Biofuels – what role in the future energy mix? Facts, trends and perspectives 3 – what role CONTENTS in the future energy mix? Summary / 4 Facts, trends and perspectives INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW / 6 1 BIOFUELS TODAY… AND TOMORROW? / 8 Development in Germany • Future potentials in Germany • Development and potentials in the EU • Global trends and potentials • trading – development aid or Uwe R. Fritsche IINAS irresponsible exploitation? www.iinas.de 2 LAND USE AND BIOENERGY – IN COMPETITION? / 13 Fuel versus food & feed • Fuel versus environment – land use and biodiversity • Fuel versus material use • Fuel versus power and heat • Fuel versus fuel Horst Fehrenbach Susanne Köppen 3 SUSTAINABILITY OF BIOFUELS / 18 www.ifeu.de Legal status and standards • Sustainability criteria for biofuels • Sustainability certification • Extension of sustainability criteria to all bioenergy – and all ?

4 THE NEXT GENERATION – ADVANCED BIOFUELS / 23 With contributions from: The 2nd generation • Biofuels from ? • Biofuels from algae as “G3”? Dr. Jörg Adolf Dr. Dorothea Liebig 5 TECHNICAL COMPATIBILITY OF BIOFUELS / 25 www.shell.de Biofuels – Types and characteristics • Road transport • Aviation • Shipping • Rail transport • Strategic options for the transport sectors

6 BIOFUELS IN SCENARIOS – THE WAY FORWARD / 32 Commissioned by Shell Deutschland Oil Germany • European Union • Global perspectives • Do target scenarios tell the truth?

Darmstadt, Heidelberg, Hamburg, October 2012 7 WHAT NEXT? RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BIOFUELS / 35 Feedstocks and the future – biofuels in the energy transformation • Making the generation change • From Rio with love? • Strategic investments • Acceptance and transparency • Course correction – yes, please!

LITERATURE 38

GLOSSARY 42

Published by: Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH 22284 Hamburg Printed on FSC®-certified paper

Photos p. 5: plainpicture/Andreas Körner Dislcaimer p. 6: Paolo Black for Shell International Ltd. This study is an independent expert report by two scientific institutes, that is the International Institute for Sustainability Analysis and p. 16: Blair Gable/WFA for Shell International Ltd. Strategy (IINAS) and the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (IFEU). Its purpose is to contribute to the current discussion on p. 22: FNR/M. Weitz the role of biofuels in the fuel mix of the future. Contents and statements reflect exclusively the viewpoints and opinions of the IINAS and IFEU authors involved in the project. They may be, but need not necessarily be, in agreement with the positions of the client (Shell). The Design & production: Mänz Kommunikation exception to this is Section 5 (Technical compatibility of biofuels), which was written by Shell authors. 4 SUmmary 5 SUMMARY Biofuels have been until now the only alternative energy source that has significantly contributed to supplying the trans- port sector with energy. Biofuels shall contribute up to 10% to the EU road transport fuel supply by 2020. But biofuels that once had such a green image, and enjoyed broad support, have come under criticism; the development of the market for biofuels has lost considerable momentum. We have therefore asked the following question once more: What role can biofuels play in the fuel mix in the future?

▸ The use of biofuels grew strongly in through regulation of the rights of use and blends with up to 5% are standard Germany between 2004 and 2007, but exploitation. throughout the world; with B7 and E10, in its share has been stagnating since then, Germany / Europe, technical blend walls at between 5.5-6%. made ▸ The discussion about the sustainability seem to be reached for the time being. Of from rape led the way, ahead of ethanol of biofuels has led in recent years to a all transport carriers, heavy-duty trucks, made from grain – both 1st generation large number of sustainability standards. aircraft and ships (as long as LNG does biofuels. Biofuels have significant long- Sustainability standards require improve- not become successful) are those with the term potential in Germany – by 2030, ments to the greenhouse gas balance for fewest possibilities for substituting liquid domestic biofuels could cover 20% of fuel biofuels; the biofuels used in Germany fuels; the strategic value of biofuels is the needs, and a good 70% by 2050. In the reduce greenhouse gases by around highest here – for aviation, only drop-in EU too, biomass compliant with sustain- 50% on average. The issue of indirect fuels that can be deployed seamlessly are ability criteria could in the long-term cover land-use change (iLUC) has not yet been to be considered. around a third of energy needs. Globally, resolved; bioenergy carriers with a low Brazil and the USA dominate the biofuel ILUC-risk are therefore to be preferred. ▸ Ambitious climate action scenarios markets, with bioethanol as the leading Other, mostly less specifically governed examined how much of the biofuels product. Worldwide, residues and protected natural resources include bio- potential could be implemented and by degraded areas alone represent a diversity, the soil, water and social issues. when. According to those analyses, the bioenergy potential of 100 to 200 The implementation of binding sustainabil- sustainable bioenergy potential is exajoules, which in the long-term could ity standards is to be seen as progress. In sufficient to cover a significantly reduced cover all liquid fuel needs. The trade of order to avoid undesirable side-effects, need for liquid fuels for transport by 2050 bioenergy is increasing throughout the binding sustainability standards are with (2nd generation) biofuel; and this world, because the availability of and the necessary beyond European level; these applies both to Germany and the rest of demand for biomass, bioenergy and are to be extended to all bioenergy and the EU. Worldwide, it has been calculated biofuels vary from one region to another. biomass uses. that global biofuel needs will reach 30 exajoules. ▸ The increasing use of bioenergy can ▸ Over 99% of all biofuels produced give rise to competing uses. Globally, today are of the 1st generation, obtained ▸ In order for there to be a (bio) energy the use of agricultural biomass for feed from field crops. Biofuels of the 2nd gen- transition in the transport sector, existing, (74%) is in the lead, followed by food eration are, on the other hand, obtained sustainable biomass potential must be (18%), and then for energy and as a mainly from residues, wood and grasses. used as effectively as possible. Compre- material at around 4% each. The competi- They may be hydrogenated vegetable hensive greenhouse-gas balances and tion between fuel and food is given most oils, and Fischer-Tropsch applying the same standards for all attention. Biofuels can contribute to price diesel; however, it has not yet been pos- bioenergy carriers shall improve the increases and fluctuations for agricultural sible to develop them sufficiently ready competitiveness of the 2nd generation. products; they can, however, also create for the market. Bio-refineries, and bio- employment and income. Of even greater fuels from algae (3rd generation) go even In addition, a European market introduc- importance for food security is the increas- further. tion programme for them should be set up ing demand for foodstuff. Worldwide, to run for 10 years, neutral and open to at the moment, 1% of agricultural land is ▸ Biofuels indeed possess similar, but new technologies. Strategic investments used for modern bioenergy; in Germany also different product characteristics, must be made both in the production of the figure is 6.8% for biofuels, and 5.7% compared with fossil fuels. According to 2nd generation biofuels, and in cultivating for . Other competing uses arise their chemical characteristics, biofuels the raw materials needed. To increase the with regard to the use of the material – for can only be added to a limited extent to acceptance of biofuels, we need biofuels solid biomass (wood), and in the future, fossil fuels or be total substitutes for them. and automotive technology coordinated for bio-refineries, synthetic biosubstances, The 1st generation biofuels used the most optimally, or drop-in fuels, as well as and similar. Competing uses are also today are usually partial substitutes that increased transparency with regard to the emerging between different sectors that can only be added to a limited degree, provenance of biomass and biofuels. The use them (power, heat, transport), as or require technical adjustments to (bio) energy transition in the transport well as within the transport sector. They engines and vehicles. Road transport is sector requires regular “adjustments”; may – at least partially – be resolved the forerunner when it comes to biofuels; course corrections are part of this. 6 INtroduction 7

Sugarcane plantation in Brazil INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Germany has embarked on a programme of energy transition (known as the “Energiewende”) – and while there are already a range of alternative fuels for power generation and heating, and sources are growing rapidly in those sectors, transport still relies largely on liquid fuels based on petroleum. So where is the energy transition in transport? There has been much discussion of electric vehicles and hydrogen propulsion, etc., as technologies for the future. But the most important renewable energy source in transport so far is biofuels – are they the answer?

BIOFUELS BOOM … already close to 4%. In 2007 it rose to as In 2004 Germany adopted an amend- duction, mainly in developing countries, But today the arguments for and against line and diesel to 10% by volume, but Let us start with a brief retrospect. In the much as 7.4%, which was the high point in ment to the Renewable Energy Act (EEG), in order to secure access to the necessary biofuels are determined not only by sustain- soon a limit of 7% by volume was set for early 2000s there was broad consensus biofuels development so far. setting strong financial incentives for raw materials. Infrastructure investments ability aspects. Increasing biofuel percent- diesel. The launch of gasoline with 10% in Germany across all political parties on generating power from recycled wood, have also increased worldwide in han- ages in gasoline and diesel raised the issue bioethanol (E10) originally failed in 2008 rapid expansion of the use of biofuels; In 2007 Germany set itself a target of forestry waste wood, and in particular dling centres, storage and pipelines, and of which cars could tolerate what percent- due to lack of clarity on questions of automotive manufacturers, representa- 17% biofuels by 2020; in 2008 the target biogas, and rewarding the use of wood loading facilities in ports for bioenergy age of biofuels, especially when biofuel compatibility, and again in the year of its tives of agriculture, media, the petroleum was corrected just slightly to between 12 chippings, and also bioliquid for com- and biofuels. There has been significant blends rose to more than 5% by volume. launch 2011 there was broad discussion industry, politicians and many groups in and 15% – which was still double the bined heat and power (CHP). The use growth most recently in international trad- Originally in 2005 and 2006, the target of compatibility problems. civil society were advocating biofuels – 2007 figure. of wood (mainly thinnings, and increas- ing in wood pellets for co-firing in coal- was to increase biofuel blending into gaso- not only in Germany. ingly also wood pellets) in home heating fired power stations, and this demand will Since 2009, the Renewable Energy Direc- systems has also doubled within just a few continue to grow. ABOUT THIS STUDY … No wonder, because biofuels had a tive (RED) has been applicable to all EU years. This study was commissioned by Shell Deutschland with the scientific institutes green image. They were propagated as member states, setting a binding goal BIO COMES IN FOR CRITICISM … IINAS and IFEU, in response to the discussion on propulsion systems and fuels of a key element in sustainable mobility and of 10% , that is mainly And finally, biomass is used not only What has become of the great hopes the future, and the new Mobility and Fuel Strategy (“Mobilitäts- und Kraftstoff- climate change mitigation. biofuels. for food and feed, but also materially, pinned on biomass for sustainable strategie”) for Germany. Its purpose is to examine the role of biofuels in the for bioproducts such as building materi- mobility? As demand for biomass grew, future fuel mix, following the introduction of Super E10. It covers not only road Biofuels were to create a broader base in BIO-ELECTRICITY AND MORE ... als and cosmetics, paper and textiles. negative effects began to emerge, transport, but all modes of transport. In keeping with the tradition of previous energy sources for transport, especially Bioenergy is not only used in transport. The dominant global use of agricultural attributed in particular to politically Shell studies and scenarios, it examines all the relevant facts, identifies key road transport. Biofuels were also to give Biomass is an important component in the biomass is for feed, followed by food, supported expansion of biofuels – with trends, and shows the medium to long-term perspectives of biofuels. new opportunities for jobs, income and global energy mix – in fact it is the lead- while a smaller quantity goes into energy slash-and-burn clearing of forests for crop development for farmers in industrial ing renewable energy resource, with a and material use. That is the context of the growing, with expulsion of smallholder It examines how far and under what conditions the various criticisms of and developing countries – particularly share of more than 10% in global primary increased use of biomass for energy pur- farmers, questionable greenhouse gas biofuels are justified, covering the following questions in detail: important at a time when world trade was energy consumption. Its use is dominated poses, which has taken place and could inventories, and high subsidies and price being liberalised and subsidies for agricul- by traditional applications, often with very continue in the future. impact on food. As food has become ■ Where are biofuels today, and what sustainable potential do they have in the ture and exports removed. simple technologies and low efficiencies, scarcer and more expensive worldwide, medium and long term? particularly in developing countries. GROWING TRADE IN BIOENERGY the critical discussion of sustainability of ■ What competition is there for use of biofuels, and how valid are the arguments The result was strong support worldwide As consumption of biomass rises, pro- biofuels reached a first climax in 2008. of their critics? for the application and use of biofuels, led For example a high proportion of bio- duction and consumption have become by industrial countries with large vehicle energy use in household cooking and increasingly separate, and that has Though the benefits of biofuels and bio- ■ Can transport biofuels be sustainable at all? And what conclusions can be fleets and fuel markets – such as the USA, heating, with large regional differences. boosted global trading in bioenergy – energy were still recognised for agricul- drawn for other biomass uses, including non-energy uses? the EU and Germany. The share of “advanced” bioenergy in mainly transport biofuels and the relevant ture, energy supply and climate change the form of electricity and transport fuels feedstocks. In Europe, imports of pellets mitigation, the green image which they ■ Biofuels of the second or third generation were once seen as the silver bullet Global production of biofuels was multi- is about 2% in global electricity/transport from Canada, Russia and the USA have originally had was increasingly called into for sustainable mobility. But what has become of the next generation of plied several times in just a few years, fuel production, which is still quite low also risen. question. This culminated in attempts to advanced biofuels? even if starting from a low baseline. The (IEA 2011). re-name biofuels as “agrofuels”. ■ Is vehicle technology of today and tomorrow compatible with biofuels? most significant expansion was for bio- Many countries, especially developing This question is addressed by Shell authors Dr. Jörg Adolf and Dr. Dorothea fuels in Germany, which is by far Europe’s Here, too, the use of renewables acceler- countries, hope for additional income The use of biomass for power generation Liebig for all modes of transport and for all fuels relevant today. largest fuel market. Compared with an ated in the mid 2000s. Many countries from exports. International investors and and heating was also criticised for “maizing EU market share for biofuels of only 1% launched subsidy programmes to promote emerging countries such as China have up the landscape”, with warnings of loss of ■ Finally, long-term scenarios and perspectives of biofuels are discussed, in 2005, the German biofuel share was the use of biomass in energy supply. started buying up land for bioenergy pro- grassland and other negative effects. together with measures for their possible implementation. 8 BIOFUELS TODAY… AND TOMORROW? 9

from the same energy crops (including 2Biofuels Biofuels in Germany in Germany lignocellulose) as ethanol; but the 1 BIOFUELS TODAY… Final energy in petajoules (PJ) Share of road transport fuel (energy) in% fermentation process is less efficient, 180 9 and thus more expensive. AND TOMORROW? 160 Bioethanol 8 Dimethyl ether (DME) is a fuel that is simi- 7. 4% 140 5.8% 7 There are a large number of biofuels, production processes and biogenic raw materials available today (see Fig. 1). The main lar to liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and can Biodiesel biofuels worldwide today are bioethanol and biodiesel. Bioethanol is used as a substitute in gasolines, and biodiesel in be blended either with gasoline or diesel. 120 6 diesel fuel. Both of these fuels are mainly used in blends with fossil fuels, but they are also used straight. The concepts for bio-DME are mainly based on lignocellulose, and also on other 100 5 Bioethanol is mostly made from crops Brazil), oil palm (Indonesia, Malaysia) as a promising biofuel, because it is organic residues such as black liquor from 80 4 containing starch or sugar, in fermentation and sunflower, and also smaller but characterised by relatively high yield per cellulose production, which are also to be 3.8% nd and distillation processes. The main raw increasing quantities of jatropha (India, unit area (FNR 2012). But today it is often used for 2 generation biodiesel. 60 3 materials are (especially in the US), Madagascar and others). given more critical assessment because (especially in Brazil), other it uses maize silage as the feedstock for Biomethanol is another product which can 40 2 cereals (, rye, sorghum, etc.), cas- Apart from biodiesel, straight vegeta- biogas; the prospect of growing maize be used in various ways as a fuel or con- Share of road transport fuel 0.4% sava, and in Europe. The use ble oil and hydrotreated vegetable oil monocultures gave rise to an accusation verted to gasoline (MtG process, “metha- 20 0.1% 1 of lignocellulose based ethanol is another (HVO) are possible fuels. While straight of “maizing up” landscapes. Bio-CNG nol-to-gasoline”). The technique normally 0 0 very hopeful candidate, with the US in untreated vegetable oil is hardly used as also requires vehicle fleets to be designed used is gasification, which can in principle 1992 1995 2000 2005 2010 particular putting a lot of effort into the a fuel any more, there is a lot of interest for this purpose, which is practically not be applied to any type of biomass as the Source: BMU (2012); own presentation ongoing development of this biofuel. in HVO, especially for aviation. But rapid the case today. raw material. increase is hindered by the costs and Biodiesel is mainly produced from vegeta- effort involved in the hydrogen needed for There are other biofuel approaches as Biohydrogen is also in discussion as a Since 2006/07, E5 gasoline has also biofuels. The BLE system included 107 PJ ble oils by trans-esterification with methanol hydrotreating. well, most of them new and not yet ready fuel, and can be obtained from various been on sale, and since 2011 E10. biodiesel. However, industry association (methyl ester). The most frequently used for use. For example biobutanol, another types of biomass using different methods. However, E10 had virtually no impact in figures for 2011 show biodiesel sales of oils come from in Europe and Biomethane produced from biogas and alcohol which is more similar to gasoline In particular, there is discussion of bio- 2011. E10 was not introduced everywhere only 86 PJ (VDB 2012). canola in Canada, (Argentina, processed to CNG quality is regarded than is ethanol. Butanol can be obtained engineering processes using bacteria. in Germany until the second half-year. The low level of demand for it has meant that The figure for bioethanol in the BLE system DEVELOPMENT IN GERMANY E10 has so far become established only was around 49 PJ, while the Association 1 RAw Materials and Production Processes for Biofuels There are about 60 million vehicles as a minor grade in the market; the of Ethanol Producers calculated consump- registered in Germany today, including leading gasoline type is still E5. tion in Germany in 2011 at 33 PJ (BDBe BIOMASS Process Intermediate Product Process Fuel 43 million passenger cars and 2.5 million 2012). This discrepancy is to be explained Pressing trucks. Diesel dominates among trucks, Straight biogenic fuels such as biodiesel mainly in exports of ethanol quantities Oil crops Vegetable oil Vegetable oil or extraction while 98.6% of all passenger cars are (B100) or pure vegetable oil now have already entered in the records. Thus in powered by diesel or gasoline engines, hardly any significance, not least due to 2011 the figures for more than 10 PJ of Waste oils 1.2% by gas propulsion systems, and vehicle engineering. It is not possible to maize-based bioethanol from the USA Esterification Biodiesel (FAME) Animal fats 0.1% by hybrid and electric propulsion introduce fuels with a high proportion were entered in the Nabisy system, but systems (KBA 2012). Despite the high of bioethanol (), because, similar to later sold onward to other European coun- Hydrotreating Biodiesel (HVO) level of vehicle ownership, the fleet size bio-CNG, only very few vehicles would tries. Another biofuel with some degree & refining continues to increase. Fuel sales have be able to use them (only Flexible Fuel of importance was refined (hydrotreated) been declining since 1999, but demand is Vehicles). vegetable oils, with 12 PJ. Straight veg- Sugar / Starch Milling Sugar Fermentation Ethanol shifting, with diesel sales increasing and etable oils and biomethane played no crops and hydrolysis gasoline sales decreasing (MWV 2012). The breakdown of types and origins of significant role. biofuels which count towards the quota Butanol In 2011 about 54 million t of fuels were in Germany is shown in the report by the The basis for biodiesel was mainly used, including the biogenic components; Federal Office of Agriculture and Food rapeseed oil (80%), followed by waste Anaerobic of these, 3.7 million t (more than 120 (BLE 2012). These figures come from oil (15%). Apart from (5%), other Biogas Purification Bio-CNG digestion PJ) were biofuels, which accounted for Nabisy (“Sustainable Biomass System”, vegetable oil types played no significant 5.6% of fuel consumption (cf. Fig. 2). The the electronic data acquisition system of role. The situation for bioethanol is as Lignocellulosic Water/gas shift Hydrolysis Hydrogen German biofuels boom which started the BLE), and give an overall figure for follows: wheat was the most important biomass & separation in 2004 was triggered by tax exemp- transport biofuels and the liquid biofuels feedstock (32%), followed by European tion for straight biodiesel. A mandatory used for power and heat generation. maize (28%) and sugar beet (25%). Rye, Organic waste, Gasification Syngas Methanol blending requirement was introduced They also include the quantities registered , and triticale together accounted residues in winter 2006/07, and the tax subsidy but intended for subsequent export. The for another 13%. Sugarcane was not Catalysed was gradually reduced (Adolf 2006). figures do not therefore reflect the exact more than 2%. Indication of growing Dimethylether Source: Ecofys (2012); own presentation synthesis Biodiesel consumption is still higher than quantities of biofuels used in vehicles in country was only on a voluntary basis in bioethanol because diesel started with Germany in 2011. The total with sustain- 2011, so the data were not complete for a higher blending ratio (B7) and more ability certification was approx. 185 origin of the biomass. The main non- Biodiesel (FT) diesel is used. petajoules (PJ), about 85% of which were European growing country was Malaysia. 10 BIOFUELS TODAY… AND TOMORROW? 11

