LOST IN THE WOODS: A TEXTUAL COMMENTARY ON GALLAN AMATORY POETICS IN VERGIL’S TENTH ECLOGUE

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Citation Hanson, Arica. (2020). LOST IN THE WOODS: A TEXTUAL COMMENTARY ON GALLAN AMATORY POETICS IN VERGIL’S TENTH ECLOGUE (Bachelor's thesis, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA).

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/651024 LOST IN THE WOODS:

A TEXTUAL COMMENTARY ON GALLAN AMATORY POETICS

IN VERGIL’S TENTH ECLOGUE

By

ARICA RAE HANSON

______

A Thesis Submitted to The Honors College

In Partial Fulfillment of the Bachelors degree With Honors in

Classics

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

MAY 20, 2020

Approved by:

______

Dr. Sarah McCallum Department of Religious Studies and Classics INTRODUCTION

For his debut collection, Vergil adapted Theocritus’ Idylls, a Hellenistic collection of poetry written in the bucolic mode, into the Roman context. Though somewhat eclipsed by his subsequent poetic efforts, the and the Aeneid, the were enormously influential on the developing literary tradition and represent a crucial stage in Vergil’s aesthetic and artistic development. The collection is full of precise and deliberate poetic choices that blend seamlessly to create a convincing pastoral scene in which herdsmen tend to their flocks and compete in singing. Vergil creates a conceptual landscape where beauty and idealism are juxtaposed with harsh realism and loss. Far from offering a straightforward escape, the lives and lands depicted in the Eclogues remind the audience of the realities of existence, as livestock fall ill and die, workers are displaced from their homelands and livelihoods, and the mythical golden age seems just out of reach. What is more, harsh amor inflames and maddens its victims, who lament the pain of unrequited passion. In his depictions of the lover’s experience, Vergil engages in genre-mixing by incorporating into his pastoral project the poetics of Latin amatory elegy, including the language and motifs of his friend and fellow poet Gaius Cornelius Gallus.

Indeed, Vergil incorporates narratives that focus on characters who have been subjected to the cruel torments of amor within his pastoral collection. The various figures of the Eclogues inhabit a natural, wilderness landscape, which according to traditional wisdom could ameliorate the negative effects of amor.1 But the love-stricken herdsmen and poets of the Eclogues are not able to escape from amatory suffering, despite their natural surroundings. In Eclogue 2, Vergil depicts the humble Corydon and his burning desire for Alexis, a sophisticated city-dweller, who

1 See, for example, Prop. 1.18; Rem. 169–248.

1 is unmoved by Corydon’s rustic overtures. Unnoticed and underappreciated despite his determined efforts, Corydon burns without the attention of Alexis and laments the futility of fighting against love: me tamen urit amor; quis enim modus adsit amori? (Ecl. 2.68).2 In Eclogue 8, dark magic is used by a sorceress in an attempt to win over Daphnis, who has not returned her love. Once again,

Vergil reinforces the negative impact of amor seen earlier in the second Eclogue. The shepherd

Damon declares his harsh realization about the nature of Amor (nunc scio quid sit Amor, Ecl.

8.43),3 whom he emphatically describes as harsh and cruel (saevus … | … crudelis … | crudelis

… improbus … | improbus … crudelis, Ecl. 8.47–50).

Within the Eclogues, the figure of Daphnis signals Vergil’s poetic debt not only to

Theocritus’ Idylls, but also to the elegiac Amores of Gaius Cornelius Gallus. Daphnis, the alleged inventor of pastoral poetry and beloved of Pan, perished in his youth from unrequited love. In

Eclogue 5, Vergil reinvents the lament for and deification of Daphnis that features in Theocritus’ first, progammatic Idyll. As such, Daphnis exists in the Eclogues as a symbol for Theocritean poetics, while also providing a model for Vergil to experiment with contemporary poetics in his depictions of the suffering of love. The theme of unrequited love appears again in the tenth and final Eclogue, where the figure of Gallus retreats to the woods to simultaneously express and escape from his sorrow and suffering – here, Gallus plays the part of Theocritus’ Daphnis. Vergil’s innovative inclusion of a Neoteric Latin poet within the final poem of his collection individuates his adaptation of Theocritus. The replacement of Daphnis with Vergil’s close friend Gallus, then, is pivotal in understanding the way that Vergil depicts love and suffering through elegiac poetics.

Thus, we must consider the significance of Gallus within Eclogue 10, the exceptionally beautiful poetic experiment with which Vergil draws his collection to a close.

2 “Nevertheless, love burns me; for what limit could there be to love?” 3 “Now I know what love is.”

2 The Eclogues may provide insight into Vergil’s personal and artistic relationships with

Gallus, one of the most enigmatic Roman poets of his time. The inclusion of Gallus within the collection suggests the high esteem in which Vergil held the elegist and his poetic contributions, while also providing valuable textual evidence for their interaction as friends and poets. In Eclogue

10, Vergil creates a natural landscape that echoes the lament of the unrequited lover, utilizing what is called the pathetic fallacy, and pays tribute to Gallus by casting him as a reimagined Roman

Daphnis, suffering from the torments of amor. The presence of Gallus raises a series of intriguing questions about Vergil’s poetic inclinations, including why he would choose to conclude his pastoral collection with a story of unrequited amor, and to what extent Eclogue 10 is a metapoetic meditation on and fossilization of Gallan poetics.

