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Materialism, spirituality and 1

A MIXED-METHODS STUDY OF AND SPIRITUALITY: TWO SIDES OF THE HAPPINESS COIN?

Lobsang Yeshi Life University Marietta, GA 30060 USA Email: [email protected]

Dr. Eugene Y. J. Tee Senior Lecturer Department of Psychology, HELP University Malaysia Phone: +60(3)2094200 Ext. 1178 Email: [email protected]

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lobsang Yeshi, Life University, Marietta, GA-30060, USA. Email: [email protected]

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 2

A Mixed-Methods Study of Materialism and Spirituality: Two Sides of the Happiness Coin?

Abstract In this mixed-methods study, we examine the role of materialism and spirituality and how they contribute to the happiness of adults in two distinct age groups. In Study 1, 210 adults from two distinct age groups (25-39 years and 40-65 years) completed a series of questionnaires measuring materialism, spirituality and levels of happiness. Analysis of the data provided support for the hypotheses, showing that younger adults, relative to older adults, were more likely to report higher levels of materialism. Older adults, conversely, reported higher levels of spirituality than young adults. Correlational analyses further reveal that there is a significant negative correlation between materialism and happiness, and a significant positive correlation between spirituality and happiness. In Study 2, semi- structured interviews were conducted with 11 adults on their of materialism, spirituality and happiness. Results from the thematic analysis of these accounts suggest that spirituality fosters self-awareness in individuals, and inspires them to and help others. Interviewees further state that materialistic provides subsistence, but breed dissatisfaction. Collectively, findings from this mixed-methods study suggest that while materialistic values do contribute to happiness, such values do not extend individual happiness beyond that necessary for subsistence, and may even be detrimental towards happiness in the long-term. Spirituality, on the other hand, appears a more permanent and constant contributor to sustained happiness, though this realization only appears evident among older adults. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implication of these findings.

Keywords: materialism, spirituality, happiness, mixed-methods

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 3

Introduction Happiness has long been viewed as the driving behind all human endeavour (Diener, 1984). Empirical evidence indicates that happy people function more effectively, have successful social relationships, display better work performance (Bateman & Organ, 1983), earn higher incomes (Graham, Eggers & Sukhtankar, 2004; Marks & Fleming, 1999), have better health and live longer (Fiscella & Franks, 1997). A large body of research demonstrates that despite a steep rise in affluence and technological conveniences, the rise in happiness levels has been nominal (Diener & Seligman, 2004). To contemporary psychologists, happiness is a colloquial term for subjective well-being (Bok, 2010; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) and is defined as "a person's cognitive and affective evaluation of his or her life" (Diener, Oishi & Lucus, 2002, p.63). For the purposes of this study, the term “happiness” and “subjective well-being” will be treated as synonymous. Happiness is not merely about physical hedonism but rather, overall personal judgments about the good and bad aspects of life (Diener, Sapyta & Suh, 1998). Differing beliefs on the building bricks of happiness have given rise to two observed, yet opposing approaches to achieving happiness: materialism and the pursuit of spirituality. Materialism Materialism is defined as "the importance ascribed to the ownership and acquisition of material goods in achieving major life goals or desired states" (Richins, 2004, p. 210). Early studies on financial success as a key component of the American dream (Derber, 1979; as cited in Kasser & Ryan, 1993) sparked voluminous research into materialism and its impact on “desired states”. The acquisition of wealth was viewed a facilitator of happiness (Roszkowski & Grable, 2007). The of materialism was first proposed by Belk (1984; 1985), who associated materialism with undesirable personal traits such as non-generosity, greed and envy, which were negatively correlated with happiness and life satisfaction. Kasser and Ryan (1993; 1996) have conducted extensive research on materialism and its effect on well-being using different methods on a wide range of participants. In one study (1993), the authors found a negative correlation between financial success and psychological well-being. Participants who rated financial success as being highly important scored lower levels of global and social functioning, and displayed more behavioural problems. According to Kasser (2002), the analysis of the data collected from both teenagers and adults showed that those who prioritized financial success over non-material values were found to have significantly lower levels of self-actualization, higher levels of anxiety and . The author also notes that teenagers who placed a high importance on financial success were

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 4 reported to have more destructive behaviour such as antisocial behaviour and difficulty in adapting to society (Kasser, 2002). Materialism has also been associated with poorer psychological outcomes in studies sampling a more mature adult population. In one study, adults who rated money, image and fame high in importance were found to have depression, a lower of self-actualization and reported more physical health problems such as headaches and backaches (Kasser, 2002). Observing similar results from numerous studies (Carver & Baird, 1998; Schroeder & Dugal, 1995; Wachtel & Blatt, 1990), Kasser asserted that happiness in an individual declines when the individual’s of what is important in life revolves only around materialistic values and goals. Thus, individuals who strive for material wealth are more likely to negative outcomes. Indeed, Hellevik (2003) found that Norwegians’ levels of happiness did not increase correspondingly, or proportionately to their marked increase in income over the past two decades. The author suggests that materialism and the tendency to prioritize income and material possessions over other values had a counteracting influence on respondents’ levels of happiness. Similarly, a recent study on victims of terrorist attacks (Ruvio, Somer, & Rindfleisch, 2014) reaffirmed the negative effect of materialism on the individual’s well- being. These researchers found that highly materialistic participants experienced higher levels of post-traumatic stress compared to the participants who scored lower in materialism and they resorted to impulsive buying and compulsive consumption as a means to cope with unpleasant emotions stress. It therefore concluded that materialism not only directly exerts negative effects on well-being but also indirectly worsens stressful situations (Ruvio et al., 2014). Resorting to impulsive purchasing can lead to an increase debt and spousal conflict, which further compounds stressful situations (Hirschman; as cited in Ruvio et al., 2014). Further, studies have linked materialism to lowered levels of self-esteem (Richins & Dawson, 1992), psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression (Shaw, 2002), narcissism (Bergman, Westerman, Bergman, Westerman & Dally, 2014), behavioural disorders such as antisocial behaviour (Kasser & Ryan, 1993), post-traumatic stress (Ruvio et al., 2014), lower satisfaction with many domains of life (Richins & Dawson, 1992; Roberts & Clement, 2007; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001) and is generally detrimental both to society and individual (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002). The pursuit of materialism in short, focuses on external, material possessions and thereby draws the individual away from actualizing his/her potential. Therefore, the pursuit of materialism is a distraction to individual happiness and personal development (Kasser & Ryan, 1993).