Leaving aside the USA, the dominant sup- Weltweiter Energiebedarf des Verkehrs nach Verkehrsträgern if governments implement an ambitious 3Biofuels Biofuels in Europe in Euro per pyeare (EU 27) 5 GLOBAL ENERGY DEMAND FOR TRANSPORT, BY SECTORS pliers for Germany were EU countries, led energy policy. Full use of the bioenergy Final energy in exajoules (EJ) by France, Hungary and the Netherlands Final energy in petajoules (PJ) potentials would make it possible to cover Other (which are in some cases re-exporting). 600 100 about 25% of energy demand by 2030 Aircraft International Total (up to 2006) 90 and about 30% by 2050. 500 Aircraft National The use of biofuels in Germany rose Other biofuels Ship International sharply from 2004 onwards, but has 80 An analysis of potentials and demands up Biodiesel Ship National declined again slightly since 2007. 400 to 2050 reached the following conclu- Bioethanol Rail Biodiesel from rapeseed is the domi- 70 sion: assuming sustainable production, Trucks, buses nant product, followed by ethanol from 300 2nd generation fuels would be used 60 Cars, Light commercial grain. The feedstocks used are mostly increasingly after 2020 and cover a Bikes etc. energy crops. So far, imports play only 200 large proportion of the fuel demand in the 50 a minor role. Success has not yet been truck, ship and aviation sectors by 2050, achieved in the development of 100 40 while passenger cars would mainly use “advanced” biofuels ready for the electric propulsion (NTUA 2012). The role market. 0 30 of imports would be limited to 14% of all 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 biofuels. FUTURE POTENTIALS IN GERMANY Source: EurObserv'ER (2012); own presentation 20 Consumption of biofuels has risen The EU has sustainable bioenergy 10 significantly since 2004, and power and and that about 3% of agricultural land biofuels could meet about 20% of potential which could in the long heat production from biomass have previously used for intensive farming will be Germany’s fuel demand by 2030, 0 term cover about one third of energy increased in parallel. So how much placed under nature protection, one third of and more than 70% by 2050 1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2009 demand – and biofuels would bioenergy and biofuel can be produced food production will be in organic farming, (assuming a significantly lower Source: IEA (2012a); own presentation account for a dominant share of that in future, and where are the quantity and no grasslands will be converted, but level of demand than today). by 2050. limits? only grass cuttings used. 6 Worldwide Biofuel Production DEVELOPMENT AND POTENTIALS Final energy in exajoules (EJ) GLOBAL TRENDS AND POTENTIALS Various studies1) indicate a sustainable It was also assumed that there is no shift of IN THE EU 3.0 In the past few decades, energy demand potential of about 1,300 PJ bioenergy biomass from biomaterial use, and that The use of biofuels in the EU has increased for transport has risen continuously from energy crops, and about 700 PJ from Germany will remain 100% self-sufficient in more than tenfold since 2000. The fastest Biodiesel others throughout the world, and is currently just biogenic waste and residuals, available food. This potential would thus be avail- growth was from 2005 to 2009. The 2.5 Biodiesel EU under 100 EJ (Fig. 5). A slight decline has in Germany at least until 2030, and in able without competition between uses – increase slowed down again in 2011 and Ethanol others become apparent since 2008, mainly this order of magnitude also possible until but its development depends on the reached a level of about 13 million t, Ethanol USA due to efficiency gains particularly in the 2050 (Nitsch et al. 2012). Due to sustaina- framework conditions set for energy and corresponding to about 580 PJ (Fig. 3). OECD countries, but not to a reduction 2.0 Ethanol Brazil bility requirements, the energy crops would environmental policy. Germany was the leading producer in transport mileage. Passenger cars however no longer be maize, rapeseed, nation in the EU again in 2011, followed and trucks account for the majority of etc., grown on good arable land like today, Taking account of power and heat by France, Spain, Italy, the UK and consumption; shipping and aviation are 1.5 but would mainly be perennial crops (short production from biomass, domestic Poland. As for Germany, there are also a developing dynamically. rotation forestry, energy grasses) grown on marginal land and largely without the use The focus of worldwide activities in bio- 1.0 of irrigation and fertilizer, for reasons of 4Primärenergiebedarf ENERGY DEMAND inAND der EU-27BIOENERGY bis 2050 POTENTIAL IN EU27 UP TO 2030 fuels is outside of Europe. Brazil and the nature conservation.2) US have always been the leaders in terms Primary energy in exajoules (EJ) of quantity, and underscore this with a 80 Compared with this potential of a total of 0.5 continuing upward trend (Fig. 6). Brazil is All other 2,000 PJ there is currently primary energy 70 planning to expand sugarcane ethanol on consumption of 14,000 PJ, which could be Transport the basis of yield increase, and also aims 0 reduced to 9,300 PJ by 2030 (Nitsch et 60 to expand on a large scale by designat- al. 2012). That means domestic bioenergy 2000 2005 2010 ing agro-ecological zones. The USA would be able to provide 20% – that is 50 Source: IEA (2011b); own presentation have frozen the use of corn bioethanol three times as much as today. (i.e. ethanol made from maize) at today’s Energy crops 40 number of studies on sustainable bioen- on a sustainable basis by 2030; about level, in the Renewable Fuel Standard, but This potential is the basis for the assump- Wastes, residuals ergy potentials for the EU3) – Fig. 4 shows 2 EJ could be used for biofuels, paral- are planning to use increasing quantities tion that additional bioenergy crops will 30 the latest results from the EU project lel to bioenergy supply for power and of “advanced biofuels” and ethanol be grown only on unused arable land, will Biomass Futures (IC et al. 2012), which heat – that is about four times as much as imports from Brazil. Emerging countries not have a negative impact on biodiversity, 20 analyses in depth the costs of bioenergy today (ECN 2012). However, these would such as Argentina (biodiesel from soy and the sustainability of biofuels. A total mostly be 2nd generation fuels. By com- oil) and South-East Asian countries are 10 1) Cf. DBFZ, IUP (2011); Fritsche et al. (2004); EEA (2006 + of 15 exajoules (EJ) of biogenic primary parison: the primary energy consumption planning to boost their production signifi- 2012); IC et al. (2012); SRU (2007); Thrän et al. (2005), WBGU (2009). energy will be available in the EU27 of the EU27 in 2010 was about 74 EJ; cantly in future, and also to increase their 0 2 ) For detailed description of sustainable 2010 2020 2030 Reference Sustainable it could be reduced to less than 60 EJ own consumption. Alongside the EU, the cultivation, see Fritsche et al. (2004), EEA (2012) and 3) Cf. EEA (2006+2007+2012); IC et al. (2012) and Thrän et WBGU (2009). Source: IC et al. (2012); own presentation al. 2005. by 2030, and less than 50 EJ by 2050 USA and Brazil, 20 other countries have 12 USE COMPETITION 13 adopted binding quotas, and another 6 2050 (approx. 54 EJ). For conversion earn more revenues from exports, espe- countries have specified blending goals in of the bioenergy potential to fuels, a cially from exports to Europe. It gives rise 2 LAND USE AND BIOENERGY – their legislation (IEA 2011b). conservative level of 50% for conversion to the question of how much biomass and efficiency was used. Higher levels could bioenergy Germany could import, taking The global bioenergy potentials have be achieved if coupled products are used, account of global equity. The “Model 4) IN COMPETITION? been analysed in many studies; an and conversion technologies improved. Germany” Study has proposed introduc- overview of these is given by IPCC (2011). ing “globally equitable access rights”, by The rise of both oil prices and subsidies caused substantial increases in the use of bioenergy for power, heating and trans-

Due to the interconnections between agri- The other half of the global bioenergy analogy to equal per capita CO2 emission port since the early 2000s (BMU 2012). In parallel, there has been a strong increase in the use of biomass for food and feed cultural issues and questions of land use potential would be available for generat- rights (“carbon equity”), setting national (FAO 2011), wood products, textiles, and pulp and paper. The conversion of biomass to chemical products and new materials and nature conservation, it is not possible ing power and heat, especially in emerg- access rights on the basis of global increased as well (nova 2012). More access to biomass feedstocks creates and intensifies competition for its use. to give “one” figure for bioenergy poten- ing countries and developing countries bioenergy potential and population size tial, but rather a range, taking account of – under the demanding condition of a (Prognos, ÖKO 2009). questions of sustainability. huge improvement in energy efficiency Globally, the dominant use of agricultural 8 USE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS (WORLD), 2008 worldwide, both in transport and in the The bioenergy potential indicated above biomass is for feed, followed by food, Energy crops can also be grown on other consumption sectors. and the population in 2050 would give while energy and material use are sub- 4.3% 3.7% Renewable raw materials, use of biomass marginal lands that cannot be used for a German “entitlement” of about 1.5 to stantially less significant (Fig. 8). Further agricultural production, with a positive Regardless of these bandwidths and 3 EJ; that corresponds approximately to growth in global population, changes in Renewable raw materials, use of energy 18% impact on soil fertility, erosion characteris- uncertainties, the robust estimate the national potential of about 2 EJ. At nutrition habits and also the support for Feed tics and carbon content in the soil; and the for sustainable energy potential is the upper limit additional import quantities bioenergy will in future cause an increase availability of water is also a major between 100 and 200 EJ, to cover all of another 50% would be “permitted”, in biomass demand, putting more pressure Food constraint. Studies estimate a total of demand for liquid fuels – provided whereas at the lower limit, Germany on resources such as land and water Allocation of biomass by primary cultivation purpose (main product); quantities include the main raw material and the between 25 and 100 EJ bioenergy which that fuel demand can be reduced by would not be able to import any bioenergy (FAO 2009; IFF 2009; IIASA 2009). by-products, even if their use may be in another category. can be harvested on such vacant and massive energy efficiency improve- or biofuels. 74% degraded land without negative impact ments. The resulting use competition could give on biodiversity.5) The level of future imports and the coun- rise to various conflict potentials. Use Total biomass: approx. 10 billion tonnes BIOENERGY TRADING – DEVELOPMENT tries exporting bioenergy and biofuels will competition could directly lead to disputes Together with biogenic waste and residu- Aid OR IRRESPONSIBLE EXPLOITATION? not least be a question of sustainability, over limited resources, or there could be Source: nova (2012); own presentation als, which give potentials of between 50 The major potentials for bioenergy and in its ecological, economic and social disputes due to conflicting goals between 9 COMPETING USES OF BIOMASS and 100 EJ of bioenergy, a total of 75 biofuels are outside of Europe, with dimensions. the individual demand sectors, as shown to 200 EJ bioenergy could be available countries such as Argentina and Brazil in Fig. 9. without use of agricultural land by 2050. able to produce at much lower cost. That There are great differences in bio- Potentials Demand Sectors This potential is independent of agricul- leads to increased interest in imports, energy and biofuels depending on Use competition need not necessarily be Biomass cultivation ( = land) Heat tural development, and its use does not especially from Latin America. country of origin, growing methods negative, because it could create incen- Biogenic residuals Power result in indirect land use change (ILUC) and the further processing steps, so tives to make more efficient use of land Wind , water, etc. Motorised transport – in fact cultivating perennial crops on West and East African countries such as there would be corresponding risks and water, and to optimise biomass use Food & Feed formerly degraded land could increase Mozambique also wish to develop their and also opportunities for the export- by replacing inefficient applications. In Raw materials soil carbon and thus improve the green- bioenergy potentials for export, as their ing countries. market economies, supply and demand house gas inventory. local markets are limited and they can are regulated by prices, which act as Goals / Constraints signals to competing purchasers on the Nature conservation In addition, depending on the develop- one hand and to producers and potential Climate change mitigation ment of yield and consumption, another GLOBAL7 GLOB ALENERGY ENERGY DEMAND DEMAN &D BIOENERGY& BIOENERGY POTENTIALS POTENTIALS producers on the other, and thus should Security of supply 200 to 300 EJ from arable and grass- Primary energy in exajoules (EJ) create an equilibrium between them. Employment Grassland land could become available, no longer 700 All others Costs Arable land needed for food and feed production. Transport In reality, the prices are modified by taxes, This quantity is disputed because the 600 Degraded areas subsidies, customs duties, etc. Political parameters are uncertain – negative Wastes and residuals parameters such as quotas for agricultural ■ Environmental and global commons FUEL VERSUS FOOD & FEED impact of climate change on agricultural 500 products and biofuels lead to correspond- (such as biodiversity) currently have little The public debate on competition yields and water availability could reduce ing “distortions”. In addition, flexibility to or no market price, and that prevents between biofuels subsidised by govern- the amount of surplus land. Comparison 400 react to changes in price is prevented or corresponding steering effects. ments with food and feed reached a peak with global energy demand (IEA 2012a) restricted by a number of factors: in 2008. The recent shortage of maize 300 and the fuel demand included in that The economic impact of these factors is to due to a drought in the USA caused (Fig. 7) shows that half of the “low” ■ For food, there are no substitutes reduce price elasticity, and that is made another sharp price rise in world market 200 global bioenergy potential would be available for basic needs; changes in worse by the differences in market access prices, and led to renewed disputes on sufficient to replace the whole of the 100 nutritional habits and trends take time. opportunities and market power of the the role of biofuels in the pricing of food demand for petroleum based fuels by individual players. That results in distribu- and feed, and the consequences for food 0 ■ The availability of capital and access to tional problems. Use competition cannot security. 4) Cf. for example Dornburg et al. (2010), IC, ERC (2011); 2010 2020 2030 2050 Low High infrastructure vary; that is an obstacle to be balanced just by price signals gener- IEA (2011b); Thrän et al. (2010); WBGU (2009). IEA Energy Technology Perspectives, 2˚C Scenario Global Sustainable increasing supply in response to rising ated in the market without negative side Before examining that in more detail, it is 5) Cf. Cai, Zhang, Wang 2011; ECN et al. (2009); Bioenergy Potentials 2050 Fritsche et al. (2010); Wicke (2011). Source: IEA (2012a), IPCC (2011), Fritsche u.a. 2010; own presentation prices. effects and impact on income distribution. important to look at the development of 14 USE COMPETITION 15 the prices of agricultural products in the such as increased fertilizer demand, crop agricultural production in those develop- biofuels is not a long-term option – the hectares (ha) today, of which about 3.5 produced from crops which are grown last three decades (see Fig. 10). failures and financial speculation. ing countries to decline, and they have price fluctuation induced not only has billion ha are pasture for meat and dairy in monocultures with little crop rotation, been forced to spend foreign exchange short-term negative impact on food production, and 1.5 billion ha are used on big plantations using large quantities The producer prices in agriculture rose It has been shown in studies that if the on food imports. security, but also gives the wrong signals for arable farming (FAO 2011). About of fertilizers and pesticides, and in some sharply at the beginning of the 1980s, specified policy goals for biofuels in for the development of biofuels and 1 billion ha of this arable land are used to cases also with irrigation (EEA 2012). in parallel with oil prices, and dropped the EU and the US up to 2020 are High world market prices, by contrast, bioenergy as a whole. grow feed, that is indirectly for meat and again from 1985 onwards as the oil maintained, price rises between 3% are a financial incentive for developing dairy production, and only about 0.3 bil- In Germany, renewable raw materials are prices went down; then after 2005 they and 13% may be expected for cereals countries to increase their agricultural Growing crops for bioenergy use is in lion ha directly for food. Arable land for mainly grown on arable land which rose again in parallel to oil prices. That and between 6% and 30% for oilseeds production. The responses to the high direct competition for arable land, which biomaterials accounts for about 0.1 billion covers a total area of about 12 million was due – among other things – to the (JRC 2011; Fischer 2011). That could agricultural prices in 2008 were greater is not only limited overall, but will tend to ha, and for bioenergy (mainly transport hectares. There are also 5 million hectares use of energy-intensive fertilizer, and the be increased by other effects such as investments in agriculture, so that food permit less cultivation for energy crops in fuels) about 0.05 billion ha (nova 2012). of grassland (producing grass), and about increasing use of diesel in mechanised droughts, speculation, etc., or reduced production rose and prices dropped future due to climate change effects, 11 million hectares of forest (producing agriculture – especially relevant for by more use of non-food raw materials again. increasing food demand of a growing Thus meat and dairy production accounts forest waste products and thinnings). At maize, rapeseed and wheat (van der for biofuel production (e.g. recycled fats, world population, and regional water for about 92% of agricultural land, present about 0.4 million hectares of land Mensbrugghe et al. 2011), as confirmed cereal waste products, lignocellulose). The FAO is not the only organisation to shortages (FAO 2011; IFF 2009; IIASA whereas non-animal food accounts for are used for growing biomass for material by the latest analyses (USDA 2012). see it that way (FAO 2008+ 2012a-d) – 2009). only about 5%, biomaterials 2%, and bio- use, and about 2.1 million hectares for Price increases in agricultural products the German Ministry of Development Aid energy (biofuels) 1%. So minor changes in energy crops (cf. Table 11). Since 2005, many studies have given cause more hunger, at last in the short also concluded in its strategy on biofuels And the greenhouse gas balances of consumer behaviour with respect to meat increasing attention to the effects of bio- term, for those who do not have enough for developing countries that, in the short conventional biofuels, with the exception and dairy products have major land use This area could increase to 4 million fuels on agricultural price developments. income, because security of food supply is and medium term, energy use of biomass of bioethanol from sugarcane, are not impact and effect on agricultural prices as hectares by 2050, according to a number They agree that there is now coupling not a question of the existing food quanti- was an additional income source for favourable enough to meet the require- a whole. of studies (Nitsch et al. 2012; Thrän et between the agricultural market and the ties, but of their affordability, availability agriculture (BMZ 2011). ments of climate change mitigation. Price al. 2010); one third of arable land would energy market, showing that apart from and access (FAO 2011; HLPE 2011b). dynamism which induces steadily rising The key to securing the future food then be used for growing energy crops. the factor costs, the prices of agricultural The impact is inevitably particularly hard Biofuels can help developing coun- feedstock costs for biofuels permits no supply security of the world is not so products are also determined by oil price on countries with high levels of poverty tries without their own oil resources significant expansion of biofuels, espe- much the question of “fuel versus For the sake of nature protection and bio- movements (Piorr 2010; IEEP 2012). There (WBA 2012). to save scarce foreign exchange at cially in areas of goods transport, and food”, but more the question of what diversity conservation, at least 1 million is also agreement that the resulting addi- times of rising oil prices, because shipping and aviation, which are price foods are in demand, and who has hectares should be used, and grassland tional volatility of agricultural prices has But low prices for agricultural products diesel is very expensive in rural areas sensitive. enough income to pay for them. with a high degree of biodiversity should a negative impact on food security (FAO have so far not led to reduction in poverty there. That means biofuels would be taken out of intensive cultivation – that 2008; HLPE 2012b). and undernourishment – on the contrary, help to modernise agriculture and In the longer term, the use of energy FUEL VERSUS ENVIRONMENT – would be another 0.5 million ha. low food prices are a part of the problem generate income, and thus increase crops grown on arable land for fuel LAND USE AND BIODIVERSITY It is also largely undisputed that some (Piorr 2010; FAO 2008 + 2011). Industri- security of food supply. production is therefore not a viable The second competition aspect in biomass It is internationally recognised that price increases in agricultural products alised countries have undercut production option. cultivation is the question of land use and the protection of biodiversity in nature are caused by additional demand for in developing countries by subsidised But there is also a large measure of biodiversity. Land consumption by the conservation areas alone is not enough biofuels, caused by subsidy policies in the agricultural exports, e.g. maize shipments agreement that direct coupling of agricul- Finally, global meat consumption is a expansion of housing and roads, by – cultivation practice on farming land is EU and the US, alongside other factors from the US to Mexico; that has caused tural and oil prices via conventional major driver of agricultural prices, and soil erosion and over-grazing, and by also important. So far, very few economi- also of land use and of greenhouse gas negative impacts of climate change on cally viable agricultural methods have emissions. The production of meat has tri- agricultural production, in parallel with been developed that minimise negative 10 Development of Prices for agricultural Products and Oil pled since 1970 to a global total of about population growth, leads to greater effects on biodiversity – a lot of research Erzeugerpreisindizes landwirtschaftlicher Produkte 300 million t, and continues to increase pressure on soils and other resources is needed in this area. Producer price index incl. VAT (2005=100) (OECD, FAO 2012). such as water, forests and biodiversity 300 (OECD 2012). Use competition between bioenergy Wheat for animal feed In addition, China and the EU are and nature conservation can be Maize 250 importing more and more from The loss of habitats is the main factor reduced by limiting the type and Rapeseed Argentina, Brazil and the US for their which threatens and reduces biodiversity extent of land use. There are also Oils and greases growing production of pork, and are (UNEP 2012). To avoid further pressure synergies between bioenergy and 200 Sugar beet using considerable amounts of land for from bioenergy feedstock cultivation, nature conservation, where residual Crude oil this purpose – very much more than for highly biodiverse land needs to be biomass from landscape care biodiesel from soybean oil, which is more protected, even where the land is to be activities can be used. 150 a subsidiary product. used for bioenergy crops. FUEL VERSUS MATERIAL USE 100 Meat and dairy production require large The biodiversity and nature conserva- In Germany, the land used for energy inputs of feedstocks, consuming more tion issues caused by growing bioenergy crops, mainly for biogas and rapeseed energy and more land, and have more crops are the same as for conventional oil, and increasingly also for bioethanol, 50 environmental impact than alternative agricultural production, because the already substantially exceeds the land protein sources such as cereals, vegeta- same agricultural feedstocks are used used for biomass materials (cf. Table 11). 0 bles and aquaculture (FAO 2006; Fritsche for conventional biofuels. To stay com- However, solid biomass will likewise be 1980 1990 2000 2010 et al. 2012a; PBL 2011). Agriculture petitive even where raw material costs used increasingly for energy, also using Source: DESTATIS, GENESIS database; border crossing prices for crude oil and oils/greases; own presentation worldwide uses a total of about 5 billion increase, today’s biofuels are increasingly wood and feedstocks, as bioenergy 16 USE COMPETITION 17 is increasingly used for power and 11 LAND FOR GROWING SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS IN GERMANY with priority for material purpose (building IUP 2011). Power from biomass mainly home heating can be reversed or at least heating and in the 2nd generation of materials, furniture, paper, textiles, etc.), uses recycled wood and waste materials slowed down. Purpose 2011 (hectares) 2012* (hectares) biofuels. Bioenergy will thus be in competi- and then, when these biogenic products from the wood industry, and in future also tion with material use of the same biomass Industrial starch, sugar 170,000 257,000 have reached the end of their useful life, forestry residues and thinnings, and pos- There are many non-biogenic renew- resources – another use conflict. Technical rapeseed 120,000 120,000 this is to be followed by “post-use” for sibly also wood from short rotation cop- able energy sources available for Technical sunflower and linseed oil 11,000 11,000 energy. Further efforts will then be needed pices (SRC), which uses additional land. stationary power and heat supply, so Solid biomass mainly comes from the Vegetable fibres, medical and dyes 10,500 13,500 for separate collection of biogenic wastes, Straw is of little interest for combustion the demand for power and heat can forests – with roundwood from forestry but cascade use is basically feasible. because of its high proportion of ash, pro- be met by these renewables – Total raw material use 311,50 0 401,500 and industrial waste wood, produced with ducing slag and particulates, and chlorine especially if efficiency on the demand the quality criteria specified by the market. Rapeseed for biodiesel, vegetable oil 910,000 913,000 Competition between material use content causing corrosion. This biomass side is significantly increased. Thus Alongside these two categories, there are For bioethanol (wheat, sugar beet, etc.) 240,000 243,000 and energy use can be avoided by potential could therefore be available use competition in energy use of bio- other products which normally find no use For biogas (maize, rye, etc.) 900,000 962,000 cascading. without significant energy competition for mass can be avoided in the long run. nd in the wood processing industry, such as For solid fuels (SRC, ) 6,000 6,500 2 generation biofuels, because these waste and residual wood and thinnings, FUEL VERSUS POWER AND HEAT will use lignocellulose. Thus, competition FUEL versus Fuel Total energy use 2,056,000 2,124,500 which may be of interest to the pulp and Another possible use competition for will mainly be for forestry residues and The final competitive situation is in the use paper industry, depending on price. This TOTAL 2 ,367,50 0 2,526,000 biomass exists within energy use, that is thinnings, and in the long term also short of biofuels within the transport sector itself. material use of wood will attract more or Source: FNR (2012); *data estimated between biofuels on the one hand and rotation coppices. Passenger cars, trucks, ships and aircraft less stable wood demand in the foresee- the use of bioenergy for power and heat have different propulsion concepts, and able future (DBFZ, IUP 2011), and can be residuals and thinnings for power and heat in view of its combustion properties and on the other. The heating market is on a downward therefore use different biofuels. The fuels covered by today’s forestry. generating. For straw, the perspectives go relatively high transport cost. To avoid trend, while there is strong growth in non- are also subject to different tax regimes, beyond 2nd generation fuels, while today’s use competition between material and But today’s biofuels do not compete with biogenic renewables for power generat- and some modes of transport are fully or But growth is also expected for the “new” use can only be expanded in the area of energy, a cascade concept for biomass bioenergy for power and heat – at pre- ing (solar and wind energy, possibly also partially exempted from taxes. Thus higher material uses, with bio-plastics, compos- “innovative” material use and in co-firing use is to be implemented, i.e. “structure sent, bio-heat mainly comes from thinnings geothermal energy). Competition between costs may arise at least in the short and ites (e.g. carbon reinforced fibres) and in large coal-fired power stations. The value before heating value” (Fritsche et al. and sawmill waste (pellets), requiring no fuel and heat could be reduced, provided medium term from the use of biofuels and bio-refineries, and also the use of forest latter is somewhat improbable for straw, 2010). That means biomass is to be used additional land for growing them (DBFZ, that the trend towards solid biomass in other alternatives to fossil fuels, giving different relative and absolute cost effects. The individual users of transport services Straw for cellulosic ethanol have different price elasticities (ÖKO, DLR, ISI 2012), which results in different possibilities to pass on costs.

