes are truly separate, how can we know anything about them and the worlds they might contain? 16. John Brooke, “Natural Theology and the Plurality of Worlds: Observations on the Brewster-Whewell Debate,” in Annals of Science 34 (1977), pp. 221-86.

20Omega June 2006 21 John Hedley Brooke The Search for Extra-terrestrial Life

17. Denis Edwards, “Extraterrestrial Life and Jesus Christ,” in Pacific Journal of Theology and Science 1 (2000), pp. 12-20. 18. Denis Edwards, 2000. 19. Thomas O’Meara, “Christian Theology and Extraterrestrial Life,” in Theological Studies, 60 (1999), pp. 3-30. 20. Denis Edwards, 2000. Interface between Technology and 21. John Brooke, 1977. 22. James Secord, Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Religion Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of - Mathew Illathuparampil1 Creation (Chicago: 2000). 23. Thomas Dick, Celestial Scenery, or the Wonders of the Heavens Displayed (London: 1837) and Michael Crowe, “Astronomy and Religion (1780-1915): Abstract: This paper is an exploration to understand the exact nature of Four Case Studies Involving Ideas of Extraterrestrial Life,” pp. 209-26. the interface between technology and religion. It begins with some 24. Martin Rees, “Other Earths?,” in Science and Public Affairs, March: 7 (2003). general reflections on the theme. To give the inquiry a better focus, the author examines the role of Judeo-Christian traditions in the 25. Stanley Jaki, Planets and Planetarians (Edinburgh: 1978). development of western technology. At first he analyses the scriptures to 26. Nature 17, April (2003), p. 659. see any strong scriptural basis for or against technology. But this yields no conclusive answer. This is followed by a rather detailed and critical 27. Davies, 1998, p. 146. study of the claim that the Judeo-Christian tradition has made the 28. Brooke, 1977. blossoming of technology possible, particularly the views of Lynn White Jr. and Max Weber. He concludes that it is impossible to draw a clear 29. Hugh Miller, Geology versus Astronomy (Glasgow: 1855). line of mutual influence between technology and religion. Finally, he 30. George Simpson, “On the Nonprevalence of Humanoids,” in Science 143 investigates the Catholic Church’s position on the issue, confining himself (1964), p. 772. to three principal documents: The Christmas Message of Pius XII (1953), Gaudium et Spes of Vatican II (1965) and the Catechism of the Catholic 31. Davies, 1998, p. 255. Church (1992). This inquiry reveals that there is no single, standard 32. Crowe, 1986, p. 531. view of the Catholic Church on the matter. The paper ends with five insightful concluding remarks. 33. M. J. Kottler, “Alfred Russel Wallace, the Origin of Man, and Spiritualism,” in Isis 65 (1974), pp. 145-92. - Editor 34. Margaret Wertheim, “Looking for God and Aliens,” in Science and Spirit Key Words: The Bible and technology, Christianity and technology, July/August (2003), pp. 22-27. Judeo-Christian tradition, Lynn White, Max Weber 35. William Whewell, Of the Plurality of Worlds: An Essay (London: 1853) and Brooke, 1977. Despite the air of an odd pair, the interface between technology 36. Michael Behe, Darwin’s Black Box (New York: 1996). and religion is of interest to the history of religion, the philosophy of 37. Kenneth Miller, Finding Darwin’s God (New York: 1999). technology and even theology. Being the foundational subsystems of human culture, technology and religion cannot remain mutual strangers.

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The relation between the two could be of tension, competition, conflict, with technology. With the dawn of full-scale civilizations, technology balance, cooperation or conciliation. The question that is addressed here seemed to have promoted religions by the art of writing, thus enabling is how do technology and religion mutually influence each other. The religions to possess sacred “books.”3 On their part, ancient religions are purpose of this paper is not to offer a definite answer to this question, said to have contributed to the growth of technology. For instance, in rather to elucidate the complexity of the question, unveiling the both ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the temple schools which provided vacuousness of all answers that pretend to depict a simple, direct and the only form of institutional education taught mathematics along with clear correlation between the two. religious mysteries.4 Another link between religion and technology consists in the role of religions in the development of the cities. Jay Newman After certain preliminary reflections on the relation between argues that “the city not only developed in accord with religious attitudes technology and religion in general, the first part of this essay examines and priorities but contributed substantially to the institutionalization and the role of Judeo-Christian traditions in the development of western promotion of the role of religion in social life as well as to the enhancement technology, as a more precise version of the question at stake. The of religions as a form of experience and culture.”5 We can multiply such claims of Lynn White Jr. and Max Weber are critically treated in this sparse examples as these, about the mutual interaction between regard. The second part concentrates on the approach of the Catholic technology and religion. Church towards technology. It offers us an occasion to review how a religion, the Catholic Church, reflects on technology instead of taking it Broadly speaking, one may reduce the relation between technology for granted. and religion into two categories, one of antitechnology and the other of protechnology. The classical Greek culture was predominantly (though Intersection of Technology and Religion not totally) anti-technological. Curiously, such a technological antipathy had certain religious grounds as well. In the words of Carl Mitcham, Religions or religious activities became self-conscious before technology or technological activities did so. In other words, ‘religious the ancient critique of technology ... rests on a tightly woven, people’ made reflections on religion before technology-users began their fourfold argument: (1) the will to technology or the technological reflections on technology. For example, Platonic reflections on theology intention often involves a turning away from faith or trust in nature or Providence, (2) technical affluence and the concomitant as discourse to gods and discourse about gods (Republic II, 379a) were process of change tend to undermine individual striving for antecedent to the Aristotelian reflections on technology (techné) as a excellence and societal stability, (3) technological knowledge form of knowledge (Nicomachean Ethics VI, 4, 1140aI). Consequently, likewise draws human beings into intercourse with the world and as we shall soon see, the interface between religion and technology has obscures transcendence, (4) technical objects are less real than 6 been reflected upon predominantly, though indirectly, from the vantage objects of nature. point of religion, not the other way round. However, it is almost impossible Emmanuel G. Mesthene holds that antitechnology view originates to make an uninterrupted historical mapping of the relation between the from the fear of the anticipated harm which technology can do towards two. religion. He identifies five such fears: technology can deprive people of As a realistic and general testimony, James K. Feibleman observes work, rob their privacy, pollute the environment, repress individuality that “the accounts of the earliest religions show them to have been and human dignity, and undermine democracy. However, these are not 7 involved with technology.”2 However, Feibleman’s expression that directly religious fears as such. religions were “involved with technology” is so broad that it can imply Religious antitechnology rests on its alleged role in undermining any sort of relationship between the two. Anyway, he suggests that the religious worldviews, practices, etc. Examples of twentieth-century burial practices of the ancient religions demonstrate their involvement antitechnologists include Jacques Ellul, Langdon Gilkey, etc. There are

24Omega June 2006 25 Mathew Illathuparampil Interface between Technology and Religion protechnologists who argue for technology in the name of religion. They of their predecessors, practically en block.”10 According to this include Emmanuel Mounier, Teilhard de Chardin, Harvey Cox and Walter interpretation, the technology of agriculture was deemed dangerous not J. Ong, etc.8 on its account, but because of the alleged threat of the intrusion of pagan gods into Jewish faith through the adoption of farming. Expanding the above exercise of linking technology with religion in very general terms may not be sufficiently revealing of the nature of However, there have been attempts to illustrate that the Torah their intersections. Hence, I sharpen the focus of our initial question by promotes technology. Firstly, technical objects (artefacts) mentioned in restricting the range of it. In order to do that, let us modify the question: the books of law such as lamps, tents, robes, pools, wells, walls, canals, had the different layers of the Judeo-Christian tradition any role in the iron, cedar, brick, etc., are pointed out as proof for Torah’s approval of development of western technology? I restrict our discussion to this technology. Secondly, certain texts which mention the reception of divine particular topic because, firstly, there has been much theoretical discussion inspiration also mention the use of technological endeavours. For example, on technology in the West, unlike in the East. Secondly, one might be consider the story of building Noah’s ark, and the inspiration given to able to figure out more clearly what is meant by the Judeo-Christian Bezaleel and Aholiab to build artefacts for worship (Exodus 31:1-6). traditions than other religious traditions, such as Hinduism. For the Judeo- Thirdly, the Torah makes reference to the technological instruction given Christian traditions represent a more clearly spelled out creed, code, cult in building certain things, e.g., in building the Sanctuary and crafting the and communities. However, by saying this I do not gloss over the crucial tabernacle (Exodus 26:1-5).11 Two comments are due here: first, these issues behind the assumption of a Judeo-Christian tradition, as explained conclusions in favour of technology are taken without serious exegetical below. study, thus leaving open the possibility for different conclusions from textual criticism. Secondly, one cannot pretend that the texts mentioned The Judeo-Christian Traditions and Western Technology express the whole of Jewish attitude toward technology. Jewish understanding of technology, as in the case of any issue, is conditioned In order to examine the role played by the Judeo-Christian traditions by Midrash and Talmud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish mysticism and the in the advancement of western technology, we have to go back to their historical circumstances of the Jewish people in which they find written sources and practices. The written (canonical) source of this themselves, such as the exile or Diaspora. To substantiate the claim that common tradition consists in the Hebrew Bible. But the texts in the Jewish understanding of technology cannot be limited to certain scriptural Hebrew Bible can be interpreted in favour of or against technology. passages, let us consider the following example. There was a dispute This makes it difficult for us to arrive at any particular conclusion. For between the schools of Rabbi Hillel and Rabbi Shammai about the question example, the Genesis text which says that God accepts the offering of whether vessels, machines, etc., should cease working on the Sabbath. Abel who herded sheep and rejects Cain’s offering of crops (Gen. 4: 3- The real issue was whether the prohibition of labour on the Sabbath 5), has been interpreted as an evidence of anti-technological mentality in extended from the producer of the thing to the thing itself. The dispute Judaism.9 The ancestors of the ancient Israelites being herdsmen, their was settled in favour of the school of Hillel, concluding that “automatic wanderings brought them into contact with the technology of agriculture. technology need not be stopped for the Sabbath as long as it does not But adoption of an agrarian lifestyle was not wholeheartedly approved require human attention on the Sabbath, as long as it permits its makers by their religious tradition. The reason why agriculture was not approved and its attendants to transcend it.”12 initially was that it was interwoven with the Canaanites’ religious practices. Hence, the adoption of farming meant for the Israelites the The foregone short account shows that by analysing sacred texts acceptance of the whole practice as a unit which included elements it would be impossible to draw out conclusions pro or contra technology against their Yahweh worship. “Along with the material side of Palestinian from a particular religious point of view, because the conclusions are civilization, the tribes have taken over the religious views and practices 26Omega June 2006 27 Mathew Illathuparampil Interface between Technology and Religion subject to different interpretations of the texts one prefers to adopt. period shows considerable diversity of understandings concerning Having noted the limitation of an attempt to read the Jewish attitude Christian doctrine. The theological harmony to which the church arrived towards technology from their scriptures, I now turn to scrutinise a widely eventually was the result of theological considerations as well as political held claim that the Judeo-Christian tradition has made the flowering of reasons.17 Even during the Medieval Period, the church could not claim technology in the West possible. to have achieved a uniformity of faith, doctrine or practice. It would be difficult to say that the Augustinian and Thomistic idea of God was The major protagonist of the view that the Judeo-Christian tradition altogether the same in the context of their particular interpretations and has created a conducive climate for technological growth in the West is (Platonic & Aristotelian) traditions. The Reformation and the counter- 13 Lynn White, Jr. (1907-1987). However, be it remarked that the claim Reformation also weaken White’s claim to speak about the Judeo- under examination is only a subsidiary implication of White’s major thesis, Christian tradition as a single entity. Now coming to our specific topic, that is, the Judeo-Christian tradition is responsible for the current ecological namely, technology, within Christianity different stances have been taken 14 crisis. The cardinal claims of White in this regard can be reduced to by different authors. For example, W. Norris Clarke, a Roman Catholic the following propositions, using many of White’s own phrases: priest, argues that technology is a positive “element in the total The roots of Western technology go back to the Genesis account development of man as an image of God.”18 But Christianity also includes of creation. In this overwhelmingly anthropocentric story, human Ellul, a Calvinist, who says of technology that “[i]t is the product of the being shares with God’s transcendence of nature to a great extent. situation in which sin has put man; it is inscribed exclusively in the fallen Acceptance of this Judeo-Christian account makes it both world; it is uniquely part of this fallen world; it is a product of necessity possible and necessary to exploit nature without regard for its and not of freedom.”19 In short, it is rather simplistic to speak about the well-being. In order to avoid a worsening of ecological and contemporary technological crises, we need to reject the Christian Judeo-Christian tradition in a monolithic fashion, since this tradition axiom that nature has no reason for its existence but to serve includes diverse views on particular topics, including technology. 15 human beings. Secondly, White presumes a strong distinction between the East The most relevant propositions of White can be singled out as and the West in his analysis of the development of western technology. follows: God has created the human being in His own image and likeness Jacques Ellul has refuted such strongly dichotomous views on the spirit (according to the Genesis account), has endowed him/her with a of Western and Eastern cultures: transcendence of nature, allowing humans to subdue and exploit nature. East: passive, fatalist, contemptuous of life and action; the West: This basic religious conviction in the West about human beings’ distinction active, conquering, turning nature to profit. These contrasts, so from nature provided the crucial impetus for the development of western dear to popular sociology, are said to result from a difference in technology. Does this thesis hold water? Suspicions against White’s thesis religion: Buddhism and Islam on the one hand; on the other, are expressed below. Christianity, which is credited with having forged the practical soul of the West. These ideas are hardly beyond the level of the 20 First, in evaluating the position of White one confronts a deep rote repetitions found even in the works of serious historians. historical confusion in the expression “the Judeo-Christian tradition.” Ellul argues that “[t]he technical movement of the West developed White seems to propose it as a definite description of a particular thing. in a world which had already withdrawn from the dominant influence of However, the fact is that it cannot function as a specific referent,16 for a Christianity.”21 It clearly contrasts the views of White. Ellul comes to cursory consideration of the history of the Judeo-Christian tradition would this conclusion analysing historical data, according to which, as reveal that there have been different strands or streams of thought in Christianity rose to dominance in the Roman Empire, the Roman this collective tradition. For instance, in the writings of Paul we find him organization began to decline. He observes that “it is not a coincidence struggling with various interpretations of the Christ event. The Patristic

28Omega June 2006 29 Mathew Illathuparampil Interface between Technology and Religion that Rome declined as Christianity triumphed. The Emperor Julian was Probably, the positive aspect of White’s contention is that he brings certainly justified in accusing the Christians of ruining the industry of the our attention to western monotheism as one of the strong elements in Empire.”22 According to Ellul, only by the 12th century a technical the consideration of the complex causal connections between religion movement feebly began in the West. He considers also two claims and technology. It goes without saying that we have not analysed all the attributed to Christianity which are supposed to have contributed to the aspects of the claims of White; for instance, the proposed relation growth of technology. First, Christianity suppressed (not abolished!) between the Judeo-Christian notion of human transcendence and the slavery; second, it secularized nature.23 Refuting these claims, he says development of technology. Limiting myself to a few comments which that there was greater technological progress in slave societies, e.g., manifest the weakness of the claims of White, now I mention another Egypt. His overall conclusion is that rather than aiding the growth of thesis (which shows some resemblance to the position of White) that technology, Christianity was always asking the ethical (non-technological) proposes a relation between religion and technology. question, is it righteous? He maintains that “[t]he search for justice before God, the measuring of technique by other criteria than those of technique A widely discussed thesis that links religious tradition with itself — these were great obstacles that Christianity opposed to technical technological development is Max Weber’s (1864-1920) claim that the progress. They operated in the Middle Ages in all areas of life, and Protestant work ethic was a causative factor in the industrial revolution 27 made history coincide with theology.”24 and the rise of capitalism in the West. His argument can be summarized as follows: “Ascetic Protestantism” particularly, a kind of English Thirdly, we consider a methodological issue. Though White Puritanism derived from Calvin contributed to the shaping of the western supports his essay with voluminous notes, comprising sources from attitude toward labour, wealth and technology. Ascetic Protestantism archaeological, iconographic and etymological material, very often he drove home the idea that wealth is ethically sinful only in so far as it depends on secondary sources. This seems to weaken his conclusions. creates idleness and sinful enjoyment of life. But Christians are called White forms conclusions with an ecclesiastical bias in his discussion on for useful works for the welfare of humanity and the glory of God. To medieval technology, most likely because of the predominance of religious quote Weber: “Wealth is ... bad ethically only in so far as it is a temptation source material available to him. But in assessing the growth of medieval to idleness and sinful enjoyment of life, and its acquisition is bad only technology, along with religious factors, secular elements such as the when it is with the purpose of later living merrily and without care. But competition among merchants and rulers must be taken into account. as a performance of duty in a calling it is not only morally permissible, Probably, a study of the history of the development of technology in but actually enjoined.”28 The demand to produce things for the glory of particular European nations would help one to revalue the merits of the God and the use of humankind was an impetus for technological bloom. arguments of White.25 For example, after investigating the relation The Calvinists, according to Weber, were applying the monastic ideals between technology and religion in medieval Sweden, Anna Götlind to the larger world. This is an important position, though not entirely concludes, in contrast to the general thesis of White, that “I have found correct. We cannot review the claims of Weber here or the arguments little evidence that the Church and the monasteries acted as important against them that followed Weber’s thesis. However, having been conveyors of technical knowledge in medieval Sweden. Nor have attacked from many directions, Weber eventually modified his thesis to medieval Swedish religious literature and art manifested many signs of a admit that the roots of the “Protestant ethic” go back to the pre- specially positive attitude on the part of Western Christianity to work Reformation Christianity and ancient Judaism.29 In this respect, Weber and technology, or of an equation of advanced technology with high was becoming the predecessor of Harvey Cox and Lynn White Jr. morality.”26

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The Christian Stance on Technology more attention to the negativity of technology. Placed in its historical context, the speech of Pius XII typically represents the anxieties of all The foregone discussion suggests that it is almost impossible to men and women of good will about the unprecedented technological draw a clear line of mutual influence between technology and religion. boom of that period. Does he offer any insights about the nature of Some reasons for this difficulty will be mentioned in the concluding technology or its relation to religion? Unfortunately, the answer must be remarks of this essay. One of the reasons for this limitation is that there in the negative. is no single view in religion towards technology, as in the case of many other issues. However, hoping for further clarity, we limit our inquiry to Gaudium et Spes (hereafter GS), the Pastoral Constitution of Catholicism and examine how its teaching Magisterium understands Vatican II on ‘The Church in the Modern World,’ makes reference to technology. technology as a matter of serious concern. However, it does not deal with technology at length. Technology is viewed by this document as a One can have only a contemporary account of the attitude of the factor that causes profound changes in the world (GS, 5). This document Church towards technology since technology became a matter of serious further refers to technology, when it speaks about the meaning of human concern in the teachings of the Church only from the 1950s. Nonetheless, activity in the world. Accordingly, technology helps us to extend our one does not find an extensive and deep treatment on technology in mastery over the whole universe (GS, 33). Moreover, GS warns against general, as there are teachings of the Church on themes such as ‘peace,’ a possible danger caused by science and technology, namely, an exclusive ‘human dignity,’ ‘work’ and ‘just wages.’ In this attempt, we cannot go emphasis on observable data. It would lead us to ignore ‘higher realities.’ through the whole documentary tradition of the Church and examine (GS, 57). each passage that deals with technology. Hence, I limit myself to three documents which seem to claim representative character of the position The closely related realities of science and technology are of the Church: The Christmas Message of Pius XII (1953), Gaudium et understood in GS synonymously. This document definitely touches upon Spes of Vatican II (1965)30 and the Catechism of the Catholic Church the ambiguous character of technology. But it does not seem to perceive (1992). ethical ambiguity of technology as a crucial issue to be addressed in itself.33 Pius XII, in his Christmas address broadcast on 24th December 1953, appreciates the merits of technology and warns against the risks Reference to technology is found in five numbers (2292-2296) of involved in the use of technology. Summarily put, he holds that, thanks to the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Explication of the fifth technology, the material world has come to a perfection previously commandment leads the Catechism to the topic of the respect for human unknown. It has increased production of goods.31 At the same time he persons. This theme contextualizes a few references to science and warns against the dangers inherent in technology, saying that it may lead technology. Two initial comments: first, the Catechism does not seem to modern people to place their absolute trust in technology (and science). make a distinction between science and technology; secondly, true to It can also lead people to restrict their gaze to the material things and Christian (catholic?) ethical tradition, discussion on technology is found material possibilities alone; consequently it is very likely that people circumscribed by discussions on biomedical issues, such as the use of become blind to religious truths.32 Moreover, when there is a supreme drugs and mutilation. reign of technology, it will transform human society into a colourless The Catechism admits that once technology is placed at the service mass. of humankind, it is a precious resource (2293). It has to be controlled by The evaluation of technology given by Pius XII seems to recognise moral criteria, which the document seems to understand broadly as the the good and the bad effects produced by technology, though he gives service of the human person, in conformity with the will of God (2294).