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 5

At the global level, country-level aggregates of income and happiness provide further evidence that materialistic pursuits and goals do not provide incremental increases in happiness past a certain point Pukeliene & Kisieliauskas (2013) investigated the relationship between income and happiness of 21 European countries from 2000 to 2010. The authors found that within that decade, GDP per capita was highest in Norway but it ranked only third in happiness levels. In contrast, Denmark was ranked with the highest levels of happiness since 2001, yet it was not even amongst the five highest income-earning countries until 2010. Likewise, Ireland rated second in terms of highest income between 2003-2007 but was not in the top five high in happiness countries during that period. If income has a compelling influence on happiness, nations that ranked highest in GDP per capita ought to have ranked highest in the happiness. This was not the case and thus lends to the argument that higher income does not equate with increased happiness. One plausible for the rise in income failing to elevate happiness levels is that as income increases, aspirations for further material gain increase as well (Easterlin, 1995). The aspirations of those in rich countries differed not only in terms of the range of aspirations but also sophistication and cost, compared to the aspirations of people from poorer countries. Cantril's (1965; as cited in Easterlin, 1995) explanation was that people in developed countries have a wider range of needs compared to those in less developed countries. Tella and MacCulloch (2008) refers to this phenomenon as "hedonic adaptation", a tendency for individuals to get accustomed to better facilities and subsequently, further increasing their expectations and aspirations. This drives them to over-work to acquire more wealth to maintain the lifestyles they have become accustomed to, as well as meet rising expectations. Overworking and deprivation of free or leisure contributes negatively to personal happiness (Alexander, 2012). Based on these findings, Kasser (2002) concludes that pursuing wealth and possessions as a means to achieve happiness prevents the opportunity to improve the quality of one's life. Csikszentmihlayi and Rochberg-Halton (1981) echoed this point when they said, "The danger of focusing attention excessively on the goal of physical consumption - or materialism - is that one does not attend enough to the cultivation of self, to the relationship with others, or to the broader purpose that affects life" (p. 53). Spirituality Spiritual beliefs and practices have persisted in many cultures for centuries and served as a coping mechanism for individuals to make sense of life's difficulties and to overcome them (Koenig, 2010). However, scientific research on spirituality is relatively new (Ratnakar & Nair, 2012). It was only in the 1990s that interest started to grow and since then, a

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 6 considerable body of research on and spirituality has emerged (Ratnakar & Nair, 2012). As at 2010, at least 326 studies have examined religion and spirituality's relationship with well-being and 79% of studies have established significant positive associations (Koenig, 2012). However, there has been ongoing definitional debates on the term “spirituality” and its association with religiosity (Schlehofer, Omoto & Adelman, 2008). For the purposes of this study, a broad definition that accommodates both religious and non- religious of spirituality has been adopted, namely, Parsian and Dunning's (2009, p. 2) definition of spirituality of "finding in life, self-actualization and connection with the inner-self, other people and the whole". The positive relationship between spirituality and health is well established. Investigations into this relationship discovered the positive role of spirituality in lowering health risks and coping in conditions such as heart disease and cancer (Koenig, 2012; Masters & Hooker, 2013). Cancer and AIDS patients coped better with pain and fatigue when they were involved in spiritual activities (Brady, Peterman, Fitchett, Mo & Cella, 1999). Studies pointed to spirituality serving as a buffer from the risk of alcohol addiction, drug and substance abuse (Salas-Wright, Olate & Vaughn, 2013).The positive role of spirituality is not limited to physical health but extends to helping those with mental disorders. For example, many studies (Koenig, 2010; Mohr, 2013; Wachholtz, Pearce & Koenig, 2007) reported the benefit of spirituality in expediting the recovery of patients suffering from anxiety, depression and schizophrenia. According to Peres and colleagues (2007), people often start to question the meaning and purpose of life when traumatized by adverse situations. The quest for answers to the meaning and purpose of life are key components of spirituality (Dyson, Cobb & Forman, 1997; Howden, 1992). This is evident in a study by Bartlett and colleagues (2003), who studied patients with rheumatoid arthritis and found that spirituality facilitated emotional adjustment and encouraged them to attend to the more positive aspects of their lives. Researchers have consistently attributed spirituality's positive effect to enabling people to finding meaning and purpose in life, as well as offering comfort in the present and for the future (Bussema & Bussema, 2007; Koenig, 2010; Martinez & Scott, 2014; Sullivan, 1993). This bolsters the individual’s capacity to transcend adverse conditions such as physical and mental illnesses (Parsian & Dunning, 2009) and is therefore, a significant contributor to "a good life" that every individual aspires to (Dierendonck, 2011). Purdy and Dupey (2005, p.99) assert that a life without spirituality "may be flat and dimensionless”. This is consistent with the meaning of "ruah" which is spirit in Hebrew, meaning the air or

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 7 breath that helps to sustain life (Kreitzer, 2012). Recent studies also show that spirituality does correlate with subjective well-being. Holder, Coleman and Wallace (2008) found that spirituality predicted children’s’ level of happiness, above and beyond their religious practices. Cohen (2002) found that both spirituality, along with religiosity, were correlates of happiness amongst Jews and Christians. Collectively, it would appear that spirituality can also contribute to overall happiness and of well-being. Overview of Present Studies Presently, however, there appears to have been no study that has examined the attitudinal differences towards materialism and spirituality amongst younger and older adults, and how these might impact individual levels of happiness. One might argue that the pursuit of materialistic gains and materialistic accomplishments may be more evident in younger, relative to older adults. Indeed, Chaplin and John (2007) found that materialism does increase from when an individual is in middle childhood to when they are adolescents, and decreases from early to late adolescence. Interestingly, these researchers also find that materialism decreases with high self-esteem, evidencing the possibility that security with oneself and one’s accomplishments diminishes the need to persistently be materialistic. There is a lack of research that extends beyond these age groups – many studies tended to focus on samples of young adults and adolescents (Chan & Prendergast, 2007; Chan, 2003; Doldberg et al., 2003; Dittmar & Pepper, 1994). An exception to this is a study by Roales-Nieto and Segura (2010), who found evidence of intergenerational differences in materialistic values in their study of 449 Spanish respondents across three age groups. More importantly, there is no study that directly compares the differential effects of both materialism and spirituality on happiness across varying age groups. In this study, the “young adults” category refers to persons between 25-39 years of age inclusive; “middle adults” refer to persons ages between 40-65 years old inclusive (Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2009). In order to examine the role of materialism and spirituality in happiness, we adopted a mixed methods research design which involves collecting and analysing both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating findings, and drawing inferences using both methods in a single study or a program of inquiry (Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). In particular, we adopted a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, in which we first collected and analyzed quantitative data, followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data (Creswell & Clark, 2011). The use of a mixed design has significant relevance as it enables the researcher to study the research topic from different perspectives (Creswell & Clark, 2011). Relying only on a single approach would have been inadequate,

