Egyptian Journal of Occupational Medicine, 2021; 44 (1) : 1 - 16

Environmental Impacts of in (Review article)

By El Safty AMK and Siha MS Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University. Corresponding author: El Safty AMK . Email: [email protected]

Abstract Egyptian rapidly growing population and establishing energy-intensive industrial facilities demanded large supply of power to maintain that growth. Egypt is a country well suited for alternative energy production. It has strong, steady wind, good solar energy and the hydrothermal resources from the . The government decided to improve the diversity of energy by embracing opportunities from renewable sources as solar and wind in the , to bring the balance back to Egypt’s energy market. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) , should be considered in all stages starting from planning, site selection, type of technology used, and installing phase. Life cycle assessment tool is used as a method to know the average environmental impact of different renewable energy source for appropriate planning and proper decision making. This showed the importance of generating awareness towards environmental impact of various renewable energy systems.

Key words: Environmental impact assessment, Renewable energy, Wind energy, Solar energy and Life cycle assessment.

1 2 El Safty AMK and Siha MS

Introduction of countries (https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Renewable_energy). Background: Renewable energy is going to be an It would also diminish environmen- important source for power generation tal pollution such as air pollution caused in the future, because we can use these by burning of fossil fuels which have a resources several times to produce negative impact on human health, such valuable energy. The energy resources as respiratory and cardiovascular dis- are normally classified into fossil re- eases, reduce premature mortalities and sources, renewable, and nuclear energy decrease related health costs (Pablo- resources. Different renewable energy Romero et al., 2016). Renewable tech- resources, like hydropower, wind, solar, nologies are also appropriate to rural biomass, ocean energy, biofuel, geo- and developing countries, where energy thermal, etc., provide 15–20% of the to- is often essential in human development tal world’s energy. The world is going to (Jacobson et al, 2015). change into a global small village due to Despite the fact that Egypt is the extra need of energy due to rapid grow- largest non-OPEC oil (Organization ing of the population, which leads to the of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) use of fossil fuels like coal, gas, and oil producer in Africa and the second to fulfill the energy requirement. The largest gas producer in the continent, latter will create many problems like besides its significant role in regional depletion of fossil fuels, environmental and global energy markets, recently, and geographical conflicts, greenhouse the country’s energy status faced a effect, global warming, and fluctuation variety of conflicting and overlapping in fuel prices (Kumar, 2020). challenges that caused shortage of Renewable energy resources have energy production (Bahgat., 2013). the capability to satisfy the world’s ener- This mandates thinking of other gy demand, to protect the environment, sources than oil, natural gas, and to offer energy security and economic hydrothermal. The idea of increasing benefits. Renewable energy resources the contribution of renewable are nearby over wide geographical ar- energy to electricity production eas, in contrast to other energy sources, to face the challenges of increasing which are present in a limited number demands is adopted by the Egyptian Renewable Energy in Egypt 3

government, as Egypt has strong energy nitrogen oxide (NOx) and sulfur dioxide production capabilities. (https:// (SO2). Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are www.energycharter.org/fileadmin/ responsible for forming ground-level DocumentsMedia/Occasional/ ozone, nitric acid, and particle-phase Egypt_and_the_Charter.pdf). ammonium nitrate. Sulfur oxides react Renewable energy sources can renew in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid themselves within a short time or are and ammonium sulfate, both lead to permanently available as wind and human illnesses, visibility reduction, solar sources. The laws and legislations eutrophication and acid deposition. that have been adopted recently by the The production of electricity also have Egyptian government encouraged the high demands of water and land (http:// private sector to invest in the renewable www.conserve-energy-future.com/ energy sector and allowed the sale of disadvantages_fossilfuels.php,) electricity by individuals and companies to the national network. More efforts are Pablo-Romero et al. 2016 stated needed to revise environmental impact that greenhouse gases will elevate the assessment of renewable energy sources average temperature in the next 50 years (https://wwww.dailynewssegypt. by between 2°C and 3°C, which represent com/2020/01/15/a-positive-outlook- a hazard to the essential elements of for-renewable-energy-investments-in- human life in different parts of world: egypt/). access to water, food production, health, land use, and environment. 1- The need for renewable energy: Also, the Intergovernmental Panel on Most countries are still subsidizing Climate Change (IPCC) which is an the consumption of fossil fuels intergovernmental body of the United (cigionline.org/articles/ipcc-report- Nations that is devoted to provide will-have-profound-effects-climate-go the world with objective, scientific vernance?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIluzV1 information related to understanding the OiK6AIVWofVCh2PTgY0EAAYASA scientific basis of the danger of human- AEgKVhfD_BwE). induced climate change, its natural, Fossil-fuel combustion is the main political, and economic impacts. Its cause for the emission of carbon dioxide latest report 2018 declared a rise of