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The fact that technology has an ethically ambiguous character seems to copies of the Bible. Being available to the public, the Bible was released be taken for granted or kept on a low key in this text. One has to presume from the exclusive reading and interpretation of the clerics. In fact, not that the document admits it in its exhortation to subdue technology to the all Church authorities were happy with the spreading the word of God moral law. through the printed medium. For the printed works were taken as a debasement of the manuscript — the hand written works were said to Evidently, the three documents considered do not belong to the be guided by the soul.35 same genre or period. GS has more reference to technology in different contexts. It recognizes the ethically ambiguous character of technology. However, the above said case need not be taken as normative. This characteristic stands in contrast to the position of other church For, there can be contrasting stories. For example, while the printing documents, especially the Catechism. One might wonder whether the press challenged religious authority in certain ways in the West, in China Catechism shows an adequate awareness about the crucial roles played printing was prompted by a religious need. The Buddhists wanted to by technology in the life of contemporary people. have more copies of their sacred texts in their homes than what could be produced by hand-copying or proto-printing techniques such as ink That there is no single Catholic view regarding technology is not rubbings from stone carvings. Thus emerged the technique of block- an impoverished state of affairs. Conversely, it is an expression of the printing, done with hand-carved wooden blocks. The earliest extant printed complexity of the issues and an admission of a multifaceted perception text is a Buddhist charm scroll printed in China between 704 and 752 of technology by the Church. However, it does not mean that the approach C.E. It was found at Kyongju, in Korea.36 of the Church towards technology is adequate, and it proposes any ethical Secondly, the nature of technology is very complex that it is difficult methodologies to deal with the ethical ambiguities of technology. to discern a clear pattern of its involvement with religion. Probably, two Concluding Remarks points can be made here. First: it is not always easy to make out whether a religion interacts with technology, science, magic, or popular ways of First, the foregone discussion suggests that we cannot go too far doing things. Secondly, a religion has to interact with (or ignore) in delineating the mutual relation between technology and religion because technologies of different kinds: already established technology; alien the nature of religion and technology is so complex that it allows no easy (imported) technology; technological innovations that occur in a society. Interaction of religious traditions with these kinds of technologies need and clear picture. Religious attitudes to technology are conditioned by not be in identical ways. many non-religious factors, such as historical, political, ideological and issues related to authority and power. As we have already seen, Mitcham Thirdly, it would be very ambitious to propose a kind of mutual has proposed four reasons for the classical suspicion toward technology. relationship between religion and technology in the abstract. As our He has clearly shown that religious reasons are often found intermingled analysis makes it clear, the very question about the relation between with other factors.34 religion and technology is somewhat empty, though it sounds very interesting. It looks empty, because it is so wide that it lacks any That religious attitude toward technology is conditioned by non- specification of the content of the issues addressed. It seems that only if religious elements is not a fact exclusively limited to ancient cases. One one is unaware of the breadth and width of the issues related to the of the reasons why technological changes are viewed suspiciously by concepts of religion and technology, s/he can dare to offer a theory of religion is that the development of technology challenges the authority of mutual relationship between religion and technology in an abstract way. religion by positing alternative sources of authority. Probably, the most If at all one wants to move ahead in this direction, s/he has to begin with conspicuous western example is the emergence of the printing particular cases of the relationship between religion and technology in a technology. It made it possible for the laypersons to have their own clearly circumscribed historical context.

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Fourthly, it should be stated that the role of religions in creating 6. Carl Mitcham, Thinking through Technology: The Path between Engineering different approaches to technology cannot be seen in isolation from and Philosophy (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 282. different worldviews towards the reality as such. Any particular religion 7. Emmanuel G. Mesthene, Technological Change: Its Impact on Man and contains a set of such worldviews. But we cannot go into details of the Society (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1970), pp. 59-65. complex process of worldviews informing specifically religious views, 8. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, trans., J. Wilkinson (New York: and in turn religious views shaping worldviews, including cosmology, Vintage Books, 1964)., Langdon Gilkey, “The Religious Dilemmas of a anthropology, etc. What we have done here is that we have presupposed Scientific Culture: The Interface of Technology, History and Religion” in the inherent worldviews in religious views. For example, as a residue of Donald M. Borchert & David Stewart, eds., Being Human in a Technological Greek culture, medieval Christianity seems to have preferred Age (Athens: Ohio Univ. Press, 1979), p. 82., For a theoretical (not historical) contemplation to action. In the words of Hannah Arendt, “Christianity, account on the relation between technology and religion see Willem B. with its belief in a hereafter whose joys announce themselves in the Drees, “Technology and Religion,” Currents in Theology and Mission 28 delights of contemplation, conferred a religious sanction upon the (2001), pp. 394-399. abasement of the vita activa to its derivative, secondary position.”37 9. Theodore H. Robinson, “Genesis,” The Abingdon Bible Commentary (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1929), p. 224., E. A. Speiser, “Genesis,” Fifthly, it might be worth pointing out that it is not always easy to The Anchor Bible (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1964), p. 31., William establish a one (religious)-to-one (attitude toward technology) relationship, B. Jones & A. Warren Matthews, “Toward a Taxonomy of Technology and especially with some of the larger religious bodies. Within the groups of Religion,” in Frederick Ferré, ed., Research in Philosophy and Technology, those who call themselves Catholics (or Anglicans, Lutherans or Jews) Vol. 10: Technology and Religion (London: Jai Press, 1990), p. 10. there is a wide diversity of opinions and attitudes present about an entire 10. Theodore Robinson, A History of Israel, Vol. 1 (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, range of subjects, including technology 1932), p. 176. Notes 11. Jay Newman, Religion and Technology, pp.115-119. The credibility of these claims could rightly be questioned. 1. Dr. Mathew Illathuparampil is Professor of Systematic Philosophy at St. Joseph’s Pontifical Institute, Aluva. 12. David Novak, “Technology and Its Ultimate Threat: A Jewish Meditation,” in Frederick Ferré, ed., Research in Philosophy and Technology, Vol. 10, p. 2. James K. Feibleman, Technology and Reality (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 61. 1982), p. 181. 13. Due to the exigency of space, I restrict this discussion only to the views of 3. James K. Feibleman, Technology and Reality, p. 82. However, the impact of White, giving it the credit of being widely discussed with both approval and the writing technology on religion is a matter to be explored. One can contend stern disapproval. Other authors who deserve mention in this regard include that it simply confirmed the power of the priests (through the trained scribes). Harvey Cox and the American sociologist and historian of technology, Lewis 4. R. J. Forbes, “Mesopotamian and Egyptian Technology,” in Melvin Mumford. He claimed that medieval monasteries with their strict discipline Kranzberg & Carrol W. Pursell, Jr., eds., Technology in Western Civilization, and order created a cultural climate that opened the way for mechanization Vol. 1 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1967), p. 29. Forbes also claims that it and industrialization. He wrote that “unlike the similar discipline of the was Egyptians’ belief in life after death that occasioned the building of the Buddhists, that of the Western monks gave rise to more fertile and complex pyramids. R. J. Forbes, “Mesopotamian and Egyptian Technology,” p. 44. kinds of machinery than prayer wheels.” Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York: Harcourt, 1934), p. 35. However, Mumford leaves the 5. Jay Newman, Religion and Technology: A Study in the Philosophy of Culture question open, why such an exclusive technological growth happened in (Connecticut: Praeger Westport, 1997), p. 114. the West.

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14. Be it noted that White is known primarily as a historian of medieval 19. Jacques Ellul, “The Relationship between Man and Creation in the Bible,” technology. His main articles in this area are collected in his Medieval Carl Mitcham & Jim Grote, eds., Theology and Technology: Essays in Technology and Social Change (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966) and Medieval Christian Analysis and Exegesis (Lanham: Univ. Press of America, 1984), p. Religion and Technology: Collected Essays (London: Univ. of California 135. Press, 1978). Some of his claims about Medieval technology have been very 20. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, p.32. White’s article under strongly challenged. For instance, White’s article on feudalism and Medieval consideration appeared thirteen years after Ellul’s said work in French and chivalry, in his Medieval Technology and Social Change pages 1-38, is three years after its English translation. However, White makes no mention thoroughly criticized by Kelly De Vries, Medieval Military Technology (New of it in his article. One can also critically weigh the claims of Ellul, which I do York: Broadview Press, 1992), pp. 95-122. not do here. The only point that I want to make is that, a strong distinction 15. Lynn White Jr., “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,” in Carl between the spirit of East and West which White presumes is not an Mitcham & Robert Mackey, eds., Philosophy and Technology: Readings in uncontested one. the Philosophical Problems of Technology (New York: The Free Press, 1972), 21. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, p.35. pp. 259-265., see especially pages 260-265. Prior to making some critical remarks on the views of White, be it pointed out that in a 1973 essay White 22. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, p. 34. apparently tried to address some of the criticisms that came up against his 23. Be it said that Ellul makes these propositions as two general claims. The article. Lynn White, Jr., “Continuing the Conversation,” Ian G. Barbour, ed., historical veracity and its implications are matters to be investigated Western Man and Environmental Ethics (London: Addison-Wesley Pub. separately. The purpose of Ellul is only to refute the strength of these claims Co., 1973), pp. 55-64. I do not review this rejoinder here as it does not really in terms of the development of Western technology. deal with any crucial implications of his claims. 24. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, p. 38. Here also we have to reiterate 16. Frank R. Harrison, III, “The Judeo-Christian Tradition and Crises in that it is beyond our scope to assess the claims of Ellul. For in assessing Contemporary Technology,” in Frederick Ferré, ed., Research in Philosophy Ellul’s evaluation of technology, we need to unveil his theological and ethical and Technology, Vol. 10, p. 104. presuppositions, which we cannot accomplish in the limited scope of this 17. An illustrative example is how the official Church arrived at a solution to the work. For a work in this direction see, Darrel J. Fasching, “The Dialectic of Arian controversy. In 325, Emperor Constantine called, presided over and Apocalypse and Utopia in the Theological Ethics of Jacques Ellul,” in directed a council mainly of Eastern bishops at Bithynian, Nicea. The point Frederick Ferré, ed., Research in Philosophy and Technology, Vol. 10, pp. of discussion was the “multiple” nature of God. Athanasius cleverly managed 149-165. Arius to admit that his interpretation of the nature of God amounted to 25. White prefers to speak of Medieval European technology, without paying polytheism. And the emperor, from a political point of view, sensed the sufficient attention to particular (national) cases. But of late, others have danger inherent the position of Arius. Constantine was concerned to unite made such attempts. For instance, a work evaluating the technology of the th his empire using the Church. But if Christians remained or were perceived as 16 century Spain from a political point of view: David C. Goodman, Power another polytheistic religion, he would not be able to achieve his political and Penury: Government, Technology and Science in Philip II’s Spain goal. This led to the final condemnation of Arius. Similarly, the Councils of (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988). Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) also demonstrate the fact that there was no consensus over the Judeo-Christian tradition, which resulted in convening 26. Anna Götlind, Technology and Religion in Medieval Sweden (Göteborg: those Councils. See, Frank R. Harrison, III, “The Judeo-Christian Tradition Univ. of Göteborg, 1993), p. 252. and Crises in Contemporary Technology,” pp. 116-117., note no. 11. 27. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans., T. 18. W. Norris Clarke, “Technology and Man: A Christian View,” in Carl Mitcham Parsons (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958; original German in 1905) & Robert Mackey, eds., Philosophy and Technology: Readings in the chapter 4. Philosophical Problems of Technology (New York: The Free Press, 1972), 28. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, p. 163. p. 247.

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29. Robert W. Green, ed., Protestantism and Capitalism: The Weber Thesis and Its Critics (Boston: Heath, 1959). For details on how Weber modified his thesis see, Gerhard Lenski & Jean Lenski, Human Societies: An Introduction nd to Macrosociology, 2 ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974) p. 306. 30. This, however, does not mean that GS is the only Council document which deals with technology. Other texts which use the word technology in different contexts include Lumen Gentium 36, Ad gentes 11, 26, Inter mirifica 1, p. 11, Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science Christus Dominus 12. and Mathematics1 31. Pius XII, “Technological Concept of Life,” Text from: The Irish Ecclesiastical Record 83 (April, 1955), p. 299. 32. Pius XII, “Technological Concept of Life,” p. 300. - Job Kozhamthadam2 33. Beside the texts already mentioned, other parts of GS also refer to technology. They include numbers 15, 23, 35, 54, 56, 62, 64. These texts in general refer to technology in the context of describing human progress. Abstract: Although the Jesuits are well known for their important contributions to many fields, their contribution to the origin and 34. Carl Mitcham, Thinking Through Technology, p. 282. development of modern science is very little known. In this context late 35. Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: George Bishop’s book on Jesuit science is a most welcome arrival. This Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe, paper is a detailed critical study of some of the highpoints of this book. Vol. I (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979), p. 319. Eisenstein enumerates This review paper goes beyond to look at the foundation of Jesuit science, (in two volumes: with the same title, year and publishers) a host of changes particularly in the spirituality of the Jesuits. The paper also brings in that occurred in church life as a result of the use of printing technology, some further important and related data to enrich the points discussed along with its impact on the whole cultural scene of Europe. For example, the in the book. need to interpret the biblical texts, possibility for the unified forms of liturgy - Editor and the establishment of a Catholic Congregation in 1622, with its own printing office, causing the emergence of the term, ‘propaganda.’ Elizabeth Key Words: Modern science, Jesuits, Clavius, Galileo, Chinese astronomy, L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Vol. 1, p. 326. Jesuit spirituality 36. Robert Temple, The Genius of China: 3000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention (New York: Simon & Shuster, 1986), pp. 110-111. The first complete Introduction: The Neglected History of Jesuit Science book ever printed was a Buddhist text translated into Chinese, the Diamond Sutra. It bears the date of its printing corresponding to May 11, 868 C.E. Perhaps no other religious order, for that matter no other religious Robert Temple, The Genius of China, 112. Though movable type was tried in organization, has commanded so much attention as the Jesuit order, China in the 11th century, it did not enjoy the success it had while applied in particularly from the non-Catholic world. Right from its inception in 1540, the West in the 15th century, because of the large number of Chinese its many gifted and committed members and their activities made a deep characters. William B. Jones & A. Warren Matthews, “Toward a Taxonomy impression on every segment of society in practically every part of the of Technology and Religion,” pp. 12-13. known world. The many outstanding educational institutions run by the 37. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, Jesuits earned them the name “the educators of Europe.” The efficient 1958), p. 16. and successful service it rendered for the defense and propagation of the Catholic faith gave them the title the “storm troops of the Catholic

40Omega June 2006 41 Job Kozhamthadam Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics faith.” Its many theologians and other thinkers distinguished themselves Unfortunately, these facts are not much known, even among the at the Council of Trent and other high level bodies. They were also Jesuits themselves. As Dhruv Raina points out, “the scientific known as spiritual masters because of their skillful spiritual guidance investigations of the Jesuits have for long been neglected.”6 Except for and retreats based on the Spiritual Exercises, the spiritual classic written a handful of serious historians of science, the Jesuit contribution to science by its founder St. Ignatius Loyola. In the mission field also they earned has remained mostly an untold story. Very few books or research papers the reputation of being outstanding pioneers, risking their lives in the have appeared on this topic, at least in the English language. Most of the new world of the Americas and the distant world of the Indies and the ones that did appear have failed to do due justice to the depth and breadth Far East. In the social field also they became champions of social justice of the contribution involved. This is surprising indeed, because in the and personal freedom, as was evident from their vehement opposition to normal run of things there was no good reason for this state of affairs. the practice of slavery and other forms of discrimination. The scientific work done by Jesuits was by no means rare and incidental. The quantum of scientific work done by them was large and impressive, Not only fame, notoriety also accompanied the Jesuits. The great covering over four centuries. Poggendorf in his Dictionnaire des reputation and influence they enjoyed in the imperial courts of Europe Sciences Exactes from antiquity to 1863 lists 8847 scientists.7 Of these drew the criticism that some of them were meddling with power politics. 10% were priests and religious. Among these about 45% were Jesuits. The Jesuits were also implicated in the “Gun Powder Plot” of 1605 in In other words, of all the noteworthy scientists from antiquity to 1863, England, although strong and reliable evidence indicated that they had about 5% were from the ranks of the Jesuit order – an impressive record no hand in the matter. indeed. Carolus Sommervogel’s twelve-volume work, Bibliotheque de Not only in the past, in the present also Jesuit contribution to various la Compagnie de Jesus, gives the names and works of 631 Jesuits for 8 segments of society is well recognized. For instance, in the field of the first two centuries of Jesuit history. education, it still enjoys a worldwide reputation. The universities and The Jesuits were also voluminous writers in the area of science. research institutes it runs in Europe and America, and the colleges and According to Raina, schools it runs in India and other countries are counted among the best. In the social field also it is appreciated by many and criticized by some, between the years 1600 and 1773,... Jesuit scientists had authored more than 4,000 published works, about 600 journal articles particularly because of its “preferential option for the poor.” appeared after 1700, and about 1000 manuscripts were available. However, there is one area in which the contribution of the Jesuit The Society’s known publications include 6,000 scientific works order is inadequately recognized. The Jesuit order made substantial covering areas such as Aristotelian natural philosophy, medicine, philosophy, astronomy, and mathematics.9 contribution to the origin and development of modern science, especially in its infancy. Well-known historian of science George Sarton writes: Nor was there any paucity of records and other source materials “One cannot talk about mathematics in the sixteenth and seventeenth on the scientific activities of Jesuits. The Jesuits had a great tradition of centuries without seeing a Jesuit at every corner.”3 According to Heilbron, keeping written records of their activities. They communicated frequently the Jesuit order was the “single most important contributor to with their superiors, particularly with the Jesuit General in Rome, and experimental physics in the seventeenth century.”4 This great tradition the records of these communications were carefully kept in the archives. of assisting the advancement of science has continued to this day, although In fact, The Constitutions of the Jesuit Society specifically stipulate in varying degrees of intensity. William B. Ashworth has put it succinctly: that there be regular correspondence between Superiors and subjects “There is one order that stands out from all others as the scientific order and among the members themselves. “Superiors, therefore, and especially without rival in seventeenth-century Catholicism, and that of course is the General and Provincials, should take measures to spread the the Society of Jesus.”5 knowledge of events which happen in any part of the Society and are a