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 8 given the complexity and of how materialism and spirituality interact in influencing levels of happiness across varying age groups. As such, this research domain demands an approach which allows these concepts to be viewed through a lens that allows subjectivity, diversity and multiplicity. Study 1 - Quantitative Study The quantitative phase of this study examines the relationship between materialism, spirituality and happiness across varying age groups. Studies have found that significant correlations between spirituality and age (Moberg, 2002; Dalby, 2006; Turesky & Schultz, 2010). Turesky and Schultz, (2010) posits that individuals shift their externally-oriented focus in their first half of life to an inward orientation that involves finding meaning and making sense of their life. Thus, it is reasonable to infer that spirituality increases with age because as one ages, one's prime focus in life also changes. For young adults, establishing a successful career and settling down with becomes paramount (Wink & Dillon, 2002). Therefore:

Hypothesis 1: Persons in young adulthood (25-39 years of age) will score significantly higher on materialism than those in middle adulthood (40-65 years of age).

Hypothesis 2: Persons in middle adulthood (40-65 years of age) will score significantly higher on spirituality than those in young adulthood (25-39 years of age).

Part of happiness involves the fulfilment of one's desires and hence, happiness should increase when one meets those desires (Heathwood, 2006; Seligman & Royzman, 2003). However, attainment of happiness based solely on materialistic gains would not be long- lasting, in part due to the escalation of one's aspirations upon attainment of such materialistic desires (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Evidence for the insatiable of such desire was evident from a poll conducted by Chicago Tribune (1997; as cited in Csikszentmihalyi, 1999), which showed that individuals whose earnings were below $30,000 a year they would be happier if they could earn $50,000 a year; whereas those who had an annual income of $100,000 a year said they would be satisfied if their annual income increased to $250,000 (Chicago Tribune, 1997; as cited in Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). This suggests that the ballooning of desires and discontent makes it virtually impossible to find happiness through

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 9 materialistic pursuits. Conversely, as finding purpose and meaning in life is an important attribute of spirituality, a person who is high on spirituality would be more likely to see purpose and meaning in their life and their work. As such, they are more likely to interpret adverse situations as either opportunities or positive challenges. Accordingly, instead of distress, they would experience eustress and suffer little detriment, and as a result, experience more sustained levels of happiness. Differing levels of importance placed on either materialistic or spiritual values would thus be expected to correlate with individual happiness and well-being. As such:

Hypothesis 3: There is a negative correlation between materialism and happiness among respondents in young and middle adulthood.

Hypothesis 4: There is a positive correlation between spirituality and happiness among respondents in young and middle adulthood.

Method Design Study 1 adopted a cross-sectional, correlational survey design. Respondents from the two age groups provided their responses on the survey consisting of measures for materialism, spirituality and happiness.

Participants Statistical power analysis was conducted using the G*Power software (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner & Lang, 2009), with an effect size of .5 and desired power of .80, which returned a minimum recommended sample size of 67 participants. We sampled 235 Malaysian adults, aged 25 to 65 years of age through snowball sampling. Our final sample size consisted of 210 after removal of incomplete questionnaires. Table 1 denotes the demographic details of participants for this study.

Table 1 Demographic Details of the Participants

Number Percentage Age Group

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 10

Young adults (25-39yrs) 114 54.2 % Middle adults (40-65 yrs) 96 45.7 % Gender Male 77 36.6 % Female 133 63.3 % Buddhist 92 43.8 % Christian 45 21.4 % Muslim 18 8.5 % Hindu 7 3.3 % Taoist 3 1.4 % Nil/Non-believer 45 21.4 % Job Managerial position 61 29 % Professional 23 10.9 % Support Staff 83 39.5 % Unemployed 43 20.4 %

Materials Materialism. Richins' (2004) 15-item Material Value Scale (MVS) was used to measure materialism. This is a widely used scale in consumer research (Dittmar, Bond, Hurst & Kasser, 2014) and is reported to be reliable at .86 (Richins, 2004). The MVS includes items that assesses the extent to which respondents perceive material possessions as measures of success, whether such possessions are central to life and the view that possessions bring happiness (Richins, 2004). Items include "The things I own say a lot about how well I'm doing in life", "I admire people who own expensive homes, cars, and clothes" and "I'd be happier if I could afford to buy more things". All items were assessed on a 5-point Likert type scale, where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree. Spirituality. Spirituality was measured using Parsian and Dunning's (2009) Spirituality Questionnaire (SQ). This 29-item scale consists of five subscales measuring self- awareness, the importance of spiritual beliefs in life, spiritual practices, spiritual needs and an open question on meaning of spirituality. The questionnaire is reliable with the Cronbach's alpha of .94 (Parsian & Dunning, 2009), and includes items such as, "My spirituality helps me define the goals I for my life", "I use silence to get in touch with my inner self" and "I am searching for a purpose in life". All items were assessed on a 4-point Likert type scale, where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree.

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 11

Happiness. We used the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, 1985) to measure the individual's level of happiness. This is a widely used scale consisting of 5 items such as "I am satisfied with life" and "In most ways my life is close to my ideal". This scale is reliable at .87 (Diener et al. 1998; 2002) and was recommended for wide range of age groups (Pavot, Diener, Colvin & Sandvik, 1991). The items used a 7-point Likert type scale, ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 7 = Strongly Agree. Demographics. Participants also provided demographic details including age, gender, faith, occupation, job designation in the survey. Participants provided their age as a whole number, and was thus considered a continuous (rather than categorical) variable during the data collection phase.

Procedure Questionnaires packs were distributed in person to participants. The packs included details regarding the study, informed forms, as well as the questionnaires themselves. Participants were requested to complete the demographic questions, prior to completing the MVS, SQ and SWLS measures upon agreement to participate in the study. Completed questionnaires were returned to the researcher in a sealed envelope, and were sorted according to either the young adult (ages 25-39) or middle adult (ages 40-65) categories. Scores on the three measures were totalled, and, prior to hypothesis testing, the data set was screened for outliers. A casewise diagnostic test revealed no extreme values, and as such, we proceeded with the hypothesis tests.