(CO2), greenhouse gases (GHG), global warming by 1.5°C of above the 4 El Safty AMK and Siha MS preindustrial levels. It also detected doubling the renewable energy share in that approximately a decade remains to the world energy mix, to 36% by 2030, keep global warming below this level will result in additional global growth and avoid the most horrible effects of off 1.1% by that year, an increase in climate change (cigionline.org/articles/ wellbeing of 3.7% and in employment in ipcc-report-will-have-profound-effects- the sector of up to more than 24 million climate-governance?gclid=EAIaIQobC people, compared to 9.2 million today. hMIluzV1OiK6AIVWofVCh2PTgY0E In many parts of the world, renewable AAYASAAEgKVhfD_BwE). energy sources represent the lowest-cost To put an end for the harmful of new power generation technology, effects and unfortunate mishaps caused and costs continue to decline. Also it by fossil fuel, urgent action should increased reliability and resilience of be implemented to change energy the energy system and energy supply. systems for increasing use of renewable 2- History of renewable energy in energy to meet the objectives of United Egypt: Nations Sustainable Development Electricity was first introduced in goal. Renewable energy are derived Egypt in 1893. The Egyptian sources from infinite hygienic sources and are of energy mixture are not properly considered now as clean, inexhaustible diversified. The three major sources and competitive to fossil fuel because of Egyptian energy production are of their diversity, abundance all over from oil and natural gas (that represent the planet. Above all they produce about 90% of population use), and the neither greenhouse gases nor polluting hydroelectric power which constitutes emissions (Shahzad , 2015). approximately 11.2% of Egypt’s power. During the last decade, the The first of which () was worldwide expansion of renewable built in 1960 to control the Nile water energy has progressed rapidly. release for irrigation. It saves from According to the International Energy 5 to 10% of Egypt’s annual energy Agency (IEA) world electricity requirements. In 1967, the High Dam demand will have increased by 70% hydropower plant was built, followed by 2040. According to the International by the construction of the Aswan-2 Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), power plant in 1985, the Isna hydro Renewable Energy in Egypt 5 power plant in 1993 and that of Naga- desert climate. The majority of solar Hamadi in 2008 (EIA, 2018)). energy available in the country was Hydropower technology depends derived from small-scale projects. So- on gravity and the height the water falls lar energy technology is obtained from down on to the turbine (Park, 2015). solar irradiance to generate electricity using photovoltaic (PV) and concen- In 1986, the Egyptian government trating solar power (CSP), to produce established of the New and Renewable thermal energy, to meet direct lighting Energy Authority (NREA) to enhance needs and, potentially, to produce fu- renewable energy placement. The els that might be used for transport and NREA focuses mainly on wind and so- other purposes (Edenhofer et al., 2011). lar technologies, and other institutions are devoted to enhance biomass devel- Egypt began laying the groundwork opment. for Benban project in the eastern region of the Sahara Desert (the first utility- 3- Renewable energy in Egypt: scale solar PV project), after enduring The recognition of the need to main- repeated blackouts, caused by severe tain diverse energy sources remains im- fuel shortages that reached their worst portant, given that Egypt is becoming point in August 2014. Benban is the increasingly dependent on a local single second best spot for solar power plants, source – gas – which also has an export behind the Chilean desert highlands. At market value. Egypt has experienced an the time, peak demand was 28 GW but energy supply deficit due to the rapid the country’s production was limited to increase in energy consumption and the just 24 GW (https://spectrum.ieee.org/ depletion of domestic oil and gas re- energywise/energy/renewables/- sources. Because of fiscal imbalances massive-18gw-benban-solar-park- and energy shortages, the government nears-completion). introduced a comprehensive program 4(b): Wind energy: According to that included renewable energy to face the National Wind Atlas, it is known that the challenges to secure adequate power Egypt enjoys strong wind at an average production. speed on 10.5 miles per second. Egypt 4(a): Solar energy: Egypt has a has accordingly started building the big- high solar availability because of hot gest wind farm, in terms of area, num- 6 El Safty AMK and Siha MS ber of turbines and capacities generated Electricity & Energy has formulated its from the plant, in the Zafarana district national strategy in the field of New and (2010) and Gabal el-Zeit area (2014) of Renewable Sources of Energy (NRSE) the Red Sea governorate (https://www. as an integral part of its global energy egypttoday.com/Article/2/62730/2018- strategy. The strategy targeted to sup- The-year-of-new-renewable-energy). ply 20% of the country’s total primary Egypt›s resolution to increase the needs, from NRSE by the year 2022 use of renewable energy sources is and 42 percent by 2035. The Priority driven in part by environmental con- has been given to wind and solar energy siderations, and in part by an interest sources (https://www.oecd.org/green- in diversification of energy supply. In growth/greening-energy/49157219. Early 1980`s , the Egyptian Ministry of pdf).