42Omega June 2006 43 Job Kozhamthadam Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics source of mutual comfort and edification.”10 Thus it was the faithfully the important contributions of Jesuits to the different branches of science observed custom of the Society to publish what were called in Latin and technology. It must be emphasized that some of these points are Litterae Aedificantes. Hence, it is surprising that very little has been controversial. But the controversy is mostly about issues like the priority made known of the scientific contribution of Jesuits. of the contribution – no one denies that these great men did make substantial contributions to their respective fields. George Bishop’s Book, a Welcome Arrival Jesuit Contribution to Different Branches of Science Given these considerations, the late George Bishop’s book, Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics, is a welcome, long Mathematics overdue arrival. For the author this 246-page book with 23 chapters is a The unevenly distributed chapters of the book discuss in some labour of love which he undertook as a token of his appreciation and detail the contributions of the Jesuits to the various branches of modern admiration for the dedication and commitment of the Jesuits, which he science, providing valuable data hitherto little known to many. In the witnessed in Kurseong years ago as a teacher and university project field of mathematics, the Jesuit pioneering geniuses were most prolific, manager in developing countries. A triple objective seems to be guiding proposing many seminal ideas and developing some of the existing ones. the author in every chapter: firstly, to apprise the readers of the nature Christopher Clavius (1537-1612) can be rightly considered the “Father and importance of the Jesuit contribution to the origin and development of Jesuit science” in the sense that he was the originator of the great of modern science; secondly, to correct certain historical inaccuracies, Jesuit scientific tradition, recognizing its prime importance right at the particularly with regard to the priority-issue of certain discoveries, and beginning, engaging himself deeply in it, and inspiring his students by his finally to invite the interested reader to further study. life example. He was adept at astronomy and mathematics, and was It is a posthumously published book, and hence could not get the acclaimed the “Euclid of the Sixteenth Century.” According to Sarton, finishing fine touches from the renowned author Dr. George Bishop Clavius was “the most influential teacher of the Renaissance.”11 Gregory himself. The father of four children, the late George Bishop was very Saint Vincent (1584-1667) was another brilliant mathematician working much a Jesuit at heart. He was a man of wide learning with a special in the field of indivisibles, being one of the pioneers of infinitesimal flair for creative and imaginative writing. Like many Jesuits, he travelled analysis. As Bishop points out, he “in his Opus Geometricum (1647) far and wide, particularly the third world, under various capacities at the proposed a new ingenious method of approaching the problem of service of humanity, especially the disadvantaged. More than a dozen infinitesimals, and gave his propositions a direct rigorous demonstration books are to his credit, published by reputed publishers like Macmillan. instead of the reductio ad absurdum argument used previously.”12 Well-grounded in science as well as in the field of education, deeply Furthermore, he developed the idea of “limit,” which is central to calculus, appreciative of the outstanding works of the Jesuits, he was in a privileged a powerful branch of modern mathematics. He was also credited for his position to write about the great Jesuits who did pioneering work in contribution to the development of the polar coordinate system. Paul modern science and mathematics. Not only every Jesuit, every lover of Guldin was a student of Gregory Saint Vincent, and immortalized his science should remain grateful to this fine service rendered by Dr. George name with Guldin’s Theorem. Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri (1667-1733) Bishop. was an Italian Jesuit logician who did pioneering work in the development of non-Euclidean (hyperbolic) geometry, which was considered the most The 17th and 18th centuries, particularly the former, can be rightly significant discovery of his century. According to Bishop, “Credit for the considered the golden age of Jesuit science. During this period there invention of non-Euclidean geometry is given to the Hungarian Jamos was hardly any important area of science that was left unexplored by Bolyai, the Russian Nicholai Lobachevsky, and the Germans Bernhard one or other member of the Society of Jesus. Below I discuss some of Riemann and Carl Frederick Gauss. But the real inventor was the Italian

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Jesuit Saccheri.”13 To substantiate his claim Bishop quotes several In China the Jesuit astronomers gave a most outstanding authorities.14 Again, the Italian Jesuit, Vincent Riccati (1707-1785), was contribution. Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), Adam Schall von Bell (1591- credited to be the inventor of hyperbolic functions. Several other members 1666) and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688) rendered such an outstanding of the order also made important contributions to the development of service that they were acclaimed national heroes by the Chinese. mathematics. All these go to confirm that the Jesuit involvement in the field of mathematics, particularly during the 16th and 17th centuries, was Spectroscopy unparalleled, as acknowledged by Sarton. In contemporary science spectroscopy is a very powerful tool Astronomy successfully and productively employed in astronomical investigations. The astrophysicist and stellar spectroscopist Angelo Secchi (1818-1878) Equally impressive was the contribution of Jesuits to astronomy. is rightly regarded as the “Father of Spectroscopy.” His study of the Right from the inception of the Society serious engagement in astronomy sunspots and other phenomena were a great help to our understanding and related fields fascinated the Jesuits. The Collegio Romano, the of the astronomical world. Along this line was the contribution of Stephen flagship of Jesuit science, was one of the first to have an observatory Perry (1833-1889), physicist, astronomer and schoolmaster. Among other using a telescope. In fact, the scientists here were the first to things, his detailed study confirmed the existence of an eleven-year solar independently verify Galileo’s telescopic discoveries and to congratulate cycle of sunspot activity. and honour him for his original work. Clavius was the leading astronomer of his day, and hence became the natural choice to head the team New Optical and Atomic Theories appointed for the Gregorian calendar reform. His highly popular Spheram Jesuits were also pioneers in several modern scientific theories. Ioannis de Sacro Bosco Commentarius was for a long time considered Particularly interesting were their investigations on the nature and the authoritative book on astronomy of the day. Although he remained behaviour of light. Francesco Maria Grimaldi (1618-1663) was one of committed to geocentrism, he kept an open mind towards the new the first ones to suggest that light was wavelike in nature. He formulated heliocentric theory of Copernicus. In recognition of his many contributions the geometrical basis for the wave theory of light, anticipating Robert to astronomy one of the lunar craters was named after him. Clavius’ Hooke and Christian Huygens. Verbiest knew the law of refraction 10 successor, Christopher Grienberger, too was an astronomer of note, years before Huygens. Ignace Pardies also worked on the properties of celebrated for the invention of the still used equatorial mount, an ingenious light, particularly on the theory of colours. He had scholarly exchanges arrangement in which the telescope and the earth rotate about parallel with Newton on the matter. In the 18th century Roger Boscovich (1711- axes. Christopher Scheiner (1575-1650) was another outstanding 1787) presented the first coherent description of an atomic theory. “He astronomer who discovered the sunspots, an issue that embroiled him in abandoned the old concept of matter being a continuous assortment of a bitter dispute with Galileo. He also discovered faculae, bright cloud- different solid atoms. In its place he introduced the bold concept of like objects seen chiefly near the edge of the sun. Grassi’s work on the countless ‘point-centres’ of force.”15 Considering atoms as point-centres comets was also original and noteworthy, which also became a bone of of energy, he proposed force or energy as the ultimate element of reality, contention between him and Galileo. Today the Vatican Observatory, a view held by many today. entrusted to the Jesuits by the Holy Sea, continues this great astronomical tradition. With its Research Group in Tucson, Arizona, and its state-of- Medicine the-art 1.83 metre telescope on Mount Graham, it has become one of the leading observatories in the world. In the medical field too, particularly in practical medicine, the Jesuits made a name for themselves. José da Costa (1540-1600) is considered

46Omega June 2006 47 Job Kozhamthadam Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics one of the pioneers of modern aeronautical medicine (related to height Geographical Explorations and Cartography sickness). De Colo and Bartolemé were the first to introduce quinine to Europe. The microscopic bacteriological discoveries of the polymath, The Jesuits in various parts of the world took special interest in Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680), “The Master of a Hundred Arts,” were geographical explorations, locating the origins and charting the courses also remarkable in this context. In 1646 he made a form of microscope of many rivers in various continents. They made outstanding contribution which he used to examine the microscopic organisms in the blood of to cartography, making accurate maps of the regions and terrains they patients affected by bubonic-plague and other diseases. He attributed were in. This was particularly conspicuous among the Jesuits in China. the sickness to the presence of these organisms. “Kircher’s bacteriological Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) in 1584 published the first maps of China ever discoveries were to have most important bearings on the practice of available to the West. Similarly Ferdinand Verbiest(1623-1688) also made medicine, surgery and hygiene.”16 accurate maps of China. In 1641 De Acuna made the first map of the Amazon River, while Samuel Fritz made the first scientific map of the In this context the contribution of Hieronymus Fabricius ab Amazon from source to mouth. The Paraguay River also was mapped Aquapendente (1537-1619) is very important. According to Bishop, by the Jesuits in the 17th century. José Gumilla prepared the first accurate Fabricius along with Cesalpino must be credited with the discovery of map of Orinoco and its tributaries in 1741. The great rivers of North the circulation of the blood, not William Harvey to whom this honour is America too fascinated the Jesuit explorers. Jacques Marquette mapped traditionally attributed. Fabricius was Harvey’s teacher at the University the Mississippi River in the mid-17th century, Peter De Smet mapped of Padua, and was teaching the doctrine of the circulation of the blood much of Northwest America, including the Rocky Mountains. Pedro while Harvey was a student there. The charge is made that Harvey Paez in 1613 located the source of the Blue Nile. Equally impressive plagiarized from Fabricius’s book, De Venarum Ostiolis, published 20 was the Jesuit contribution in determining the longitudes and latitudes of years before Harvey’s own book, De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in various cities. Animalibus.17 Obviously this is a highly controversial issue since it involves, among other things, the question of what exactly an original Aeronautics scientific discovery entails and when a discovery is accepted as one. Although humans are earth-bound beings, history tells us that they Bishop discusses this point at great length. always nursed an earnest desire to fly. Leonardo da Vinci’s greatest Geophysics ambition was to make a machine that would make this dream come true for humans. He conceived and developed plans for ingenious machines The Jesuit pioneers all over the world had a special interest in the that would take humans to the world of birds, but none of them succeeded field of geography and geophysics. In this context also the contribution in his lifetime since technology lagged far behind his creative ideas. of José da Costa was remarkable. He was one of the earliest Some of the Jesuit scientists too shared this great human ambition. geophysicists who carefully observed, recorded and analyzed Francesco Lana-Terzi (1631-1687) did pioneering work in this field, so earthquakes, volcanoes, tides, currents, etc. much so that he earned the title “Father of Aviation.” He was the first to study and publish a scientific treatise on a heavier-than-air-flying machine. Seismology Bishop points out that the ever sharp and critical-minded Leibniz himself verified Lana’s calculations. His ideas, particularly those on the balloon The Jesuit contribution to seismology is unparalleled, so much so ship, Navis Aeria, were at the basis of “the development of the balloon it is called the “Jesuit science.” They did pioneering works in this field in and led to the first successful flight of the Montgolfier brothers in 1783.”18 various parts of the world. This tradition continues, albeit on a small scale, mostly in the US.

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Technology and Instrumentation initiatives by the Jesuit scientists along this line are in operation now, particularly in India. A typical case is the Loyola Institute of Frontier In the technology or application of science also some of the Jesuits Energy in Chennai which aims at producing many useful scientific products were at the forefront, particularly in instrument making. For instance, using inexpensive materials. Scheiner contributed in the invention of the refracting telescope. He also invented the pantograph, an instrument for enlarging or reducing Dissemination of Science maps and drawings. In the field of making clocks and telescopes also they were quite adept. This is not to be taken lightly because in the 16th Since science by its very nature is by humans and for humans, and 17th centuries, the clocks were the most sophisticated among dissemination of its ideas is an integral part of its growth and development. machines, so much so that the mechanical universe was called the The Jesuits were in a privileged position to render this service. The new clockwork universe. Clavius is credited with the invention of the so- religious order had a phenomenal growth, moving from the initial 10 in called Vernier Scale. Bishop argues with historical data that it should be 1540 to 1000 members in 1556, at the time of the death of its founder, St. rightly called Clavius Scale. Verbiest was outstanding in the application Ignatius. They were scattered all over the known world, including India, of science to practical purposes, as was evident from the many China, and the new world of the Americas. They took their science astronomical instruments and cannons he built in China. The polymath along with them and placed it at the service of the people among whom Kircher excelled in this area too. He invented the magic lantern, “an they lived and worked. For instance, Johann Terrenz Schrek and his early form of optical projector of still pictures using a transparent slide. companions brought 7000 scientific volumes to China from Europe. He This was a forerunner of our present ‘movies.’”19 Reference has already brought the telescope and the astronomical discoveries with it to the been made to the microscope he made and put to good use. The attention of the Chinese. The same was done in India and other countries. calculating machine of Johann Ciermans, invented in 1639, is supposed Within a few years of Galileo’s discoveries his ideas were made known to have anticipated Blaise Pascal’s calculating machine by two years. to far and distant countries. Charles Braun invented the spectroheliograph by which direct Inspirers and Teachers of Science photographs of the whole image of the sun could be taken. In China highly developed, state-of-the-art observatories were Another little known area is the extent of the inspiration and set up. In fact, the observatory Verbiest set up in Peking (Beijing) in encouragement many Jesuit scientists gave to other scientists. This was 1688 was of the world-class, being the fourth of its kind, coming after particularly important when science was in its infancy and growing. the ones in Leydon (1632), Copenhagen (1637), and Paris (1667). As Bishop brings out this dimension also in his book. To give a few examples, Schreiber remarks, “it was a piquant coincidence, that contemporaneously in the case of Galileo, it has been argued by many scholars like A.C. with the erection of the Paris Observatory, Father Verbiest, SJ, in Peking, Crombie, Adriano Carigo, William Wallace, etc., that many of his ideas in the Kingdom of the Centre, was equipping a sister institution in up-to- and part of his originality he owed to his Jesuit teachers, particularly at date European style (1688).”20 Bishop argues that Verbiest should be the Collegio Romano. René Descartes, one of the founders of modern given the credit for making the first steam automotive vehicle. science, was a student of the Jesuit school of La Flèche. Another important figure in the early history of modern science, Marin Mersenne, In this connection what is known as “intermediate technology” is was also another outstanding student of the same school. Evangelista noteworthy since this targets groups and countries that cannot afford Torricelli, a close associate of Galileo, was the product of the Jesuit expensive modern technologies. Here scientific and technological know- school at Fluenza. The same can be said about other Jesuit institutions in how is used to develop essential products at affordable prices. Many various parts of the world in the past as well as in contemporary times.

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For instance, Abdul Kalam, the present President of India and the chief controversy and the priority of Harvey in the discovery of the circulation architect of India’s rocket science, is a product of St. Joseph’s College, of blood. On these and similar issues the author not only refuses to bow Tiruchirapalli, a prestigious Jesuit college in southern India. The scientific to the “standard view,” but also backs up his stand with authoritative culture carefully cultivated in these institutions had an important role to sources. The popular, non-technical style used makes the book more play in shaping these great minds in the pursuit of their outstanding accessible to non-professional readers. scientific careers. The book, however, remains seriously incomplete in some respects. Professional Recognition to Jesuit Scientists A number of aspects are left untouched or inadequately discussed. In the 17th and 18th centuries the Jesuit contribution to science in India was That many of these pioneering scientists were no midgets in the highly remarkable. For instance, J. Richaud’s discovery of the binary echelon of the scientists of the day was evident from the fact that many nature of alpha-Centauri and alpha-Cruis in 1689 is considered “the of them were recognized by some of the most authoritative scientific first credited astronomical discovery in India.” The historic collaboration bodies of the day. Reference has already been made to the high status and scientific service rendered by several teams of Jesuit scientists to of Clavius and his colleagues and successors in the Collegio Romano. the Raja-astronomer, Savai Jai Singh, of Jaipur in the first half of the 18th We have already discussed Grienberger and his equatorial mount. century should find a place in any history of Jesuit science. Furthermore, Clavius’ works are described in the earliest editions of the Philosophical much more could have been said about the Jesuit contribution to Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Johann Schrek was the seismology. Another conspicuous absence in the book is an index, a 7th member of the prestigious Cesi Academy, of which Galileo was the necessity for a work of this kind. 6th member. Honoré Fabri’s works were reviewed in the Philosophical Transactions. Some of the Jesuit scientists like Boscovich and Stephen These suggestions for a more comprehensive study apart, George Perry were members of prestigious bodies like the Royal Society of Bishop has done valuable service to contemporary scholarship by bringing London. Several of them found a place in the Dictionary of Scientific back to life these great pioneers of science - something the members of Biography. An impressive number of 35 lunar craters have been named the Society of Jesus have hitherto failed to do, but for a few like Joseph after Jesuit scientists. There are other heavenly bodies too named after MacDonnell. For all Jesuits and their well-wishers, this book will be a Jesuit astronomers, the latest one being the asteroid Consolmagno, valuable source of information; for young Jesuits, it will be an unfailing honouring the great Jesuit Brother, Guy Consolmagno, of the Vatican source of inspiration; for scholars, it will be a fine starting-point for further Observatory. work. This book must find a natural home in every scholarly library. Critical Remarks Some Reflections and Comments

Bishop’s book is a very valuable contribution to the history of The arrival of a book of this type is an occasion to reflect on modern science in general, and to Jesuit science in particular. As I have certain deeper issues about Jesuit science: its past heritage, present status remarked in the beginning, a book of this type was long awaited. It is a and future prospects. In the following sections I will discuss briefly the minefield of data and information for further exploration and study. The following points: some salient features of Jesuit science – its strengths bibliography at the end of each chapter is impressive and very valuable, and weaknesses, the subsequent decline of Jesuit science and some revealing the breadth and depth of the author’s own research and study. reasons for it, the foundation of Jesuit science, particularly in the Another laudable feature of this book is that it refuses to tread the beaten spirituality of the Jesuit order. I will conclude with a few comments on path on certain hot historical issues. Of special mention are the Galileo the relevance of this study to contemporary science-religion dialogue.