Higher cost of fuel for passenger cars only has a dampened impact on the price at the , because of the high percentage of taxes on fuel, and there are only limited possibilities for switching to other modes of transport. Trucks and marine transport have lower or far lower tax rates, and higher elasticity of demand; and the situation is similar for air transport. Passing on the additional cost of biofuels in the passenger car sector thus causes relatively little demand change, whereas the reactions may be greater for other modes of transport.

However, the longer term significance of biofuels is not in the passenger car sector, but rather in air and sea transport, and to some extent also trucks – this has to be taken into account in future development. The use competition for biofuels between the individual modes of transport is restricted, due to technical and market effects. The longer-term introduction of biofuels in aviation, heavy goods road transport and shipping calls for a pro- active policy, producing the desired steer- ing not by means of cost transfers alone. 18 SUSTAINABILITY OF BIOFUELS 19

degree of reduction of greenhouse gas (such as ethanol from rye), there are no Simple, easy-to-follow models (Fritsche et 3 SUSTAINABILITY OF BIOFUELS emissions versus a fossil reference value. default values. In these cases, a green- al. 2008) compete with complex econo- This is an indicator which encompasses house gas calculation has to be made for metric equilibrium models (CARB 2008; Sustainability depends not only on compliance with ecological requirements and environmental standards, but also on the whole of the life cycle. According to every shipment of biofuels. IFPRI 2011). The results are spread over social and economic acceptability. While life-cycle assessments have been prepared for biofuels for over twenty years now, the RED, the calculation should include the a correspondingly wide range. But most with broad coverage of the environmental area, the globalisation of the biomass market has definitely enlarged the focus to following: According to the evaluations of the Fed- of the model analyses show significant include socio-economic factors. The demand for sustainability of biofuels led to worldwide debate on the development of eral Office for Agriculture and Food (BLE additional emissions. concrete, in some cases also binding criteria for an economic sector and for a whole product group. There are now a whole ■ direct land use change (DLUC ); 2012), the biofuels counted towards the series of laws, standards, processes, criteria and initiatives aimed at improving and guaranteeing the sustainability of ■ production or growing of the feedstocks; quota gave savings of about 7 million t Under the RED, the EU Commission is biofuels and bioenergy. Sustainability is to be audited by certification. ■ processing; CO2-eq. That is an average of about 50% required to make a decision on the ■ transportation and distribution; versus the fossil reference system. There handling of ILUC. A large number of ■ use of the fuel. are various calculation tools available to studies have already served for prepara- LEGAL STATUS AND STANDARDS Organization for Standardization), inde- eral pages on each of the indicators. In support and harmonise calculations, such tion of this decision, which now proposes Right from the first targets set in the pendently of European legislation. addition, a great many private initiatives The climate damaging gases to be consid- as the worksheet based tools BioGrace further research, and a final decision to

Biofuels Directive of 2003, there was and organisations have provided inputs ered are fossil carbon dioxide (CO2 fossil), and ENZO2 (IFEU 2012). be made by 2017 – it needs to be seen growing criticism of the biofuels quota, on Other globally important work in this area for the discussion and for development methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and whether the Council and the European the part of many environmental and social includes the Global Bioenergy Partner- of sustainability criteria. Legal require- carbon stock changes. The savings crite- A key subject for greenhouse gas invento- Parliament follow this proposal. The dis- organisations. The expected increase in ship (GBEP), which reached agreement in ments are set out in regulations in the USA rion under RED Art. 17 (2) is a reduction ries at the present time is indirect land use cussion centres on ILUC factors or reward land use for biomass production, espe- November 2011 on a set of 24 sustain- (Renewable Fuel Standard), in the State of at least 35% versus a fossil reference change (ILUC). That is when land that was system for ILUC avoidance depending on cially in tropical export regions, gave rise ability indicators for bioenergy (GBEP of California (Low Carbon Fuel Standard) of 83,8 g CO2-eq/MJ. Minimum savings previously used for another purpose (e.g. the type and origin of the biomass (E&Y to fears of multiple conflicts with principles 2011). The originators were the govern- and in Switzerland (Mineral Oil Tax Act). of 50% are required from 2017 and 60% food or feed crops) is changed to cultiva- 2011). It is possible that combinations of of sustainability. Right from an early stage, ments of 45 countries and 24 interna- from 2018. The Directive sets out further tion of crops for biofuels. incentives may be used, or that ILUC will the main fears were clearing of tropical tional organisations. SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA FOR BIOFUELS methodological rules in Annex V, for still not be taken into account in future. forests and unclear land use rights The most important sustainability criteria calculation of emission reductions, and These replacement effects may occur over (Fritsche et al. 2006). The special value of this process lies in for biofuels are aimed at protection of the also permits the use of default values for a the whole of the global trading system Regardless of the extremely divergent the development of a generally accepted climate, biodiversity, soil and water, and selection of specific biofuel paths (see Fig. (by reducing food / feed exports) even positions within and between the decision The German Biofuels Quota Act (2006) global understanding of what character- at social aspects. 13). These values are in principle conserv- outside of a region or country, so the only makers, experts, the relevant industries, therefore set the first requirements for ises sustainable production and use of ative, giving market players an incentive way to assign that to biomass growing is environmental NGOs and other stake- sustainability for the biofuels eligible for bioenergy resources. Climate change mitigation to calculate the actual values. For certain by model analysis. Opinions differ widely holders, the appropriate control impact the quota, as follows: All the legal requirements and sustainabil- biofuels such as diesel from soybean oil, since the start of the ILUC discussion on of the ILUC approach is of vital impor- Fig. 12 gives an overview of the indicators. ity standards addressing bioenergy the default value is not sufficient to comply the question of which model approach is tance. The majority of experts agree that 1) sustainable management of GBEP provides a method sheet giving sev- include among their criteria a certain with the savings criterion. For other paths most suitable. bioenergy fuels with low ILUC risk must be agricultural land; given priority. 2) protection of natural habitats; and

3) a certain CO2 reduction potential. 12 GBEP SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS FOR BIOENERGY 13 GREENHOUSE GAS STANDARD VALUES OF RED AND EXEMPLARY ILUC VALUES Biodiversity Environmental indicators Social indicators Economic indicators Following climate change issues, environ- Since 2009, all member states of the mental conflicts resulting from biofuels are Life cycle GHG emissions Allocation and tenure of land Productivity Biodiesel from rapeseed 52 54.9 EU have been subject to the Renewable for new bioenergy production mainly seen in land conversion, land use Energy Directive (RED, 2009/28/EC) Hydrogenated rapeseed 44 54.9 change, and the expansion of large-scale and the Fuel Quality Directive (FQD, Soil quality Price and supply of a national Net energy balance Biodiesel from soy oil 58 56.3 agriculture with a trend toward monocul- 2009/30/EC). These Directives contain food basket ture. The decisive criterion here is loss of 37 54 Biodiesel from palm oil* the legally binding sustainability require- Harvest levels of wood Change in income Gross value added biodiversity. ments, with the same requirements for resources 14 Biodiesel from waste oil transport biofuels and liquid biofuels for Standard value (RED Annex V) Under RED Art. 17 (3), biofuels rated as electricity or heating. Emissions of non-GHG air Jobs in the bioenergy sector Change in consumption of Ethanol from wheat** 44 13.8 ILUC (IFPRI 2011) sustainable must not be made from bio- pollutants fossil fuels and traditional 4 0 7. 2 Ethanol from sugar beet mass grown on land with high biodiversity At the European level, a standardisation use of biomass value. The Directive defines that as: process was launched in 2008 within the Water use and efficiency Change in unpaid time spent Training and re-qualification 24 15.4 Ethanol from sugar by women and children of the workforce framework of CEN (European Stand- ■ Primary forest and other wooded land, collecting biomass 13 Ethanol from wheat straw ardisation Committee) for “sustainably * with methane capture namely forest and other wooded land of produced biomass for energy use”. This Water quality Bioenergy used to expand Energy diversity 6 FT-Diesel from forestry ** with natural gas CHP native species, where there is no clearly access to modern energy standard will be adopted in the near visible indication of human activity and services 16 Biogas from manure future, and is to facilitate and harmonise the ecological processes are not signifi- Biological diversity Change in mortality and Infrastructure and logistics the transposition of the RED requirements burden of disease attributable for distribution of bioenergy Fossil fuel comparator 83.8 cantly disturbed; for the players concerned. to indoor smoke 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 ■ Areas designated by law or the relevant Land use and land-use Incidence of occupational Capacity and flexibility of Greenhouse gas emissions 35% saving (since 2010) Another standardisation process on change injury, illness and fatalities use of bioenergy g CO -equiv/MJ competent authority for nature protection 2 50% saving (from 2017) sustainability criteria for bioenergy is in purposes, or for the protection of rare, 60% saving (from 2018) Source: EU (2009), IFPRI (2011); own presentation progress at the level of ISO (International Source: GBEP (2011) threatened or endangered ecosystems 20 SUSTAINABILITY OF BIOFUELS 21