What remains of Latin amatory elegiac poetry tells the story of a rapidly evolving literary genre, which innovatively combined old and new poetic techniques to depict the complexities of the amatory experience. In conversation with and in acknowledgement of one another, Roman amatory elegists established aesthetic and thematic techniques that have continued to shape and define not only poetry, but also the ideas about amor that we possess today. Gallus was a major influence on Vergil, as indicated by his appearances in Eclogues 6 and 10, which occupy important places within the structural organization of the collection.4 Gallus is showered with praise and admiration by Vergil, who extolls the elegist as a divinus poeta (divine poeta, Ecl. 10.17) for whom he feels an ever-growing love (crescit in horas, Ecl. 10.73). The tenth Eclogue also suggests that

Vergil admired Gallus on more than the grounds of friendship, given that he experiments with his friend’s elegiac poetics. Vergil’s decision to feature Gallus as the central character of his final

4 Gallus’ name appears eight times in the collection, once within Eclogue 6 and seven times within Eclogue 10: Ecl. 6.64, 10.2, 10.3, 10.6, 10.10, 10.22, 10.72, and 10.73.

3 poem is key to deciphering the influence Gallus had over Vergil’s pastoral project and broader artistic vision.

Gallus, despite his importance to the development of Roman love elegy and his impact on the subsequent Latin literary tradition, remains something of a mystery. He was born approximately the same year as Vergil, around 70 BCE, and the two belonged to the same cohort and were close friends (Conte 1999, 324; Ross 1975, 107). In 30 BCE, Gallus fought against Mark

Antony in , later being positioned there by as praefectus Aegypti.5 Once appointed prefect, it seems that Gallus began to overestimate his reputation, power, and influence under the reign of Augustus (Conte 1999, 324; Hollis 2007, 228).6 Gallus’ military career ended abruptly when he agitated the emperor with some misdeed, leading to his exile and eventual suicide in 26 BCE (Conte 1999, 325; Hollis 2007, 219, 227).

Gallus’ exile played a critical role in the near extinction of his works. His scelus against

Augustus ruptured his public profile and political associations and may also have disrupted the dissemination of his poetry. Though the specific details remain unclear, textual evidence of Gallus’ poetic output is exceptionally scarce. Even the monuments which were inscribed with Gallus’ name and accomplishments were defaced and repurposed, nearly erasing him from the historical record (Hollis 2007, 225). Furthermore, Vergil’s Georgics are thought to have originally included praise for Gallus, until the poet was prompted by Augustus to replace his dedicatory poem (Hollis

2007, 228–229). Given that so little is known about Gallus, the sixth and tenth Eclogues which celebrate his work are all the more valuable as testimony.

5 The title praefectus Aegypti was held by the equestrian governor of Egypt: see OCD s.v. praefectus. 6 Hollis (2007, 228) claims that Gallus’ exile may have been attributed to “wild and insulting talk about Augustus, erection of statues of himself all over Egypt, and even inscription of his own deeds upon the Pyramids.”

4 Prior to the discovery of a fragment in 1978 in Qaṣr Ibrîm, the only line of Gallus’ elegiac verse that remained was documented in an alphabetical list of river names compiled by

Vibius Sequester: uno tellures dividit amne duas (Gallus fr. 144 Hollis).7 The Qaṣr Ibrîm papyrus, however, has provided to scholars a much more substantial fragment of Gallus’ Amores.8 It was uncovered in five fragments approximately 150 miles from the Egyptian territory over which

Gallus was prefect.9 The first line of text provides an immediate clue about its author: printed in small upright bilinear bookhand is the name Lycoris (Lycori, fr. 145.1 Hollis).10 The Latin vocative identifies Lycoris as the addressee of the pentameter, who has been identified as the Roman actress

Cytheris.11 The convenience of the placement of Lycoris’ name as well as the location at which the papyrus was uncovered have led to speculation regarding the authenticity of the document

(Hollis 2007, 241–242). However, careful examination of this papyrus fragment has confirmed its authenticity, making it the only physical papyrological evidence of Gallus’ Amores that has been uncovered (Anderson, Parsons, and Nisbet 1979, 155; Hollis 2007, 225).

We can also glean some insights into Gallus’ social circle and poetic works by examining appearances of his name in other texts from the same period. But even these sources are scarce, and we cannot always be certain that the Gallus being referenced is the very same Gaius Cornelius

Gallus. Thus, a judicious examination of such evidence is necessary to accurately identify information that relates to Gallus and his artistic and political influence in . One letter

7 The line, a reference to the Scythian river Hypanis, reads “it divides two lands with a single stream” (Hollis 2007, 224, 240–241). 8 The papyrus has been dated to the first century BCE, making it one of the earliest pieces of evidence of early Latin texts (Anderson, Parsons, and Nisbet 1979, 127). 9 For a full discussion of the Gallan fragment, including its archaeological discovery, papyrological features, and text and translation, see Anderson, Parsons, and Nisbet 1979, 125–155. 10 For discussion regarding Lycoris, see Anderson, Parsons, and Nisbet 1979, 138, 140–141, 144–146; Hollis 2007, 224, 242–252. 11 It was rumored that Cytheris at one point left Gallus for . Given that Gallus and Antony had a history of military conflict, this is particularly interesting (Hollis 2007, 236).

5 explicitly addressed to Gaius Cornelius Gallus comes from Parthenius, who sends him a collection of love poems and prompts him to render them into hexameter and elegiac verse (Hollis 2007, 223,

238–239). Most notably, the Vergilian commentator Servius reports that Gallus wrote four collections of elegiac poems, his Amores, addressed to Lycoris (Hollis 2007, 220, 230). In high praise of Gallus, Servius states: Gallus… fuit poeta eximius; nam et Euphorionem… transtulit in latinum sermonem et amorum suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros quattor (Serv. ad Ecl. 10.1).12

Other references to Gallus may provide us insight into the contents of his Amores and his poetic influence, as has been revealed by rigorous philological cross-examinations of notable passages in

Propertius and Vergil (Cairns 2006, passim).