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Jesuits and Creativity through which I am travelling.... I have spared no trouble, and undergone great hardships to disclose the mysteries of nature thereby to acquire a The Jesuit scientists were both deeply committed to their religious greater knowledge of the Creator and fix my mind on things heavenly.”21 profession and serious about their scientific work, finding no serious To our current sensitivities, the language of Tieffenthaler may smack of tension between the two. They kept themselves abreast with a kind of proselytization. However, there is very good reason to believe contemporary developments and made their own contributions. They that these scientists remained professional in their pursuit, and never remained selfless and generous in the promotion and spreading of used their science to force anyone to change his/her religion. True, they scientific ideas wherever they went. Another conspicuous positive feature used their scientific expertise as an entry-point to influential centres. was the concern to apply science for the benefit of humanity, particularly They valued their religious faith and were eager to share it with others the poor and the underprivileged. However, our study shows that although of good will. But I have not come across any record showing that they there were occasional flashes of creativity and novelty in Jesuit science, put religious returns or rewards as a condition for doing scientific work. by and large it failed to be original and creative, showing signs of constraints from outside. This was particularly true of the Copernican Of course, this approach changed in course of time particularly th system and the developments associated with it. Special care seems to from the 20 century onwards. Today outstanding departments of science, have been taken to avoid controversies, be it in aligning with old research centres and medical centres are run by Jesuits in various parts controversial theories or in coming up with new creative theories that of India on a highly professional basis. might lead to controversies, especially controversies that might have Decline of Jesuit Science implications to religious doctrines. Hence, for the most part the emphasis was on descriptive, observational science. The Jesuits mostly focused Although Jesuit science was at its peak in the 17th century, there on positional astronomy, practical application of scientific theories and was a marked decline after that. “With the notable exception of some principles, geographical exploration, cartography, etc. Mathematics was isolated scientists of the first rank (e.g., Roger Boscovich and Girolamo an exception since here many Jesuits dared to venture into virgin territories, Saccheri in the eighteenth century), Jesuit science was never to regain but these remained purely theoretical and technical, having no immediate the promise it exhibited in the period from Clavius to Scheiner.”22 The religious implications. Several of them were highly gifted persons, but reasons for this decline are complex and controversial. Space constraint none could rise to the level of a Newton or Kepler. As Ashworth writes: prevents me from discussing the point here. I have discussed some of “When all is said and acknowledged, there still remains the unavoidable the possible reasons for this decline in another paper.23 feeling that Jesuit science was somehow seriously deficient.” Jesuit Spirituality and Jesuit Science One can give many reasons for this deficiency from the perspective of science. Most of these scholars were not professional The science the Jesuits engaged in was by no means alien to their scientists, as we understand the term today, particularly till the end of religious principles; in fact, it was deeply rooted in their basic religious the 19th century. They were first and foremost devoted missionaries and commitment. Seeing God in all things, particularly in nature, is fundamental their engagement in science was in some ways looked upon as a means to Jesuit spirituality. St. Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit to further this religious priority. No one has articulated this point more order, had a very positive attitude towards nature and to science which clearly than Tieffenthaler: “Next to the salvation of souls and their is the study of nature. For instance, his well-known “Contemplatio ad conquest for God, nothing has afforded me greater pleasure than the amorem” (Contemplation for attaining love) calls for an extremely positive study of the geographical position of places, the variation of the winds, attitude towards nature. Ingatius’s biographers tell us that he took special the nature of the soil, and the character and manners of the regions delight in watching the stars at night. In fact, in the Jesuit tradition study

54Omega June 2006 55 Job Kozhamthadam Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics of nature was an integral part of their spiritual and intellectual formation 6. Dhruv Raina, “French Jesuit Scientists in India: Historical Astronomy in the – they looked upon the Book of Scripture and Book of Nature as Discourse on India, 1670-1770,” Economic and Political Weekly, January 30, complementary to each other. 1999, PE-36. 7. See John Schreiber, S.J., “Jesuit Astronomy,” Popular Astronomy 12 (1904), Conclusion: An Invitation to Science-Religion Dialogue p. 10. All the many Jesuit scientists discussed in Bishop’s book were 8. See Joseph MacDonnell, S.J., Jesuit Geometers (Vatican City: Vatican holy men totally committed to their religious profession, who carried out Observatory Publications, 1989), p. 1. their religious duties faithfully and conscientiously. They found no inherent 9. Dhruv Raina, op.cit., PE-30. tension between the religion they were committed to and the science 10. The Constitutions, Part VIII, The Epitome, no. 708. they practiced. In fact, in a significant way, their science was a valuable help to their religious profession. No doubt, there were certain unfortunate, 11. George Bishop, Jesuit Pioneers of Modern Science and Mathematics (Anand: avoidable turn of events which in some ways made their work difficult Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, 2005), p.15. and less effective. But such challenges and difficulties are a part of any 12. Jesuit Pioneers, p.105. large organization involving different types of people. The history of 13. Ibid., p.127. science can show examples of it in the scientific organization as well, though to a less extent. The life and example of these great Jesuit stalwarts 14. See idem. is a reminder and invitation to contemporary Jesuits and other believer- 15. Jesuit Pioneers, p.189. scholars that they can fruitfully engage in an active and meaningful dialogue 16. Jesuit Pioneers, p.146. between modern science and contemporary religion. 17. See ibid, p. 157. Notes 18. See ibid., p.177. 1. This article is a detailed critical review of the book, Jesuit Pioneers of Modern 19. Ibid., p.149. Science and Mathematics by George Bishop, Anand, India: Gujarat Sahitya Praksh, 2005. 246 pp. Rs.125, Euros 10.50, $13 ISBN 81 89137 03 2 20. John Schreiber, “Jesuit Astronomy,” p.13. 2. Dr. Job Kozhamathadam is the founder-director of the Indian Institute of 21. Hosten, Jesuit Missionaries in Northern India, p. 40. Science and Religion, Pune. 22. Richard Blackwell, Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible (Notre Dame: University 3. George Sarton, “An Attempt for the Republication in Book Form of Fr. of Notre Dame Press, 1991), p.164. Bosmans’ Studies,” ISIS 40 (1949), 3-6. 23. See “The Jesuit Response to Copernicanism and Its Impact on the 4. John Heilbron, Electricity in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: A Portuguese Contribution to the Development of Science in India,” in Lotika Study of Early Modern Physics (Berkeley: University of California Press, Varadarajana, ed., Indo-Portuguese Encounters: Journeys in Science, 1979), p. 2. Technology and Culture (New Delhi and Lisbon: Indian National Science Academy and Centro de Historia del Alem-Mar, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 5. William B. Ashworth, “Catholicism and Early Modern Science,” in God and 2006), pp. 451-467. Nature, ed. David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), p. 154.

56Omega June 2006 57 Ronald Cole-Turner The Cloning Controversy a Decade after Dolly

The debate about human cloning centres on two key issues. First, should cloning (or somatic cell nuclear transfer) be used to create human embryos that might be implanted in order to produce a child? Second, should somatic cell nuclear transfer be used to create human embryos for research or perhaps someday for therapy? These two issues are explored briefly in this paper. The Cloning Controversy a Decade Human Reproductive Cloning: Safety, Morality, and Legality after Dolly Almost without exception, the world’s experts in reproductive - Ronald Cole-Turner1 technology have agreed that cloning is not a safe way to try to produce a human baby. The first problem is to be able to produce a cloned embryo. Scientists in South Korea stunned the world with their reports, first in February 2004 and then in May 2005, of success in creating Abstract: This short paper is a critical, impartial study of the controversy cloned embryos.3 They claimed that they could take donated human surrounding cloning, particularly human cloning by means of nuclear transfer. It begins by dispelling the still-prevalent popular eggs, remove the nuclear DNA that comes from the donor, and replace misunderstanding that the DNA is solely responsible for the creation of it with the nuclear DNA from an ordinary body cell of another person. a new being. This belief grossly underestimates the central role of the Their goal was not to create any babies, merely to create cloned process of epigenetics. Contemporary studies tell us that DNA provides blastocysts (about 100 cells at about 4 days developmental age) from the instructions for building the all-important proteins, whereas which to harvest human embryonic stem cells. It turns out, of course, epigenetic signals tell DNA exactly how much of each protein to build that there were many lies and distortions in their claims. Even so, what at just the right time in just the right cell. Again, the problem of nature they attempted to do has broad support among many scientists, who see vs. nurture also will have to be taken seriously. The paper discusses in cloning as a critical aspect of stem cell research. It turns out, however, some detail, the scientific, moral and social problems associated with that creating cloned human embryos is more difficult than anyone human cloning. To circumvent moral and legal problems some have imagined a decade ago. suggested the process of “altered nuclear transfer.” The paper points out that this too is not free from controversy. It concludes by pointing In time, probably within the next five years or so, someone will out the need for a wider public participation in the debate on a basis of succeed in creating cloned human embryos. But even when this happens, a general understanding of the science and of the moral and human the vast majority of the world’s experts will still object to the use of issues involved. cloning to create a baby. Even if it is possible to get that cloned embryo - Editor to start to develop in ways that appear to be normal, health problems will Key Words: Cloning, Reproductive cloning, Epigenetics, Blastocyst, almost certainly lie ahead. It is now clear that DNA is not the only Altered nuclear transfer source of information required by the developing embryo. Contrary to what many people think, DNA alone is not sufficient to guide the developmental processes. DNA is imprinted or tagged by chemical Introduction markers through a set of processes known as epigenetics. These epigenetic signals control the activity of DNA. They do not change the A decade has already passed since Dolly the sheep was produced DNA, but they change very dramatically how the DNA functions. The by cloning.2

58Omega June 2006 59 Ronald Cole-Turner The Cloning Controversy a Decade after Dolly job of DNA is to provide the instructions for building proteins, of which normal sense, at least not in the eyes of the parents. They will see her we are made. The job of epigenetic signals is to tell the DNA exactly as a product made by engineering, not a person created by love. This is how much of each protein to build at just the right time and in just the all the more true if future parents are allowed to pick a source cell for right cell. their future cloned baby from a catalog of famous people. On the other hand, it will be almost irrelevant if parents use cloning to create a clone When an egg is fertilized by sperm, the epigenetic signals are all of a child that has died. reset to the start of life. As cells divide, the DNA stays the same but the signals are reset so that the stunningly complex process of development Third, some believe that cloning someone who has died is an can occur. If we replace ordinary fertilization by cloning, there is no inappropriate way to respond to the grief caused by their death. Each way to know that the epigenetic signals will be reset. In fact, all the individual person, it is argued, is unique and irreplaceable. Their death is evidence is that they are usually not set back to the starting point. The a tragedy that can be softened, perhaps, by the birth of another child. result can be catastrophic failure to develop properly. In human beings, When a pet dies and a child is upset, some families bring home a with about 30% of our genes expressed in our brains, the result of “replacement” pet. In the same way, grieving parents sometimes conceive epigenetic failure could be devastating. It might be possible to use cloning another child in order to deal with their grief. The problem arises when to produce a baby, but very likely something would go wrong in the the new child is created by cloning the dead child. The cloned child is at process. risk of being welcomed and loved, not as a new, unique individual, but for resembling as much as possible the child who is lost. Someday, maybe 50 years in the future, scientists might learn enough about developmental biology to overcome these problems, so Fourth, people put so much emphasis on the power of genes to that they can say with reasonable confidence that it is safe to use cloning determine human traits that they might be tempted to turn to cloning in to create a human baby. Should we? Many people around the world order to control the personality and talents of their future child. It is true think the answer should be no. They believe this for many reasons, that if a child were created by cloning, the parents of the child would which we can group together under four headings: have unprecedented control over the DNA of the child. Ordinarily, parents know that their children will share their genes, but they never know First, some believe that cloning would confuse family relationships. which of their genes they will pass to their children. With cloning, parents Suppose a baby is a clone of the father. In that case, father and baby would have the power to specify exactly what set of genes their child are almost like identical twins. Can any of us be a good parent to our would have. Because too many people put too much confidence in own twin? And what would it be like for the mother, watching a clone of genes, they might be unduly tempted to turn to cloning. They might think her husband grow up in her own house? Of course, people sometimes that if cloning gives them complete control of their child’s DNA, it will sort out confusing family relationships and live normal lives. More give them complete control of their child’s personality, talents, and important, problems like these are less likely to arise if the baby is not a predispositions. Very likely, these exaggerated notions of control will clone of a parent but of a stranger or perhaps of an older sibling who has affect their relationships with their cloned children, who like many children died. will rebel against the control of their parents, all the more so because of Second, some believe that having children must be a natural cloning. The core of this objection is that, because people do not process of human love, expressed between husband and wife and open understand genetics as they should, they will choose cloning foolishly, to create and welcome new life. Children, in other words, flow from the with unrealistic expectations of control. love of the parents, not from the work of scientists. A cloned child is a Where do these objections to cloning take us? Not everyone manufactured child, and what is manufactured cannot be a child in the finds them compelling as moral objections, at least not to all possible

60Omega June 2006 61 Ronald Cole-Turner The Cloning Controversy a Decade after Dolly applications of reproductive cloning. The majority of people today, Many people, however, believe that research using nuclear transfer however, do seem to take one or more of them quite seriously. They to create embryos for research should be banned. Often the opposition might come to the decision that it would be wrong for them to use is on religious grounds, but not always. Some who opposed research reproductive cloning. But do these objections justify a permanent ban of with cloned embryos believe that any type of human embryo research is the procedure? In contrast to a permanent ban, a temporary moratorium wrong. It makes no difference, they believe, whether an embryo is is sought by scientists themselves, who recognize that cloning is unsafe. created by fertilization or by nuclear transfer. It is wrong to create Someday if cloning is safe, will we see it as immoral, perhaps, but not as human life in order to do research that is not intended for the direct illegal? Even if most people say it is undesirable or unwise, is that a benefit of that individual life. No amount of good — either in terms of strong enough basis for making it a crime? Most likely, reproductive advancement of science or the treatment of disease, will ever justify the cloning will be outlawed around the world for a period of a few decades. instrumental use of even one innocent human life. Then, if someone can show that it is safe, some nations will repeal those laws. Anyone wealthy enough to afford the procedure will simply travel Others, including some who hold to traditional religious beliefs, to places where it is legal, giving rise perhaps to a whole new industry of maintain that an embryo may be human and it may be alive, but it is not “cloning tourism.” yet an individual until it develops its own structure and has passed the point where it might twin or become two. Until then, it is not an individual; If reproductive cloning is currently unacceptable, what are we to and since one must be an individual in order to be a person (by many think about research into the basic procedures of nuclear transfer? Some traditional definitions), the embryo at this stage is not a person. It may people are so opposed to human reproductive cloning that they want to have the potential to become one (or possibly two) persons, but it has stop all research in the field, perhaps going so far as to block research not yet attained this stage biologically or ontologically. on non-human animals. In particular, they want to stop research into nuclear transfer using human eggs and cells. Currently, world opinion is At that point in the debate, the issue often comes down to that of divided, not on whether to declare a moratorium on reproductive cloning, potential. The research in question would be done on the stage of the but on whether to ban not just reproductive cloning but research cloning embryo known as the blastocyst. Ordinarily at this stage, twinning is as well. possible, and the embryo itself has not yet begun to form (although this point is debated by some). But ordinarily the blastocyst does possess Human Cloning for Research: A Separate Issue? something quite remarkable, which is the potential of its own (given nurture but no other intervention) to develop further down the pathway Human embryo research — with or without cloning — moved of embryo to fetus to child. No ordinary cluster of cells has this potential forward dramatically in 1998 when researchers announced success in of its own. deriving human embryonic stem cells from embryos donated by couples who no longer needed them for reproductive purposes.4 These human Nuclear transfer or cloning confuses the picture. Thanks to embryonic stem cells, it is widely believed, have extraordinary medical research already conducted in the field, combined with research on nuclear potential. So far, researchers have studied these cells taken from fertilized transfer in nonhuman primates, it is possible to say with a high degree of embryos. Many leading researchers in the field would like to create or certainty that a cloned embryo lacks potential for normal development. study cells derived from cloned embryos. They hope this will give them In that case, it is a cluster of cells, created by nuclear transfer, not by powerful new ways to study the development of many diseases and the fertilization; it lacks biological and ontological individuality; and in all effectiveness of new drugs. Someday, it might be possible to use cloning likelihood it lacks the potential to develop. Taking all these considerations to create individually-customized embryonic stem cells for each patient, into account, it must be asked whether this entity is in fact an embryo. thereby avoiding possible immune reactions to implanted cells. The answer, of course, depends on the precise technical definition one 62Omega June 2006 63 Ronald Cole-Turner The Cloning Controversy a Decade after Dolly gives to an “embryo.” What distinguishes an embryo (at any stage, careful about any future legislation, hoping to ban the use of nuclear from zygote to fetus) from a non-embryonic cluster of cells? The answer, transfer for the creation of anything that is not deliberately or certainly of course, depends upon a careful drawing together of emerging insight deprived of potential for development. from developmental biology with philosophical precision.5 The task of clarity at this point is urgent, because on this narrow question rides the There should be little doubt that the advocates of “altered nuclear outcome of a global debate. transfer” want sincerely to see research go forward in what they regard as a morally acceptable way. Their proposals, however, have been There is a further complication to consider. It is found in a new greeted by sharp criticism from two sides. On the one hand, they are research proposal, one intended by its advocates to resolve the moral harshly criticized by proponents of embryo research, for whom there is problem. What if, in the course of nuclear transfer, something is done to no moral problem here to solve. Advocates of research are eager to go guarantee that the resulting entity could not develop? What if, in other forward, preferably with public support and government funding, to create words, lack of developmental potential could be assured and taken as embryos for research, whether by fertilization or by cloning. In their the unambiguous premise for a moral argument? If so, then the argument view, the proponents of “altered nuclear transfer” are creating a diversion proceeds as follows: Consider the enormous benefit to medical research by planting a false hope in the minds of legislators. Politicians are looking that might come through human nuclear transfer research. Consider frantically for a way to please everyone, both those who want research further that for many people it is wrong to create and destroy embryos, to save sick relatives and those who want to protect embryos. “Altered no matter how much good it might bring. Surely, therefore, the right nuclear transfer,” currently unproven and always more complicated, path is to pursue this research with some sort of substitute, with something simply gives these politicians a new reason to avoid making a difficult that has the medical usefulness of an embryo but lacks its ontological decision. In so doing, the real effect of “altered nuclear transfer” is to status because it never was, and never can become, an embryo. Such stop the progress of research. It might turn out that some governments, an entity might be created. In fact, advocates say, we should try to however, which might never fund human cloning per se, will fund “altered figure out how to do this. This might be done in any of several ways. nuclear transfer,” and thereby fund a form of human cloning research The most likely strategy is to use nuclear transfer or cloning. In addition after all. to the nuclear transfer, however, something would have to be done to make sure that the resulting entity lacks developmental potential. In On the other hand, “altered nuclear transfer” is criticized by some other words, what is proposed is cloning with an alteration or “altered who think it makes the moral problem worse, not better. They see the nuclear transfer.” altered entity as an embryo (never mind how it is created or its lack of potential). All that the “altered nuclear transfer” advocates have done, Various forms of this idea have been put forward in the United they say, is make it a “disabled embryo” or a “sick embryo.” And why States and in other countries, where opposition to embryo research is have they done this? So they can kill it. This criticism, mostly from strong.6 Two points, in particular, are remarkable about this proposal. conservative Protestants, is uncompromising in its condemnation. First, it has attracted support from a wide range of religious conservatives, including Roman Catholic scholars and conservative Protestants.7 Conclusion Secondly, it depends upon nuclear transfer. In other words, advocates The arrival of Dolly the cloned sheep continues to intrigue and of “altered nuclear transfer” cannot endorse sweeping rejections of divide us, evoking some of our most intense feelings about life and about nuclear transfer. If all uses of nuclear transfer involving human eggs or the human role in creating it. The science of cloning has moved slowly cells are made illegal, then “altered nuclear transfer,” too, would become in the decade since Dolly. The moral debate has raged intensely but has a crime. So advocates of “altered nuclear transfer” want to be very come to almost no agreements or conclusions. At the very least, we

64Omega June 2006 65 Ronald Cole-Turner The Cloning Controversy a Decade after Dolly might hope for the day when a wider public participates more fully in the debate on a basis of a general understanding of the science and of the moral issues. Greater understanding, however, is not merely a technical skill but a form of actively listening to those with whom we might disagree, trying sincerely to understand their concerns or misgivings. It involves greater scientific understanding but must include greater human understanding, especially in a complex and multi-cultural world. Only then can we come together to the public arena, not as political opponents Science, Mathematics and Truth but as citizens of one world, to fashion policies that reflect, as far as - K.K. Jose1 humanly possible, our common values.