or species recognised by international ability of sufficient water is the basis for the Community and in third countries of cover these requirements in full. The main 14 CERTIFICATION SYSTEMS RECOGNISED BY THE EU COMMISSION agreements or included in lists drawn up growing biomass crops intended for high increased demand for biofuel”. The focus innovation in these systems was the green- System Country, Scope by intergovernmental organisations or productivity. If there is not enough rainfall, is on: house gas inventory. the International Union for the Conserva- irrigation has to be used, which may have ISCC (International Sustainability and Carbon Developed in Germany, for all types of Certification) biofuel tion of Nature); considerable impact on the water inven- ■ the availability of foodstuffs at The EU Commission has now recognised tory of the catchment area. Biomass affordable prices; 11 systems which are appropriate to Bonsucro EU Multi-stakeholder initiative, exclusively for ■ Highly biodiverse grassland. production may also cause pollution of demonstrate compliance with the RED (formerly BSI Better Sugarcane Initiative) ethanol from sugarcane groundwater and surface water by the ■ wider development issues; requirements for biofuels over the whole RTRS EU RED Multi-stakeholder initiative, exclusively for The reference date is January 2008. Any use of fertilizers and pesticides. of the supply chain (cf. Table 14). (Roundtable for Responsible Soy) soybean oil and biodiesel from soybean oil land converted before that is not covered ■ respect of land use rights; by the regulation. Exclusion of the defined The necessary conversion facilities for There are considerable differences RSB EU RED Multi-stakeholder initiative, for all types of types of land is regarded by many as suf- production of biofuels normally require ■ ratification and implementation of the between the systems in terms of their (Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels) biofuel ficient to save the biodiversity “hotspots” input of water, and also result in waste core standards of the International independence and in terms of the scope of 2BSvs Developed by industry in France, for all types from direct land use change – but that water which requires extensive cleaning to Labour Organisation (ILO). their criteria. Systems such as the Round- (Biomass Biofuels Sustainability voluntary of biofuel does not restrict indirect land use change. prevent water pollution. The usual table on Sustainable Biofuels (RSB), which scheme) standards of the certification systems Compliance with social criteria is not a was developed on an international basis RBSA Corporate initiative, for all types of biofuels In addition, no account is taken of the therefore also include differentiated binding requirement. The aim is rather to without direct relationship with the RED in (Abengoa RED Bioenergy Sustainability produced by Abengoa maintenance (or increase) in biodiversity indicators for water. introduce the social aspects and report- an ambitious multi-stakeholder process, Assurance) of agricultural land. The protection rating ing requirements on an indicative basis, address not only the RED requirements, but Greenergy Brazilian Bioethanol verification Developed by industry in Brazil, exclusively for primary forests and protection of The RED deals with water as follows in and thus to exert indirect pressure for their also many other ecological and social cri- programme for ethanol from sugarcane nature reserves are key components in Art. 18 (3) para. 2: the member states implementation at national level. teria, and are already markedly independ- Ensus voluntary scheme under RED for Ensus Developed by industry association in the UK, protection of biodiversity. Many of the are required to impose an obligation ent due to the structure of their Boards. bioethanol production for ethanol produced in the UK experts also deem it necessary to estab- on biofuel producers to report on and Direct requirements are avoided in the lish a minimum of nature conservancy in document measures for soil, water and air social context, as are criteria for soil and The International Sustainability & Carbon Red Tractor (Red Tractor Farm Assurance Developed by industry association in the UK, wide areas by legislating for appropri- protection, and for avoidance of excessive water, because they would be regarded Certification (ISCC) scheme developed in Combinable Crops & Sugar Beet Scheme) for biofuels produced in the UK ate methods of cultivation. In view of the water consumption in areas where water under the rules of the World Trade Germany also has a wide-ranging, differ- SQC (Scottish Quality Farm Assured Developed by industry in the UK, for biofuels feedstocks used for biofuels, there are is scarce. That means no concrete, binding Organisation (WTO) as interference in entiated checklist of criteria. At the other Combinable Crops (SQC) scheme) from wheat, maize, rapeseed also fears of genetic impoverishment and criteria are implemented here. The protec- areas of national sovereignty, and would end of the scale is the REDcert, which an increase in monocultures (e.g. maize tion of groundwater from agricultural most likely trigger legal action, with good restricts itself precisely to certification in REDcert Developed in Germany by various industry growing). contamination is in turn implicitly covered chances of success. accordance with the RED requirements. associations, for all types of biofuel (focus on production in Germany and Central Europe) by the above mentioned obligation to set But it is likewise an independent system. Soil and water minimum requirements for good farming Climate and biodiversity on the other These two natural assets are always key and ecological status. hand are assets with global impact. By contrast, systems such as RBSA of to prevent a split in the market – certified discussion at international level. The ISO in agricultural production. Soil is a funda- Compatibility with these aspects may be Abengoa are very much lacking in trans- products to Europe, non-certified products standard would show producers through- mental issue with respect to soil erosion Social aspects demanded as a binding characteristic in parency, because they are designed on to the rest of the world. out the world what globally agreed prin- and the preservation of soil fertility, and Social criteria have been in the fore- trade products (Hermann et al. 2009). a purely company-internal basis. It is ciples, criteria and indicators have to be its other ecosystem services (that is the ground since the beginning of the questionable how these systems intend Another side-effect could be that certifica- observed for sustainable bioenergy. No benefits of intact ecosystems for humans, sustainability debate on biofuels, and SUSTAINABILITY CERTIFICATION to demonstrate independence and thus tion leads to a shortage of biofuels which producer could then use non-sustainable such as water storage, filtering functions). are demanded in particular by church Certification systems aimed at sustain- credibility. are eligible to count towards the quota. methods on the grounds that there are Many practical standards of certification institutions. As biomass imports from ability have been in existence for several The stricter the requirements, the more the no generally applicable sustainability systems therefore include differentiated developing countries increase, fair decades now. The SAN label of the Rain- How to evaluate the effectiveness of flow of goods will split off into markets standards. indicators for soil. The RED restricts itself trade with exporting countries as well forest Alliance has been used since 1992 certification? which do not require certification. For in this respect to compliance with the mini- as internationally accepted labour to certify environment friendly agricultural The systematic implementation of proof of example, Brazilian ethanol from sugarcane The GBEP indicators in turn give guidance mum requirements for good agricultural and land tenure conditions in producer products from tropical regions. FairTrade compliance with the RED criteria for bio- which meets all the RED criteria may find to governments, so that they can examine and ecological condition, in accordance countries are fundamental requirements labels have long since become estab- fuels is to be regarded first of all as pro- easier access to the US market, which their own bioenergy policy. Continuous with EU Regulation (EC) 73/2009 (com- for sustainable imports. All these criteria lished in coffee (for example Utz Kapeh). gress towards reducing the presence of does not require certification. further activities of the governments and mon rules for direct support schemes for are covered in established certification non-sustainable products in the European organisations in GBEP give the great farmers, cross compliance). systems. The first quality labels in the timber trade market. Importantly, the criteria as such What can be expected from opportunity to continue playing a part were introduced in 1994 in response to bring a “quality label” and awareness of international initiatives? in the dynamic discussion of bioenergy, These are minimum requirements which Other social implications of bioenergy the clearing of primary forests and forest compliance with it into the market. The risks resulting from increased pro- understanding any discrepancies between are intended to help avoid negative could be land availability and food price management techniques which led to duction and use of biofuels will not be the interests of the different countries, and consequences for agriculture. But the RED developments, both impacting on food deterioration. The number of labels which The effectiveness of the demand for restricted on a global scale until more moving solutions forward. sets these requirements exclusively for pro- security. contain sustainability requirements for self-declarations by farmers is evident in or less equivalent standards are imple- duction within the EU. Biomass produced agricultural and forestry biomass goes all parts of the market, regardless of the mented globally. The initiatives from GBEP EXTENSION OF SUSTAINABILITY outside of the EU is not subject to any The RED also takes up these concepts in into the hundreds. actual use of the agricultural products. But and ISO could develop in that direction. CRITERIA TO ALL BIOENERGY – AND ALL soil-related criteria. Art. 17 (7), whereby it imposes not on it is not yet clear whether the sectoral cer- Though both of these institutions are BIOMASS? the producers but on the EU Commission New systems have been developed with tification, addressing the EU market, will based on the introduction of voluntary The EU adopted the policy in the RED to Water is relevant in various ways in the an obligation to report “every two years the introduction of the RED sustainability effectively reduce non-sustainable produc- requirements, they do put the subject double the percentage of renewables to production of biofuels. Firstly, the avail- on the impact on social sustainability in requirements for biofuels, in order to tion. There are no mechanisms available matter in all its relevant aspects up for 20% of gross final energy consumption 22 The Next Generation 23

(EU 2009), with bioenergy playing a major land. The demand has therefore been would be an important step for reduction of role: raised to set legal sustainability criteria the problems from rising pressure of use in 4 THE NEXT GENERATION: for solid biofuels, too – both for products forests, at national and international level ■ About 80% of the expansion goals in the made in the EU, and for imported solid (IFEU 2011). heating sector are based on bioenergy; fuels. The European Commission, the Euro- ADVANCED BIOFUELS pean Parliament and some of the member But it must be noted that non-energy use ■ Achieving the RED goal will require more states are discussing this, for example in of wood creates pressure on forests – More than 99% of all biofuels produced today fall into the general category of “1st generation”. That means biofuels use of wood, which will increase the pres- a series of joint workshops, in the light of especially from the pulp/paper and wood obtained from starch, sugar or vegetable oils, from crops grown especially for energy (IEA 2008). The feedstock and land sure on European forests, and also on increased imports of solid biomass (Fritsche materials industry – and a “bio-economy” requirements for these fuels are in direct competition with other possible uses. That is why new, advanced biofuels are international forests because of imports; et al. 2012b). Regulations for this can be (including biorefineries and biomaterials) needed, i.e. second or even third generation biofuels. drawn from existing certification systems also uses forestry biomass (EC 2012b). ■ Demand for wood is raised by increas- such as FSC and PEFC, which give good That causes negative market effects such ing co-firing in coal-fired powerplants to principles for sustainable forestry products, as land use change (indirect effects) if only THE SECOND GENERATION 15POSSIBLE POSSIBLE COSTS COST OF DEVELOPMENTS 2G BIOFUELS FOR BIOFUELS UP TO 2050 reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which but largely omit the questions of use of thin- one form of the use of biomass is regulated The 2nd generation of biofuels is aimed Production costs excl. taxes (€/GJ) itself increases international trade; nings and harvest residues for energy pur- by sustainability requirements. First activities at using different feedstocks in order to 30 nd poses. The “Initiative Wood Pellet Buyers” are under way to develop sustainability access a broader range of raw material 2 Generation Ethanol Bio-CNG Diesel nd FT-Diesel Gasoline ■ The future 2 generation biofuels will (IWPB) introduced by industry develops a criteria for non-energy use of biomass and potentials. These are mainly lignocellulosic 25 likewise increase demand for wood. voluntary sustainability standard for pellets to extend them to all agricultural products. materials, a mix of different proportions (IWPB 2012a+b) and is an important step The Coalition Agreement of the present of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, The RED already contains binding sustain- on the way to EU-wide regulation. WWF German Government explicitly sets out this depending on the characteristics of the 20 ability criteria for biofuels and ; has likewise submitted general recommen- goal in the European context. initial material. They may be agricultural but these requirements apply only to dations for sustainability requirements for residual materials (e.g. straw), residues 15 liquid bioenergy sources and biogas and bioenergy from forests (WWF 2012a). Going beyond bioenergy and biofuels, the from forestry, or biomass crops such as biomethane in the transport sector, and to increased use of biogenic feedstocks in grasses (e.g. switchgrass) or wood from solid biomass only where it is used to make The greenhouse gas emission reductions all sectors therefore requires sustainability short rotation forestry. 10 biofuels. and (direct) land use changes regulated rules which take account not only of factors in the RED can also be transferred to solid such as climate protection and biodiversity, The term “2nd generation” biofuels 5 The increasing direct use of solid biomass bioenergy, though it would be necessary but also questions of efficient use of land is defined mainly on the basis of the for power and heat has not so far been to determine the greenhouse gas balances and resources, and social criteria. The basis feedstocks and conversion technology. regulated; the Commission only recom- of forest products, because these are not for that has already been created with the However, there is no precise definition, so 0 2010 2020 2030 mends member states to apply the RED necessarily CO2 neutral (cf. Fritsche et al. criteria put forward for extension of the some biofuels cannot be allocated to a requirements to solid biofuels on a volun- 2012b). RED (Fritsche et al. 2012b) and the indica- particular “generation” (e.g. biomethane), Source: IEA (2012a); own presentation tary basis (EC 2010). tors adopted by the GBEP. while other products are claimed to be It is also important to protect high-biodiverse third or even fourth generation (fuels from with the conventional crude oil upstream ever, this technology is still at the develop-

In addition, there are no European regu- forests, adding criteria for sustainable In the medium term, consistent rules CO2 fixing bacteria). of the cat cracker, and further processed ment phase. lations in the forestry sector for “good forest management, limit extraction rates are needed for the sustainability of with the conventional streams. The fuel professional practice”, as are set by the EU of wood, and for safeguarding nutrient all forestry products – and in the In summary, the processes may be products diesel and gasoline then contain Another technical development uses cata- minimum environmental requirements for cycles and soil quality. This extension of the longer term also for all agricultural described as follows: corresponding biocomponents, which are lytic reforming processes to convert sugar, management of agricultural and forestry sustainability requirements to solid biomass products and thus for all biomass. indistinguishable from the rest of the fuel. starch and all forms of lignocellulose into Hydrotreated vegetable oils (HVO) are targeted short-chain carbon compounds. strictly speaking not 2nd generation, Cellulosic ethanol: A particular advantage of this method is Short rotation coppice because the raw material is (currently) Chemically, there is no difference between the process-related generation of hydro- 1st generation. The process uses hydro- cellulosic ethanol and conventional bio- gen. Fig. 15 shows the potential longer- treatment to convert vegetable oil, which ethanol; but the raw material comprises term cost development of 2nd generation is problematic for diesel engines, into cellulose, which is converted to sugar by biofuels versus gasoline and diesel. high-quality fuels comprising pure means of chemical/biochemical pre-treat- hydrocarbons. This process can be used ment (use of enzymes and strong acids) In Germany and the EU, the share of to convert the usual vegetable oils such as and fermented to ethanol. This method diesel will continue to rise, which makes rapeseed oil or palm oil, and also waste can produce between 160 and 250 kg of 2nd generation biodiesel particularly rel- oils, recycled fats and similar. ethanol from one tonne of straw. evant. By contrast, Brazil and the US use mainly gasoline as road transport fuel, so HEFA fuels (Hydrotreated Esters and Fatty FT diesel (Fischer-Tropsch): 2nd generation bioethanol is particularly Acids), also referred to as BioJet, are also This is synthetic biodiesel, which is important there. based on hydrotreated vegetable oils, for obtained from lignocellulose and other first applications in aviation. Alongside the organic raw materials via synthetic gas The 2nd generation biofuels are in prin- stand-alone facilities for hydrotreatment of production and subsequent Fischer- ciple available, but there is still much vegetable oils, there are also concepts for Tropsch synthesis to obtain liquid fuels. work to do before they are ready for co-processing of vegetable oils in existing Its advantage is good fulfilment of the market – and their costs will continue refineries. The vegetable oil is blended requirements of modern engines. How- to be relatively high in future. 24 TECHNICAL COMPATIBILITY 25

BIOFUELS FROM BIOREFINERIES? 16 How a works The term “biorefinery” came into use in the 5 TECHNICAL COMPATIBILITY early 2000s, by analogy to the function- ing principle of crude oil refineries, for Raw material processes used to increase the efficiency OF BIOFUELS of using biomass (Realff, Abbas 2004). Biofuels are similar to fossil fuels for transport. They are normally liquid, or in some cases gaseous6) and release energy in a It is now understood to mean sustainable Pretreatment combustion process, as do fossil fuels. So in principle they can be used wherever energy is converted by combustion – Conditioning processing of biomass to a range of mar- especially in vehicles with internal combustion engines, and also in ships, diesel locomotives and aircraft. ketable material and energy products. It But though the product characteristics of biofuels are similar to those of fossil fuels, they are quite different in some respects. involves the production of food and feed, So for technical reasons not all biofuels are suitable for all means of transport. Fig. 17 shows which types of fuels are used chemicals, materials, fuels, power and by which means of transport today. Passenger cars and commercial vehicles are the largest fuel consumers – and so far they heat in an integrated way, with the goal Platform are almost the only users of biofuels. The most important types and characteristics of biofuels are presented and discussed of maximising the value added from the here, indicating which means of transport can be run on biofuels and which cannot. biomass feedstock input (cf. Fig. 16).

Various studies put forward arguments of (BIO)FUELS – TYPES AND 17 ENERGY DEMAND FOR TRANSPORT IN 2010 FUEL CONSUMPTION GERMANY (2010) the great industrial importance of these CHARACTERISTICS Final energy in petajoules (PJ) fuels for Germany (VCI, DIB 2010), the In order for biofuels to be used in today’s 1400 EU (Star-colibri 2011a+b) and worldwide propulsion systems, their technical charac- Electric (WEF 2010). In Germany, a significant Conversion Conversion teristics must not be significantly different 1200 Ethanol proportion of bioethanol and biodiesel Processing Processing from those of conventional fuels. Depend- demand could be met by biorefineries by ing on fuel type, they can completely Biodiesel 2030 (Arnold et al. 2011). replace conventional fuels, partially 1000 Gasoline replace them, supplement them by means Diesel That means biorefineries give long-term of blending, or not replace them at all. 800 Marine potential for decarbonisation of material Where biofuels can completely replace Jet fuel usage and avoidance of use competition. Coupled product conventional fuels, or can be used almost 600 Energy product Material product Food / Feed seamlessly in existing vehicles, fuels and However, that applies only if coupled supply infrastructures, they are also called Source: Arnold, Fritsche, Maga et al. (2011) 400 production is successful in the sense that a “drop-in fuels”. number of marketable products really are created in one process, and the expendi- Fuels are made from crude oil in refineries. 200 ture is justified in terms of finance and They are used in road transport, aviation energy resources. ■ Macroalgae such as seaweed are cul- and shading reduce the high yields per and shipping. They are made by heat- 0 Aircraft Ship Rail Passenger car Commercial Others tivated almost exclusively in the sea, or unit area. The energy use of algae is still ing (distilling) the crude oil in multi-stage vehicle The Federal Government recently pre- harvested from natural stocks. They are at the research and development stage, processes and use various other treatment Source: Federal Environment Agency UBA (TREMOD), DESTATIS; own presentation sented a “Biorefineries Roadmap” which mainly used for food & feed and as an with outstanding questions such as genetic stages (conversion) to make petroleum sees the need for a lot more research and industrial feedstock. Macroalgae can be drift and the effort needed to extract the products. rates completely once its boiling point is or by other international standardisation development (BuReg 2012). used to produce biogas and bioethanol, biomass, with correspondingly high cost reached. That is why an increase in the bodies (such as IMO, ASTM Interna- but the yield has so far been small. (IC 2011b; IEA BioT39 2011). Fuels manufactured in refinery processes evaporated fuel volume can be observed tional). For reasons of safety, minimum Biorefineries are a longer-term are multi-substance blends. A distinction is in blends of ethanol and gasoline at 78°C requirements are set for flashpoint and option for sustainable biofuels – ■ Microalgae are used for high-end The cultivation of microalgae requires made on the basis of their boiling range (shown in Fig. 18 for E10). Biodiesel has freezing point of fuels. Requirements however, their economic viability cosmetic and medical applications, and water and energy inputs for circulation and energy density between light distil- a very flat boiling point curve; its boiling are also set for aromatics and sulphur still has to be demonstrated. their global production today is just a and cleaning, which may cause consider- lates (gas and gasoline), middle distillates temperatures are considerably higher than contents in order to reduce emissions of few 10,000 t. They are grown in open able greenhouse gas emissions (IC 2011a; (jet fuel, diesel, and marine diesel) and those of fossil diesel. If combustion is not sulphur dioxide and particulates. BIOFUELS FROM ALGAE AS “G3”? tanks or closed photo-bioreactors, and Murphy, Allen 2011). The use of geneti- heavy distillates (heavy fuel oil). The boil- complete, this may cause problems in the For some years now, algae have been contain certain percentages of oils for cally modified strains is critical, because ing point characteristic gives information engine (such as dilution of the engine oil). Fossil fuels give a number of advantages regarded as promising new feedstock in , while the rest of even closed systems cannot prevent on how precisely a fuel is defined – for The heavy fuel oil used by ships is much compared with other energy sources, for the global discussion of biofuels, and bio- the biomass can in principle be used for genetically modified algae from getting example, with strict requirements for jet heavier than the other fuels shown, with a example high energy density, storage sta- fuels produced from them are sometimes ethanol and biogas production. into the environment, with corresponding fuel. very wide boiling point range. bility, ease of handling, etc., which is why described as “3rd generation”, because risk potential (Snow, Smith 2012). many transport modes have established they would no longer require the use of The reason given for the worldwide The boiling points of the biocomponents Depending on the application, a wide them as the main fuel. land. interest in algae is that yield per unit of It will take at least 10 years before bioethanol and biodiesel are significantly range of other quality parameters are area can be up to ten times higher than algae could make a contribution to different from their fossil counterparts defined for the various fuels by national Biofuels give ecological benefits, for It is possible in principle to produce bio- for plants on land. But that is based on providing biofuel feedstock. That – bioethanol, used for blending with standards such as DIN in Germany or example they can contribute to reduction energy (for example biogas) and biofuels laboratory results, and transferability to will require major improvements in gasoline, is a pure component; it evapo- by international fuel standards of the EU, of pollutant emissions (at the local level). from algae, but it is also important how production is questionable, because in cost-effectiveness, and in the energy 6) Gaseous fuels are liquid petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG), which likewise supply combustion engines with energy. They can play a long-term role the feedstock is obtained: practice factors such as light utilisation and water balance. in the transport sector, but today they mainly have niche functions. In principle, it is possible to use biogas or biomethane as a substitute for gaseous fuels. 26 TECHNICAL COMPATIBILITY 27