A careful analysis of Vergil’s direct references to Gallus has tremendous potential to increase our understanding of the latter’s poetic projects and his role in the developing Latin literary tradition. Subsequent generations of influential poets spoke of Gallus with the utmost respect for his craft. Ovid, for example, reports that Gallus and his poems will live on in notoriety and identifies Gallus as an equal to and (Ov. Am. 1.15.29–30, Ars 3.333–

334).13 There is speculation that Gallus was a mentor to Propertius, and that his works greatly influenced the younger poet to create his subjective love poetry (Cairns 2006, 74). Gallus himself was likely influenced by Catullus, whose poems are far more objective than the personal poems of

Propertius (Ross 1975, 109). Thus, Gallus’ poetry represents a crucial missing link in the Latin poetic tradition. As David O. Ross contends in his ground-breaking study, Gallus’ amatory elegies allowed love poetry to evolve from objective and mythological narratives to the more intimate,

12 “Gallus was a remarkable poet … for he both translated Euphorion into the Latin language and wrote four books of his own loves about Cytheris.” 13 Gallus et Hesperiis et Gallus notus Eois | et sua cum Gallo nota Lycoris erit (Gallus will be notorious in the West and in the East, and Lycoris will be notorious with her own Gallus, Ov. Am. 1.15.29–30). Ovid’s use of the word nota to mean ‘notorious’ is double-sided – whether Ovid meant that Gallus would be notorious with a positive or negative connotation is still debated (Hollis 2007, 234–235).

6 subjective, and personal narratives found in Propertius (1975, 109). Knowing that Propertius was inspired and perhaps mentored by Gallus, we can ask more particular questions about what may be Gallan in origin by examining commonalities between Vergil’s and Propertius’ poems.14

Vergil’s tenth Eclogue, which portrays Gallus as a caricature of himself, provides ample clues regarding the elegist which demand our attention. The pastoral incarnation of Gallus is not a hardened soldier, but a naïve lover weakened by the neglect of his beloved Lycoris and reduced to a state of vulnerability and eventual submission to harsh amor. His role within the poem draws special attention to Vergil’s amatory language and thematic choices, some of which may be attributed to Gallus himself. Previous scholarship has identified common themes of Gallus’ work, such as that of the servitium amoris, which can also be identified in Eclogue 10 (Conte 1999, 325).

Thus, the poem does not exist independent from other Roman poetry, nor does it exist separate from the other nine of the collection. Instead, the closural poem merges Theocritean pastoral motifs with Gallan elegiac components to create an innovative and impactful metapoetic narrative with foundations in the Latin literary tradition.

In the pages that follow, I present a textual commentary, in which I draw together focused evidence and scholarship, together with new insights, to shed light on the importance of Gallus in

Vergil’s tenth Eclogue. This project represents the culmination of my undergraduate studies in classical philology, with a particular focus on the language and literature of ancient Rome. It is further fueled by my interest in the enigmatic figure of Gallus in Eclogue 10, which was piqued during my Spring 2019 Latin studies. The first step of my work is to identify and present the specific language utilized by Vergil to characterize amor and its impact on the amator. Evidence collected from Eclogue 10 is subjected to a comparative analysis of the broader collection, in order

14 For an example of such a study, see Cairns (2006).

7 to pinpoint significant patterns and differences of usage. By combining my findings with a survey of existing scholarship, I provide an analytical collection of passages and motifs that may be securely identified as Gallan in origin. I also draw attention to instances of the pathetic fallacy, a poetic technique in which the natural world reflects the emotional status of human participants, which occurs frequently in connection with the appearances of Gallus and Daphnis, his

Theocritean parallel. The pathetic fallacy plays an important role within the dramatic scenario of the retreat of the suffering amator to the natural world, which Vergil adapts by inserting Gallus into the responsive and pastoral surroundings of the Eclogues.

My methodological approach for creating this commentary involves a close-reading and analysis of Eclogue 10 based on the following criteria: subject; metrical rhythm; literary form; generic lexical cues; and specific features of poetic style. In order to gather the necessary philological data, I consulted fundamental lexical tools, such as Latin dictionaries. A thorough review of the critical edition of the Vergilian text was also needed to determine any significant manuscript variations, which might have an impact on my analysis. I also combed through textual commentaries, monographs, and articles in order to situate my study within the ongoing scholarly conversation about Gallus and his appearance in Eclogue 10.15 My commentary draws together essential evidence and scholarship related to Vergil’s artistic connection to Gallus, his characterization of pastoral amor and its Gallan inspiration, and the survival of material from the lost Amores in the text of Eclogue 10.

This commentary will be a useful tool for gaining a more thorough understanding of the importance of Gallan amatory poetics to Vergil’s tenth Eclogue and its vision of amor as a cruel and relentless force. The synthesis of existing scholarship, together with philological evidence and

15 See, for example, Ross 1975; Coleman 1977; Clausen 1994; Cairns 2006.

8 analysis, will be particularly beneficial for the study of Vergil, Gallus, and amatory elegy, the Latin literary tradition, and the artistic and cultural interactions in Rome during the first century BCE.

Furthermore, readers interested in the enigmatic ancient world, more broadly speaking, will gain a deeper appreciation into the potential of philological investigation for delving deeper into unresolved questions. Though much mystery remains surrounding the life and works of Gaius

Cornelius Gallus, my commentary provides a thorough survey of what we know, while also creating a platform for further exploration and discovery.

9 COMMENTARY

ECLOGUE X

6 Galli: The name occupies the central position of the line, split between the third and fourth foot. This emphatic placement, together with a heavy spondaic rhythm, emphasizes Gallus’ name and the importance of his character.