Notes Abstract: The author reflects on the role of science and religion in the 1. Ronald Cole-Turner is the H. Parker Sharp Professor of Theology and Ethics context of modern scientific achievements. Ours is a mathematical age. at Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. Cole-Turner serves on the Advisory Not only are we ever more dependent on the fruits of the physical Board of the John Templeton Foundation and on the Program of Dialogue sciences, not only is the art of data processing being developed to free on Science, Ethics and Religion of the American Association for the humans of much of their routine work, but also the ideas of mathematics Advancement of Science. permeate our sociological, philosophical, linguistic and artistic worlds. 2. See, Wilmut, I., Schnieke, A.E., McWhir, J., Kind, A.J. and Campbell, K.H. After contributing to the revolutions in computer science, information “Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells,” in Nature technology, artificial intelligence and neural networks, mathematics is (1997), pp. 385, 810-3. Dolly was born in 1996 and announced to the world in revolutionizing biological sciences through bioinformatics, gene February 1997. sequencing, etc. It has influenced the whole theory of physics and contributed to quantum mechanics, quantum computing, etc. In spite of 3. Their papers, published in the journal Science, have since been withdrawn all these, scientific discoveries and mathematical models have their in the wake of a major international incident of scientific fraud. limitations in modeling the true reality. 4. Thomson, J.A., Itskovitz-Eldor, J., Shapiro, S.S., Waknitz, M.A., Swiergiel, - Editor J.J., Marshall, V.S. and Jones, J.M. (1998) “Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Blastocysts” published erratum appears in Science, 1998 Dec. Key Words: Mathematics, Mechanics, Mechanical philosophy of nature, 4; 282 (5395):1827, Science, 282, pp. 1145-7. Human genome project, Indeterminacy, Chaos theory, Unpredictability 5. Cf. Norman M. Ford, When Did I Begin? Conception of the Human Individual in History, Philosophy and Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). Beyond Science: Mysteries or Limitations? 6. The President’s Council on Bioethics, White Paper: Alternative Sources of Dr.A.P.J.Abdul Kalam, the scientist-turned-President of India, in Pluripotent Stem Cells (Washington, D.C., May 2005); available at http:// his autobiography, The Wings of Fire, quotes from Atharva Veda as www.bioethics.gov/reports/white_paper/index.html. follows: “This earth is His, to him belong those vast and boundless skies; 7. For a statement by conservative Christians who endorse “altered nuclear Both seas within him rest, and yet in that small pool He lies.” George transfer,” see Production of Pluripotent Stem Cells by Oocyte Assisted Bernard Shaw in Doctor’s Dilemma had remarked: “Science becomes Reprogramming: Joint Statement (June 20, 2005) available at http:// dangerous only when it imagines that it has reached its goal.” That science www.eppc.org/publications/pubID.2374/pub_detail.asp. and scientific outlook have taken humankind forward is the biggest claim

66Omega June 2006 67 K.K. Jose Science, Mathematics and Truth that scientists make. Anyone questioning the above rhetoric is suspected The announcement of the completion of the sequencing of the of being superstitious or illogical, in addition to being unscientific. Rational human genome was a scientific event of great significance in human thinking is regarded as the key to good living and wisdom. Rational thinking history. It is one of the highest achievements of humans that a group of and scientific outlook have enormous limitations. When you look beyond scientists completely unraveled the structure of the DNA within the reason, you get a better insight into Nature’s functioning. Nature has its span of a few years. Each organism is unique. It is unique in its DNA. own reasons always, but reason cannot explore them many a time. How Finding the gene on the DNA is part of the task of decoding the DNA. else can one feel love, jealousy, etc., in life? One could experience love, But is there more that one can expect from the genome projects? Are but cannot measure or see it. there genes for other aspects of our behaviour? Can we hope to understand not just the genes that may cause specific diseases or There have been significant advances in understanding the brain, conditions, but also genes that determine different behaviours in organisms in sequencing DNA, etc. The unlikelihood lies in the essential as complex as ours? It is clear that humans are more complex than any unpredictability of complex systems. Mathematical developments in study other organism on the planet. The distinctions that make us human are and exploration of non-linear phenomena, and studies in the theory of emotions, languages, philosophy, a sense of religion and culture, etc. chaos since the 1960’s have contributed to a major paradigmatic shift in Another feature of complex systems is the phenomenon of emergence the physical sciences. The discovery that completely deterministic – the whole has properties that the parts need not have. Emergence is a systems can show dynamical behaviour as “unpredictable as a coin toss” collective phenomenon like consciousness, which is a property of the has had profound consequences on the way in which many physical human brain as a whole. The idea of the soul - that there is more to us phenomena have been viewed and analyzed. than just a complex interaction between molecules - is central to the In the medical field it is at times found that scientific evidence mind-body problem. gathered need not have a linear relationship to what happens inside the Albert Einstein wrote: “I do not believe that this world is a wonder; human body. The latter is run by the human mind, which is scientifically I think it is a wonderful wonder.” He once remarked to Tagore: “I am unfathomable. There are so many ‘imponderables’ in nature that one more religious than you. Science without religion is lame and religion cannot answer all the questions in nature with the help of science alone. without science is blind.” Stephen Hawking wrote: “I do not believe that There are many things outside the realm of science, which are beyond there is God, and if there is one, I do not want it to interfere with my the explanatory capacity of science. work.” Years ago Leonard Leibovici showed that remote retroactive The effects of prayer on healing illness, ‘the will to live’ feeling intercessory prayer could do wonders for patient recovery in hospitals. that keeps people going despite intolerable pain and disability, make one Many U.S. hospitals and University centres for the study of spirituality believe in the possibilities beyond hypotheses, refutation and and health report the great effects of prayer in healing diseases. The measurement. Science like any other human activity should have its prayed for group had very significant fall in all parameters of the illness limitations. It would be foolhardy to believe that science is the be all and in a coronary care hospital. Even the death rate was very low in the end all of human wisdom. What we know is only a very small fraction of prayed for group. The yoga mantras that are well known in India have what there is to know. One who understands science very well alone also proved to be effective in reducing the rate of breathing which had realizes the depth of this ignorance. significant improvement in the patients’ illness. Yogic breathing is shown to lower elevated blood pressure and many other cardiac parameters. Moreover, it brings immeasurable tranquility of mind.

68Omega June 2006 69 K.K. Jose Science, Mathematics and Truth

Mathematics, the Language of the Universe using cellular automata theory. The Chinese compare an illiterate to a blind man. As our age develops, we have started feeling the same way Ours is a mathematical age. Not only are we ever more dependent of the one ignorant of mathematical thinking. Indeed mathematics is the on the fruits of the physical sciences, not only is the art of data processing language of beauty and reality. Bertrand Russell said: “Mathematics, being developed to free humans of much of their routine work, but also rightly viewed, possesses not only truth but supreme beauty – a beauty the ideas of mathematics permeate our sociological, philosophical, cold and austere, like that of a sculpture, without appeal to any part of linguistic and artistic worlds. After contributing to the revolutions in our weaker nature, without the gorgeous trappings of painting or music, computer science, information technology, artificial intelligence and neural yet sublimely pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the networks, mathematics is revolutionizing biological sciences through greatest art can show.” bioinformatics, gene sequencing, etc. It has influenced the whole theory of physics and contributed to quantum mechanics, quantum computing, According to Carl F. Gauss, “Mathematics is the mother of all etc. Chemometrics and Econometrics are the fruits of mathematical knowledge and the queen of all sciences.” Statistics is the key scientific sciences in Chemical Sciences and Economics. Modern management technology for economic planning and development. The thirteenth sciences also depend heavily on mathematical decision functions and century theologian Robert Grosseteste said: God disposes everything in operation research techniques. number, weight and measure. God was the first measurer. It was because of an attempt to pythagoreanising Christianity. There was a belief that According to Galileo, the father of modern science, there are only the biblical deity is a divine mathematician, and hence God is a super two books, the book of nature and the book of scripture. The book of mathematician. nature is written in the language of mathematics, and hence mathematics is the divine language of the universe. The whole philosophy of science Galileo viewed philosophy as a genuine quest for a quantitative is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are lines, explanation. It can be said that Galileo was instrumental in divorcing rectangles, triangles, circles and other geometric figures along with natural sciences from philosophy. He introduced experimental verification numbers, without which one wanders about in a dark labyrinth. Descartes and mathematics as the basis for true philosophy, which he termed as says that the whole theory of Physics is simple Geometry. Newton’s science. The core of his philosophy of science is given in his book, The classical work Principia Mathematica is an elegant mathematical Assayer, p.237: “Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, treatment to explain the mechanical philosophy of nature. The which stands continually open to our gaze. But the book cannot be Pythagorean orientation was based on the mathematical harmony as the understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and read fundamental structure of the universe. Theories of astronomy and the letters in which it is composed. It is written in the language of astrophysics also are developed using mathematical structures. mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles and other geometric figures without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single In modern mathematics, many natural phenomena are explained work of it, without these one wanders about in a dark labyrinth.” using the theory of numbers, especially Fibonacci sequence. They can explain many growth models, such as the formation of flowers and leaves Galileo believed that his own greater genius lay in his ability to and various patterns in nature. Very recently the theory of fractals and observe the world at hand, to understand the behaviour of its parts, and cellular automata was used to explain the formation of very intricate and to describe these in terms of mathematical formulae. Einstein also highly complex structures, such as the formation of galaxies and the observed that “propositions arrived at purely by logical means are neural networks of the brain. Stephen Wolfram (2003) had recently completely empty as regards reality. Thus in Galileo’s philosophy of nature developed a New Kind of Science based on his mathematica software mathematics is given prime importance, and that is why he is called ‘the father of modern science.’”

70Omega June 2006 71 K.K. Jose Science, Mathematics and Truth Mechanics, Kinematics and Dynamics Fibonacci Sequence and Growth Models

Mechanics is the study of forces and their effects on objects, According to Kronecker, a famous European mathematician, only while dynamics studies how objects move under the action of forces. natural numbers, namely 1,2,3,.., are given by God or belong to nature. Thus dynamics inquires the cause of the motion, and kinematics is the We can observe much beautiful regular behaviour in numbers. For study of motion without the consideration of its cause. Thus mechanics example, is the general title for motion of bodies under a force. One of Galileo’s 1+2=3 great discoveries was that in a natural free-fall, a body is accelerated 4+5+6=7+8 towards the earth at a constant rate. With regard to accelerating bodies, 9+10+11+12=13+14+15 and so on. Galileo discovered that “an object starting from rest would cover a distance proportional to the square of the elapsed time,” inferring from his There are many mathematical models for the growth of living experiments on inclined planes. organisms and other patterns commonly found in nature. In 1202, an Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, nicknamed Fibonacci, invented Thus Galileo’s ingenuity extracted a great amount of useful data a sequence with relation to a problem about the growth of a rabbit using simple instruments. Using ordinary mathematical language of the population. This model could very well be applied to the cell growth of times, namely geometry, he was able to develop substantial contributions living organisms. Another mathematical model, which has attracted the in mechanics, which were later perfected by Newton through his famous attention of scientists, naturalists and artists, is the logarithmic spiral. It law of gravity and the mathematical technique called calculus. Galileo is given by the equation r = e(/). Here the rate of growth is a constant, knew that the best way to unify the heavenly and earthly worlds was to namely, á/w. Jacob Bernoulli calls this ‘Spira Mirabilis’ (marvellous show that the straight-line motion of the earth and the circular motion of spiral). D.A.W. Thomson, one of the greatest British naturalists during heavenly bodies are two aspects of the same motion. He argued that 1860-1948, gives detailed discussions about this curve as a natural model inertial motion was circular, and hence the same circular motion of the for the growth of conch, horn, tusk, etc. Sir Theodore Andrea Cook heavenly bodies was replicated in the case of earthly bodies. Later through (1914) describes the role of various spiral curves in the field of arts as the three laws of Kepler and the three laws of motion of Galileo, Newton well as in nature in his book, “The Curves of Life.” Jay Hambidge mathematically unified the celestial and the terrestrial universes into a (1926) describes the golden rectangle, golden section or golden ratio. single entity. Golden rectangle was considered to be most pleasing to the eye by the Greeks. They based the dimensions of many temples, vases and other Einstein’s whole theory of relativity is mathematical. Chaos theory artifacts on the Golden Section. There is a long standing belief that for a believes in order out of disorder. The same philosophy is behind the perfectly proportional human body, the ratio of the height of the navel theory of probability. The law of statistical regularity states that there is (umbilical chord) to the total height is equal to the Golden Section. The an inherent tendency for frequency ratios to stabilize, in spite of Golden Section is abundantly observed in nature with respect to irregularity, randomness and indeterminism in individual outcomes. proportions of insect-body, flower-body dimensions, leafing pattern in Quantum mechanics is also based on probabilistic, indefinite and trees, arrangement and width of human teeth, etc. The numbers of petals indeterminate behavior. Kepler believed that God was not only a dry in a large number of flowers are seen to be fibonacci numbers. Most of geometrician, but also a lover of aesthetic beauty, of harmony, especially the common flowers have 1,2,3,5,8,13,21 or 34,55,89 petals depending musical harmony. on the size. If we carefully observe the row of scales on the surface of a pineapple, we can see the fibonacci pattern. The Golden Angle between successive leaves is close to 137.507 degrees. It we look at the shell of

72Omega June 2006 73 K.K. Jose Science, Mathematics and Truth a snail, horns of sheep and buffalos, the logarithmic spiral can be observed. could be seen in Jain texts like Jambu dvipa Prajnapti, and Some shells generated, based on this principle, are found to be very Suryaprajnapti. close to those found in nature. This mathematical approach to biology doesn’t go against Darwinism; rather it gives greater confidence to the India’s contribution was in arithmetics and algebra. The topics verbal line of argument. included in the Hindu Mathematics included The ratio of two consecutive fibonacci numbers tends to 0.618. (i) Parikarma (4 operations) Golden rectangle has sides in the ratio 1:(1+ ö). The leaf arrangement in (ii) Vyavahara (determination or solving) a coconut plant is to the left or right according to the fibonacci sequence. The leftists are free from diseases. Another interesting model is the (iii) Rajju (rope or geometry) nests of weaverbirds - how they breed eggs in the nest, how they select (iv) Trairasi (rule of three) their partners. The female bird prepares the nest, and waits for the male partner. Only if she likes him, he will enter the nest and mate with her. (v) Yavat tavat (simple equations) Mathematics in Ancient India (vi) Kalasavarna (operations with fractions) “Like the crests on the heads of peacocks, like the gems on the (vii) Varga and Vargamula (square, square roots) hoods of the cobras, mathematics was at the top of the Vedanga Sastras.” This was the supreme importance given to mathematics among (viii) Prastara and Vikalpa (permutation, combinations) the branches of secular knowledge ever since the vedic times. Evidently, Aryabhata was one of the greatest mathematicians and the germs of Indian mathematics have to be traced back to the Vedas. astronomers. He was regarded as the “father of algebra.” He gave The first significant mathematical text of the vedic lore was Sulva Sutra, trignometric tables for sin è, cos è, etc., in the book Surya Siddhanta. in which they give the rules and mathematical details for constructing Bhaskara I gave the geometric treatment of many algebraic formulae. Yajna Bhumikas (sacrificial altars). Again, the well-known Pythagoras He was followed by Brahmagupta. Many mathematical results were theorem was beautifully stated by them. derived in connection with astronomy, the movement of stars, etc. Easter The most remarkable achievement for which the entire world is always on a full moon. The Muslim calendar is also based on the was beholden to ancient India was the invention of the decimal numerals, movement of the moon. zero and infinity. “Of all mathematical discoveries, no one has contributed Mathematica Software and Stephen Wolfram more to the general progress of intelligence than zero,” says Florian Cajori, a most renowned historian of mathematics. The zero symbol Stephen Wolfram is a scientific genius who has revolutionized was used by Pingala in Chandahsutra in 200 BC. mathematical theory and applications and will be widely recognized in the near future on a par with Newton or Einstein for his work in the The credit for giving the value of ð correct to 4 decimal places for fields of theoretical physics, mathematical modeling and computing using the first time goes to Aryabhata I, which he gave as 3.1416. It is interesting the mathematica software. Wolfram’s science is built upon the idea that to note that he uses the word asanna (meaning approximate), suggesting the universe’s complexity cannot be simplified down to a neat that the rational value is only an approximate value since ð is irrational. mathematical equation. On 23 June 1988 he released the Mathematica, Ancient Jains also made significant contributions to mathematics, as the first software package that allowed users of all skill levels to create

74 Omega June 2006 75 K.K. Jose Science, Mathematics and Truth a wide variety of calculations, mathematical graphics and documents. Kepler repeatedly reaffirms his faith in geometry. His conviction After the success of the mathematica software as a commercial product, was that “geometry has supplied God with models for the creation of the he devoted all his time to develop a new kind of science. On 24 May world.” For Galileo “mathematics was the language in which the universe 2002 he published his secret life’s work as a book titled A New Kind of was written.” Descartes always said: “My entire physics is nothing other Science. In this he illustrates the evidence of his science with examples than geometry.” from all branches of natural science. Some Consequences and Effects Mathematica’s beauty is both in the design and the implementation of an extremely versatile and complex system built from certain basic 1. Absolute Accuracy: The mathematization of natural phenomena directives and simple rules. Intrigued by cellular automata, a seldom- stressed mathematical accuracy and precision. Today this is studied topic in computer science, he broadened its scope from the challenged. computer realm to the natural realm. He established that the whole 2. Absolute Certainty: Mathematization ensured that the knowledge was universe was a huge computer that worked on the same principles. certain, not probabilistic. But now quantum physics rests on Cellular automata are simple programs - cellular because they probabilistic interpretation of natural phenomena. are units on a grid, automata because they automatically conform to 3. Exact Predictability: Another claim was the exact predictability of discrete rules. His new science stems from the exploration of one- the future. This claim also has been challenged. dimensional cellular automata - a single row of cells, coloured either black or white. Only 256 possible rules govern one-dimensional cellular 4. Nature as deterministic: According to Newton, God created the whole automata, thus making it much easier to study the whole set thoroughly. universe like a machine governed by laws of mechanics. Shells, including the textile cone, exhibit markings remarkably similar to Indeterminism, chance and uncertainty had no place in it. But the the governing rules of cellular automata. With this he could answer large modern view accepts chaos and random behaviour. questions about the formation of very intricate and highly complex structures, such as the formation of galaxies and the neural networks of 5. Analytical Approach: The emphasis on mathematics led to the the brain. analytical approach as an essential characteristic. Although this approach had many merits, it often led to a detachment from reality, Mathematization of the Universe leading to incomplete partial understanding of nature.