But to be suitable for use in today’s vehi- 18Fuel B OILINGboiling point POINT characteristics CHARACTERISTICS OF FUELS The minimum requirements for gasoline as CNG, hydrogen, or electricity from Not all vehicles registered in Germany cles and supply infrastructures, biofuels are defined in the European Fuels Stand- batteries). today tolerate E10, but more than 90% of need to have chemical properties which Temperature °C ard EN 228. Gasolines are light fuels them do. Despite this high level of compat- 800 are at least similar to those of fossil fuels. Heavy fuel oil Jet fuel with a density of 720 to 775 kg/m³. They The batteries available today would ibility, consumer acceptance of E10 is still The commonest types of biofuel used 700 Vegetable oil Marine diesel have a very low freezing point, and thus require twenty times as much space to limited, even if the trend is upwards. today are: RME Paraffin fuel good cold-running properties. Basically, provide the same energy as is provided 600 Gasoline E10 various types of engine gasoline are by a litre of diesel fuel. Even consider- Today’s gasoline engines are not approved ■ bioalcohols (such as ethanol and distinguished, depending on their octane ing that electric motors are much more for higher gasoline-alcohol blends than Bioethanol butanol); 500 number (anti-knocking properties); the efficient than combustion engines, an E10. This limitation is described as a Diesel B7 ■ (straight) vegetable oils; main gasoline type is Eurosuper with 95 electric system would still mean a much “blend wall” – gasoline with more than ■ FAME (fatty acid methyl esters), 400 octane. bigger space requirement and much more 10% ethanol content requires special biodiesel obtained by esterification of weight, both of which reduce the payload. adaptation of the vehicle. Flexible Fuel vegetable oils; 300 The contents and properties of diesel fuel The only alternative energy source which Vehicles (FFVs), which can take any blend ■ HVO (hydrotreated vegetable oils) and are specified in the fuel standard EN 590. gets close to gasoline and diesel is bio- of gasoline and alcohol, are mostly avail- synthetic diesel from biomass. 200 Diesel fuel has a high density of 820 to fuels (and to some extent LNG). Vehicles able only in South America. Such vehicles 845 kg/m³. Diesel – like all middle distil- with gasoline engines can alternatively can use E85, a special transport fuel Unlike crude oil or fossil fuels, bioalcohols 100 lates – has a high flashpoint compared or additionally be run on bioalcohol. The defined by fuel standard DIN 51625. are not blends of many substances, but with gasoline. Every diesel fuel must have commonest bioalcohol available today are pure chemical substances with clearly 0 a cetane number of at least 51; but for is biogenic ethyl alcohol, that is ethanol. Diesel engines can in principle run on 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% defined physical properties. Depending Source: own presentation Percentage of fuel evaporated synthetic diesel (such as Gas-to-Liquids) Compared with conventional gasoline, biodiesel or other diesel substitutes. A dis- on the vehicle technology used, they may the cetane number may be significantly ethanol has a lower boiling point, a higher tinction has to be made between straight be a restricted substitute or a complete higher. Diesel fuels can crystallise at low octane number, and lower energy density vegetable oils, conventional biodiesel (1st substitute for gasoline. Selection of the bioalcohols methanol and butanol can Passenger cars with gasoline engines run temperatures, so the standard defines spe- due to its greater oxygen content. generation) and synthetic diesel. materials with which the fuel has contact be used in today’s vehicles, at least in low on gasoline (petrol); vehicles with die- cial cold-flow requirements for the various must be appropriately adapted in order blending percentages, similarly to ethanol. sel engines run on diesel fuel. The most climatic regions in Europe. The cold-flow Normal gasoline engines are approved Vegetable oil is the simplest biogenic fuel, to avoid corrosion of plastics and met- DME by contrast is gaseous at normal important quality parameters for fuels in properties of diesel are set accordingly in nowadays for blends of up to 5% by because it is not further processed. As als (Bauer, Margraf, Kulikowski 2011). ambient temperature, and requires a pres- European road transport are specified the refineries. volume of bioethanol (E5) without further a rule it can only be used in modified, spe- The different evaporation properties of surized gas container as its tank. by the current EU Fuel Quality Directive technical modification (WFCF 2009b). cially equipped diesel engines, because ethanol and gasoline-ethanol blends also (2009/30/EC). It is applicable throughout Alternative fuels Gasoline fuels may therefore contain vegetable oil has significantly different require modification of engine manage- (Bio-)hydrogen can be used either in Europe, and has now been adopted as Substitution potentials for conventional up to this amount of bioethanol without properties from diesel fuel – it has a ment systems. vehicles with high-efficiency fuel cells, a model in other regions of the world. In propulsion systems and thus also ener- indication to the customer. Blending of longer ignition delay (lower cetane num- or in internal combustion engines. Hydro- addition, automotive manufacturers today gies in road transport are available most bioethanol up to 10% (E10) is regulated ber), and greater viscosity especially at The available alternatives for middle distil- gen also needs a special tank system, almost all operate globally. It is in their readily in passenger cars and light com- in the German fuel draft standard E-DIN lower temperatures. It has good biodegra- lates are more varied. They range from requiring substantial modification of the interest to get high-quality fuels, defined on mercial vehicles. But at present there are 51626-1 and has been permitted in Ger- dability, but poorer storage qualities. straight vegetable oil, to 1st generation vehicle. a standardised basis, which can be used no alternative propulsion systems in sight many since the beginning of 2011.7) biodiesel (FAME), to HVO (hydrotreated in engine concepts worldwide. The guide- for goods transport, especially long-haul Vegetable oil has a higher evaporation vegetable oils) and synthetic diesel from Road Transport lines for fuel qualities, depending on the goods transport (Shell 2010). One of the 7) In addition, bioethanol can be blended with gasoline temperature, which means that it accumu- biomass. All the currently available diesel Internal combustion engines are dominant respective market requirements, are set out main reasons for that is the low energy indirectly as ether (ethanol tert-butyl ether, ETBE); but lates in the engine oil, and this can lead indirect blending is limited by fuel specifications (for substitutes are based on vegetable oil. in road transport worldwide today. Two in the World Fuels Charta (WFCF 2006). density of alternative energy sources (such example oxygen content). to the formation of lumps. The properties different types of engine concept are used of vegetable oils differ depending on the Not all vegetable oils and their derivatives – gasoline engines and diesel engines. All in all, the fuel requirements have been type of plant. The quality standard DIN are equally good substitutes for middle Throughout the world, passenger cars tightened up significantly in the last 20 Volumen19 VOLUME zur SpeicherungFOR STORAGE des OF Energieinhalts ENERGY CONTENT von 1l Diesel OF 1 LITRE DIESEL 51605 specifies vegetable oil fuel from distillates. In terms of quality, a distinction (and motorcycles) are mainly powered by years – in Europe, and also in other coun- Volume in l rapeseed oil. Pure vegetable oil is a niche can be made between 1st generation gasoline engines; commercial vehicles, tries. Modern vehicle technology has also 25 fuel today; it is not suitable for today’s biodiesel (FAME) and 2nd generation especially trucks and buses, are mainly become more and more sophisticated and modern diesel engines with their sensitive biodiesel (hydrotreated vegetable oils and powered by diesel engines. sensitive. 20.7 systems. synthetic diesel from biomass); sometimes 20 the term “generation zero” is also used for Modern diesel engines are no longer The environmental requirements for auto- The commonest diesel substitute today nd straight vegetable oil. Only 2 generation inferior to gasoline engines in terms of mobiles have become so much tougher 15 is conventional biodiesel. Biodiesel is biodiesel products are very similar to fossil comfort, cleanness and performance. that it became necessary to reformulate obtained by esterification of rapeseed, fuels. They can be used as drop-in fuels, Compared with gasoline engines, diesel fuels. The fuel qualities and exhaust gas soy or palm oil or of recycled grease or not only in vehicles, but also in aviation, engines have higher efficiency on the limits were re-specified for passenger cars 10 animal fats with methanol. The general at least within certain limits. basis of their operating principle, and that and commercial vehicles in the 1990s by technical term for all biodiesel fuels today 6.7 means lower fuel consumption. Especially means of the European Auto Oil Pro- is FAME (fatty acid methyl ester). Bio- In addition, there is a series of other in Europe, passenger cars with diesel gramme, in order to improve air quality. 5 4.1 diesel has a higher flashpoint than diesel, biofuels (such as dimethyl ether (DME), or engines are now in widespread use; in Today, Germany and the EU are among 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.6 1.7 and is somewhat heavier with comparable some countries, diesel powered passen- viscosity. Its freezing point varies depend- butanol), which have not so far been able the toughest markets with the strictest 0 to establish themselves as fuels for various ger cars account for more than 50% of exhaust gas limits, as per the World Fuels Diesel Gasoline Biodiesel Ethanol LNG CNG Hydrogen Lithium-ion ing on the raw material used. Biodiesel is reasons, not even as niche fuels. The two new car registrations. Charta. Source: own presentation 250 bar 700 bar battery specified by the European diesel standard 28 TECHNICAL COMPATIBILITY 29

20Energiegehalt ENERGY CONTENT von Kraftstoffen OF BIOFUELS Avgas is a special gasoline for aircraft Marine shipping use of heavy fuel oil in the course of the with internal combustion engines. Some More than 80% of the goods traded in decades. And merchant ships also have Megajoule (MJ)/Liter The energy content of biofuels differs 40 of these aircraft are also approved for the world today are carried by sea. The long service life – their average age at the in some cases significantly from that high-octane gasoline. However, it is not global merchant fleet comprises 103,000 present time is 22.5 years, and many of of fossil fuels. The energy content of 35 permitted to obtain this from filling stations ships (UNCTAD 2011). Virtually all them are decommissioned only after 30 bioethanol is only about 66% versus because of the compulsory blending of commercial ships are powered by diesel years of service (UNCTAD 2011). Engines gasoline, while biodiesel is about 92% bioethanol, and also because of stricter engines today. Big merchant ships mostly are often used for a period of 20 years or 30 versus fossil diesel (in each case on the safety regulations. use slow-running two-stroke engines with longer. That means alternative propulsion basis of volume / litres). Whereas fuel 25 standards are normally based on an output range from about 25,000 to systems and fuels play practically no part volume (percent by volume, that is Alternative aviation fuels 80,000 kW. Their efficiency is up to 50%. at all in the majority of shipping. They are 20 percentage per litre), legislation and At present there are no alternatives in There are also marine engines (smaller) used only for special purposes at present Diesel Diesel Biodiesel Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline political programmes set targets for sight to liquid hydrocarbons as propulsion powered solely or additionally by lique- (for example in LNG tankers). Neverthe- B100 E0 E10 15 B0 B7 E85 energy content (and in future also fuels for aviation. That is why the aviation fied natural gas (LNG) – these are known less, the use of biogenic fuels would also greenhouse gas reduction). In order to industry is increasingly trying to make as Dual Fuel Engines (Ecofys 2012). be possible in marine shipping. Ethanol 10 E100 get 10% by energy in gasoline, about use of alternative liquid fuels. Possible can- 15% by volume bioethanol have to be didates are synthetic kerosene fractions Marine fuels are standardised by the Biofuels could help to reduce local emis- 5 blended; to get 10% by energy of from the Fischer-Tropsch process (e.g. International Maritime Organization sions (sulphur dioxide emissions) and biodiesel in diesel fuel, about 11% by Gas-to-Liquids from natural gas) or hydro- (IMO), and the main quality parameters greenhouse gas emissions from shipping 0 volume have to be blended. treated vegetable oils (HEFA / BioJet). for fuels used in shipping are specified (Ecofys 2012). But biofuels in marine Source: EU (2009); own calculations in ISO standard 8217. It distinguishes in applications pose a number of technical The special interest of aviation is directed particular between heavy fuel oils (higher challenges – marine ships normally keep EN 14214; biodiesel made from straight remedied by increased maintenance work powered by reciprocating engines, mostly at biogenic aviation turbine fuels; sustain- viscosity), and lighter marine diesel. their fuels in storage for longer periods; soybean or palm oil does not comply with and quality inspections.Higher quality gasoline engines; but engines operating able biofuels can help to reduce the Heavy fuel oils are mainly produced from so storage stability has to be ensured. the standard because of poorer resistance biodiesel compared with FAME can be on the diesel cycle are also increasingly greenhouse gas emissions from aviation. the residues of crude oil processing. They The cold-flow properties of marine fuels to cold. obtained with synthetic diesels made with used. Jet and turboprop engines use jet But alternative jet fuels have to meet the have high density, that is about 1,000 kg/ containing biogenic components change; Fischer-Tropsch processes (FT diesel) and fuel as their energy source (also known as strict quality and safety requirements of m³, and high viscosity. Marine diesel fuels material compatibility has to be checked. Biodiesel is better adapted to today’s hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO). These aviation fuel or kerosene). The fuel has to conventional jet fuels – and conventional are blends of various middle distillates In addition, there is very little practical engine technology than straight, untreated fuels, and GTL fuel manufactured from meet high quality standards because of 1st generation biofuels cannot do that and lighter; they have characteristics experience available on the use of biofu- vegetable oils. However, biodiesel may natural gas, are covered by the CEN the tough requirements of the engines. It is (ATAG 2009). Blends of up to 50% of which are typical of diesel fuel. The large els in marine shipping (ISO 2012). That also accumulate in the engine oil because Working Agreement (CWA 15940) as regulated by comprehensive, internation- approved alternative fuels are now permit- diesel engines in particular use mainly is why the blending of biocomponents is of its higher evaporation temperature – paraffinic diesel.8) ally standardised quality specifications. ted (HEFA/BioJet; FT ), as they differ very heavy fuel oils for their propulsion. not currently envisaged in ISO 8217. As and biodiesel can likewise harm plastic The leading standardisation organisations little in their chemical composition from middle distillates often contain biocompo- components in the engine. The sophisti- These diesel types have very favourable for jet fuels are the Ministry of Defence conventional jet fuel (IATA 2011). The rising quality requirements for marine nents today, they are subject to additional cated propulsion and exhaust gas clean- fuel characteristics, even exceeding those (MOD, UK) and ASTM International (for- fuels have led IMO to reduce significantly requirements for oxidation stability in ing systems set a blend limit of 7% by of conventional diesel fuel. Synthetic bio- merly American Society for Testing and Shipping the upper limits for sulphur content in the Marine Fuel Specification ISO 8217 volume for biodiesel (B7) in Europe. B7 is diesel / HVO fuels have lower density and Materials). Ships are mainly used for carrying freight; heavy fuel oil. By 2025 at the latest, (2012). tolerated both by older vehicles and new considerably higher cetane number than they play only a minor role in passenger heavy fuel oils have to keep to a maxi- vehicles, and requires no special labelling, conventional diesel or FAME. They con- International civil aviation uses almost transport. Ships have very good transpor- mum limit of 0.5% sulphur; the maximum Marine shipping is still in a phase of and no provision of a “protection grade” tain no oxygen, so their energy content exclusively the Jet A1 or Jet A specifica- tation performance in comparison with today is 3.5%. Special emission control exploration when it comes to the use of for older vehicles. is higher than for FAME fuels. Synthetic tion. Jet A1 is defined by the standards other modes of transport. They can carry areas have been designated (SOx Emis- biofuels. The introduction of alternative biodiesel and HVO are also described as DEF STAN 91-91 and ASTM D 1655. Jet large quantities of goods over long dis- sion Control Areas = SECA) where the fuels would firstly require creation of an Many modern diesel passenger cars do “drop-in fuels”, because they can be used A1 has a density of 775 to 840 kg/m³ – tances with low specific energy consump- maximum sulphur content is limited to appropriate ISO standard for marine not tolerate higher contents of FAME. almost in any percentage with conven- somewhat lighter than diesel. Its boiling tion. Shipping is by far the most energy 0.1% from 2015 onwards.9) The Baltic fuels based on biofuels. Heavy fuel oils The main reason for that is their exhaust tional fuels, not only in road transport. point characteristic is very flat (cf. Fig. 18); efficient mode of transport (BSH 2011). Sea has been designated as a SECA are also very low-cost compared with gas treatment. Trucks conforming to older However, HVO is currently only available in other words, Jet A1 is a very narrow since 2006, and the North Sea since other fuels. As a rule they are the only emission categories were considerably in limited quantities commercially, and fraction of crude oil distillation, optimised The dominant form of propulsion in ship- 20 07. petroleum product which is cheaper than better able to tolerate biodiesel; some synthetic diesel from biomass is not com- for combustion in jet engines. ping today is diesel engines, normally crude oil. Biofuels, on the other hand, are truck fleets even used up to 100% FAME. mercially available. using liquid fuels, though individual series Many marine ships are designed to run considerably more expensive than crude Euro VI trucks are just coming into the Other essentials for jet fuels are favour- can also use gas as their fuel. They have on two types of fuel, e.g. heavy fuel oil oil, and also more expensive than fossil market now, and currently have approval Aviation able cold-flow properties, because to meet high requirements for operating and marine diesel, so that they can use fuels. The interest of shipping in biogenic only for B7. Finally, from Euro VI onwards, Aircraft used in civil aviation are almost commercial aircraft normally fly in the reliability and safety, because ships are clean marine fuels in port areas for exam- marine fuels therefore continues to be compliance with the emission limits has exclusively powered by jet engines or upper region of the troposphere at outside designed for continuous operation and ple. New ships can easily be modified for very low at present. to be demonstrated again for every fuel turboprops (where the turbine engine temperatures of about -50°C. Thus Jet A1 long life. Shipping is basically divided into operation purely on distillates (ISL 2010). type allowed by the vehicle manufac- drives a propeller). Light aircraft for has a freezing point of at least -47°C or marine shipping (on the seas) and inland Inland navigation turer. The problems occurring with use amateur and sports use are normally lower, and a flashpoint of at least +38°C navigation (on inland waterways such as Heavy fuel oils are relatively low-cost fuels. Inland navigation accounts for about of biodiesel are engine oil dilution with or higher. rivers and lakes). Different fuels are used Shipping has optimised machinery for 10% of goods transportation in Germany biodiesel, lower storage capability, and 8) CWA 15940 of 2009 remains valid until implementation of for the different categories, because the (measured in tonne-kilometres), with its catalyst poisoning (metals) in biodiesel the technical specification CE N/TS 15940:2012 Paraffinic Apart from jet fuel, aviation gasoline requirements differ between marine ship- 9 ) Vgl. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution network of some 7,300 km of inland diesel fuel from synthesis or hydrogenation processes – from Ships (MARPOL 73/78), Annex VI: Regulations for (WFCC 2009a); that can normally be requirements and test methods. (avgas) can also be used in aircraft. ping and inland navigation. the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. waterways. The Rhine is by far the most 30 TECHNICAL COMPATIBILITY 31 important waterway in Germany and require more equipment for operation of Europe; it accounts for 80% of the whole inland waterways vessels, for example or part of all goods transport operations for monitoring and maintenance of fuel by inland waterways (Winter 2012). Most systems, and for storage. Biofuels have chemical properties similar to those of petro- inland navigation vessels, especially for leum based fuels – they are likewise liquid, and have high freight carriage, are powered by diesel or RAIL TRANSPORT energy density. They enable transport fuel to be stored and marine engines. Unlike marine shipping, In comparison between the modes of carried almost equally well as conventional fuels. So biofuels these are mostly medium to fast running transport, rail transport is the most widely are generally good substitutes or complements to conven- diesel engines. The output range starts at electrified mode. Today there are only tional fuels. about 500 kW (sometimes less) and goes about 40% of the German rail network Biofuels are the only alternative energy source up to about 2,500 kW, that is consider- which are not electrified. About 90% of which can be used in today’s vehicles with internal ably above the range for road trucks goods and passenger transport by rail combustion engines and in the associated supply (JOWA 2007; IVR 2011). is provided by electric locomotives and infrastructure. That means they have great strategic railcars (Kettner 2011). value for the transport sector (Lahl 2009). The fewer The fuel used in inland navigation is Alternative propulsion systems have not played much part alternative options are available for a given mode marine diesel. The requirements for this At the same time, it is likely that, for eco- in road transport yet, but their potential application is likely of transport, the greater their importance for it. fuel, as for road transport, are regulated nomic reasons, there will still be non-elec- to be greatest in the passenger car sector. By contrast, liquid by the 10th Federal Emissions Control trified sections in the network in the future. fuels are difficult or impossible to replace in heavy goods Ordinance (10. Bundesimmissionsschutz- Diesel locomotives and railcars will still be transport, especially in long-distance heavy goods trans- verordnung). In the past, inland navigation used in regional transport operation on port, and in aviation. Biofuels could play a major part here vessels could use fuels of qual- subsidiary lines, and also in shunting. in the future; this is where the strategic value of biofuels is ity (corresponding to national standard the greatest. Shipping is currently in a process of orienta- There is a wide range of different biofuels. DIN 51603-1). Since 01/01/2011 only Diesel-mechanical, diesel-hydraulic, and tion with regard to biofuels; it currently has practically no Some can be used in practically any blend ratio sulphur-free fuel may be used, as stipulated diesel-electric propulsion systems have alternatives to marine diesel/heavy fuel oil. Rail transport in internal combustion engines (“drop-in fuels”). in EU Directive 2009/30/EC. been in use on the railways for a long uses biofuels almost exclusively in diesel locomotives that Others require more or less extensive technical time now. The diesel engines have an operate primarily on non-electrified track. By contrast with road transport, no biofuel output range of about 300 kW for smaller modification of engine systems for their use. The component is specified or intended for shunting locomotives to 3,000 kW for more sophisticated the propulsion technology inland navigation, either in the Biofuel heavy-duty diesel locomotives. Diesel (for example in aviation) and the exhaust gas Quota Act or in the fuel standards. Inland engines for railcars are mostly much more standards (for example for road vehicles), the navigation is a small market, estimated powerful than truck engines; they are also higher are the requirements for biofuels, and most recently at 250,000 tonnes (DIW subject to special exhaust gas regula- the greater the restrictions on their use. 2011), which sources much of its fuel in tions for non-road vehicles (EU Nonroad the Netherlands. A separate fuel, free of Directive 97/68/EC). The perspectives biocomponents, is therefore not always for diesel traction point towards further available. In addition, the German Inland hybridisation, and partial electrification of Road transport is the largest user of biofuels today. The biofuels available for road transport can currently be blended only Waterways Association recommends that propulsion systems. However, diesel loco- within certain limits, up to a technically specified maximum (blend wall) – and can be used straight only in exceptional its members use only conventional diesel motives have quite long service life, about cases. The maximum blending ratio at the present time is 10% by volume of bioethanol in gasoline, and 7% by volume of as far as possible (to EN 590). Even if 15 to 20 years or even 30 years after biodiesel in diesel fuel. For vehicles with gasoline engines, there is discussion of raising the blend wall to more than 10% by so far marine diesel is available without retrofitting. In the medium term, it is likely volume of bioethanol, and the diesel sector is considering higher blend ratios (such as B20/30) for selected vehicle/user biocomponents, it has to be assumed that there will be a slow decline, but still groups. that percentages of blended biogenic a relevant percentage of diesel traction in components are present in fuels for inland railway operations. navigation, as for road transport (BDB 2010+2011). The fuels used in diesel operation are Drop-in biofuels can be used in more or less any ratio; but their production largely the same as commercially avail- is a lot more complex than for conventional biofuels. Drop-in fuels are Biofuel blends of up to 5% by volume are able diesel fuels (including bioblends). currently available only in small areas of the diesel sector; they are not not considered problematic today. But That means that a part of the distribution available in the gasoline sector. depending on their type, inland naviga- structure available for diesel fuel for road tion vessels may be more than 30 years transport can also be used for rail. About old, or even 50 years old. There is practi- 15% of the final energy consumption of STRATEGIC OPTIONS cally no reliable information available rail transport today is diesel fuel, and FOR THE MODES OF on the use of higher biofuel percentages about 85% electricity. Annual consump- Passenger cars account for most of global fuel consumption at the in the engines of such older vessels. And tion of diesel fuel is around 300,000 TRANSPORT present time; thus bioblends have a significant impact. So passenger technical restrictions for the use of biofuels tonnes at present (2010); that corre- cars are the technical leaders in the use of biofuels. In the medium with the new exhaust gas limit category sponds to about 1% of total diesel fuel term, sustainable biofuels could be a destination fuel for modes of IIIb for ship engines are likely to be stricter consumption in Germany (DIW 2011). transport where there are no technical alternatives, especially for for marine engines (similar to trucks and Thus rail transport is a very small market road goods transport and, in the longer term, for aviation. Euro VI). Higher biogenic percentages segment. 32 The Way Forward 33