Results Hypotheses 1 and 2: Comparison of materialism and spirituality across age groups Two independent t-tests were conducted to assess if there were significant differences in scores of materialism and spirituality between young and middle adult groups. As shown in Figure 1, there is a significant difference between the two groups in terms of their inclination towards materialism and spirituality. Young adults scored significantly higher on materialism (M = 42.43, SD = 6.15) relative to middle adults (M = 37.49, SD = 8.13), t(176.92) = 4.75, p < .00, r = .33, 95% CI = [2.89, 7.00]. The r value of .33 denotes a medium effect size (Cohen, 1992). A significant difference is also found in scores of spirituality between the two age groups. Specifically, middle adults scored significantly higher on spirituality (M = 91.79, SD = 9.89) than young adults (M = 87.06, SD = 8.56). The mean

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 12 scores on the SQ across these two groups are significant, t(186.18) = -3.54, p < .00, r = .25, 95% CI = [-7.36, -2.09]. Figure 1. Graph showing comparison of materialism and spirituality between the two age groups

Hypotheses 3 and 4: Correlations between materialism, spirituality and happiness Results of the correlational analysis showed that there is a significant correlation between materialism and happiness. As predicted by Hypothesis 1, there was a significant, and negative relationship between materialism and happiness (r = -.23, p < .01). Results also showed a significant, and positive association between spirituality and happiness (r = .38, p < .01). Collectively, these provide support for Hypotheses 3 and 4 – materialism is inversely correlated with happiness, while spirituality is positively associated with individual levels of happiness. Table 2 Correlation Between Materialism and Happiness; Spirituality and Happiness M S.D. 1 2 3 1. Materialism 2.66 .49 2. Spirituality 3.08 .32 -.32** 3. Happiness 3.54 .74 -.23** .38** N=210 **Correlation is significant at the p <.01 level (two-tailed)

Discussion: Study 1 Results from the quantitative study showed there is a significant difference in between young adults and middle adults in relation to their materialism and spirituality. Specifically, young adults reported higher levels of materialism, relative to middle adults. The difference in the focus in their lives could explain this of results. While young adults are more

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 13 focused on establishing their careers and family life (Wink & Dillon, 2002), middle adults are more focused on seeking answers to existential questions such as purpose and meaning in life (Cohen, 2009; as cited in Santrok, 2013). The finding suggests that a reduction in materialism and greater engagement in spirituality may be better positioned to sustain long-term happiness. The results also suggest a negative correlation between materialism and happiness, as well as a positive correlation between spirituality and happiness. These findings are consistent with past research indicating that while prioritizing extrinsic goals as part of life’s pursuits results in lower levels of happiness. Ascribing greater importance in pursuing intrinsic goals results in higher levels of happiness (Deci & Ryan, 1987; 2006). In effect, individuals who prioritize materialistic aims and goals are pursuing extrinsic goals, whereas an individual who prioritizes spirituality is emphasizing intrinsic goals (Spurr, Berry & Walker, 2013). The pattern of results obtained in the present quantitative study suggest that focusing on extrinsic goals leads to diminished levels of happiness, and that happiness is more likely experienced when individuals focus more on intrinsically-rewarding aims in their lives.

Study 2 (Qualitative) The second phase was a basic qualitative study aimed at exploring the initial findings of the quantitative study in greater depth. This study was premised on the social constructivist . is viewed from this paradigm as varied and subjective (Creswell, 2013). Given the nature of spirituality as an that varies across individuals, exploring spirituality through a socially-constructed perspective allows the researchers to facilitate a deeper exploration how it shapes individual's experience of happiness. Method Data for the qualitative study were collected through semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews are in-depth discussions consist of several predetermined questions that also accommodate the use of follow-up questions and probes. These follow-up question allow researchers to probe interviewees for further which may be useful in more fully subjective accounts and (Dicicco-Blook & Crabtree, 2006; Balcaite, 2013). Sample Eleven (11) middle adults were recruited for this study. The middle adults for this qualitative study consisted of those who had provided responses to the initial survey study,

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 14 and were those who scored high on both spirituality and happiness, but low on materialism. Our rationale for the selection of these individuals was made on the reasoning that these middle adults would be able to shed further on the links between spirituality, materialism and happiness. Owing to their age and experience, these more mature adults would be able to reflect on additional, more varied experiences over the course of their lives, and offer insight into the evolution of their views on materialism and spirituality from their youth to present day. Nonetheless, we also interviewed one young adult who scored high on spirituality and happiness, but low on materialism to further bolster our resulting understandings of the these three concepts in relation to one another. Such participants were considered information-rich participants, integral to what Merriam (2009) refers to as ‘information-rich cases.’ Procedure Participants were invited to participate in the study via personal contact, after the researchers identify scores from the questionnaire that matched the purposive sampling criteria. Further, only participants who explicitly indicated willingness to participate in the follow-up interview were contacted. Interviews were conducted in quiet locations convenient to the interviewees. Upon providing consent to participate in the study, all interviews began with general questions in the interest of building rapport with the interviewees. We asked open-ended questions such as, “How do you compare materialism and spirituality in terms of bringing you happiness in life?” and “Looking back, what is your outlook in life now, as compared to a time when you were less interested in spirituality?” Where possible, we asked questions that would encourage interviewees to compare and reflect upon the differences between materialism and spirituality, as well as contrast between life experiences during different stages of their lives. Validity of the accounts were enhanced through member- checking, which involved frequent paraphrasing of participant responses and use of clarification-type questions (Creswell, 2013). All interviews lasted at least 45 minutes. At the end of each interview, participants were thanked and given a supermarket voucher amounting to RM20. All interviews were audio and video-recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Interview transcripts were emailed to interviewees as an additional form of member-checking, and aids in enhancing the accuracy of the qualitative data collected (Creswell, 2013). Minor changes were suggested to by the interviewees, further enhancing the fidelity and accuracy of the interview accounts.