9–10 quae … peribat: Vergil’s allusion to Theocritus in these lines casts Gallus in the role of Daphnis (Theoc. Id. 1.66–69): “Where ever were you when Daphnis was wasting, where ever were you, Nymphs? In the beautiful vales of the Peneus or of Pindus? For surely you kept not the great stream of the Anapus, nor Etna’s peak, nor Acis’ sacred water” (Trans. Clausen 1994, 296 ad Ecl. 10.9–12). In this passage, Theocritus suggests that the Nymphs (who are typically attached to a geographical place) have gone away, thus leaving Daphnis to lament alone. Vergil refers to the Muses here as Naides as opposed to Nymphae, as he does in Ecl. 5 (Nymphae 5.20, Nymphis 5.21, Nymphis 5.75). Consider here the role of nature and Naiads as a sympathetic audience to the lover’s lament. The woods, mountains, and springs were meant to hear the cries of Daphnis. Yet, they were absent when he most needed them. For his Gallan amator, Vergil adapts the Theocritean motif of nature as a receptive and emotionally reflective setting for amatory lament.

10 indigno… amore: The adjective indignus underscores the undeserved, unrequited nature of Gallus’ love, while also carrying connotations of cruelty (L–S s.v. indignus II.A–B). The phrase indignus amor affiliates Gallus’ amatory plight with that of Damon in Eclogue 8 (Coleman 1977 277 ad Ecl 10.10; Clausen 1994, 280 ad Ecl. 8.18).

10 amore peribat: This phrase is a critical example of the elegiac association of amor and mors, or love and death. Gallus does not simply ache with unrequited love; he perishes. On the elegiac association of amor and mors, see McCallum 2015, 2 n.2 with further bibliography.

10

13–14 illum … iacentem: The repetition of illum etiam in lines 13 and 14, together with the third etiam in line 13, emphasizes with an echoic effect that the whole natural world seems to be weeping for Gallus. The personification of laurels, tamarisks, Maenalus, and Lycaeus adds to the Theocritean characterization of the natural world as a responsive emotional entity. This passage also demonstrates the narrator’s disappointment that the Naiads neglected Gallus whereas the trees and mountains listened and cried for him (illum … | … illum…). In his closural poem, Vergil has imitated the opening poem of Theocritus’ Idylls. In doing so, Vergil continues to portray Gallus as a Daphnis by situating him within a recognizable imitation of the context of Idyll 1.

13–15 illum … Lycaeus: The pastoral world mourns for Gallus as if he has died, the same way it mourns Daphnis’ passing in Ecl. 5 (exstinctum Nymphae crudeli funere Daphnin | flebant, Ecl. 5.20–21). Though Gallus, unlike Daphnis, remains alive, his insertion into a scene of mourning emphasizes his status as a suffering amator, virtually perishing because of indignus amor (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.10 above).

13 lauri … myricae. Lauri is placed at the caesura, while myricae ends the line. Illum etiam lauri is half a pentameter, making it possible that this phrase has roots in Gallus’ elegiac poetry. Laurels symbolize Apollo’s ill-fated love, and tamarisks are distinctly pastoral and funereal (Coleman 1977, 279 ad Ecl 10.13–14).

14 sola: This word is placed in the center of the line, in the same position that Galli was placed a few lines prior (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.6 above). Line 14 has the exact same metrical rhythm as line 6, and both sola and Galli are centrally positioned between the third and fourth feet of the line. This underscores that sola is a transferred epithet for Galli. Note also the placement of Gallus in the fourth foot of line 10.

16–17 stant … pecoris: Just as Alexis was encouraged not to turn his nose at pastoral life in Eclogue 2 (nec te paeniteat calamo trivisse labellum, Ecl. 2.34), we see Vergil asking Gallus not to be ashamed of pastoral poetry. The use of the first-person plural (nostri, Ecl. 10.16) appears pervasively throughout the poem, used both by Vergil and the figure of Gallus (e.g. bibamus,

11 10.65; subeamus, 10.66; versemus, 10.68; cedamus, 10.69; surgamus, 10.75), which may refer to both poets, the poet and the audience, and/or Roman contemporary poets, broadly speaking.

18 Adonis: Adonis was known for his remarkable beauty and was the beloved of Venus (Coleman 1977, 280 ad Ecl. 10.18). Yet even he fills the shepherd role, driving sheep to drink, thereby exemplifying the amatory possibilities of pastoral epic. Formosus Adonis recalls the Formosus Alexis of Ecl. 2. This passage also closely imitates Idyll 1.109–110 (Coleman 1977, 280 ad Ecl 10.18).

17 divine poeta: In Eclogue 5, the vocative phrase divine poeta also appears in the emphatic final position when Menalcas praises Mopsus’ Daphnis song (Ecl. 5.45), thereby strengthening the intratextual connection between Gallus and his Theocritean antecedent. There may also be some connection to the phrase divinum carmen in Eclogue 6 (divino carmine, Ecl. 6.67), which refers to the legendary singer Linus during his interactions with Gallus (Ecl. 6.64–73). Divinus poeta does not exist as a common phrase outside of Vergil, and may have special significance in relation to Gallus.

21 unde amor iste: Vergil alludes to Id. 1.78, where Hermes asks Daphnis: “Who is it that you’re so much in love with?” (Trans. Coleman 1977, 281 ad Ecl. 10.21). The Theocritean nature of this line is relevant in examining the role of genre-shifting within the poem, as Vergil paraphrases an amatory line from Theocritus’ bucolic poem.

21–25: omnes … rubentem: The appearance of Apollo (Ecl. 10.21), Silvanus (10.24), and Pan (10.26) to console Gallus mimics Theocritus, who instead invokes Hermes, Priapus, and Aphrodite (Coleman 1977, 281 ad Ecl. 10.21). Vergil’s inclusion of pastoral gods and exclusion of Venus reinforces the notion of the woods as medicina for the sorrowful lover. Gallus retreats to the woods and the woodland gods, namely Pan and Silvanus, come to console the lonely poet. Silvanus’ presence here is purely symbolic, as he says nothing to console Gallus.