■ In the passenger car sector, electric and H2 propulsion could provide over 40% of the energy demand (given that increased efficiency 6 BIOFUELS IN SCENARIOS – will have significantly reduced total energy demand); subject to that, more than half of the remaining demand would continue to be provided by biofuels. THE WAY FORWARD Biofuels together would provide more than two thirds of the considerably reduced energy demand for transportation, followed by renew- able electricity and hydrogen. Fossil fuels would then only be used in international aviation and shipping, accounting for less than 20% The previous sections have shown that biofuels have so far made only a small contribution to energy supply for transport in of total energy consumption in transport. It would no doubt also be possible to use an increased proportion of hydrogen or liquid fuels Germany, the EU and worldwide. But they have great potential in the medium to long term – demands for sustainability and produced from renewable electricity, but from today’s perspective that would be more expensive than sustainably produced, advanced advanced production methods could give biofuels a substantial role in future fuel supply, on condition that they are com- biofuels. Partial electrification of heavy goods vehicles could also reduce the consumption of biofuels (SRU 2012). patible with the respective modes of transport, that their feedstock supplies are sustainable, and that production costs are significantly reduced. Thus the scenario outlined here provides some room for manoeuvre – it is intended to show the order of magnitude of the contribution that biofuels could make under certain conditions. It remains to be seen how far these potentials can be realised at what times in Germany, the EU and worldwide, if the ambi- tious goals of climate change mitigation and conservation of resources are taken seriously. Scenarios are used to analyse Germany’s sustainable bioenergy potential is sufficient to cover the remaining demand for liquid transport fuels by means this. Scenarios are not forecasts, but rather they describe possible futures, which could become reality under certain condi- of biofuels up to 2050. Power and heating would thereby have to make use of other renewable energy sources, not tions. Thus technology scenarios project future developments on the basis of technological potentials (e.g. Shell 2009-2011 bioenergy. But the key factor for a transition of transport to a more sustainable mobility is a 40-50% reduction in the for transport and energy); reference scenarios extrapolate trends from the recent past. Target scenarios show possible ways energy needed for transport by 2050 compared with today. to achieve specified goals. The objective here is to find out what would be needed to achieve the global 2°C climate change mitigation goal by 2050 and the interim goals for 2020 and 2030, and to determine what role biofuels could play in that. EUROPEAN UNION Germany In 2011, the EU presented a number of “roadmaps” for future energy, climate and transport policy up to 2050. These roadmaps are in part based on quantified scenarios, and also on qualitative assessments Future mobility has been addressed by a large number of studies in recent years, as a of possible developments. As yet there is no integrated target scenario. Despite their differences with component of Germany’s comprehensive “Energiewende” (Energy Transition). The most respect to the role of nuclear, renewables and energy efficiency, all these roadmaps reach more important ones are “Modell Deutschland” (Prognos, ÖKO 2009), the scenarios for the or less the same conclusions on what is needed in transport by 2050 in order to achieve the Federal Government’s energy concept (Prognos, EWI, GWS 2010), the “Lead Study” of goals of “climate and resource protection” (EC 2011a+c): the Environment Ministry (Nitsch et al. 2012), and “Renewbility” (ÖKO, DLR, ISI 2012). ■ Passenger cars and commercial vehicles would be significantly more efficient and The 2°C target scenarios for Germany show that up to 2020 biofuels would have to play lower-emission, and rail transport, especially electrified rail transport, would be further the key role in meeting the RED goal of 10% renewables in road transport (DBFZ 2010). expanded; The scope would be greater for the period up to 2030 – depending on scenario, biofuels ■ Electric vehicles could account for over 65% of passenger cars, and biofuels would could contribute 250-500 PJ excluding international air traffic, and thus cover between account for 15% of passenger car fuel consumption; 15 and 35% of energy demand in transport, mainly for passenger cars and commercial ■ For commercial vehicles and for shipping and aviation, biofuels would play a fast vehicles (dena 2011). Towards 2050, including international aviation and shipping, the growing role, with more than 40% of fuel consumption; st scenarios present a different picture: ■ 1 generation biofuels would largely be replaced by more advanced processes from 2030 onwards, and imports would be less than 20% of demand, mainly comprising sugarcane based ethanol.

21 FINAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY TRANSPORT IN 2°C SCENARIO The development of the EU roadmaps for achievement of the global 2°C climate goal is in line with the long-term scenarios for Germany. FUELFOR GERMANYCONSUMPTION 2050 GERMANY (2050) Final energy in petajoules (PJ) 3000 ■ Electric and hydrogen propulsion could GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES increase substantially, especially for pas- Cars Rail, other Trucks Ship senger cars; rail travel could gain shares 2500 There are more than one billion vehicles in the world of passenger and freight transport, and Aircraft today – about 750 million passenger cars and over largely operate on renewable electricity, 300 million commercial vehicles (VDA 2011). By similarly local public transport systems 2000 2050 it could be 2 billion passenger cars, because with trams, metros and rapid transit Reference car ownership and mobility of people and freight trains. is increasing in all emerging countries. The result 1500 of this trend would be to double the performance ■ Up to 2050 the contribution of renew- in passenger car transport by 2050 and to triple able electricity or hydrogen generated 1000 the performance in road freight transport (IEA from it would still be small for freight 2012a). transport (trucks, ships) and for aviation 500 (UBA 2010). Replacement of fossil fuels International air traffic has grown about 5% in these applications would mostly have per annum since 1980, and will continue to to be by 2nd generation biofuels – for 0 grow even if at a reduced pace in the coming trucks nearly 100%, and for aircraft and 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 decades, especially in Asia. A number of ships up to 50%. Source: Prognos, EWI, GWS (2010); ÖKO, DLR, ISI (2012); Nitsch u.a. (2012); ÖKO (2011); own calculations studies by the IEA, such as World Energy 34 What Next? 35