The mathematical conception of the universe, which said that 6. Dehumanization: Everything was believed to be convertible into the universe was made up of mathematical entities and that its structure numbers and codes. We know human love, emotion, sufferings, etc., could be understood by mathematics, was deep-rooted in the ancient cannot be expressed in terms of codes. They are something more Greek tradition, which was influenced by the Pythagorean and Platonic and divine. Newton comprehended both mathematics and theology schools. For them the real was the mathematical harmony in the nature. to justify his laws of mechanics, and wanted his science to be the According to Plato, the task of science was to uncover the underlying foundation of his religion. This approach had the seeds of atheism. mathematical patterns of the universe. Newton’s Principia Mathematica, the bible of Mechanical Philosophy of Nature (MPN), Biological – Genetic Revolution was an elegant mathematical treatise, and the Newtonian school put The Mendelian laws of heredity, Cricks double helix structure for much emphasis on mathematics. DNA, the Genetic Code, Gene/DNA structure in terms of the four letters

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A, G, C, T, etc., are mathematical attempts to model natural phenomena. genetic structure, and so on. The unlikelihood lies in the essential The Human Genome Project; modeling and restructuring, computer unpredictability of complex systems. Mathematical developments in the simulations, genetic engineering, cloning, etc., are some other steps in study and exploration of nonlinear phenomena and studies in the theory our search to discover truth. Artificial Intelligence, neural networks, of chaos since the 1960s have contributed to a major paradigmatic shift etc., are also developed with this perspective. There have been in the physical sciences. The discovery that completely deterministic satisfactory (not fully) models to explain the dynamics of life. The search systems can show dynamical behaviour as “unpredictable as a coin toss” for the “God element in the cell,” etc., is evidence for true spirituality in has had profound consequences on the way in which any number of human life. Gene sequencing, micro-array analysis and modeling are physical phenomena have been viewed and analyzed. some mathematical tools to explore truth. The issues that have been raised by these advances, namely the Genes and Unpredictability successful completion of the genome projects, the brilliant breakthroughs in neurobiology research and the revolution of chaos theory, strike at the In our never-ending quest to understand more about the relationship roots of some of the fundamental questions that have occupied human of humans with the rest of the universe, spectacular advances in modern thought for centuries. There is a zeitgeist bringing together a number of science have made it possible to ask increasingly detailed questions about different strands of thought so that we seem nearer the goal of the essence of what it is to be human. On the one hand, the process of understanding the questions themselves. In the process, we may be close unraveling the DNA of any organism and deducing the sequence of the to some of the answers. These will not be complete, but the offer of any nucleotides that make up this long and complicated molecule have become answer, however partial and however incomplete, on what it means to a routine task, routine enough to be automated to the point where it can be human is one that must be accepted and explored, as must the be carried out by robots, and fast enough that the entire genome of any concomitant necessity to re-evaluate the reductionism program in the organism can be sequenced within a few years at the most. On the natural sciences. other hand, increasingly sophisticated experiments and techniques have made it possible to probe the brain function in increasing detail, to the Genome Projects: Finding All the Genes extent that a map - howsoever primitive - of the brain and its functions is slowly emerging. The announcement of the completion of the sequencing of the human genome was a scientific event of great significance. That a group What does this hold for the future? Will relentless scientific of scientists and entrepreneurs could, within the span of a few years, onslaught on such problems eventually give a completely deterministic completely unravel the structure of the DNA of any individual is among description of any ‘living’ organism? Although ultimately we are interested the highest scientific achievements of man. What exactly has been done? in describing humans, we can start with less ambitious goals. Can we It requires some back-ground in order to fully appreciate the significance hope to capture the essence of what it means to say that any organism, of the Human Genome Project, or any other genome project. however primitive, is alive? One of the major advances in biology in the last century was in It seems unlikely, given the complexity of the problem. It is unlikely deciphering the importance of the DNA mole-cule and the laws of for the obvious reason that getting a complete description of something inheritance. It has been a long jour-ney from Mendel onwards, a journey as complex as a living creature is difficult. As already alluded to, there that painstakingly crossed a number of milestones, starting from the idea have been significant advances in understanding the brain (human or of the ‘gene,’ through the discoveries of chromosomes, the DNA other), tremendous progress in sequencing DNA in order to get at the molecule, its structure and the genetic code.

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We are still learning the details, but the major facts are largely What has been done so far is to get a very detailed map of this known. In essence, they are that each organism, be it a mammal or a molecule, so that almost all the regions containing the genes are known bacterium, has within each of its cells a DNA molecule which carries all in great detail. Spectacular advances in chemistry and molecular biology the information required for its functioning. The information lies encoded have made this almost a matter of routine. Since one now knows the in the structure of the DNA molecule, which is a double--stranded complete list of the 3 billion letters one after the other, the next task is to polymeric entity composed of four different kinds of molecular subunits, find all the genes. For a number of other organisms, especially yeast and adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine, denoted by A, T, G and C. The several bacteria, this task has been accomplished in totality. For the size of the DNA molecule and the order in which these subunits are human genome this task is somewhat more complicated, but it has, in placed determine the function, the biochemistry and there-fore the biology essence, been done. of the organism. How big is the DNA molecule? It is more useful to characterize the size of the DNA in terms of the number of subunits What of it, then? The prospect that every single gene of our DNA comprising it, and since the molecule is a double helix, as was discovered or of any other organism’s DNA can be known is one that has fueled the by Watson and Crick, it is actually enough to know the sequence of one hope that eventually we will be able to understand an organism from the half of it: one strand of the double helix of DNA determines the other most fundamental level upwards. This is the sense in which I wish, in strand by complementarity (A bonds with T, C with G). On the molecule this essay, to explore what it means to be human, or more generally, itself, the information is carried on cer-tain portions of the DNA whose what it means for any organism to be alive. function it is to carry out a number of tasks such as the synthesis of Are We More than the Sum of Our Genes? proteins, the initiation of reactions, etc. Finding the genes in the DNA is one part of the task of decoding Each organism is unique. It is unique in its DNA. How-ever, all the DNA. Finding out what exactly the genes do is much more involved. life on this planet evolved from a single event that took place around 3.5 As we realize now, a given trait is not always the result of a single gene, or so bil-lion years ago. That event of creation laid the foundations for all and groups of genes need to act in concert to produce the so-called life forms on earth, which therefore share a com-mon genetic code and ‘genetic’ effects. Indeed, rarely is a single gene responsible for any a common evolutionary history. In this history, the DNA molecule has characteristic in any organism, which, by its very nature, is an entity of played a central role, as the replication of the DNA molecule allows for enormous complexity. In a sense, we were fortunate that Mendel chose both deliberate and accidental errors, and mutations which are internal to study those traits in peas wherein there is a nearly one-to-one correlation catalysts for evolution. Another important catalyst for evolution comes to genes. from the physical environment, which, as we observe, continuously changes, putting forward a continuously changing set of challenges to Today it is believed that not more than 30,000 genes are all that any organism which may evolve in order to adapt, and must adapt in are involved in determining the function of an organism as large and as order to survive. complex as the human being. For a bacterium it can be much fewer: some have just around 1000 genes in all. While it is generally true that The human genome contains over 3 billion base units, namely, it the more ‘advanced’ the organism, the more the number of genes that consists of a long series of the letters A, T, G and C placed in a particular are required for it to function, the reverse is not necessarily true. Hence, order. Does this make a human being? At one level it does, because the the relationship between the complexity of an organism, the length of 3 billion letters on one strand of the DNA contain all the information the genome and the number of genes is a complicated one. needed to make the individual.

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One of the big targets of the genome projects is to try to identify consequence of the DNA in our cells? In a trivial way, the answer is, of the gene or the set of genes that is responsible for a given medical course, yes. The DNA must determine everything since it contains the condition, say diabetes or asthma or cancer. Already the genes that blueprint for all that goes into making us. But the question is directed cause certain kinds of cancers or other diseases such as Huntington’s more specifically: How is this thought, this memory, this action, governed disease or the predisposition to Alzheimer’s, etc., have been identi-fied. by this set of genes? Or is it? We are a very long way away from a The hope that by discovering the genetic cause of a disease one can find comprehensive answer to any of these questions. These are among the a cure for it provides a very strong impetus for such studies. most profound that can be posed (Who are we? How did we come here? Where are we going?), but in some limited spheres some crucial But is there more that one can expect from genome pro-jects? experiments are being carried out to determine the physical basis - if Are there genes for other aspects of our behaviour? Can we hope to determinable - of particu-lar emotions. understand not just the genes that may cause specific diseases or conditions, but also genes that may determine different behaviours in The Astonishing Hypothesis organisms as com-plex as humans? What indeed do we mean when we say that one orga-nism is more complex than another? Or that one thing The most explicit statement in support of this level of reductionism is more complex than another? Complexity, most simply defined, is is that by Francis Crick who, in 1990, advanced what he calls “the measured by how much it takes to fully describe an object: the more astonishing hypothesis.” Crick was concerned with that most ephemeral complex something is, the more you can say about it. Even with this of human qualities, the soul. The main thesis, Crick stated, was that admittedly lim-ited notion of complexity, it is clear that humans are more “You, your joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, complex than any other organism on this planet. The dis-tinction usually your sense of personal identity and free will, are in fact no more than the takes the form of enumerating what it is that humans do which sets behaviour of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated them apart from other living things - some of these are language, emotion, molecules.” philosophy, a sense of religion and culture. There is evidence that we The idea of the soul, that there is more to us than just a complex are not the only beings with some of these attributes, but we are likely to interaction between molecules, is central to the mind-body problem. How be the only ones with all of them deve-loped so highly. does one understand the emer-gence of consciousness above and beyond Another feature of complex systems is the phenome-non of the billions of cells that make up a human brain? Must there not be more emergence: the whole has properties that the parts simply added up to being human than biochemistry? need not have. Emergence is a collective phenomenon. Consciousness Crick’s astonishing hypothesis is remarkable, not just because this is an example: it is a property of the human brain, but individual cells that is a daring idea. It forces one to examine, to the extent that current go into making up the brain are not, in any sense, conscious. Simpler knowledge allows, just how much of the brain function is presently examples can be found. A molecule of water is not a liq-uid, but a understood, and how much of it can be inferred by extrapolation. Many collection of molecules of water has this prop-erty. Thus emergence is of the experiments described by Crick relate to vis-ual perception, and at once both simple and profound, and most significantly it is an important while they are not near to explaining awareness, they give some indication attrib-ute of complex systems. of the level of the effort that will be needed to understand the visual The question thus becomes: Are all these attributes that we take system com-pletely. The inescapable conclusion, however, is that this to define the human condition dependent, in any direct and determinable will, eventually, be within the realm of the possible. way, on the genes we possess? And therefore then, are these a

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What is the immediate consequence of this chain of reasoning? If mathematical thought: “We can cope with thinking about the world (only) a ‘complete’ understanding of visual aware-ness is possible, then, when it is of compa-rable size to ourselves and our raw unaided senses presumably, so is essentially every other sensory awareness. By slow .... Evolution, so far, may possibly have blocked us from being able to degrees, therefore, by more and more experimentation, it should be think in some directions; there could be unthinkable thoughts.” possible to get to the molecular basis of each emotion. To what extent is this an accurate estimation of what is possible? What about other, thinkable, thoughts? If evolution has ensured the development of the human brain with its bil-lions of interconnected The Role of Selection neurons to be capable of mathe-matical thought, are there other aspects of consciousness that are similarly the product of evolution? Indeed, It is necessary to appreciate that evolution may have played a per-haps the sense of the soul has also conferred evolutionary advantage, role in the process of human thinking. Is the nature of human thought a bringing us to this stage of humanness. To a limited extent some recent consequence of the way in which our brains have developed? This is a experiments give indication that this may be so. question that has occupied many seminal thinkers and, in particular, some physical scientists who have attempted to analyze the nature of scientific Religion, Memory and Brain Function thought. For instance, in 1921, Einstein, while discussing the significance of mathematics in the development of scien-tific thought, remarked “An Regardless of whether (or how) consciousness is an emergent enigma presents itself which in all ages has agitated inquiring minds. property, one aspect of human behaviour merits some discussion, namely, How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human the pervasive practice of reli-gion. It is a fact that religious experience thought that is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to and religious feeling are central to what one may term the human the objects of reality? Is human reason, then, without experience, merely condi-tion. There is no culture, however primitive, which does not have by taking thought, able to fathom the properties of real things?” some manifestation of it, and in less primitive cultures, traditional religions have been replaced by other communal activities. In short, religion may Fifteen years later, he went on to say: “The very fact that the be neces-sary for human evolution. totality of our sense experiences is such that by means of thinking ... it can be put in order, this fact is one which leaves us in awe, but which we This point of view has been bolstered by experiments carried out shall never understand. One may say ‘the eternal mystery of the world by many researchers, on what they term a God module in the human is its comprehensibility.’” brain. This could underpin an evolutionary instinct to believe in reli-gion. There may be dedicated neural machinery in the temporal lobes Has evolution shaped us for reasoning? Would there have been concerned with religion, which may have evolved to impose order and some form of Darwinian selection that gave an advantage to those with stability on society. the ability, or at any rate, the trait that would lead eventually to the ability to make a model of reality in the brain? This evolutionary advantage, It is well known that any thought process or emotion is correlated amplified over time, has led to the human brain that has great skill in with specific neuronal activity. The temporal lobe connection to artistic describing the world. At the same time, then, the brain has also retained creativity has been known for some time; patients with temporal lobe all those features that helped it along the path and gave selective epilepsy often manifest a characteristic obsession with philosophical issues advantage, and among these could be those attributes of the human and become excessively religious. Similarly, recent experiments on mind that we find so difficult to describe and define - creativity, memory, for instance, where mag-netic resonance imaging of the brain imagi-nation, emotion, philosophy and religiosity, for instance. Therefore, is used in real time, go even further. They correlate specific mental argues Hamming in an insightful article on the effectiveness of activities with specific regions in the brain. Thus every thought, it is

84Omega June 2006 85 K.K. Jose Science, Mathematics and Truth suggested, can ultimately be traced back to a specific sequence of activity which it is claimed that the past and future of the universe can be predicted of a specific set of neurons. There are, admittedly, billions of these which by an ideal observer who knows the positions and velocities of all the are interconnected in a complex co-dependent web, but the problem of particles and the laws governing their motions. Chaos theory says that thought is reducible, in some sense, to the behaviour of a complex network, for nonlinear systems this is in general impossible because the smallest each unit of which one can understand in as much detail as one wishes. error in specifying the positions and velocities would, in the presence of chaos, magnify so rapidly as to make all predictions meaningless. The On the matter of memory, significant progress has been made in only requirement is that there be chaotic dynamics in the nonlinear system; understanding the mechanisms of memory at the neuron level. It is now our present understanding is that indeed chaotic dynamics is abundant, believed that memory is encoded in the brain as a spatio-temporal pattern in the sense that most nonlinear systems will have the potential to show of activity in the neural network, and stored by modifying the connections chaos. Indeed, the more complicated the system, the more likely this between the neurons themselves. Recalling involves retracing the becomes, and in systems as complex as those we are considering here, pathways through the network, involving specific molecules, activation like the brain or a cell, it is a certainty that the system will, in all senses of different molecular networks, and even, perhaps most unexpectedly, of the word, be chaotic. it may involve the DNA. Neural networks may be modified by the rapid activation of many genes. Will a similar deterministic description of Having chaos does not preclude all forms of prediction, however. conscious-ness also become possible? The property of complex systems to have attrac-tors, namely a set of states to which the system eventually settles, allows for some level of Deterministic Chaos prediction. The motion on attractors can be chaotic, in which case these are termed strange attractors: the chaos makes precise prediction A major paradigmatic shift, the so-called third revolution in physics, impossible, but the existence of attractors makes it possi-ble to give in the latter part of the last century, has been the discovery of deterministic some idea of what behaviour will obtain. chaos. This is the realiza-tion that very simple (but nonlinear) systems have the potential to display dynamical behaviour as complicated as one Studies of models of many cellular processes, their chemistry and can imagine. It is not possible to give a full de-scription of chaos theory biochemistry show the presence of chaotic dynamics and attractors. here, but the implications of the theory are profound enough to warrant There is also evidence that brain activity, as evidenced by EEG signals, being described. These have become summarized as the ‘butterfly effect,’ may show deterministic chaos. Experimentation in this area is still in its namely, the possibility of systems being so unpredictable that the quality infancy, but the methods of chaos theory have found some application in of a prediction is sensitive to effects as unimaginably small as that of a these studies and they suggest that there may be complex attractors that butterfly flapping its wings thousands of miles away. Non-linearity makes describe the dynamics of electrical signals in the brain. This observation it possible for small effects to get magnified exponentially rapidly, so that is consis-tent with current models of neuronal activity. Any mathe-matical the very small translates into the very large very quickly. model of neural networks has a dynamics that is chaotic, showing extreme sensitivity to perturbations. The generality of the arguments, which are ultimately mathematical in nature, makes chaos theory application to a wide variety of disciplines. Synthesis What are its implications? When applied, for instance, to systems such as the weather, chaos theory says that accurate prediction is not possible If a completely deterministic description of any living organism beyond a certain timeframe. When applied in other contexts, it often were possible, one somewhat disturbing conse-quence would be the gives a rationale for the intrinsic unpredictability of certain phenomena, necessity to re-evaluate some of our beliefs about what it means to be and gives an escape from the certainty of Laplacian determinism by alive or what makes us human. A concept, which is central to this, is that

86Omega June 2006 87 K.K. Jose Science, Mathematics and Truth of free-will, that our consciousness allows us to determine our actions the complexity that he refers to is noth-ing like the complexity of systems rather than that our actions are merely the out-come of the inexorable such as those we are discussing here. Complex atoms or molecules are laws of motion of the several bil-lions of atoms and molecules that difficult to describe exactly because of the sheer computational difficulty, constitute our being. Where, for instance, is any scope for choice, although the underlying equations are linear. Owing to the intrinsic non- creati-vity or argument? Full determinism appears to go hand in hand linearity, the level of comple-xity of a living organism is entirely in a with com-plete predictability, at least in principle. But experience, be it different class. with humans or with other species, shows that one of the main features of a ‘living’ organism is that there are aspects to its behaviour that are What then of the soul or what it means to be human? While it only approximately pre-dictable. may be true that all human genes will be discov-ered very shortly, and that we will gradually acquire more and more knowledge about the The reductionism approach to biology is ultimately untenable for circuitry of the brain in all its detail, the sheer complexity of this ‘system’ a variety of reasons, but the prin-cipal one is this. If every gene were to which has inbuilt dynamical chaos necessarily precludes complete be known (and in principle they all will be), if every biochemical network description. This is not only true for us, but also, in a fundamental way, in every cell were to be known (and, again, they can eventu-ally all be even for the lowest organisms. In this sense, unpredictability is both the determined), if every neuron in the brain could be described in as much consequence as well as the defining quality of what it means to be alive. detail as possible with all its con-nections, as deterministic as the resulting system is, it will be chaotic. The unpredictability of the detailed behaviour Conclusion of a system, as complex as a living organism, is itself an emergent property. Now we know human love, affection, willingness to love and This is in contrast to our knowledge, say, about the structure of nurture, a mother’s love to her children, etc., are something beyond atoms and molecules, which are described by the laws of quantum explanation. Francis Crick, the discoverer of the double helix structure mechanics. The quantum theory, which is intrinsically non-deterministic, of the DNA in 1954, introduced the astonishing hypothesis, which draws has built into its structure the uncertainty principle. Yet this theory is our attention towards the existence of the soul. Recently, scientists met capable of precise predictions, which can agree with the results of at Beijing and approved a project to trace the ‘God element’ in an atom. experiments to an astonishing level of accuracy. Shortly after the solution All these will bring out new revelations towards our search for truth. of the Schrödinger equation for the simplest atom, namely hydrogen, Mathematics is also a search for truth. It is mystic but realistic, complex Dirac remarked, in 1929: “The fundamental laws necessary for the but beautiful. mathematical treatment of large parts of physics and the whole of References chemistry are thus fully known, and the diffi-culty lies only in the fact that the application of these laws leads to equations that are too complex 1. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Wings of Fire, An Autobiography (Hyderabad: to be solved.” He was correct in a gross sense, because once the right Universities Press, 2002). equa-tion is known, all that remains is to solve it, however dif-ficult and 2. C. Blakemore, Mechanics of the Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University intractable that might be. But as he also mentioned, this was not going to Press, 1997). be easy. Even today, with the computational power that is currently 3. F. Capra, The Tao of Physics (London: Flamingo, 1991). available, accurate calculations for all but the smallest molecules are intractable. In a deeper sense, he was wrong because seve-ral features 4. M. Chandrankunnel, Science and Religion: From Warpath to Wholeness of the real world cannot be embodied within the Schrödinger equation, (Bangalore: Bangalore Forum for Science and Religion, 2004). collective behaviour and emergent properties being among them. Yet, 5. F. Crick, The Astonishing Hypothesis (London: Simon and Schuster, 1994).