22 Galle … Lycoris: Vergil places the names Gallus and Lycoris at the first and final positions of the line, respectively, thereby drawing attention to the name of lover-poet and beloved. In doing

12 so, Vergil contrasts the previous Theocritean line with one that is likely Gallan, simultaneously evoking Gallus and Theocritus. The word insanus is notably elegiac (Coleman 1977, 282 ad Ecl. 10.22) and refers to the conventionally unsound mind of the amator. tua cura: In amatory discourse, the phrase tua cura refers idiomatically to one’s beloved (Coleman 1977, 282 ad Ecl. 10.22). Tua cura is seen also in 1.57, but is not used in an elegiac and erotic context until 10.22 (Clausen 1994, 300 ad Ecl. 10.22). In contrast with the previous line which was explicitly Theocritean, the language of line 22 is heavily elegiac and evokes not only Gallus, but his domina Lycoris. The close proximity of tua cura Lycoris seems to recall Lycori tua in the final position of the first line of the the Qaṣr Ibrîm fragment, the only extant papyrological evidence of Gallus’ poetry (Gallus fr. 145.1 Hollis).

23 horrida castra: Vergil’s use of the martial word castra reinforces the juxtaposition between his Gallan character, the weakened lover, and the real Gallus, an experienced military man. His beloved Lycoris has abandoned him; she follows another soldier through the snow and the rugged camps. Still, the military officer as a rival in elegiac poetry is a common trope (e.g. Prop. 2.16.1), and Vergil’s collocation of the martial and the amatory here may indicate Gallan origins for the elegiac figure of militia amoris.

28 ‘ecquis erit modus’ inquit. ‘Amor non talia curat…’: Pan’s question to Gallus is structured in the same way as Apollo’s question at 10.22: each question is identical in terms of meter and placement; and each is followed by a centrally positioned inquit. Pan is also the first in the poem to mention Amor by name, and he characterizes the amatory deity as cruel (crudelis, Ecl. 10.29) and implacable regarding the havoc he wreaks. Amor is not sated by the tears of the sorrowful lover (nec lacrimis crudelis, 10.29), and pastoral analogies are used to describe his hunger for suffering (nec gramina rivis | nec cutiso saturantur apes nec fronde capellae, 10.29–30). Pan, using the pastoral language that is familiar to him, reminds Gallus of Amor’s insatiable nature to harm others. Pan, the pastoral god, reminding the elegiac poet Gallus about the plights of love further illustrates Vergil’s playful mixing of genres.

29 crudelis Amor: The placement of Amor between the third and fourth feet of this line further emphasizes his significance in the poem, particularly as an antagonist when paired with crudelis,

13 which has consistently been used by Vergil in the context of unrequited love and suffering (see Ecl. 2.6, 5.20, 5.23, 8.48, 8.49, 8.50.) The word crudelis is only ever used in the Eclogues to refer to Amor (Ecl. 8.49, 8.50), Venus (Ecl. 5.23, 8.48, 8.50), an unrequited love (Ecl. 2.6), or the fate of a tragic lover (Ecl. 5.20). Why would Vergil exclusively use crudelis to describe the amatory sphere in the Eclogues? The pastoral landscape of the poems is beautiful, natural, and forgiving. Cruelty does not exist there in abundance – animals die as a result of an unfortunate fate, or flora and fauna lament in honor of a tragic lover. The only place where crudelia exist in the world of the Eclogues is in the context of amor. Amor is the one thing that cannot be escaped, even in the pastoral world. Certe, ‘omnia vincit amor’.

33–34 o mihi tum quam molliter ossa quiescant | vestra meos olim si fistula dicat amores: It is frequent in elegy for the amator to be obsessed with death (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.10 regarding the elegiac association between amor and mors). Gallus is reasserting his role as this poem’s Daphnis by imagining that his bones will soon rest. Gallus makes a direct reference to his own collection of elegiac poems, Amores, emphatically placed at the end of the line, and implores the Arcadians to play them. Gallus’ expressed wish to have his elegiac amores played with the fistula, the characteristic instrument of pastoral, emblematizes Vergil’s genre-mixing. The adverb molliter has strong elegiac associations and may have also been utilized by Gallus to describe the repose of death (Clausen 1994, 302 ad Ecl. 10.33).

35–36 atque utinam ex vobis unus vestrique fuissem | aut custos gregis aut maturae vinitor uvae: Metapoetically, Gallus laments his fate as an elegiac poet, wishing he had been fated to write pastoral instead.

37–41 sive mihi Phyllis sive esset Amyntas | seu quicumque furor …: Gallus’ imaginary experiences with female (Phyllis) and male (Amyntas) love objects in the pastoral world are a foil for his grief over unrequited love. Gallus envisions stock characters of Vergil’s pastoral world lying with him, collecting garlands for him, and singing to him, which stands in sharp contrast with the distant, unresponsive Lycoris, who aligns more with Alexis of the second Eclogue. But despite his wistful imaginings, Gallus will ultimately prove unable to enjoy his pastoral fantasy.

14 Outside of Ecl. 10, Phyllis can also be found in 3.76, 3.78, 3.107, 5.10, and 7.14; and Amyntas in 2.35, 2.39, 3.66, 3.74, 3.83, 5.8, 5.15, and 5.18. Amyntas … Amyntas … Amyntas: The repetition of Amyntas, always positioned at the end of the line, brings attention and emphasis to his name, the space between occurrences increasing from one to two lines. It seems that Gallus might slightly prefer an Amyntas over a Phyllis— though he claims to want both.