Outlook, Biofuels Roadmap 2050 and 22 GLOBAL BIOFUEL DEMAND UP TO 2050 Technology Perspectives 2050, have GLOBAL BIOFUEL DEMAND UP TO 2050 Primary energy in exajoules (EJ) 7 WHAT NEXT? now looked at the future from a different angle – as in Germany and the EU, it 35 asked what future global development Bio-CNG RECOMMENDATIONS of transport would be assuming that the 30 HEFA Fuels / BioJet 2°C climate goal is met (IEA 2011a-b + FT-Diesel 2012a). Biodiesel 1st generation FOR BIOFUELS 25 nd The results of these studies give quite a Ethanol 2 generation Ethanol Sugar Cane consistent picture: 20 The scenarios for an energy transition in Bioenergy, especially biogas and bio- The biomass crops used for biofuels today Ethanol 1st generation the transport sector and for compliance methane, can take on important control would change in two directions on this The demand for biofuels could increase with the global 2°C climate change miti- and storage functions in the electricity basis: tenfold by 2050 versus 2010. 1st gen- 15 gation goal show that biofuels may well system and help to increase the use of eration biofuels (biodiesel and ethanol) have a great future – in Germany, the EU combined heat and power in industry Priority would go to using biomass for would increasingly be replaced by 2nd and worldwide. But that is dependent on (UBA 2010; Nitsch et al. 2012). making materials and in biorefineries, 10 generation biofuels from 2030 onwards. successfully meeting four key challenges thus improving their competitiveness for The main growth area for biofuels from for biofuels: In the transport sector, the energy transi- biomass against bioenergy uses. The that time onwards would be in commercial 5 tion will depend on changes not only “energy value” of the biogenic products vehicles, shipping and air transport; in ■ Decoupling their raw material base within the transport sector itself, but also would be kept up to the end of their useful parallel to that, the use of electric vehicles from food and feed (essential for food in the whole energy system – the role of life. As wastes together with by-products 0 would increase rapidly, and would par- security); bioenergy will have to shift between the from cascading use and residues from 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 tially replace biofuels in passenger cars. sectors. nature conservation land they would then Source: IEA (2011b); own presentation nd ■ Real net reduction of greenhouse gases be used as feedstock for 2 generation The global biofuels demand up to 2050 versus fossil fuels (ILUC); To start with, much more efficient vehicles biofuels. determined by the IEA at some 30 EJ On a global scale, too, biofuels could in future be a major option, provided that will be needed in the transport sector, would utilise between 25% and 50% of they are produced sustainably – and the IEA also expects a transition from 1st ■ Efficiency in use of land and resources which requires improvements in their Instead of rapeseed, maize and other the globally available sustainable bioen- generation to advanced biofuels from 2030 onwards. As in the target scenarios (cascading use of material); technology. That will mainly be done by annual food and feed crops, wood ergy potential. Thus bioenergy would also for Germany and the EU, the key assumptions are a huge increase in efficiency in significant improvement in conventional produced by short rotation forestry and be available for power and heating, and all modes of transport, successful introduction of electric propulsion in passenger ■ Cost efficiency (vs. competing options, propulsion engineering, and increasing from perennial grasses would be grown could replace fossil fuels there. cars, and a major expansion of the other renewables in the power sector. such as electric vehicles, renewable electrification of the passenger car fleet on unused arable and marginal land; that liquid fuels). (hybrid and electric vehicles), which in would involve enormous changeover work turn will depend on low-cost batteries for agriculture. The following section discusses what is becoming available. DO TARGET SCENARIOS TELL THE TRUTH? needed to achieve these conditions, and In the course of the energy transition, heat The previous sections of this chapter briefly presented the results of ambitious target scenarios which assume fulfilment of the indicates the timescale. In the longer term, liquid fuels will have and power generation would increasingly climate and resource protection targets. A comparison with reference scenarios which do not fulfil the targets for Germany, the EU to be focused on the transport sectors be provided by other renewables from where there is little or no alternative to the and worldwide shows clearly the very significant challenges of implementing the target scenarios. It is by no means certain from FEEDSTOCKS AND THE FUTURE – 2030 onwards, so biomass could then BIOFUELS IN THE ENERGY TRANSITION internal combustion engine – that is heavy be used for biofuels. But only if the cor- today’s viewpoint that their assumptions will be fulfilled for the period up to 2030 and beyond. So they do not represent a “truth”. Bioenergy supplies about 90% of the goods vehicles in road transport, commer- responding 2nd generation technologies The conclusion to be drawn, despite all the uncertainties, is that there remains a reasonable order of magnitude for which biofuels alternative energies for heating and about cial aircraft, and possibly also shipping (if are available by then. Biofuels could then are still required even if successful growth is achieved for other renewables, for electric propulsion, and for a combination of fuel 30% for power generation in Germany LNG does not become established in the be the winner in the long term – initially cells with hydrogen. If that is not achieved, and if the very ambitious goals for massive efficiency improvements in transport and (BMU 2012). That makes bioenergy today long term). in passenger cars, buses and trucks, and heating are not achieved in parallel, the scenarios would require even more biofuels. and in the coming years an important from 2030 onwards also in aviation, and component in the energy transition for Continued dynamic growth in solar and finally also in shipping. Conversely, for the assumptions outlined here on demand development, oil prices, technical progress and economic conditions, heating and power. especially wind energy would then make biofuels (apart from sugarcane-based ethanol) will enter the market only if they get significant subsidies. That is because the target it possible to gradually shift energy from MAKING THE GENERATION CHANGE scenarios contain an implicit mechanism which will moderate future rise in oil price – instead of a continued rise in oil demand in It is only in the medium to long-term that biomass out of power generating and into This “bio-transition” in the transport sector the reference scenarios, with corresponding price impact after 2020 (“peak oil”), oil demand will be reduced by the expected bioenergy will take on real importance as the transport sector. would mean that 1st generation fuels with major efficiency improvements and the introduction of renewables, including biofuels, thus keeping oil price rises relatively a transport fuel, and only under certain raw materials from Germany and Europe moderate. conditions. The greatest bioenergy reserves are in would be phased out – their climate and heat production; that is where about 60% resource efficiency is unfavourable, and In the reference scenarios without high efficiency and renewables, oil prices are likely to rise, which in turn makes biofuels more As long as fossil fuels, especially coal, are of total bioenergy is used today (BMU their feedstock base is increasingly in attractive – but less the advanced (and more expensive) 2nd generation, more the conventional biofuels based on oil, starch and still used for power generation, and also 2012). Rapid improvement in the energy competition with “more valuable” uses sugar crops. As agricultural product prices also rise with higher oil prices, and that increases the cost of conventional biofuels, for heating, the best use of bioenergy is efficiency of buildings and in solar and such as food and material use. there will hardly be a massive increase in biofuel use without subsidies, apart from individual exceptions (sugarcane-based not in transport, but in the replacement of geothermal heating could also “free up” ethanol). That cannot be seen as an energy transition, though. coal in the power sector and in combined bioenergy from 2030 onwards; but the But their successors, 2nd generation bio- heat and power; this also applies at the trend towards solid biomass in household fuels, are not yet available in the market. international level (CE, OEKO 2010). heating would also have to be reversed. That is mainly because the tax conces- 36 What Next? 37 sions and incentives from the European Thirdly, a European market introduction investments should be linked with parallel ACCEPTANCE AND TRANSPARENCY COURSE CORRECTION – YES, PLEASE! nd regulations (RED, FQD) are not sufficient programme for 2 generation biofuels modernisation funds for agriculture in the The petroleum industry, biofuel producers, However robust the analysis on which the present conclusions and to justify major investments in pilot plants must be set up for a ten-year period in respective countries, in order to improve the automotive industry, and also environ- recommendations were based, further critical examination of their and first (pre-)commercial plants, and order to ensure security of investments; food and feed production; that is already mental policy makers have found to their implementation is essential. The most important examination those are the necessary intermediate steps that would create the necessary condi- a legal requirement in South Africa. distress that consumers react sensitively requirements and milestones are as follows: for market launch. The RED provides for tions for production of 2nd generation and critically to the introduction of new fuel double counting of biofuels from waste biogenic diesel and bioethanol from STRATEGIC INVESTMENTS grades, especially if the technical compat- Biomass base / availability: materials and residuals, cellulose-contain- lignocellulose, and provide sufficient Substantial investments are needed for the ibility of fuel and vehicle is not sufficiently Any biofuel strategy is dependent on the availability of sufficient biomass for energy ing non-food material and lignocellulosic incentive for it. “bio-transition” outlined here, to change clarified, and there are still major issues and transport use. From today’s viewpoint, robust potential is available. But it needs material; but the FQD gives these biofuels the sourcing of fuel supplies towards related to the sustainability of biofuels. to be used optimally, by easing the competition for use (for example by means of no major support. The result is too much In addition, specific incentives for bio- sustainable options as part of the energy cascade systems, and the use of residual materials). The existing estimates of bio- uncertainty about what earnings can be genic middle distillate substitutes would transition; the same applies to the energy At present, the B7 and E10 fuels now mass / bioenergy potentials should be reviewed about every five years. achieved for what quantities in the future. also be helpful, as the structure of the fuel transition in general – both for production available in the market will be sufficient Sustainability / certification: nd mix in Germany and Europe moves more of 2 generation biofuels and for growing to achieve the goal of the RED and the The sustainability of biofuels is to be ensured by a binding criteria-based certification The reasoning of the EU is that the bind- towards the middle distillates, i.e. diesel, the necessary crops. corresponding national implementation approach. The European certification approach is currently unique in its aims and ing 10% goal for renewables in the fuel marine diesel and jet fuel, whereas the of it until 2020, because double counting extent. Particularly prominent aspects are the high level of greenhouse gas saving, market by 2020 is reasonable, if biofuels European refineries are already producing Major investments are being made in the toward the quota is permitted for waste and the protection of biodiversity. The specific details of sustainability rules can often nd are sustainably produced and the 2 surpluses of gasoline. energy sector, upstream and downstream. materials and residuals, and increasing only be determined by iteration, so the system needs to be reviewed and optimised at generation is then commercially available Advanced biofuels require investments in electric propulsion (passenger cars and least once every two years, especially with respect to other relevant subjects such as (EU 2009a). From Rio with Love? both of these areas, i.e. for a sustainable rail transport) is also eligible for multiple water, soil and social aspects. To ensure that certification really does reflect sustain- Biofuels can also be imported and feedstock base and for modern conversion counting. However, the market accept- ability, indirect land use changes must be effectively taken into account in the green- A “wait and see” policy will not solve the counted for the RED target for 2020, now processes. ance of E10 needs to be substantially house gas calculation of the RED for biofuels, and the use of sustainability criteria must technical problems which still exist in the that sustainability certification of biofuels increased. It is more difficult to achieve be widened to include all bioenergy sources. production of advanced biofuels – devel- has started. Until now only small quantities Investments have already been made the FQD target of saving 6% greenhouse opment is not continuing in the current could be imported, due to customs duties, by oil companies in the world’s leading gas emissions from all fuels used; so far, 2nd generation biofuels: market situation. Considerable investments unfavourable foreign exchange rates, and biofuel markets (USA and Brazil), in com- double counting has not been permitted In the longer term, between 2020 and 2030, 1st generation biofuels must be replaced are needed, and they will be made only higher prices obtained for other uses. panies which aim to achieve improved there, and target achievement is measured by 2nd generation biofuels. Time is needed for the mobilisation of investments for 2nd if the players can calculate the expected sugarcane cultivation and more efficient exclusively by reduction in greenhouse generation fuels, for biorefineries, and for sustainable cultivation on degraded and revenues and have some degree of cer- In the mid-term future, Argentina and production of ethanol. gas emissions. unused agricultural land by perennial cultivation systems. A period of more than five tainty that they can sell the products. Brazil in particular could also supply years is normally needed from planning to effective operation of large production biofuels due to the land use regulations in Comparable steps would be desirable for In the medium term, suitably adapted facilities. The conditions have to be created in the second half of the present decade A combination of three measures is force there (and the availability of suitable the world’s largest (bio)diesel market, that vehicle engineering, permitting higher pro- at the latest, in order to ensure the availability of larger market-relevant quantities of proposed in order to achieve this for raw materials), meeting the sustainability is Europe, to secure production of 2nd portions of biofuels, could help to achieve 2nd generation fuels from 2020 onwards. advanced biofuels: requirements including the ILUC condi- generation biodiesel; the framework seamless integration of higher percentages Sector focus: tions. Other states, in Eastern Europe conditions in Europe would need to be of biofuel – as already done for E5, B5 The use of bioenergy is spread across all sectors, currently with a main emphasis on Firstly, RED and FQD have to require the and in countries such as Indonesia and compared with and if necessary adapted and B7. Drop-in fuels will be needed in power generating. In order to have enough biomass available for the relevant modes “ecological truth” of biofuels, i.e. take Mozambique, also have corresponding to those of the leading ethanol markets. the long term, to ensure acceptance, with of transport (commercial vehicles, aircraft, ships), bioenergy use needs to be focused account of indirect land use change potentials of underused or degraded a view to further increases in biofuel quan- on the transport sector in the period 2020 to 2030. (ILUC) in counting the necessary minimum land, but would have to create the legal Concepts have already been developed tities in the target scenarios after 2020. GHG reduction for the 10% target for basis for compliance with the stricter in cooperation with European and Biofuel goals: RED, and GHG reduction of all fuels for sustainability requirements and for proof American NGOs to identify and use In response to the critical opinions and Currently, biofuels in compliance with the RED and FQD are meant to contribute to the FQD. That can still be prepared in 2013, of compliance. land without competing with food and concerns of environmental and consumer 10% renewable energies in transport target, with minimum savings of 6% of green- implemented by 2014, and take effect by feed production, and in a socially groups, and to regain lost trust, the sustain- house gases. With a view to the further development of the EU biofuels strategy 2017/18 at the latest, considering the For future imports to Europe and Germany, acceptable manner, to grow feedstocks ability certification system now established post-2020, both of these goals have to be reviewed again towards the end of this transitional periods. Then additional it is essential to demand appropriate com- for biofuels (CI 2011; Ecofys 2012). needs to be constantly revised and if decade, rather than just in 2021, and if necessary they have to be adapted again. 1st generation biofuels produced in pliance with the regulations already con- necessary modified. Technical alternatives: Germany and Europe would no longer tained in the RED and social issues such These activities need to be stepped up; The goals envisaged for biofuels can be fulfilled only if they are available in sufficient count towards the quota and there would as land rights and food supply security, degraded land is available, but substan- Another confidence building measure quantities and the necessary alternative propulsion systems and fuels are developed be “room” for the 2nd generation. by conclusion of bilateral or multilateral tial investment will be needed to cultivate in addition to legal certification could and introduced in the market; the contributions in these areas have to be assessed by agreements. it with perennial plants and to establish the be disclosure of the origin of all biofuels analogy to the biopotentials and goals (requiring new assessment in each case). Secondly, the sustainability criteria of the necessary infrastructure to market the (by main feedstocks and countries). The RED must be extended to include solid In addition, the approaches developed biomass from it. evaluation reports of the German Federal Ultimately, the (bio-)energy transition in the transport sector will require regular and and gaseous bioenergy, to ensure a level by FAO (2012a) and UNEP (IFEU, CI, Office of Food Security and Agriculture systematic “adjustments” by all parties involved. Course corrections are a part of the playing field for the use of biogenic waste ÖKO 2012) to determine food security Successful implementation of these (BLE) are a first approach, but would need process. If major points on the above checklist are not or cannot be implemented, that materials and residuals – co-firing (and on the project level would have to be activities will then permit longer-term further development and refinement (BLE would require change in the course of the whole of biofuel policy. inclusion in emissions trading) and the demonstrated in practice for imported rehabilitation of the land for food crop 2012). Biofuel producers and fuel sup- nd production of 2nd generation fuels (for biofuels, and applied also in grant making production. It is therefore important not pliers could also increase the scope and The long-term goal is “sustainable 2 generation biofuels” for all modes of transport RED and FQD) would then have to meet for biofuel investments by bilateral and to buy the land – medium-term renting is detail of the sustainability reports which which are dependent on liquid fuels. It can be achieved. the same requirements. multilateral development banks. Such sufficient. some of them already issue. 38 Literature 39

EEA (European Environment Agency) 2007: Estimating the environmen- Fischer G 2011: How can climate change and the development of tally compatible bio-energy potential from agriculture; EEA Technical bioenergy alter the long-term outlook for food and agriculture?; in: FAO Literature Report 12/2007, Copenhagen 2011, p. 95-158 EEA (European Environment Agency) 2012: Review of the EU bioenergy Fritsche U u.a. 2004: Stoffstromanalyse zur nachhaltigen energetischen Adolf J, 2006: Boom in der Biokraftstoffbranche – eine nachhaltige Dana G et al. 2012: Synthetic biology: Four steps to avoid a synthetic- potential from a resource efficiency perspective - An update of EEA report Nutzung von Biomasse; Öko-Institut in Kooperation mit FhI-UMSICHT, IE, Entwicklung, in: Wirtschaftsdienst, Jg. 86, Heft 12, S. 778-785 biology disaster; in: Nature vol. 483 no. 29 publ. online 29 February 2012 No 7/2006; Elbersen B et al.; Copenhagen (forthcoming) IFEU, IZES, TU Braunschweig, TU München; Endbericht zum Vorhaben, gefördert vom BMU, Darmstadt usw. Arnold K, Fritsche U, Maga D u.a. 2011: BioCouple – Kopplung der DBFZ (Deutsches BiomasseForschungsZentrum) 2010: Analyse zur EK (Europäische Kommission) 2011: Weißbuch: Fahrplan zu einem stofflich/energetischen Nutzung von Biomasse – Analyse und Bewertung Erreichung des Mindestziels von 10% erneuerbare Energien im Verkehrs- einheitlichen europäischen Verkehrsraum – Hin zu einem wettbewerbsori- Fritsche U u.a. 2010: Nachhaltige Bioenergie: Zusammenfassender der Konzepte und der Einbindung in bestehende Bereitstellungs- und sektor; Kurzstudie für WWF; Leipzig entierten und ressourcenschonenden Verkehrssystem KOM(2011) 144; Endbericht zum Vorhaben „Entwicklung von Strategien und Nachhaltig- Nutzungsszenarien; Verbundprojekt von Wuppertal-Institut, Fraunhofer Brüssel keitsstandards zur Zertifizierung von Biomasse für den internationalen DBFZ (Deutsches BiomasseForschungsZentrum), IUP (Institut für Umwelt- UMSICHT und Öko-Institut; gefördert vom BMU; Wuppertal Handel“, Öko-Institut in Kooperation mit IFEU; i.A. des UBA; Darmstadt, planung) 2011: Identifizierung strategischer Hemmnisse und Entwicklung EU (European Union) 2009a: Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of Heidelberg ATAG (Air Transport Action Group) 2009: Beginner’s Guide to Aviation von Lösungsansätzen zur Reduzierung der Nutzungskonkurrenzen beim the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subse- Biofuels; Geneva weiteren Ausbau der Biomassenutzung; DBFZ Report Nr. 4; Edel M u.a.; quently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC; Brussels Fritsche U 2012: Sustainable Bioenergy: Key Criteria and Indicators; gefördert vom BMU; Leipzig, Hannover D 4.1 Delivery of the Biomass Futures project funded by IEE; Darmstadt Bauer S, Margraf G, Kulikowski M 2011: Alternative Fuels Test Program: EU (Europäische Union) 2009b: Richtlinie 2009/30/EG zur Änderung Plastics, Elastomers and Glue Connections, Fuels Colloquium 2011; dena (Deutsche Energie-Agentur GmbH) 2011: Ungeliebt, aber unent- der Richtlinie 98/70/EG im Hinblick auf die Spezifikationen für Otto-, Fritsche U et al. 2012a: Sustainable food policies for the EU27: Results Esslingen behrlich. Bedarf und Produktion von Mineralöl im künftigen Energiemix; Diesel- und Gasölkraftstoffe, Anhang II, in: Amtsblatt der Europäischen from the EUPOPP project; in: Climate Change and Sustainable Develop- Union, L 140/88-113, 5. Juni 2009, Brüssel ment; Potthast T, Meisch S (eds.); Wageningen pp. 259-266 BDB (Bundesverband der Binnenschifffahrt) 2010: Merkblatt zur Berlin Fritsche U et al. 2012b: Workshop Outcome Paper: Sustainability Criteria Einführung schwefelfreier Kraftstoffe in der europäischen Binnenschifffahrt DIW (Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung), 2011: Verkehr in Zahlen EurObserv'ER 2012: The State of Renewable Energies in Europe – 11th and Indicators for Solid Bioenergy from Forests - Results from the Joint ab 1. Januar 20111 (ggfs. mit Bioanteilen); Duisburg 2011/12; Berlin EurObserv'ER Report; Brussels Workshops on Extending the RED Sustainability Requirements to Solid BDB (Bundesverband der Binnenschifffahrt) 2011: Geschäftsbericht Dornburg V et al. 2010: Bioenergy revisited: Key factors in global Eurostat 2012: Energy Data for the European Union; Luxembourg Bioenergy; IINAS, JRC, NL Agency et al.; Darmstadt etc. 2010/11; Duisburg potentials of bioenergy; in: Energy Environ. Sci. 2010 no. 3, p- 258–267 Faaij A 2008: Bioenergy and global food security; prepared for WBGU; GBEP (Global Bio-Energy Partnership) 2011: The GBEP Sustainability BDBe (Bundesverband der deutschen Bioethanolwirtschaft e.V.) 2012: E&Y (Ernst & Young) 2011: Biofuels and indirect land use change - The Berlin Indicators for Bioenergy; Rome: FAO Marktdaten - Die deutsche Bioethanolwirtschaft in Zahlen; Bioethanol- case for mitigation; London Report 2011 / 2012, Stand: Juni 2012 FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization) 2006: Hermann A. et al.: Rechtsfragen zu nachhaltige Biomasse; enthalten in EC (European Commission) 2010: Report from the Commission to the Livestock's long shadow - environmental issues and options; Rome Berichte und Arbeitsmaterialien des F+E Projektes BioGlobal; siehe ÖKO, BioGrace - Biofuel Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Align Calculations in Council and the European Parliament on sustainability requirements for IFEU (2011) Europe; supported by the programm Intelligent Energy Europe; in FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2008: the use of solid and gaseous biomass sources in electricity, heating and cooperation with NLAgency (NL), Ademe (FR); BE 2020 (AT); BioIS (FR), The State of Agriculture 2008 - Biofuels: prospects, risks and opportuni- HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts) 2011a: Land tenure and international cooling; SEC(2010) 65/SEC(2010) 66; Brussels CIEMAT (ES), Exergia (GR), STEM (SE), 2012 ties; Rome FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization) investments in agriculture; Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food 2009: How to Feed the World in 2050; Rome EC (European Commission) 2011a: White Paper - Roadmap to a Single Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security; Rome BLE (Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung) 2012: Evaluations- European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient und Erfahrungsbericht für das Jahr 2011; Bonn FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization) 2009: How to HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts) 2011b: Price volatility and food transport system; COM(2011) 144 final; Brussels Feed the World in 2050; Rome security; The High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition BMU (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit) EC (European Commission) 2011b: Energy Roadmap 2050; Communica- of the Committee on World Food Security; Rome 2012: Erneuerbare Energien 2011; Berlin FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2011: tion from the Commission to the European Parliamtent, the Council, the Looking ahead in world food and agriculture: Perspectives to 2050; IATA (International Air Transport Association) 2011: Report on Alternative BMZ (Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und European Economic and Social Comittee and the Comittee of the Conforti P (ed.); Rome Fuels 2011; Montreal/Geneva Entwicklung) 2011: Biokraftstoffe - Chancen und Risiken für Entwicklungs- Regions; COM(2011) 885 final; Brussels länder; Strategiepapier 14/2011; Bonn FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2012a: IC (Imperial College) 2011a: Lifecycle assessment and environmental EC (European Commission) 2011c: A Roadmap for moving to a competi- Good Environmental Practices in Bioenergy Feedstock Production - assessment; AquaFUELs Deliverables 3.3 and 3.5; London Bringezu S. u.a. 2009: Nachhaltige Flächennutzung und nachwachsende tive low carbon economy in 2050; Communication from the Commission Making Bioenergy Work for Climate and Food Security; Bioenergy and Rohstoffe – Optionen einer nachhaltigen Flächennutzung und Ressourcen- to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and IC (Imperial College) 2011b: Economic assessment; AquaFUELs Food Security Criteria and Indicators project (BEFSCI) Environment and schutzstrategien unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der nachhaltigen Social Comittee and the Comittee of the Regions; COM(2011) 112/4; Deliverable 3.6; London Versorgung mit nachwachsenden Rohstoffen; Wuppertal Institut, natural resources management working paper 49; Rome Brussels IC (Imperial College) et al. 2012: Biomass Futures – Analysing Europe’s FhI-UMSICHT, IFEU; im Auftrag des UBA; Dessau FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2012b: Future Bioenergy Needs; collaborative EEU-IEE project carried out by EC (European Commission) 2012a: Renewable energy: a major player in BSH (Bundesamt für Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie) 2011: Jahresbe- Policy Instruments to Promote Good Practices in Bioenergy Feedstock Alterra, CRES, ECN, IC, ICCS, IEEP, IIASA, and Oeko-Institut; London etc. the European energy market. European Commission (COM/2012/271); richt 2010; Hamburg/Rostock Production; Rome Brussels IC (Imperial College), ERC (UK Energy Research Centre) 2011: Energy BuReg (Bundesregierung) 2012: Roadmap Bioraffinerien im Rahmen der FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2012c: from biomass: the size of the global resource. An assessment of the EC (European Commission) 2012b: Innovating for Sustainable Growth: A Aktionspläne der Bundesregierung zur stofflichen und energetischen Impacts of Bioenergy on Food Security - Guidance for Assessment and evidence that biomass can make a major contribution to future global Bioeconomy for Europe; {SWD(2012) 11 final; COM(2012) 60 final; Nutzung nachwachsender Rohstoffe; BMELV, BMBF, BMU, BMWi (Hrsg.); Response at National and Project Levels; Rome energy supply; London Brussels Berlin IEA (International Energy Agency) 2011a: World Energy Outlook 2011; Paris FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2012d: Cai X, Zhang X, Wang D 2011: Land Availability for Biofuel Production; ECF (European Climate Foundation) 2010: ROADMAP 2050 - practical Good Socio-Economic Practices in Modern Bioenergy Production - Mini- IEA (International Energy Agency) 2011b: Technology Roadmap - Biofu- in: Environ. Sci. Technol. vol. 45 pp. 334-339; Orlando guide to a prosperous, low-carbon Europe; vol 1-3; Brussels mizing Risks and Increasing Opportunities for Food Security; Rome els for Transport; Paris CARB (California Air Resources Board): Low Carbon Fuel Standard; Final ECN (Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands) 2011: Renewable IEA (International Energy Agency) 2012a: Energy Technology Perspecti- Regulation Order Amend section 95486, title 17, California Code of Energy Projections as published in the National Renewable Energy Action FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Ecofys ves 2012 - Pathways to a Clean Energy System; Paris Regulations (CCR), 2012 Plans of the European Member States; prepared for EEA; Petten 2009: Algae-based biofuels: A review of challenges and opportunities for developing countries; Rome IEA (International Energy Agency) 2012b: Technology Roadmap: CE (CE Delft), OEKO (Oeko-Institut - Institute for applied ecology) 2010: ECN (Energy research Center of the Netherlands) 2012: Use of sustaina- Bioenergy for Heat and Power; Paris BUBE: Better Use of Biomass for Energy; Background Report to the ble biomass to produce electricity, heat and transport fuels in EU27; FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), OECD Position Paper of IEA RETD and IEA Bioenergy; Kampman B, Fritsche U et Deliverable D5.3 of the Biomass Futures project; Uslu A et al.; Petten (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) 2011: Price IEA BioT39 (International Energy Agency Bioenergy Task 39) 2011: al.; in collaboration with Clingendael International Energy Programme Volatility in Food and Agricultural Markets: Policy Responses. Policy Algae as a Feedstock for Biofuels – An Assessment of the Current Status (CIEP) and Aidenvironment; commissioned by IEA RETD and IEA Ecofys 2012: Potential of Biofuels for Shipping. Final Report; Utrecht Report including contributions by FAO, IFAD, IMF, OECD, UNCTAD, WFP, and Potential for Algal Biofuels Production Bioenergy; Delft/Darmstadt the World Bank, the WTO, IFPRI and the UN HLTF; Rome, Paris EEA (European Environment Agency) 2006: How much bioenergy can IEEP (Institute for European Environmental Policy) 2012: EU biofuel use CI (Conservation International): Crops; Final Scientific Europe produce without harming the environment? Report 7/2006; FNR (Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V.) 2012: Biomethan; and agricultural prices: a review of the evidence base; and Progress Report 2011 Copenhagen Gülzow Kretschmer B, Bowyer C, Buckwell A; London 40 Literature 41