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6. P. Davies, The Mind of God (London: Simon and Schuster, 1992). 7. P. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (Oxford: Clarendon, 1958). 8. R. Devaney and Keen, L., Chaos and Fractals (New York: AMS Series, 1985). 9. J. Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science (New York: Viking, 1987). 10. Job K,.Contemporary Science and Religion in Dialogue (Pune: ASSR Series 1, 2002). Science, Religion and Social Transformation 11. Job K., “Kepler and the Origin of Modern Science,” in Indian Journal of The Struggle against the Evil Practice of History of Science, 33 (1968), pp. 163-86. Witch-hunt in Jharkhand

12. Isaac Newton, Principia Mathematica (Berkeley: University of California 1 Press, 1968). - Ann Moyalan 13. A. M. Mathai and Davies, T.A., “Constructing the Sunflower,” in Mathematical Biosciences, 20, pp. 117-133. Abstract: This paper is a case study showing how science coupled with 14. Paul Davies, God and the New Physics (New York: Simon and Schuster, religious values can become a powerful and effective tool for social 1983). transformation. The author is sharing her personal Odyssey against the 15. Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time (London: Bentham Books, 1997). inhuman and heinous practice of “witch-killing.” She used her scientific background and training to show that the age-old practice in certain societies of attributing sicknesses, misfortunes and other tragedies to Notes “witches” has no scientific basis. Her religious principles and conviction 1. Dr. K. K. Jose is the head of the Department of Statistics at St. Thomas enabled her to fight against this long-entrenched practice, at great College, Pala. He is also the Director of the Centre for Mathematical Sciences personal risk. She shows that the problems have natural and identifiable and the President of the, Kerala Statistical Association and Executive Council causes. The solution to such problems is not victimizing poor old women. Member, Indian Society for Probability and Statistics. The paper gives reliable data and hard facts about cruelty against women. It analyzes some of the principal causes of this heinous practice, and suggests ways of overcoming them. This case study can serve as a source of inspiration and encouragement for those engaged in social transformation. - Editor Key Words: Witch-killing, Social transformation, Tribal gods, Empowerment of women, Crimes against women

Introduction

The transforming power of science is well known, particularly in the social arena. The rise of modern science has led not only to the

90Omega June 2006 91 Ann Moyalan Science, Religion and Social Transformation exposition of many social evils, but also to their eradication. True religion Some Facts and Figures also has been a liberator of people from false beliefs and unjust practices. For instance, Jesus Christ in his life and teaching challenged the injustice First, I want the facts and figures to speak for themselves. of many social customs of his day. The same can be said of other founders November 25, 1996, was a black day in the history of Kodsona village in of world religions. If science and religion individually can be a true source West Singhbhum where Athman Honsaga and his wife Suru were brutally of social transformation, when they join together, they can be a most murdered at night in the name of witch-hunt, leaving their 5 innocent, powerful agent to liberate society from injustice and misery. This paper helpless children orphans. The youngest baby of 11 months was sucking is an attempt to elucidate this special power not so much by giving a at the breast when the incident took place. Sombari, the eldest daughter, theoretical elaboration as by sharing my own life experience. More who was sleeping inside the house, was woken up by the cry of the specifically, I will share my own experiences in West Singhbhum, Chaibasa, baby. She had to walk through blood in order to pick up the baby. Her in Jharkhand as a case study bearing on the issues of Science, Religion younger brother, who had been sleeping beside the parents, hid himself and Social Transformation. I am neither a scientist nor a theologian. in the haystack while the killing took place, and told his sister what took And yet, as a trained nurse and a woman of faith I am not a total stranger place. to these areas. As a religious woman committed for human values (such On inquiry it was revealed that one of the neighbours of Athman as service, justice, equality, freedom, harmony etc.) I have been working Honsaga was sick for a long time and she died of tuberculosis in Sadar in the area of social transformation for more than a decade. Inspired Hospital, Chaibasa. Her husband Rotan took an oath at her deathbed and impelled by the charism and vision of my own religious congregation that the one who had eaten his wife would be revealed and destroyed (Sisters of Charity of Nazareth) I have been working especially for the within a month. Killers were hired for this purpose. Two of them were empowerment of women and gender equality. This paper will focus on arrested but the main culprit moved around freely. The informant, the my work with Zila Mahila Samiti in Chaibasa, especially our campaign Munda of Kodsona village, was poisoned and killed months later. against the evil practice of “witch-hunt.” I like to share how my religious commitment as a Sister of Charity of Nazareth and my scientific Kurjulie, one of the interior villages of Kuntpani Block West background in medicine motivated and empowered me to struggle Singhbhum, witnessed another gruesome massacre on July 15, 1997. ceaselessly and successfully against the inhuman, unjust and longstanding The father, mother and three children were brutally beaten to death by evil of witch-hunt, or dyne-killing. their cousins. One of the killers was the acting Munda (headman) of the village. There used to be quarrels between the families over their land. Some of you may have never heard about “witch-hunt,” and some The Munda family blamed Mecho Kayam, the mother of the family, for of you may wonder about its relevance in our world of supercomputers any sickness in the house and branded her as a dyne (witch). According and IT revolution. But, at the end of this paper, I am confident, you will to an eyewitness it was evening time when Mecho and her husband see its relevance to our India today. You will also see that our specific returned from the market. Some villagers headed by the Munda entered and concrete campaign against the evil practice of “witch hunt” can be the house, attacked the couple and their three children, killed them considered a paradigm case that both proves and advocates the point mercilessly by beating them and crushing their heads. Finally their bodies that effective social transformation must take into account the dynamics were cut into pieces and thrown into the jungle. Even though Jumpy of science and religion in the society. One could apply the same principles Kayam, one of the survivors, filed an FIR, no arrest was made for want and methods in any other area of social transformation. of evidence. Such news is surely shocking, and you might be asking the question, “Why such brutal act in this day and age?” I could go on enumerating

92Omega June 2006 93 Ann Moyalan Science, Religion and Social Transformation examples after examples of similar gruesome incidents. But, instead I Witch-killings in Jharkhand will present the statistics of witch-killings in the last decade. S.N. District Year Killings Witch-killings in the Last Decade 1. Lohardaga 1991-97 98 Given below is the number of witch-killing incidents reported each 2. Ranchi 1991-97 89 year since 1991 from the various police stations in Singbhum West. 3. Palamu 1991-97 96 Number of People Killed 4. Gumla 1992-96 69 S.N. Year FIR Men Women Total 5. West Singbhum 1991-99 134 1. 1991 14 8 15 23 Total 486 2. 1992 15 5 15 20 Analysis and Reflection 3. 1993 19 6 19 25 The details of cases registered in West Singbhum from the year 4. 1994 12 2 13 15 1991 to 1995 highlight a very important fact that out of 134 killings 101 5. 1995 12 5 16 21 are women. Therefore one can say that the heinous crime of witch-hunt 6. 1996 7 4 5 9 is essentially directed and targeted towards women, particularly widows who have some landed property. 7. 1997 7 0 6 6 As we look at these statistics, it is important to keep in mind that 8. 1998 6 3 6 9 many of the cases of witch-hunt are not reported to the police due to 9. 1999 9 0 6 6 social pressure. A door-to-door survey by Zila Mahila Samitee showed that although more than 20 people had been killed within a period of five Total 101 33 101 134 years (1991-1995) in Kuntpani Block alone, only seven cases were reported at Mufasil Thana, West Singhbhum. Witch-killings in Ghumla District S.N. Year Fir No. Of Killings Investigations of the cases registered for witch-killing have revealed certain peculiar features which are enumerated below as they 1. 1992 15 18 appear to be significant pointers toward planning any strategy for 2. 1993 16 17 eradicating this evil practice. 3. 1994 14 15  In many cases the village was affected by a disease/epidemic. Absence of timely health care intervention led to deaths or drove the 4. 1995 10 12 villagers to the witch-doctors, deowas and sokas. They in turn branded some women, particularly widows, as witches, and then the 5. 1996 7 7 entire village united in killing and destroying the entire family. Total 62 69  In some cases the brutal murder is motivated by greed for the land or wealth of the unfortunate victim. Usually this is schemed by influential

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people of the village or the relatives of the victim’s family who have The question of witches is not new. It has existed in most set their greedy eyes on the land of the helpless widow. Their wily indigenous communities for centuries all over the world. Traditionally mode of procedure is as follows: Brand the poor, helpless widow as the practice was to brand some individuals (mostly women) by subtle a witch through a complex system of rituals. Then spread baseless means as harmful and dangerous for the community. This procedure rumour in the village that she is a dangerous witch. Once this is done, authorized a ‘legitimate’ way of eliminating them. The same pattern has all subsequent illnesses and calamities of the village are attributed to been observed among the people of Jharkhand. The number of witch- her. Thus the public opinion of the entire village is galvanized against hunt cases was increasing among the adivasis, and it affected the women the victim who in the end is killed with social sanction. in particular.

 In some other cases personal revenge is the motive for branding Intervention someone as a witch. This happens usually when there are personal disputes over property and/or when there are personal enmities Seeing the increase in witch-hunt cases, the District Administration between two parties. One of the parties seeks the help of deowas or under the leadership of Mr. Khare, Deputy Commissioner, West influential village people to implicate a female member of the family Singhbhum, started a campaign against superstition and witchcraft in of the opposite party in witchcraft, thereby ensuring the elimination October 1995. This campaign was known as “Anti-Superstition of her family. Campaign.” Zila Mahila Samitee (District Women’s Forum) worked side by side with the Government in organizing padayatras and public  In the traditional “kepaya system” of marriage the boy and the girl meetings against witch-hunt. Ever since this campaign, Zila Mahila would gallop away and live as husband and wife and the family would Samitee members – mainly a group of local women - have taken it upon accept them. There was no financial burden for the families themselves to fight against witch-hunt in the District. concerned. However, now influenced by modernization and desire for money, marriage involves a financial burden for the girl’s family. Witch-hunt being embedded strongly in the culture of the people, Because of this at times the girl is driven away having been branded we could not attack it directly, but had to look for ways and means to as a witch. Often the women play a major role in this process approach this problem. I would like to share with you the methodology we used. We stayed in the villages, visited homes, formed Mahila  Most of the villages where such incidents took place were located in Mandals and self-help groups. Through sharing and discussions we tried remote areas with very few basic amenities. to comprehend the complexity of the problem. It did not take too long to realize that the core issue was a gender issue closely linked with the  The belief in witchcraft is not limited to the tribals alone but also to socio–economic, cultural aspects of the society, and it was related to the the non-tribal groups of the area. tribal belief system, specifically of the Ho tribe.  The role of local Mundas (headman) and Mankis has been very important: The Mundas who were educated and sensitive tried to The Role of Religion or Belief System intervene, but the ignorant Mundas sided with the oppressors and did The main deities in the Ho Pantheon are Singbonga, Dessauli, not care to inform the police, as was their duty. Burubonga, Nage Ira and Marang Bonga. Besides these deities

 The local Administration looked at witch-hunt as a law and order they also worship the spirits of their ancestors who reside in the ‘ading’ problem. Thus they dealt with it from the point of view of crime, and that is the most sacred place in a Ho house, and only the family members not from the social angle. can enter that area. There are good spirits that are benevolent to humankind, and there are evil spirits that are hostile to human beings.

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There are pollution rites and taboos related to birth, death and deaths of animals; and failure of crops are all usually attributed to the menstruation in the Ho Society. According to their common rules, a power of witchcraft. Once a person is stamped as a dyne, that person polluted person cannot enter: can never escape from the consequences of it. It works as a special sanction to get rid of that individual or family either by killing them or by a) Dessauli (the sacred grove). driving them away from the village, after having meted out all the cruelties b) The ‘agom gora’ the enclosed space inside the rice field which is – like making them to eat human excreta, torture, even raping of women, set aside for doing pooja. and destroying their property. c) The ‘ading.’ This is not a comprehensive picture of tribal theology, but sufficient enough to understand the problem of witch-hunt. What was important Illness, according to Ho cosmology, occurs when there is a deviation for our work in Chaibasa at that stage was a critical assessment of the from the natural or pre-ordained order of things. When any of the taboos tribal belief system. We were consciously engaged in some sort of related to pollution are broken, or when rituals and customary practices dialogue between science and religion. As it will be seen soon, medical are not followed, when festivals are not celebrated at the proper time, science and social sciences have played special roles in this endeavor. then the spirits would get angry causing outbreak of epidemics, sickness We recognized that, like any religious belief system, the tribal belief and death of human beings as well as cattle, failure of crops and natural system also had deep insights into the sacred and profound understanding calamities. In order to appease the evil spirits one has to perform pooja about the mysteries of Life. But, like any other religious system, tribal and offer animal sacrifice. beliefs needed to be looked at in relation to some basic human values that have come to be accepted as universal. Respect for human life and Coupled with the fear of evil spirits, there is the fear of ‘witches’ equality of dignity of women and men are two such universal values. who are supposed to possess special knowledge and skill to harm and And both these values have been violated in the phenomenon of witch- kill others through the medium of spirits. According to the available hunt. And therefore, witch-hunt had to be denounced by all means. information a witch, commonly known as dyne, has to undergo a very rigorous training, just like a deowas. This training, which is considered Finding causes for physical phenomena is one of the basic mental to be invisible, evil and illegitimate, lasts for three months and has to be activities. One of the differences between the scientific mind-set and continued for seven years. Some others like the ‘Ho’ or ‘Larka Kol’ the “religious” mind-set is the way of understanding these causes. The believe that witches breed witches and hence the whole family of the former explains the physical phenomena in terms of immanent, denounced witches should be eliminated. Dalton has recorded that it measurable and quantifiable physical or material causes, while the latter was the practice among the Ho tribe to kill all members of a family on explains the same in terms of invisible supernatural forces. Here is an suspicion of witchcraft. Perhaps this belief could partially account for example: There is a sweet-water spring in Lupunguttu, the village where the mass killings that take place even today. Normally people do not our office is located. The spring is slowly drying up. The people of the dare to eat or drink in the house of someone who is suspected to be a village gathered to discuss why it is drying and what needs to be done. witch for fear of being poisoned through food and drink. Sokas are the The younger generation said that it is due to the mine in the area, which traditionally accepted persons who are expected to identify whether a is pumping out a huge amount of water and thus drying up the sources of woman is or is not a witch, and who are normally non-tribal and often the spring. Therefore, mines should be closed. But, the elders of the low-cast Hindus. village thought otherwise. According to them, a particular goddess is the source of the spring, and since people are not paying adequate Long time sickness without improvement in spite of treatment attention to the goddess she is angry and displeased. What needs to be and Bongapooja; cases of sudden deaths caused by illness or accidents;