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 15

Data Analysis The qualitative data were analysed though thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The first step of any qualitative data analysis, however, begins with in-depth familiarization with the data, which can be achieved through listening, and re-listening the interview recordings as well as reading and re-reading the interview transcripts (O’Connor & Gibson, 2003). In order to gain an in-depth understanding of the experiences, the researchers spent considerable time reading the transcripts and making notes alongside each paragraph. The thematic analysis began with open coding, whereby all useful, relevant and potentially important units of data were highlighted for further categorization. This was followed by selecting and placing relevant and interpretable units of data (words or phrases) from interviewee responses and categorizing recurrent words or phrases into distinct clusters or categories (Merriam, 2009). This process was repeated, moving backwards and forwards between the codes and resulted in 27 categories. This process of categorizing is known as axial coding (Merriam, 2009). Five themes emerged from these 27 categories. Creswell (2013) emphasized the intercoder agreement as the main form of reliability check. For this study, the researcher and an independent coder reviewed the transcripts and conducted the open and axial coding stages separately. This resulted in an 86% level of concurrent between coders, suggesting reliability of the qualitative data analysis. Results Theme 1: Materialism provides subsistence but breeds dissatisfaction. Participants mentioned that having material values does encourage and motivate on towards addressing basic subsistence needs. However, beyond this subsistence level, materialism was perceived as an unstable source of happiness because of its temporariness and fragility. This first theme is consistent with findings on the impermanence of happiness stemming from material gains (Brickman, Coates & Janoff-Bulman, 1978). Materialistic values diminishes happiness for two key . Firstly, the pleasure of acquiring new material possessions overwhelms and diminishes old pleasures. Thus, possessions that were previously elicited happiness are relegated to the mundane and become less enjoyable over time. Second, the thrill of acquisition and novelty associated with new purchases wears off quickly. One participant states this clearly:

Material happiness are temporary. If you buy something, you'll be happy for one week. After one week, you are no longer happy. (P11)

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The pursuit of materialism is described as being unable to bring lasting happiness and is one that breeds dissatisfaction. The more one acquires, the more one’s expectations increase. When these are not met or not met quickly enough, disappointment sets in. This is consistent with hedonic adaptation theory, which explains that because we quickly adapt to changes in our desire levels, material possessions have a limited ability to provide lasting satisfaction and happiness (Kasser, 2002). The of this theme is reflected in several participants' views:

The thing about materials is the (that) you can always want and never stop wanting. It will never satisfy you completely. (P9)

You need to fulfil some basics first. After that you will look for some spiritual. Because beyond a certain limit, you add any figure, it’s just a number only. You have 10 million or 100 million to me is the same. (P1)

Beyond that, it can get dangerous when we want more and more. We become unhappy when we cannot get more. (P3)

Theme 2: Contentment stems from recognition of harmonious relationships, can be cultivated through gratitude, and is distinct from the satisfaction of material gain. A commonly reported habit amongst participants was the conscious act of identifying aspects of their life to be grateful for. This often extended beyond material gains, in that interviewees mentioning that they are most grateful for connectedness and personal achievements that are distinct from material gains. Gratitude appeared to play a key role in extending on feelings of contentment, and was seen both as a habit, and an antidote against feelings of dissatisfaction. One participant related how feelings of gratitude towards her own personal achievements contributed to her feelings of happiness:

...before I sleep at night, I have this habit of trying to identify at least 3 things which I can be happy about, having gratitude about it; 3 things to be grateful (for). That gives me a sense of, "Yes, I have achieved something today. (P4)

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That said, personal achievements were not about major accomplishments, but by simply having harmonious family and seeing one’s children grow up well. Such harmonious relationships were also cited as personal accomplishments which played a vital role in happiness. As mentioned by a civil engineer:

I feel that I have achieved something in my life. I have a family, I have two lovely kids and they are also quite well behaved...it at least satisfied me. (P1)

Being able to say "I have enough" was cited as a major factor for happiness. A 63 year old retiree held the view that as the nature of human desire is limitless, if left unchecked, it continuously fans the fire of discontent. In his opinion, if one learns how to assess one’s situation objectively and acquire the attitude of “having enough”, there will be lower expectations and thus fewer disappointments, resulting in a happy state of . The habit of counting one's blessings at the end of each day, such as recalling the kindness of others towards oneself or recognizing advantages that one has, go towards enhancing one's sense of gratitude and contentment. This was reflected in the following accounts:

So to me the key to my happiness is that I am satisfied with what I have. No aspiration to get more. (P6)

Usually I would tell people that to be happy, number one is to be grateful. Always, at the end of the day think about what we have done today even if minor, minor things- whom have we benefited, whom have we made happy-the more people we made happy, the happier we would be. (P4)

Indeed, when participants reflected on these connections, they also hinted on a sense of gratitude and contentment stemming from the more relational, and less material contributes of their happiness and overall well-being.

Family members are living quite harmoniously together, so that also provides satisfaction. (P3)

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For me, my family, husband, people who are my immediate family, their wellbeing is very important for my happiness. .... I don't want to see them suffer. That would make me very upset. (P7)

Theme 3: The meaning and role of spirituality is subjective, varied, and extends beyond religiosity. Analysis of interviewee accounts also paints a complex, multi-faceted perspective of spirituality. That is, interviewees understood spirituality in many different dimensions. Some interviewees saw spirituality as a set of secular guiding to navigate life better. This involved applying universal concepts such as patience, kindness and compassion towards others as well as oneself. The view was that without these principles, one would face difficulties in relating with others. One interviewee, a management consultant by profession, regarded spirituality as a framework to aid in successful management of one’s life:

Being spiritual means you are able to learn how to manage yourself. It is more about managing yourself. And also to deal with a lot of the negative emotions… I think spirituality...is actually the principles for you to live (by) so that you know how to deal with people in general and of course other and the environment as well. (P11)

It is evident that spirituality goes beyond religiosity. This was expressed by a senior lecturer who felt that spirituality involves helping others, and goes beyond simply attending, or participating in religious ceremonies or practices. It was interesting to note that this participant mentions that even attending church regularly may not become a spiritual act if motivated by self-interest. Participants expressed their sense of spirituality as characterized by compassion, kindness and connecting meaningfully with others, regardless of religiosity. According to him, spirituality is about serving others and connecting with others through selfless deeds:

Spirituality encompasses your use to others. How you serve others. Your connection with others. If I am a very religious person but for my own benefit, then I would think that the person has low spirituality. Spirituality is a connection between you and others. Doing things selflessly for others. (P4)

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So for me, being spirituality is when you deal with people, showing your and compassion. (It) doesn't what religion it is. (P7)

The positive role that spirituality played in the lives of many of the participants was as varied as the interviewees interpretations of the term. For some, spirituality helped sustain happiness by bringing about a greater level of awareness to self and others. Participants also frequently mentioned how spirituality aided their regulation of unpleasant emotions such as . These participants recalled, and reflected upon temperamental outbursts as being a feature of a spiritually deprived life. Involvement in spiritual pursuits altered their view of others and brought greater awareness of others in terms of their having capabilities too and deserving compassionate treatment. This increased their empathy for others, which subsequently had a positive impact on their interactions with others. The habit of engaging in conflict was curbed and replaced with a more sincere and compassionate approach. One participant, a banker, relates this aspect of spirituality:

It has helped me change the way I interact with people. I recognize that you are like me. You also have the ability. Maybe at this moment, you don't recognize it but this doesn't stop me from being or dealing with you in a compassionate manner. (P7)

This viewed was echoed by others participants too. A human resource manager described how she became more mindful through being more spiritual. She likened her mindfulness as an alarm bell that warned her to slow down before reacting to a particular situation. That helped her manage anger, which helped improved interpersonal relationships at work and with her relatives and increasing her overall happiness:

I think I'm a lot happier now. For me one of the things I struggled with, earlier in my life, I think anger was one area I was good at… having a stronger introspection, sort of like someone saying "Hold on, hold on", having some alarm bells helping me to realize how am I feeling and how am I reacting to the situation (P6)

Spirituality’s role in the regulation of unpleasant, potentially destructive emotions such as anger also aided interviewees’ ability to be conscious of their own and perceptions of others. Oftentimes, such perceptions are recognized by participants as being biased, or based on assumptions that may not necessarily reflect fairly on the other

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 20 individual. Collectively, these emotion-regulation and perspective-taking aspects of spirituality appear to link with the of compassion. To these participants, spirituality encourages behaviours that promote a sense of compassion that is other-directed, rather than fixated on one’s own personal interests. This was reflected in the following accounts:

Always treat the person who is the most nasty to you, (the one who) causes you the most harm, as the most precious.... By having that thinking, I think it helps. She (the boss) actually used to shout a lot and caused me many weeks of not sleeping well. I think if I were to look at her as a very nasty person, then it’s very difficult for me to move on. So what I learnt from there when I look back is I can also do the same thing like her. I can also shout at her. I can also throw things back but what I learnt is to be patient and treat that person as someone who teaches me lots of patience. (P11)

When people say not so good things about me, I used to get affected a lot. Now when I reflect, I think that there are causes and effect for her to say or maybe I've done something before. So I don't get angry or upset about things that are not so kind and try to hopefully learn something from the criticism. (P3)

The effects of spirituality across different in an individual’s life was also clearly expressed by several interviewees. Of particular note was the that being, and practicing spirituality, led to longer-lasting, more authentic happiness that extends beyond happiness from material gains. Indeed, a more spiritual approach to life appears to sustain participants’ sense of well-being, even when one was comparatively (and materially) better off before:

In terms of wealth, four years ago and now, I am wealthier. But four years ago, I had a better job, now I don't have that. I have a good job but not a prestigious job. Am I happier now? Yes, I am holistically happier. Last time, I was happy in only one dimension, which was my job. Today I'm happy because nuclear family, my sisters, my friends. I have a lot more friends now. (P5)

For some participants, the role of spirituality extended to shaping priorities and goals. Realizing that material possessions are impermanent in nature and hence relying on them to bring happiness is pointless. The priority for these participants shifted from material gains to selflessly helping others as a source of joy and meaning in life. Such accounts further

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 21 establish the link between spirituality and compassion. An example cited was that for a person who recently went to help build a school for children in Cambodia shared his experience:

We went to the school and we (bought) building materials, we repair(ed) the school, brought many books... there in Cambodia. We no longer thought about buying the next biggest house or buying the next most expensive car and the next new gadgets (P11)

Some participants cited spirituality as a source of self-confidence. To a young psychology graduate, her sense of spirituality, from her faith in God, provided her with a great source of confidence, purpose and strength, and helped her through times of discouragement and need. Strong faith and trust in God not only inspired her to be an example of Christ to others but also to control undesirable emotions such as anger and display positive emotions such as love and compassion

The basic for me that God me no matter what. So that's the assurance for me… I will get disappointment, I know that I can turn to the truth that God knows what's best for me and then I can let go my disappointment. (P9)

Spirituality, of course, extends beyond religiosity, and for interviewees who did not believe in a creator God, their sense of spirituality was derived from realizing how one’s actions can leave a permanent, positive and lasting effect on those around them. For instance, a participant who is a medical doctor derived confidence and a sense of security by relying on the concept that death is not the end and one has a to live a virtuous, principled life now for a better future outcome:

It gives me confidence that when one passes on, it’s not like sunset into darkness. There is future life and reincarnation, if we wish to be in a better place, there is a chance. (P3)

Theme 4: Self-awareness, gratitude and helping others as ingredients of spirituality. Analysis of the accounts and experiences paints a complex and varied series of links between materialism, spirituality and happiness. Owing to the more ‘tangible’ nature of materialism, it

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 22 was evident that participant accounts reflected a more concrete recognition of how material possession and acquisitions were not contributors to long-lasting happiness. Descriptions and accounts related to spirituality, however, tended to be more indirect and at times, tacit. Participants described spirituality as an approach, a means by which one can lead a more virtuous, and happier life. This involved cultivating a and practicing behaviours that was more other-oriented. That is, spirituality, as defined and understood by this set of participants, related more towards one’s actions towards others. Indeed, when asked for advice on how to be happy, interviewees’ suggestions revolved around one of three elements: be self-aware, be grateful, and help others.

I think you need to make a self-discovery first, of yourself. You need to get your bearings right, know what really to you. (P7)

And happiness doesn't come from material things. It comes from other people, comes from helping people. I think that is if everybody can understand, everybody will be happy. (P11)

Being grateful and having contentment were two frequently cited ingredients for happiness. Whether one is wealthy or poor, the level of contentment determines whether that person is happy or not. While a rich person can be unhappy because of the lack of contentment and gratitude for his/her situation, a poor person can be happy by simply being satisfied with the little that one has, suggesting that happiness comes from within. A mere change of attitude can have transformative effects. Having material possessions appears to detract from an individual’s ability to be grateful, breeds unhealthy comparisons, and focus on material possessions at the expense of a more spiritually-fulfilling life.