IIASA (International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis) 2009: Biofuels Lahl U 2009: Ölwechsel. Biokraftstoffe und nachhaltige Mobilität; Berlin OFGEM (Office of Gas and Electricity Markets) 2012: Renewables UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 2012: The Fifth Global and Food Security – Implications of an accelerated biofuels production; Obligation: Sustainability Criteria for Solid and Gaseous Biomass Environment Outlook (GEO-5); Malta: Progress Press Ltd Fischer G et al.; Vienna Leopoldina (Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina) 2012a: Bioenergie: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen. Empfehlungen; Halle PBL (Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency) 2012: Note UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 2011: The bioenergy IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development) 2011: Bio- Sustainability of biomass in a bio-based economy; Eindhoven and water nexus; ISBN No: 978-92-807-3157-6 mass energy: Another driver of land acquisitions?; IIED Briefing Papers; Leopoldina (German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina) 2012b: London Bioenergy – Chances and Limits. Statement; Halle PBL (Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency) 2011: The Protein Puzzle - The consumption and production of meat, dairy and fish in the USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture) 2012: Dynamic PEATSIM Model: Lynd L, Woods J 2011: Perspective: A new hope for Africa; in: Nature, IFEU (Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung), CI (Copernicus Institute), European Union; Westhoek H et al.; The Hague Documenting Its Use in Analyzing Global Commodity Markets; Somwaru OEKO (Oeko-Institut) 2012: Global Assessments and Guidelines for Vol. 474, p. S20–S21 published online 22 June 2011 A, Dirkse S; Economic Research Service TB-1933; Washington DC Piorr H-P 2010: Biokraftstoffe – Lösung, Problem oder nur Teil der Sustainable Liquid Biofuels Production in Developing Countries; Franke B, Murphy C, Allen D 2011: Energy-Water Nexus for Mass Cultivation of Van der Mensbrugghe D et al. 2011: Macroeconomic environment and Landschaft? Bilanzen, Potenziale und Szenarien bis 2050; Gutachten im Faaij A, Fritsche U et al.; GEF Targeted Research Project executed by Algae; in: Environmental Science & Technology vol. 45 pp. 5861-5868 commodity markets: a longer-term outlook; in: FAO 2011, p. 191-232 UNEP, FAO, UNIDO; Heidelberg, Utrecht, Darmstadt Auftrag des Gesprächskreises Verbraucherpolitik der Friedrich-Ebert- Stiftung; WISO Diskurs; Bonn VCI (Verband der Chemischen Industrie e.V.), DIB (Deutsche Industriever- IFEU (Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung) 2012: ENZO2 – MWV (Mineralölwirtschaftsverband) 2012: Jahresbericht. einigung Biotechnologie) 2010: Statusbericht zu möglichen Potenzialen Treibhausgasrechner für Biokraftstoffe und flüssige Bioenergieträger; Mineralölzahlen 2011; Berlin Prognos (Prognos AG), ÖKO (Öko-Institut – Institut für angewandte von Bioraffinerien für die Bereitstellung von Rohstoffen in Industrie und entwickelt im vom BMU geförderten Projekt BioNachTHG; Heidelberg Ökologie e.V.) 2009: Modell Deutschland - Klimaschutz bis 2050: Vom Nitsch J u.a. 2012: Langfristszenarien und Strategien für den Ausbau der Forschung; Frankfurt Ziel her denken; Studie für WWF; Berlin IFEU (Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung) 2011: Kriterien zur Erneuerbaren Energien in Deutschland bei Berücksichtigung der VDA (Verband der Automobilindustrie) 2011: Tatsachen und Zahlen, 75. nachhaltigen Beschaffung holzartiger Biomasse für die Strom- und Entwicklung in Europa und global; Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Prognos (Prognos AG), EWI (Energiewirtschaftliches Institut an der Folge; Berlin Wärmegewinnung im Land Berlin; erstellt für Vattenfall Europe und Raumfahrt, Fraunhofer Institut für Windenergie und Energiesystemtechnik, Universität zu Köln), GWS (Gesellschaft für wirtschaftliche Strukturfor- Senatsumweltverwaltung Berlin; Heidelberg Ingenieurbüro für neue Energien; i.A. des BMU; Stuttgart schung) 2010: Energieszenarien für ein Energiekonzept der Bundesregie- VDB (Verband der Deutschen Biokraftstoffindustrie e. V.) 2012: Informati- rung, im Auftrag des Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie IFF (Fakultät für Interdisziplinäre Forschung und Fortbildung) 2009: Eating nova (nova-Institut für Ökologie und Innovation GmbH) 2012: Stoffliche onen: Biokraftstoffe in Deutschland; Stand Januar 2012; Berlin (BMWi), Projekt Nr. 12/10; Basel/Köln/Osnabrück the Planet: Feeding and fuelling the world sustainably, fairly and humanely Nutzung von Biomasse - Basisdaten für Deutschland, Europa und die WB (World Bank) 2010a: Bioenergy Development - Issues and Impacts – a scoping study; Erb K et al.; Working Paper Number 116; Vienna Welt; Raschka A, Carus M; Erster Teilbericht zum F+E-Projekt „Ökologi- Realff M, Abbas C 2004: Industrial Symbiosis: Refining the Biorefinery; in: for Poverty and Natural Resource Management; Cushion E, Whiteman A, sche Innovationspolitik – mehr Ressourceneffizienz und Klimaschutz durch Journal of Industrial Ecology vol. 7 no. 3-4, p. 5-9 Dieterle G; Washington DC IFPRI (International Food Policy Institute) 2011: Assessing the Land Use nachhaltige stoffliche Nutzung von Biomasse“ i.A. des UBA; Hürth Change Consequences of European Biofuel Policies; prepared by: David Rosegrant M et al. 2008: Bioenergy and Global Food Situation until WB (World Bank) 2010b: The Impacts of Biofuel Targets on Land-Use Laborde (IFPRI), ATLASS Consortium, implementing Framework Contract NRC (National Research Council) 2010: Expanding Biofuel Production: 2020/2050; prepared for WBGU; Berlin Change and Food Supply: a Global CGE Assessment; Policy Research No TRADE/07/A2; Washington DC Sustainability and the Transition to Advanced Biofuels: Summary of a Working Paper No. WPS 5513; Washington DC Schulze E-D et al. 2012: Large-scale bioenergy from additional harvest of Workshop; Washington DC IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2011: IPCC Special forest biomass is neither sustainable nor greenhouse gas neutral; in. GCB WBA (Wissenschaftlicher Beirat für Agrarpolitik) 2012: Ernährungssiche- Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation; NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council) 2012: Wasted: How Bioenergy (2012), rung und nachhaltige Produktivitätssteigerung; Stellungnahme für das Edenhofer O et al. (eds.); IPCC Working Group III; New York America Is Losing Up to 40 Percent of Its Food from Farm to Fork to Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz; Shell (Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH) 2009: Shell Pkw-Szenarien bis Landfill; Gunders D; Issue Paper iP:12-06-B; New York Bonn ISL (Institut für Seeverkehrswirtschaft und Logistik) 2010: Die weitere 2030; Hamburg Reduzierung des Schwefelgehalts in Schiffsbrennstoffen auf 0,1% in WBGU (Wissenschaftlicher Beirat Globale Umweltveränderungen) NTUA (National Technical University of Athens) 2012: PRIMES Biomass Shell (Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH) 2010: Shell Lkw-Studie; Hamburg Nord- und Ostsee im Jahr 2015: Folgen für die Schifffahrt in diesem 2009: Zukunftsfähige Bioenergie und nachhaltige Landnutzung; Fahrtgebiet; Endbericht; Bremen model projections; Deliverable 5.7 of the Biomass Futures project; Apostolaki E et al., E3MLab - ICCS; Athens Shell (Shell International BV) 2011: Signals & Signposts – Shell Energy Jahresgutachten 2008; Berlin ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 2012: International Scenarios to 2050; The Hague WBGU (Wissenschaftlicher Beirat Globale Umweltveränderungen) 2011: Standard ISO 8217, Petroleum Products – Fuels (Class F) – Specifications OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) Gesellschaftsvertrag für eine Große Transformation; Berlin for Marine Fuels; Geneva (5th Edition) 2012: OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050. The Consequences of Snow A, Smith V 2012: Genetically Engineered Algae for Biofuels: A Key Inaction; Paris Role for Ecologists; in: BioScience vol. 62 no 8, p. 765–768 WEF (World Economic Forum) 2010: The Future of Industrial Biorefineries; ISWA (Universität Stuttgart, Institut für Siedlungswasserbau, Wassergüte- SRU (Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen) 2007: Klimaschutz durch Geneva und Abfallwirtschaft) 2012: Ermittlung der weggeworfenen Lebensmittel- OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), FAO Biomasse. Sondergutachten; Berlin mengen und Vorschläge zur Verminderung der Wegwerfrate bei (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 2012: Winter H 2012: Binnenschifffahrt 2011; in: Statistisches Bundesamt, Lebensmitteln in Deutschland; Kranert M u.a.; gefördert durch BMELV; OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2012; Paris SRU (Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen) 2012: Umweltgutachten Wirtschaft und Statistik, Juli 2012, S. 572-582 Stuttgart 2012: Verantwortung in einer begrenzten Welt; Berlin OEKO (Oeko-Institut - Institute for applied ecology) 2011: The Vision WFCF (World Fuel Charta Committee), 2006: World Fuel Charta, Fourth IVR (International Association for the representation of the mutual interests Scenario for the European Union - 2011 Update for the EU-27; sponsored Star-colibri (Strategic Targets for 2020 Collaboration Initiative on Edition of the inland shipping and the insurance and for keeping the register of by Greens/EFA Group in the European Parliament; Berlin Biorefineries) 2011a: European Biorefinery Joint Strategic Research inland vessels in Europe) 2011: IVR Report on the impact on implementa- WFCF (World Fuels Charta Committee), 2009a: Biodiesel Guidelines, Roadmap; Brussels First Edition tion of low sulphur fuel in seagoing per 1.1.2010 and inland navigation ÖKO (Öko-Institut - Institut für angewandte Ökologie e.V.) 2007: per 1.1.2011 from a practice point of view; Rotterdam Möglichkeiten einer europäischen Biogas-Einspeisungsstrategie – Teilbe- Star-colibri (Strategic Targets for 2020 Collaboration Initiative on WFCF (World Fuels Charta Committee), 2009b: Ethanol Guidelines, Biorefineries) 2011b: Joint European Biorefinery Vision for 2030; Brussels IWPB (Initiative Wood Pellets Buyers) 2012a: Proposal for Sustainability richt II; Fritsche U, Hünecke K, Schmidt K; i.A. der Bundestagsfraktion von First Edition Bündnis90/Die GRÜNEN; Darmstadt Principles for Woody Biomass Sourcing and Trading; report no. 1; Brussels Thrän D u.a. 2005: Nachhaltige Biomassenutzungsstrategien im Wicke B 2011: Bioenergy Production on Degraded and Marginal Land europäischen Kontext: Analyse im Spannungsfeld nationaler Vorgaben IWPB (Initiative Wood Pellets Buyers) 2012b: Sustainability Principles for ÖKO (Öko-Institut - Institut für angewandte Ökologie e.V.), IFEU (Institut - Assessing its Potentials, Economic Performance and Environmental und der Konkurrenz zwischen festen, flüssigen und gasförmigen Woody Biomass Sourcing and Trading; report no. 2; Brussels für Energie- und Umweltforschung GmbH) 2011: PROSA Technisch Impacts for Different Settings and Geographical Scales; PhD Thesis; getrocknete Holzhackschnitzel / Holzpellets - Entwicklung der Vergabe- Bioenergieträgern; IE, BFH, Öko-Institut, Universität Hohenheim i.A. des Utrecht University JOWA (JOWA GERMANY) 2007: Untersuchungen der Verträglichkeit kriterien für ein klimaschutzbezogenes Umweltzeichen; Heidelberg, BMU; Leipzig schwefelarmer Kraftstoffe (Schwefelanteil kleiner 10 ppm), ggfs. mit WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) 2011: The Energy Report - 100% Darmstadt, Freiburg biogenem Anteil bei älteren in Betrieb befindlichen Binnenschiffsmotoren; Thrän D u.a. 2007: Möglichkeiten einer europäischen Biogas-Einspei- Renewable Energy by 2050; in collaboration with Ecofys and OMA; Abschlussbericht; Hohen Luckow sungsstrategie – Teilbericht I; IE Leipzig, i.A. der Bundestagsfraktion von Gland ÖKO (Öko-Institut e.V. – Institut für angewandte Ökologie), IE (Institut für Bündnis90/Die GRÜNEN; Leipzig JRC (EC Joint Research Centre) 2011: Estimate of GHG emissions from Energetik und Umwelt), ALW, Peters 2007: Bioenergie und Naturschutz: WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) 2012a: WWF’s recommendations global land use change scenarios, Marelli L et al.; report JRC 64430/ Sind Synergien durch die Energienutzung von Landschaftspflegeresten Thrän D u.a. 2010: Globale und regionale Verteilung von Biomassepoten- for sustainability criteria for forest based biomass used in electricity, EUR 24817 EN; Ispra möglich?; Endbericht zum BMU-Vorhaben; Darmstadt zialen; DBFZ in Kooperation mit DLR, ILB, vTI, ZALF im Auftrag des heating and cooling in Europe; Brussels BMVBS; Leipzig KBA (Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt) 2012: Der Fahrzeugbestand im Überblick am ÖKO (Öko-Institut e.V. – Institut für angewandte Ökologie), DLR (Deut- WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) 2012b: Smart use of residues - 1. Januar 2012 gegenüber 1. Januar 2011; Statistische Mitteilungen: sches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt), ISI (Fraunhofer-Institut für System- UBA (Umweltbundesamt) 2010: Energieziel 2050: 100% Strom aus Exploring the factors affecting the sustainable extraction rate of agricultu- Flensburg und Innovationsforschung) , 2012: Renewbility II: Stoffstromanalyse erneuerbaren Quellen; Dessau ral residues for advanced biofuels; prepared for WWF Europe; WWF Briefing Paper; Brussels Kettner J 2011: Den Schienenverkehr fit machen für die Zukunft; in: nachhaltige Mobilität im Kontext erneuerbarer Energien bis 2030. UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) 2011: Eisenbahntechnische Rundschau ETR, September 2011, Nr. 9, S. 10-16 Ergebnisdokumentation, Wiebke Zimmer et al., im Auftrag des BMU; Berlin Review of Maritime Transport 2011; New York/Geneva 42 GLOSSARy

1G 1st generation biofuels Joule (J) and kilowatt hour (kWh): 2G 2nd generation biofuels 1 exajoule (EJ) corresponds to 1,000 PJ astm american Society for Testing and Materials 1 petajoule (PJ) corresponds to 1,000 TJ B7 Diesel fuel with up to 7% by volume biodiesel blend 1 terajoule (TJ) corresponds to 1,000 GJ B100 Straight biodiesel 1 gigajoule (GJ) corresponds to 1,000 MJ

CO2 Carbon dioxide 1 megajoule (MJ) corresponds to 1,000 kilojoules (kJ) Cen Comité Européen de Normalisation 3.6 MJ corresponds to 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) (European Committee for Standardisation) CNG Compressed Natural Gas Energy content and fuels: Din Deutsches Institut fur Normung Diesel 43 MJ / kg 36 MJ / litre (German Institute for Standardisation) Biodiesel 37 MJ / kg 33 MJ / litre DME Dimethyl Ether Vegetable oil 37 MJ / kg 34 MJ / litre E10 Gasoline with up to 10% by volume ethanol blend HVO / FT diesel 44 MJ / kg 34 MJ / litre E85 Gasoline with 70 to 86% by volume ethanol blend Gasoline 43 MJ / kg 32 MJ / litre EC european Commission Bioethanol 27 MJ / kg 21 MJ / litre eea european Environment Agency ETBe ethyl Tert-Butyl Ether EtOH Ethanol fame fatty Acid Methyl Ester fao food and Agriculture Organization of the UN FQD european Fuel Quality Directive FSC Forest Stewardship Council ft fischer-Tropsch (process for manufacture of synthetic fuels) GBEP global Bioenergy Partnership gef global Environmental Facility ghg greenhouse gases GTL Gas-To-Liquids HEFA Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids (also known as BioJet) HVo hydrotreated Vegetable Oils iea international Energy Agency ILUC indirect Land Use Change imo international Maritime Organization IPCC intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change iso international Organization for Standardization ISCC international Sustainability and Carbon Certification lng liquefied Natural Gas LPg liquid Petroleum Gas OECD organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development RED European Renewable Energy Directive RFS Renewable Fuel Standard (USA) rme rapeseed Methyl Ester RSB roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels RSPo roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil rtrs roundtable for Responsible Soy TREMOD transport Emissions Model un united Nations UNCTAD united Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNEP united Nations Environment Programme Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH 22284 Hamburg Germany www.shell.de

Would you like further copies of this study, or of the Shell Home

Shell PKW-Szenarien Heating Study, the Shell Goods Vehicle Study, or the Shell biS 2030 Fakten, Trends und Handlungsoptionen für nachhaltige Auto-Mobilität Passenger Car Scenarios (all German language)? E If so, just drop us an e-mail: [email protected] Download from website: www.shell.de/biokraftstoffstudie

Pkw-Szenarien für Deutschland Lkw-Trends in Deutschland und Europa Pkw-Trends in Österreich und der Schweiz