98Omega June 2006 99 Ann Moyalan Science, Religion and Social Transformation done is pooja and animal sacrifice. Similarly, cases of drought, crop Our next important step was to make use of social science research failure and famine would be attributed to the displeasure of the rain god, material from the research centers in the area in making the people and appeasement of the rain god would be suggested as a necessary understand their existential situation as a web of socio-economic and step. But, science would argue for deforestation and similar ecological political factors. A.B. Chawdhury, for example, in his study about the blunders as causes for draught and famine. Barind region, says: “Below the apparent peaceful placid social strata, the Barind is in ferment, and the gradual increase in the number of It is important to note that when the causes are attributed to invisible witches killed every year is an indication of the restive mind for a variety supernatural forces, it paves the way for other psycho-social dynamics. of reasons. The ever increasing pressure from the surroundings, the People experience a sense of fear and helplessness, being at the mercy loss of land, the bleak future, and the quick disintegration of the society of such forces, which are understood to be arbitrary and whimsical. have been causing anxiety to the tribal mind.” The following is a list of Nothing can be done except appeasing these forces through some ritual factors that must be taken into account in order to understand the tribal sacrifices. As we observed above, a number of women were identified community and to address its problems: as witches, who, as agents of evil spirits, were understood as the causes of disaster and destruction, although none of them knew witchcraft. For Socio-economic Situation of Adivasis in Jharkhand example, the man in the second story above, believed that some witch had eaten up his wife’s liver, whereas she died of tuberculosis. Strangely, 1. Displacement: In the years subsequent to independence, a lot of there was no effort made to appease these witches, rather the procedure new projects were started in this area in the name of national was to eliminate them through cruel and brutal methods. The vagueness development. Studies show that about 22.5 lakh acres of tribal land and uncertainties also leave room for subtle and vicious manipulation for in the Jharkhand region have been alienated from them, about 36 the sake of vested interests. This was very clear in a number of cases lakh Jharkhandi adivasis have been displaced in the name of ‘national we had to deal with, where a woman was branded as a witch, not on the development.’ There was no proper policy for rehabilitation of the basis of some supernatural revelation, but by a clever manipulation of displaced. Many of them did not receive compensation. In the process the popular belief, for the sake of personal economic interest of acquiring they became rickshaw pullers, construction laborers, contract workers the land of the concerned woman, often a helpless widow with small in the mines, and domestic workers. children. 2. Erosion of Cultivation: In 1941 the Jharkhand region had 12.5% Our Plan of Action to Counter the Menace of Witch-killing of its land under irrigation, but by 1981 it came down to 4.5%. During this same period 104 major and minor irrigation schemes at the cost Based on the above analysis and understanding, we made use of of Rs 9000 crores were supposed to have been implemented in the the knowledge of medical science and social sciences to educate the name of irrigation development. people. Our primary intervention has been through health, by conducting health camps in the remote villages by making use of the existing 3. Change in Traditional Leadership: The traditional system of government facilities, providing health education, giving them training in governance of social control of the adivasis was based on the principle the need and use of medicines, particularly the easily available herbal of equality. But slowly this was replaced by the hierarchical model. medicines, activating primary health centres, etc. Through our medical 4. Rising Unemployment: The adivasi villagers were dependent on intervention, to a great extent, we have been able to dispel the fear the forests for their livelihood. These were destroyed for the sake of among the people regarding evil spirits being the cause of sickness. big mines. In 1970 more than 50% of the workers in the mines were Many people believed that the witches were the cause of diseases like women. However, once the big mines got mechanized thousands of malaria and diarrhea. 100 Omega June 2006 101 Ann Moyalan Science, Religion and Social Transformation

workers lost their jobs. All the women miners were retrenched on coupled with lack of health facilities many times impel the villagers to safety grounds. Many of the small mines were closed down. This believe in witchcraft and superstitious practices. resulted in large scale unemployment, causing serious unrest among the people. If a deowa fails to cure an illness, to cover up his ignorance and incompetence, he cunningly and conveniently puts the blame on a witch Furthermore, the forest policies robbed the adivasis’ right over forest and saves his skin, thus securing his position in the society. For example, and forest produce. Common forests were cut down to plant teak Kadpose village in Manjagaw witnessed one of the worst cases of the trees. Now-a days cutting trees and selling them for timber and 21st century. Dr. Alam, unable to cure a disease, told the patient that firewood has become a means of livelihood for many people. Although witches caused her disease. He asked her to bring those people whom this is a self-destructive process, it becomes essential for survival. she suspects. Four women were brought to the village gathering, where they were abused, beaten, tortured as well as raped. Having been tied 5. Increase in Alcoholism: In the past two decades, alcoholism has to a tree they were left in the cold for the night. Assisted by the local increased enormously in this area. Many women, most of them Mahila Samiti a FIR was filed in the police station. A rally was organized adivasis, especially widows and unmarried women, earn their living to protest against witch-hunt on 21st March 2001, demanding the from selling ‘diang’ (rice beer). As a result of the increase in administration to take action on the culprits. Seeing the mounting pressure alcoholism, fights, conflicts and violence have increased in the the accused were arrested within a week. Later on we learnt that these community. women had become the victims of communal tension existing in that 6. Poor Health Facilities: The health facilities in this region are very area. scarce. Apart from one Sadar Hospital at the district headquarters Thus, the adivasis of Jharkhand are being systematically there are 23 primary health centres (one at each of the blocks). These impoverished and their sense of self-identity and self-respect is destroyed. centres lack adequate doctors, staff and medical facilities. According In such a situation of deepening poverty where their meagre land is not to the 1991 census, medical facilities are available only in 16% of the able to sustain them and their families, the adivasi woman becomes the villages. The health of women and their children has deteriorated so ultimate victim. The respect and love that she previously enjoyed in the much that as many as 82% of villages in Singhbhum District reported community has disappeared. And when some calamity or sickness like that some of their women were anemic. About 94% of villages malaria strikes the village, it becomes easy to blame it on the woman by reported cases of malaria every year. Government’s health services calling her ‘dyne.’ reach only one-third of the villages. Once the economic base has been undermined, the traditional In West Singhbhum structural adjustment policies have heavily cut socio-cultural values and attitudes also are affected. The previously down the state expenditure on health. Poor roads and scarcity of cherished values and attitudes such as equality, consensus, community, conveyance cut off many villages from medical help at the time of cooperation, etc., have given way to disparity among families in the great need. As we noted earlier, the witch-hunt cases begin with an community, to jealousy and competition, to enmity and conflict among illness in most cases, though the ulterior motives may differ. themselves and with outsiders, etc. The adivasi woman who was the 7. Low Level of Literacy: The average level of literacy in this area is queen of the household previously and managed all the income and only 15% (22.51% in males and only 8.86% in females), which is expenditure of the family, now finds herself with nothing or very little to perhaps one of the lowest in the entire state. Illiteracy and ignorance manage. In other words, adivasi women have lost their economic position

102 Omega June 2006 103 Ann Moyalan Science, Religion and Social Transformation and social standing in the family and community, and have become an 9. Make sure that a new bill preventing witch-hunt is passed by the easy prey to all sorts of accusations and allegations. Jharkhand Government, as the previous bill passed by the Bihar Government is inadequate. At the core of our awareness programme is the de-mystification of the witchcraft and educating the people of the various socio-economic 10.Make arrangements for proper trial, rehabilitation and protection of and political factors at play. both the person and property of the victims of witch-hunt, so that they can get back to normal life. Steps to Control the Victimization of Poor Women as Witches 11. Keep a list of the village leaders, including the ojha and deowa, who Based on these various factors that lead to witch-hunt, we chalked would be accountable for the safety of their people. out certain possible steps to be taken to control witch-hunt in Jharkhand. 12.Build awareness among the public through padayatras, public They are: meetings, posters, etc. 1. Take appropriate steps to provide formal and non-formal education Obviously, some of these are long-term projects and some of them in Jharkhand. are proposals to Government and Non-government Organizations. But, 2. Make basic health facilities available to the total population. we, through our organization of women, medical intervention and awareness programmes have made a visible impact in controlling the 3. In order to ensure accessibility, set up good roads and proper practice of witch-hunt. We, also, have played the role of mediators communication system with interior villages. between the affected parties in bringing understanding, peace and reconciliation. Our area of intervention covers 70 villages in the rural 4. Respect and accept traditional leadership and Gramsabha/ areas under Sadar, Kuntpani and Chakradarpur blocks as well as Panchayatiraj, and ensure people’s participation in developmental Chaibasa town. From 1995 to 2001 35 cases have been reported from plans for the area. these areas out of which 17 cases have been settled at the village level 5. Encourage the farmers to grow a second crop by providing irrigation through mediation and writing bonds with the help of Munda-Mankie facilities. and Gramsabha. Six cases are under negotiation and 13 cases were reported to police as they were of a criminal nature. Settling the cases at 6. Allow adivasis to reclaim their land and forest, and discourage any village level has great advantages. People sit face to face to solve their developmental projects that would displace them (e.g. reserve forest). problems. The victims and the accusers get a just hearing. It strengthens 7. Organize women’s groups at village level. Draw up creative plans in the traditional leadership and it does not alienate the parties concerned. consultation with such groups to enhance their self-confidence and Based on this experience I think that whatever may be the issue, applying economic independence. the scientific tools with an understanding of the cultural and religious mind-set of the people, along with active participation by the people, can 8. Set up a special cell at the district level, both in Police Stations and bring about systemic changes in society, particularly with regard to popular Courts, so that witch-hunt cases are followed up properly, charge understanding of and attitude towards the menace of witch-hunt. sheets submitted on them and prosecution is conducted effectively. Thus the offenders who perpetuate such atrocities will be convicted Concluding Remarks and punished. I think I have highlighted sufficiently the role of science (more specifically medical science and social sciences in my case) in bringing

104Omega June 2006 105 Ann Moyalan Science, Religion and Social Transformation about social transformation. This paper also has emphasized the need for a critical assessment of the religious belief system that forms the basis of social behavior. And now I want to end this paper by acknowledging the different sources that motivated, nourished and strengthened me and my coworkers in carrying out this challenging mission. As has been stated already my scientific background, particularly of medical science, was a powerful source giving me correct and reliable knowledge, which I could share with others. My personal faith in a living The Encounter of Faith and Science in and life giving God was a powerful source of motivation and inspiration Interreligious Dialogue for me, particularly in moments of crisis, tension and doubt. The support and encouragement of my religious community and of the women groups energized me to take up the challenge of fighting against the evil practice - Phil Edwards of witch-hunt. Indeed this experience has been a paradigm case of science and religion teaming up to bring about a social transformation, at least in the case of a heinous crime against poor and helpless women. I Sarojini Henry, The Encounter of Faith and Science in believe that the same can happen in other areas of our society. Interreligious Dialogue (2005). Indian Institute of Science and Religion, Pune / ISPCK, Delhi, hardcover, 221pp. £17.95.

Notes The aim of this book is “to show that the encounter of science 1. Ann Moyalan is a dynamic social worker with a strong medical background. She has been active in organising dalit and tribal women for more than a and religion would provide a constructive meeting point for interreligious decade and fought against witch-killing. meetings” (p.xiv). Even though written from an Indian context, the whole book has universal applicability. Today the media remind us daily about the problems between different religions and cultures highlighting the fact that inter-religious dialogue is not just important but essential. The book makes an excellent contribution to the dialogue, suggesting ways that this can be done. The book is very well researched and contains a wealth of details with many references. It is written with such clarity that the reader may be unaware of the complexities of the subject matter. However, we are skilfully guided through areas which are not familiar to us, and given further insights into areas which are familiar. Chapter 1 reviews the current science-religion debate and this takes up nearly a third of the book. Even so, to do this in 64 pages is quite an achievement. I am amazed at how much Henry covers in this chapter. The topics are very clearly set out and many key authors and texts are mentioned. For those not familiar with the authors, Henry usually

106 Omega June 2006 107 Phil Edwards The Encounter of Faith and Science in Interreligious Dialogue gives a brief description. These added pieces of information make for philosophical position. It might have been helpful to include, for example, an interesting reading and the chapter becomes easier to digest. Those a summary of the panentheistic position of Arthur Peacocke which avoids who are completely new to the science-theology debate can follow up some of the problems of Barbour’s process view. However, this would the references to consolidate the ideas. be churlish in such a magnificent summary. Slightly more seriously, brief summaries can easily give a distorted view simply by their brevity. Henry Henry begins her tour by describing the different ways in which is meticulous in presenting us with opposing views but there are places the fields of science and religion can be related and she discusses the where, given more space, it would be wise perhaps to have qualified the philosophy of critical realism which many science-theology authors use. summary statements. For example, Henry writes that “Evolutionary There is a section describing some of the main historical conflicts between theory, far from attacking religion, is now seen to contribute positively to science and religion beginning with Galileo and Darwin. We are then led our claims to have meaningful knowledge of God” (p.61). However, we into some of the current areas of conflict, including scientific creationism know that a number of Christians and many Muslims see evolution in and Intelligent Design. She summarises and quotes from different authors opposition to their faith. This is not a serious criticism because the book to argue their case against each other. At first I wanted to know what as a whole gives a very balanced study. Henry herself thinks, but I realised that the way she selects and organises her material leads us to her preferences. For example, she summarises Chapter 2 concerns relationships between different world faiths authors who regard science and religion as independent disciplines and and begins with a useful 2½ page history of inter-faith relations. Henry then quotes Ian Barbour to remind us that “If science and religion were helpfully tells us that it is the prophetic religions with significant historical totally independent … the possibility of constructive dialogue and mutual events which have more difficulty in relating to other religions than the enrichment would be ruled out” (p.43). This section ends with a quotation mystic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Taoism). She describes and from Fraser Watts who, perhaps with Henry, sees the study of science critiques three phases of interreligious relationships: the exclusivist, the and religion in an analogous way to the relation between mind-language inclusivist and the pluralistic. The relatively new pluralist approach stems and brain-language where “things can be described from different from the recognition that all knowledge is historically and culturally perspectives in a way that is complementary” (p.44). conditioned and that we can never know fully the truth. Although Henry favours this approach, she is clear to point out its dangers and limits. I The next section, Toward Partnership between Science and detect that she has real experience of inter-faith encounters, noting that Religion, includes a critique of the enlightenment ethos. I was very they are “not just a matter of discussion but of relationships” (p.79). She pleased to see not only a summary of Kuhn, Polanyi and Lakatos (the does not underestimate the difficulties of inter-religious dialogue and usual players) but also a discussion of hermeneutics in science. We are correctly emphasises the view of Paul Knitter that we cannot see different used to studying hermeneutics in biblical studies, but it is good to religions from a perspective outside our own cultural and historical emphasise interpretation in science because, as Henry notes, “we always framework. relate to our world only through interpreted experience” (p.56). After this groundwork, we are treated to two examples of partnership between For inter-religious dialogue, we need to balance the “particularities science and religion in the areas of cosmology and evolution. Finally, at of religions with their universal norms” (p.81). We need the universal the end of the section, there is a summary of process philosophy which messages of religions to begin the dialogue but without the unique visions is used by Ian Barbour to relate science and religion. or particularities of the religions, dialogue “can be artificial and lead to nothing spiritual” (p.82). We are given some examples from the Christian There are two problems with writing brief summaries of complex scriptures which point to a universal approach. According to Paul Knitter, debates such as that between science and theology. The first is that the there is an imperative on all Christians to engage in interreligious dialogue author will not give enough emphasis to a reader’s favourite writer or

108 Omega June 2006 109 Phil Edwards The Encounter of Faith and Science in Interreligious Dialogue and in such encounters, our love of the other should take precedence Chapter 4 discusses of some ethical issues which result from the over defending our faith. Henry is bold to state that “people of religions use of different technologies, beginning with genetic and information other than Christianity exemplify little interest in such dialogue” (p. 92). technologies. I was pleased to see that work of Jacques Ellul was The criticism, however, is directed to Christianity itself which has had an mentioned in a positive way as his work is sometimes misunderstood obsession with conversion, giving other people cause for suspicion. and sidelined in discussions about technology. As Henry rightly remarks, he is “the most extensive and important writer on theology and technology The model for inter-religious dialogue which Henry advocates is in the twentieth century” (p. 150). The second half of the Chapter focuses the one described by Knitter who urges us to focus on the urgent issues on environmental concerns and Henry points out that although “Science of society, including helping those who suffer. Such action will lead us … has contributed to the ecological crisis” (p. 155), it is now through later on to understand people’s religious convictions and doctrine. Knitter science that we are aware of the crisis. The religious traditions of Judaism, is following liberation theology in that “it is in action, in doing, that truth is Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism all have different but important really known and validated” (p. 101). This approach is pluralist and avoids perspectives on our common ecological problems. Certainly, the both the absolutist and relativist positions. According to Henry, science- environment is an urgent issue confronting the human race and it is right religion interaction can also help in the dialogue because this approach that Henry spends over half the chapter discussing this critical area. also maintains pluralism (science does not impose its own views of God), Even though different religions have different emphases about the while avoiding both an absolutist position (science is not value-free) and environment, I am sure that they have a significant role to play: they relativism (science frees us from ignorance and superstition). Throughout could begin to change the political apathy that still exists. They could the book I very much admire Henry’s balanced treatment and lack of also learn to co-operate with, and learn from, other religions in this aggressive style – following Templeton’s “humble approach” – and this process. comes through particularly in this chapter. The final chapter concerns aesthetic and spiritual issues. It would Chapter 3 describes some of the themes in science-religion interaction which can be used in the context of interreligious dialogue, have been less controversial to end the book with the discussion of focusing initially on the origin / creation of the universe. Henry describes environmental issues but Henry does not shy away from this area which the scientific account of the beginning of the universe followed by has many pitfalls for the unwary (there are many weird ideas which do different religious cosmological accounts. She does not make any critical not stand up to critical analysis). Henry does not fall into these traps. assessment of the religious accounts – that is not her purpose – but She summarises the “disenchantment” of the world which resulted from states that these stories “may not be correct according to the standards the rationalisation of the eighteenth century and the re-enchantment now of modern science but they were valid in their own setup and context” taking place. She invites us to consider the aesthetic dimension to science (p.106). Henry emphasises the different contexts in which the accounts which includes “a sense of wonder, the art of creative intelligence and arose, leading to a greater understanding of the different religious ideas the quest for elegance in mathematical equations” (p.185) and describes of creation. Also in this chapter there is a very brief discussion of time, mathematics as “the poetry of logic” (p.189). Henry introduces the idea and a comparison of different religious eschatologies with the scientific of science itself as a spiritual journey and, drawing upon earlier parts of ideas about the end of the universe. The chapter ends with a discussion the book, she positively affirms the scientific enterprise, showing how it about the concept of the human person from different scientific and dovetails into people’s spiritual experience. Henry leads us away from a religious perspectives. Throughout the chapter, the emphasis is on mechanistic universe in which mystery retreats in the face of science to understanding each perspective from its own context rather than direct one in which “scientific research will be adding more to the wealth of comparison or judgement about a particular viewpoint – a hermeneutical understanding and mystery” (p.198, my emphasis). approach in which truth is about understanding.

110 Omega June 2006 111 Phil Edwards The Encounter of Faith and Science in Interreligious Dialogue

The book is typeset and printed in Delhi on good quality paper and has a good binding and clear print. However, it is a great pity that there are a number of typographical errors, many of which are simply missing or duplicated full stops. There are occasional spelling mistakes (more towards the end of the book), but as far as I could tell, all the technical words and authors are spelled correctly. These are very minor errors in Omega an otherwise excellent book. Indian Journal of Science and Religion I JSR Does the book achieve its aim of showing that the encounter of science and religion would provide a constructive meeting point for SUBSCRIPTION RATES interreligious meetings? Her carefully constructed argument leads me India Foreign to say, Yes. Many will not agree with everything in the book, yet Henry’s scholarship is first rate, giving voice to those who propose different 1 Year Rs. 100.00 $ 20.00 € 20.00 viewpoints – she recognises that no-one has the full truth and that we 3 Years Rs. 250.00 $ 50.00 € 50.00 can learn from (almost) all. There is much more work to be done in this Life Rs. 1500.00 $ 400.00 400.00 area and this book gives us a good groundwork for such work. Highly recommended. • Subcription to be paid by Money Order, Demand Draft or Cheque. Note • Make Cheque / DD / MO payable to “Manager, Omega.” 1. Phil Edwards is Co-ordinating Chaplain at The University of Bolton, England • Add Rs. 15/- for outstation cheques (in India). and a Member of the Society of Ordained Scientists. • Subscription could begin with any number.

All Correspondence to : Managing Editor, Omega, Little Flower Seminary, Aluva - 683 101, Kerala, India. E-mail: [email protected]

Typeset and Printed at : Space Channel, Aluva.

Published by : Augustine Pamplany, for the Institute of Science and Religion, Little Flower Seminary, Aluva.

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