38 furor: Roman elegiac poets frequently utilize furor to refer to the madness caused by amor (e.g. Prop. 1.1.7, 1.4.11, 1.5.1, 1.13.20, 1.18.15, 3.13.65). Furor describes the madness that seizes the lover, as seen in Apollo’s quid insanis? (Ecl. 10.22) and Corydon’s quae te dementia cepit (Ecl. 2.69). Vergil only ever utilizes furor twice in the collection, each time within Gallus’ uttered speech in Eclogue 10 (see also 10.60 below), a fact which has long led scholars to suspect Gallan origins for the elegiac use of the word (Cairns 2006, 100–101).

42–44 mollia … duri: The contrast between mollis and durus is frequent within elegy and describes the tenderness of the lover despite the cold harshness of the beloved. Mollis can also refer to the softness of elegy as a poetic form, whereas durus frequently refers to epic (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.33 above). On the elegiac and literary critical significance of mollis and durus, see McCallum 2015, 8 n.42 with further bibliography. Lycori: The placement of Lycoris’ name at the end of the line is a stark reminder that, despite the beauty within the pastoral world and despite his attempts to yearn instead for Amyntas, Gallus is still unable to stop thinking about Lycoris (… Amyntas … | … Amyntas | … | … | … Amyntas | … Lycori, Ecl. 10.37–42). Although Gallus ventures into the woods as a way to escape from his unrequited love, upon arrival he wishes nothing but for Lycoris to enjoy the pastoral beauty with him. But as his lament reveals, she is far way pursuing another lover, thereby prompting Gallus to contemplate his future existence alone in the pastoral landscape.

44 insanus: See my commentary on Ecl. 10.22 above.

44 Amor … Martis: Vergil parallels the god of war and the god of love. There are debates about the proper translation of these lines, and whether it should be read as insanus amor duri Martis or

15 as duri Martis in armis. Gallus referencing an amor martis could be explained by his frequent campaigning as a military general, which he resents for prompting him to leave Lycoris behind. However, the pairing of Martis with armis underscores the battle with Amor in which Gallus finds himself (Coleman 1977, 287 ad Ecl. 10.44–45). The intended translation for these lines remains uncertain.

47–49 Alpinas a dura nives et frigora Rheni | me sine sola vides a te ne frigora laedant: The repetition of the ‘a’ sound both in Gallus’ exclamations and his words create an audible sound of his lament. Gallus refers to Lycoris as dura, the same way he refers to Mars (duri Martis, Ecl. 10.44) three lines before. This draws upon the concept of militia amoris, which has been repeatedly reinforced throughout the poem (horrida castra, 10.23; Martis in armis, 10.44; tela inter media atque adversos detinet hostis, 10.45). Gallus is not fighting a war with Lycoris, for she has turned her back to him. He is fighting a war with love itself (Coleman 1977, 287 ad Ecl. 10.44–45). Lycoris’ setting is described as cold and snowy, in sharp contrast to the verdant pastoral fiction that Gallus has created, where he wishes Lycoris could be (hic gelidi fontes, hic mollia prata, Lycori, Ecl. 10.42). Gallus’ characterization of Lycoris as sola is indeed interesting, as it is he who is truly alone and she who is pursuing another. The contrast of me sine and tecum (10.43) reinforces the difference between Gallus’ amatory fantasy and his unrequited reality. Clausen notes that the postposition of sine is rare, and that me sine sola vides is the metric equivalent to the second half of a pentameter (Clausen 1994, 305 ad Ecl. 10.48). On the likely Gallan origins of this pentameter line, see Coleman 1977, 288 ad Ecl. 10.46ff.; Clausen 1994, 305 ad Ecl. 10.48; Cairns 2006, 115. Gallus’ confusion about Lycoris is exemplified by his conflicting, almost antithetical, characterizations of her. He addresses her as dura, while also worrying that her soft feet (teneras plantas) will be wounded by the sharp ice. Thus, Lycoris appears to be simultaneously hard and vulnerable. Gallus, in wishing for her safety in the harsh landscape, seems to show his nascent acceptance of the reality of the situation – Lycoris is far-away and unattainable.

50 Ibo: In one word, Gallus’ expresses acceptance of his unrequited love. The attitude shift recalls that of Corydon in the final line Eclogue 2, who reassures himself that he will find “another Alexis” (invenies alium, si te hic fastidit, Alexin, Ecl. 2.73) Gallus appears determined at this point to devote himself to the activities of pastoral existence.

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50 Chalcidico … versu: There are debates surrounding whether or not Chalcidico is a reference to Euphorion, as it was taken by Quintillian. While it is known that Euphorion wrote epigrams, mythological hexameter was his primary style. For a tidy summary of the debate over the precise poetic significance of the phrase and its potential connections to elegy and Gallus, see Hollis 2007, 230–231.

51 carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena: Gallus determines that he will henceforth play his carmina on the shepherd’s pipe. The imminent transformation of elegiac poet into pastoral musician emblematizes the mixing of genres that characterizes the entire poem.

52–53 certum est in silvis inter spelaea ferarum | malle pati: Gallus here reveals his intention to continue suffering in the wilderness, even as he undertakes outdoor activities that are elsewhere prescribed as cures for amatory affliction.

53 tenerisque meos incidere amores | arboribus: The image of Gallus carving his amores into tree bark indicates his inability to cut his emotional ties to Lycoris and his poetic ties to elegy. Rather than forego either, Gallus inscribes the pastoral world with his amatory elegies (meos … amores; see my commentary on Ecl. 10.33–34 above). This is yet another metapoetic illustration for Vergil’s genre-mixing within the tenth Eclogue. The motif of cutting a lover’s name into trees is first seen in Callimachus Aet. 73, where Acontius carves the name of Cydippe into a tree (Clausen 1994, 307 ad Ecl. 10.53–54). Propertius’ first collection of elegies also features this image in the depiction of a tormented lover seeking respite in the wilderness, a poem with obvious intertextual connections to Eclogue 10 (Prop. 1.18.22). See also Ovid’s extensive exploration of Acontius and Cydippe in Heroides 22–21.