You see simple people living simple lives and they are happy. But there are simple people living simple lives but are not happy. Why? Because they keep comparing. So the mind-set and heart there is no alignment internally. (P5)

Because it comes from the mind. You don't need (to be rich). The poor can be very happy people because they've no expectations. If they have spirituality in the mind, the monks have nothing and I think they are basically happier than the average person in the street. (P10)

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 23

Yes, you have to be contented with what you have. That contentment will also give you opportunities to sort of do work which you like and do things you like, like now I love to walk." (P6A50)

Participants were inclined to highlight two vital aspects to spirituality: The inner aspect of self-awareness and contentment; and the outer aspect of helping others. The secret formula for happiness offered was to balance these two, neatly summarized in the following statement:

It’s a balance between looking inside, feeling contentment and looking outward (by) contributing your happiness towards the happiness of others. (P4)

Discussion: Study 2 The interviews with 11 participants highlighted the role of spirituality in their happiness and provided some suggestions for a happy life. Their views are consistent with Seligman's (2002) theory which states that happiness can be achieved through the cultivation of three key dimensions, namely, pleasantness, goodness and meaningfulness. Living a pleasant life focuses on the momentary experience of pleasant emotions, which can be cultivated through gratitude and adopting an optimistic and hopeful outlook in one’s life (Seligman, 2002). Many participants emphasized gratitude, contentment and personal achievements as important contributors to their happiness. Living a good life is about recognizing one's strengths and enhancing one's life through them. Participants frequently raised the value of self-awareness, which includes being able to identify one's strengths, in particular those of compassion and patience. They spoke of the ability to avoid reacting impulsively and the importance of self-control and , which are strengths under the of temperance (Seligman, 2002). Many participants mentioned selfless service to others without expecting anything in return. This brings meaning to one's life and this is what Seligman refers to as the meaningful life, and is particularly emphasized in the other-directed focus; to bring happiness to others.

Integrated Discussion In two studies, we examine the role of materialism and spirituality in shaping the overall happiness of both young and middle adults. In Study 1, we found a significant

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 24 difference in levels of materialism and spirituality between young and middle adult groups. Materialistic values were higher amongst young adults, relative to middle adults, whereas spirituality was higher among middle adults than young adults. Results from the quantitative study also indicated a negative correlation between materialism and happiness, while a significant positive association was found between spirituality and happiness. In Study 2, we extend on these findings and sought to understand these associations from a more subjective, qualitative perspective. Results based on the interview accounts paint a complex interplay between materialism, spirituality and happiness Themes were indicative of the subjective and varied nature of spirituality and how it contributes to happiness, though it was clearly expressed amongst participants that materialism did not lead to sustained levels of happiness. We discuss these two sets of findings in this integrated discussion.

Key Finding 1: Materialism and its discontents The negative correlation between materialism and happiness was also reflected in one of the themes in the qualitative segment of the study, namely, materialism provides subsistence but breeds dissatisfaction. Many participants explicitly expressed that materialism is important only in terms of providing basic needs but is not a stable source of happiness. This finding is consistent with past studies (Kasser, 2002; Kasser & Ryan, 1993; 1996; Richin & Dawson, 1990; 1992; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). Kasser and Ryan (1993; 1996) examined the relationship between specific aspects of materialism with specific aspects of happiness, for example, the inverse relationship between ascribing importance to financial success and self-actualization. The data collected from participants who were managerial staff and support staff indicated that more money does not equate with higher levels of happiness. Ascribing paramount importance to wealth in the pursuit of happiness may be an exercise in futility. This is concordant with the large body of studies (Diener & Oishi, 2000; Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002; Easterlin, 1974; Easterlin, 1995; Easterlin, 2001; Inglehart, 1996; Inglehart & Klingemann, 2000; Pukeliene & Kisieliauskas, 2013) on income and happiness that reported the non-significant effect of money on happiness. Materialistic values may impede the attainment of long-lasting happiness as it creates the impression that that, despite the rigorous pursuit of material goals, the terminal outcome of such pursuits are always beyond one’s reach (Solberg, Diener & Robinson, 2004). Hedonic adaptation towards material possessions creates, and maintains a discrepancy between what one desires and what one is able to obtain. This, ultimately, leads to dissatisfaction and discontent (Michalos, 1985; 2008). This escalation of aspiration and

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 25 material wants is also highlighted by Csikszentmihalyi (1999) and Solberg and colleagues (2004), who state that the pursuit of additional wealth beyond basic necessity ceases to provide incremental meaning to one’s life. The negative association between materialism and happiness is also explained by the accounts from the qualitative study. Materialism discourages feelings of contentment, which appear to be important in the cultivation of long- lasting happiness. Norris and Larsen (2011) suggest that the absence of contentment creates a ‘have-want’ discrepancy, resulting in disappointment and unhappiness that can only be sated after acquiring the desired item. Materialism also strains social relationships. This is because materialistic individuals direct their energies and efforts towards acquiring material possessions and hence very little is invested in non-materialistic goals such as personal relationships (Solberg et al., 2004). Materialistic individuals are more likely to lack quality relationships with their friends and family. Consequentially, they are less happy. Solberg and colleagues (2004) argue that there is normally a trade-off between having materialistic goals and quality relationships. Those who scored high on materialism were found to have poorer social relationships. The qualitative data revealed frequent statements with regards to caring for their as well as others and having harmonious relationships as contributors to their happiness, above and beyond that of material gains. This finding echoes the point that social relationships are a key ingredient for a happy life and a predictor of happiness (Diener & Seligman, 2002; 2004). This may be one of the reasons why participants highlighted the importance of cultivating and being grateful for social relationships, as a panacea against discontent and dissatisfaction.

Key Finding 2: Happiness through spirituality – contentment from within, contributing to others Findings from the qualitative study highlight that the pathway from spirituality to happiness can be enhanced through positive emotions such as gratitude and contentment. Both of these emotions appear closely linked with one another. Respondents alluded to the sense of gratitude and contentment as a buffer against repeated dissatisfaction and challenges in their lives. Gratitude is vital in achieving and maintaining long-lasting happiness (Seligman, 2002), while contentment enhances individual satisfaction and encourages an optimistic outlook towards their current circumstances (Larsen & McKibban, 2008). Both gratitude and contentment revolve less around one’s personal interests or personal gains, and more towards others, or, purposes greater than oneself. This is evident from the interview accounts. Participants who mentioned that once they shifted their focus in life shifts away