55–57 mixtis … Nymphis: The phrase mixtis Nymphis has metapoetic implications, as Gallus, the elegiac poet, mingles with the female deities connected to the pastoral landscape. He then hunts boar, an erotic and elegiac motif associated with Latin love poetry meant to cure heartache (Clausen 1994, 308 ad Ecl. 10.55). However, Coleman points out that these activities are not inherently Arcadian, rather they are the activities in which an urban visitor would retreat to the

17 countryside to partake (Coleman 1977, 290 ad Ecl. 10.57). Vergil thus subtly reasserts Gallus’ role as an outsider to the pastoral genre. While Gallus adapts to the pastoral landscape and attempts to accept his unrequited love, he is still distinguished by his status as urbanus—an interesting theme when considering Gallus’ analogous role in Eclogue 10 to that of Corydon in Eclogue, who is rusticus.

55–57 lustrabo … | non me ulla vetabunt | frigora: Gallus was refused by Lycoris, but the groves of Parthenium will not oppose his presence or activities. The repetition here of frigora, seen earlier in reference to Lycoris’ martial travels (frigora Rheni | ne frigora laedant, Ecl. 10.47–48), reminds the audience that while Gallus hunts, Lycoris accompanies her lover on campaign in remote, hostile lands. The martial echoes are reinforced, perhaps, by the preceding occurrence of the verb lustro, which can refer to the survey of troops (L–S s.v. lustro II.C).

58–63 iam … iam: Vergil repeats the word to add a sense of temporality to the lines. The first instance portrays a moment of Gallus’ excitement at the notion of escaping his amores amidst the rocks and resounding groves. The second iam, appearing after Gallus’ realization that his wilderness activities will not cure his amatory ills, marks his sudden shift from pastoral fantasy to disillusionment.

60 tamquam haec sit nostri medicina furoris: Gallus reveals his awareness that his activities will not be cures for his amatory frenzy. The phrase medicina amoris is almost certainly a Gallan formulation (Clausen 1994, 309 ad Ecl. 10.60; Cairns 2006, 100–101). This is the only instance of medicina in the collection.

64 labores: It seems unclear what labores Gallus refers to here (Coleman 1977, 291 ad Ecl. 10.64). The activities in which he has just taken part would likely be deemed leisure activities, not labores. However, hunting in elegy often serves the purpose of distracting the amator from his suffering – something that could certainly be considered labor (Coleman 1977, 291 ad Ecl. 10.64). Perhaps this refers to the futile attempts Gallus has made to keep his mind off of his beloved. This also connects directly to the opening line of the poem: extremum hunc, Arethusa mihi concede laborem (10.1). Propertius’ elegiac use of labor in contexts intertextually connected to Gallus (Prop. 1.1.8–

18 10, 1.6.23, 2.24b.39) suggests that he may have been the first to subvert the meaning of labores to refer to amatory pursuits.

65–67 nec si … nec si: Vergil emphasizes the futility of Gallus’ labores – not even escaping to distant lands will cure his heartache. Again, Vergil uses a form of frigora to describe the landscape, as at 10.47, 10.48, and 10.57. The word is repeated twice to refer to Lycoris’ surroundings at the horrida castra, once of Gallus’ hunting on Mt. Parthenius, and once more as Gallus imagines himself near the Thracian river Hebrus. The word frigus can frequently be found in Propertius as well (Prop. 1.16.26, 1.18.27, 1.20.13, 2.22a.12, 2.24a.12, 2.26b.16, 3.22.1, 4.3.48, 4.7.6, 4.7.66, and 4.10.18), suggesting that there may be some Gallan history to the word.

67 moriens … liber aret: Though describing the bark of the elm, moriens also recalls the opening lines of the poem, in which Vergil depicts Gallus perishing from amor (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.10 above). The description of the tree bark perishing and parched is another example of the pathetic fallacy, as the landscape mimics the emotional state of the amator, who burns and suffers. As noted by Coleman (1977, 292 ad Ecl. 10.67), the dying, parched bark here contrasts sharply with the soft, tender trees upon which Gallus earlier intended to inscribe his amores (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.54 above). Given that liber can refer to a literary work (L–S s.v. liber II.B), the image of the withered bark has interesting metapoetic implications for Gallus’ imagined poetic productivity.

69 omnia vincit Amor: In line with the rest of the Eclogues, this poem touches on the inefficacy of poetry in mitigating real-life concerns such as death, displacement, and love. Destruction and loss abound, there is no fantasy world to which the lover can escape. There is strong, compelling evidence to suggest that the phrase omnia vincit Amor is a Gallan formulation: it is metrically equivalent to one half of an elegiac pentameter; versions of the phrase appear persistently within Roman amatory elegy; and its use here marks the final line of the Gallan speech (Coleman 1977, 293 ad Ecl. 10.69; Clausen 1994, 310 ad Ecl. 10.69; Cairns 2006, 107–108). et nos cedamus Amori: Gallus’ final resignation to Amor. Despite his labores, Gallus acknowledges the overwhelming power of love to defeat the lover, and goes a step further to say

19 that Amor must be yielded to. Vergil’s use of the hortatory subjunctive in the first-person plural suggests that all of humanity must yield to Amor, thereby emphasizing his expansive power.

70 sat erit: No longer speaking as Gallus, Vergil begins to draw Eclogue 10 and the collection to a close. The phrase sat erit, suggestive of fullness and completion, serves as a signal of poetic closure.