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 26 from their individual, materialistic pursuits that benefits only oneself, they experienced greater levels of happiness and contentment. While materialism appears to breed discontent by encouraging the individual to look inward and towards one’s personal interests, spirituality encourages the opposite. The cultivation of other-directed happiness, by being compassionate and serving others, appears to a more consistent contributor towards sustained happiness. This study also examined the levels of materialism and spirituality between two age groups: young adults (25-39 years of age inclusive) and middle adults (40-65 years of age inclusive). As hypothesized, young adults were found to be more materialistic than middle adults and middle adults were found to be more spiritual than young adults. These findings echo those of earlier studies that spirituality increases with age (Moberg, 2002; Turesky & Schultz, 2010). The prime focus of young adults is establishing a successful career and settling down with family while for middle adults, an individual’s focus shifts towards contributing to the community (Wink & Dillon, 2002). Spirituality, in this sense, may be in part due to maturation gained through the course of one’s life and experiences, and is consistent with the notion that individuals shift their focus from one of external orientation to inward orientation in their second half of life (Turesky & Schultz, 2010). Combining the quantitative and qualitative results to arrive at a holistic approach to achieving happiness, the answer is to divert one's time and energy away from materialistic pursuits towards pursuits that develop inner qualities as stated above. Implications The findings of this study may contribute towards the science of happiness and the roles of both materialism and spirituality determinants of overall well-being. The study highlights both the objective and subjective aspects of materialism and spirituality, and how they both inform, and shape individual experiences of subjective well-being. The positive correlation between spirituality and happiness was described by participants as largely grounded in individual feelings of contentment, gratitude and connections. Spirituality, in this sense, is not so much a mystical or ineffable experience reliant on external factors, but one grounded in the experiences ranging from being self-aware, feelings of contentment with self and gratitude towards one’s connections with others. These findings may provide a basis for a consolidated, and more universal definition of spirituality. Practically, the present study’s findings may also lend support for the development of more holistic education systems that foster self-development through spiritual pursuits, as opposed to focusing solely on materialistic goals. Recent studies found that today's teenagers are more materialistic but are

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 27 unwilling to work, a phenomenon terms as a "fantasy gap", which is caused by a gap between a fantasized acquisition and working towards achieving it (Twenge & Kasser, 2013). The assertion is that many teenagers believe that happiness lies in external, fantasized objects. The excessive focus on materialistic goals from at an early age may lower the individual’s subsequent levels of happiness and persist over the individual’s adulthood (Ruvio et al., 2014). As such, an education system that takes into account happiness and its correlates becomes essential in the development of individual well-being in youth, and this may include providing opportunities for spiritual development among adolescents and young adults. The negative association between materialism and happiness across both age groups in this study suggests that adopting materialistic values is an ineffective way towards achieving sustained happiness. The findings here provide practical suggestions that the focus on external forms of gratification, and pursuit of happiness through material possessions is likely to lead to dissatisfaction with one’s life. The study further supports established findings on the associations between income and material possessions with subjective well-being, and may aid individuals in making that would best maximize their chances for attaining authentic, long-lasting happiness. Policymakers in many parts of the world are focus heavily on economic output. However, it is questionable as to how much consideration is given to the well-being of workers who are pivotal to this output. Studies have shown that salaries/income alone do not guarantee high levels of happiness, and performance. For example, according to the Legatum Prosperity Index (2014), Singapore ranked second amongst the 142 high-income earning countries but ranked 24th in happiness rankings (Helliwell, Layard & Sachs, 2015). Moreover, Diener and Seligman (2004) detailed non-economic factors such as social capital, good health and enjoyment at work, as predictors of well-being. Hence, it is may be worthwhile for policymakers to formulate policies that include the promotion of spirituality in its broadest sense, at the workplace. The role of spirituality in the workplace is also slowly gaining additional attention and research focus. While still in its infancy, studies of spiritualty in the workplace have been in literature for the past decade (see Milliman, Czaplewski & Ferguson, 2003; Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002; Pawar, 2013; Garcia-Zamor, 2003; Benefiel, 2003), and will continue to be an avenue for further research in building a more engaged, ethical and happy work environment. Limitations and Directions for Further Research Despite the use of a mixed-methods approach, we acknowledge several limitations of the current studies. First, caution needs to be taken before inferring the differences in spirituality among the middle adult sample. We did not take measures of the middle adults’

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Materialism, spirituality and happiness 28 socioeconomic status, and this may be an influence on the extent of their materialism and happiness. A middle adult who is experiencing financial difficulty may be more inclined towards focusing on material gains, and hence adopt a more materialistic set of values rather than pursue spirituality in their lives. Given the significant findings and accounts regarding the role of spirituality in middle adults’ lives, however, we don’t see this to be a severe threat to our study’s findings. Nonetheless, further examination on the role of circumstance, and assessment of middle adults’ socio-economic status will help provide a more accurate depiction of the interrelationships between materialism, spirituality and happiness in these individuals’ lives. Second, past studies on spirituality relied mainly on Christian participants, who often viewed spirituality through the lens of their religious beliefs. While we extended on the findings by including respondents who were affiliated with other , and also those who did not identify with any religion in particular. In the present study, about one-fifth (20.4%) of the participants were identified as irreligious. Post-hoc analyses revealed no significant difference between individuals on the basis of their religious affiliations, though additional research could benefit from examining individuals who rate high on spirituality and happiness, but do not profess to follow any particular set of religious teachings. This remains an under-researched area in the study of spirituality and happiness and should be an avenue for further research. Third, the Spirituality Questionnaire used in this study posed one question which appeared to invoke hesitation amongst some participants. From the demographic details, it was observed that several Muslim in particular, had difficulty answering a particular item (“I meditate to achieve inner peace”), and often left this item blank. As a result, these incomplete responses were removed from the final data set. Reliability analyses of the SQ, however, revealed no major irregularities – the measures did not suffer a substantial drop in reliability even with the removal of this item. As such, the SQ was retained in its current form for the purposes of this study. Nonetheless, future studies using questionnaires of similar content may want to replace words like "meditation" with "contemplation" to alleviate any religious sensitivities.

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Table 1. Demographic details of participants.

Number Percentage Age Group Young adults (25-39yrs) 114 54.2 % Middle adults (40-65 yrs) 96 45.7 % Gender Male 77 36.6 % Female 133 63.3 % Faith Buddhist 92 43.8 % Christian 45 21.4 % Muslim 18 8.5 % Hindu 7 3.3 % Taoist 3 1.4 % Nil/Non-believer 45 21.4 % Job categories Managerial position 61 29 % Professional 23 10.9 % Support Staff 83 39.5 % Unemployed 43 20.4 %

Figure 1. Graph showing comparison of materialism and spirituality between the two age groups

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Table 2 Correlations between Materialism and Happiness; Spirituality and Happiness

M S.D. 1 2 3 1. 2.66 .49 Materialism 2. Spirituality 3.08 .32 -.32** 3. Happiness 3.54 .74 -.23** .38** N = 210 **Correlation is significant at the p <.01 level (two-tailed)

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