70–72 divae … poetam: The vocative divae is placed before the penthemimeral caesura, while the noun poetam occupies the final position of the same line. Though the two words are not a syntactical pair, their emphatic placement creates an association that recalls the earlier reference to Gallus as a divinus poeta (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.17 above).

71 facietis haec maxima Gallo: Vergil asserts that the Muses will make his poetry maxima, a superlative which suggests the magnitude of his regard for Gallus.

72 cuius amor tantum mihi crescit: Vergil is referencing Gallus’ earlier intention to inscribe his amores on growing trees: crescent illae, crescetis, amores (see my commentary on Ecl. 10.54 above). Amor destroys all, yet it is portrayed in these final lines as beautiful and blooming. Despite Vergil’s characterization of amor as suffering, his own amor for Gallus exists in a different light. Vergil, by comparing his affection for Gallus as a burgeoning alder tree, succinctly encapsulates his mixing of pastoral with amatory elegy and Gallan poetics, while offering final praise to his dear friend and fellow poet.

75 surgamus … capellae: Vergil concludes the poem by returning to strictly pastoral themes. The repetition of umbra, twice in the emphatic final position and once before the penthemimeral caesura (umbra, | umbra … umbrae, 10.75–76) functions as a threefold reminder that the sun is setting and the day is coming to an end. The closural image of herdsmen and sated goats returning home signals the end of Vergil’s poetic tribute to Gallus.

20 CONCLUSION

In my commentary, I have presented the findings of my focused investigation into the specific language and themes within Eclogue 10 that may be attributed to Gallus’ lost Amores. Throughout the preceding pages, I have utilized my philological and research skills to draw together a body of compelling evidence for Vergil’s experimentation with Gallan elegy in his tenth and final Eclogue.

The primary goals of this project were: to better understand Vergil’s depiction of amor and its effects on the amator; to identify and understand passages and motifs with Gallan origins; and to explore the importance of genre-mixing in Vergil’s portrayal of Gallus as a Roman elegiac incarnation of Theocritus’ bucolic Daphnis.

By way of conclusion, I want to provide a short, final reflection on the observations and insights that resulted from my work. First, I have drawn attention to formulations in Eclogue 10 that fit elegiac pentameter and can be securely identified as Gallan based upon cross-reference with subsequent elegiac poetry, particularly that of Propertius (see, for example, my commentary on Ecl. 10.47–49, 10.69). Next, I have gathered together various lexical items and thematic figures, particularly within Gallus’ speech, that are conventional features of Latin amatory elegy with probable origins in his lost Amores. For instance, I have showcased Vergil’s utilization of the poetic relationship between amor and mors (see, for example, my commentary on Ecl. 10.10); tension between elegiac mollis and epic durus (see commentary on Ecl. 10.42–44); and experimentation with elegiac motifs such as that of militia amoris (see commentary on Ecl. 10.47–

49). Furthermore, genre-mixing in Eclogue 10 seems critical in developing an understanding of

Gallan poetics, with Vergil experimenting heavily with Theocritean language, structure, and theme while making Gallus into a Roman, elegiac version of the Hellenistic, bucolic Daphnis. Finally,

21 this commentary underscores the respect, admiration, and amor that Vergil possessed for his dear friend and fellow poet, as exemplified by his declaration that Gallus deserves maxima carmina

(haec … maxima Gallo, Ecl. 10.72) and that his love for the poet will grow eternally (crescit in horas, Ecl. 10.73). That Gallus’ Amores played an important role in the development of Roman poetry can be stated with surety, as shown by the evidence amassed in this commentary. But mystery continues to shroud the precise details, which have been obscured by the almost complete loss of Gallan poetry.

My process in writing and revising this commentary has expanded my own understanding of Eclogue 10 and given rise to additional lines of inquiry regarding Latin poets whose opera have largely been lost. As I continue my study of classical philology and ancient literature, I will build upon the work I have completed here to explore in greater depth the influence of fragmentary Latin authors on the Roman literary tradition. This commentary project, with its focus on intra- and intertextuality, genre-mixing, and aesthetics, will be a fruitful springboard as I continue my study of Vergil and Roman poetry, broadly speaking. In particular, I am interested in the lineage of amatory elegy and the ways in which its development was impacted by lesser-known authors whose works are only partially extant. Even the meagre remnants of Gaius Cornelius Gallus have greatly enhanced our understanding of Roman poetry, as I have shown, and much remains to be discovered from the other poets whose works survive in fragmentary form.

22 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbreviations

L–S = C.T. Lewis and C. Short (eds), A Latin Dictionary (Oxford 1879). OCD = S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth (eds), Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd edition (1996). OLD = P.G.W. Glare (ed.), Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford 1968–82). Servius = G. Thilo and H. Hagen (eds), Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii, 3 vols (Hildesheim, Zurich, New York 1986). TLL = Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (Leipzig 1900– ).

Works Cited

Anderson, R.D., Parsons, P.J., and Nisbet, R.G.M. (1979) “Elegiacs by Gallus from Qaṣr Ibrîm,” JRS 69: 125–55.

Cairns, F. (2006) Sextus Propertius: The Augustan Elegist. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Clausen, W. (1994) (ed.) A Commentary on , Eclogues. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Coleman, R. (1977) (ed.) Vergil, Eclogues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Conte, G.B. (1996) Latin Literature: A History. Trans. J.B. Solodow. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

Hollis, A.S. (2007) (ed.) Fragments of Roman Poetry c. 60 BC–AD 20. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

McCallum, S. (2015) “Elegiac Amor and Mors in Virgil’s ‘Italian Iliad’: A Case Study (Aeneid 10.185–93)”. CQ 65: 693–703.

Mynors, R.A.B. (1969) P. Vergili Maronis Opera. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Ross, D.O. (1975) Backgrounds to Augustan Poetry: Gallus, Elegy, and Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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