Fig. (1): Total primary energy supply in 2014/15 (IEA .,2017) Renewable Energy in Egypt 7

4(c): Geothermal energy: The health, wildlife, and global warming. most common of the geothermal This drives the governments for shifting resources of Egypt are chiefly present from fossil fuels to renewable energy along the Gulf of Suez and Red Sea for . Developing with a surface temperature range of 40 renewable energy technologies that / the - 760C. Some other areas are found in sun, the wind, and geothermal energy is the Western Desert of Egypt, near to the critical to addressing concerns about Oasis (Baharia and Dakhla). climate change and some environmental issues (Sung and Park, 2018). Hammam Faraun geothermal spring is the best place for such an investment. It is crucial to understand potential Away from the Gulf of Suez, some other environmental issues associated with thermal springs (up to 35oC) rich in each renewable energy source to address sulphur are located 25 km south of Cairo proper mitigation procedures (Sørensen close to Helwan city. In the Western et al., 2009). Desert of Egypt, hot water is produced 5(a) - Solar energy from some deep artesian wells. The temperature is in the range from 35- Environmental impact of solar 45oC. These places can be used for energy generation might include land low and direct geothermal applications use and habitat loss, water use, however (district heating “especially in winter”, manufacturing process might use of swimming pools, medical therapy, hazardous materials that vary greatly green houses, etc.) ( Lashin ,2015) depending on the technology used either it is photovoltaic (PV) solar cells )single 4- Environmental impacts of crystalline, multicrystalline, amorphous different renewable energy technology: silicon, copper-indium-gallium- All sources of energy have diselenide [CIGS] and Cadmium significant negative impact on the Telluride (CdTe) or concentrating solar environment that varies according to the thermal plants (CSP). Solar power is specific technology used. Researches reshaping energy markets around the demonstrated that fossil fuels, natural world. In the decade from 2007 and gas and oil have the most deleterious 2017 the world’s total installed energy effect on the environment including air capacity from photovoltaic panels (PV) and water pollution, damage to public increased an enormous 4,300 percent. 8 El Safty AMK and Siha MS

Solar photovoltaics module (PV) over 4,000 hours of sunshine per year, is the technology of transforming solar which is among the highest quantities energy directly to electricity, using registered in the world. Egypt installs semiconductor devices (solar cells) and one of the largest scale solar power it has experienced the most rapid cost project in the world, Benban Solar declines more than 90% since 2010. It is Park generating 1.8 GW. (https://www. stated that cost reductions in renewable nationalgeographic.com/environment/ and advances in digital technologies are energy/reference/renewable-energy/). initiating many opportunities for energy Concentrating solar thermal plants transitions (IEA, 2019). (CSP), like all thermal electric plants, The PV cell manufacturing pro- need water for cooling. Water use de- cess includes a number of unsafe ma- pends on the plant design, plant site, terials, most of which are used to clean and the kind of cooling system. and sanitize the semiconductor surface. CSP plants that use wet-recircu- These chemicals, similar to those used lating technology with cooling towers in the common semiconductor indus- withdraw between 600 and 650 gallons try, include hydrochloric acid, hydro- of water per megawatt-hour of electric- gen fluoride, acetone, sulfuric acid, ity produced. Dry-cooling technology 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and nitric acid. can reduce water use at CSP plants by The amount and type of chemicals used approximately 90 percent .However, depends on the kind of cell, the amount the tradeoffs to these water reserves are of cleaning that is needed, and the size higher costs and lower efficiencies. In of silicon wafer. Workers also face addition, dry-cooling technology is sig- hazards associated with inhaling silicon nificantly less efficient at temperatures dust (National Renewable Energy Lab- above 100 degrees Fahrenheit ( 37.70 C) oratory (NREL) (2012). (National Renewable Energy Labora- Another technology is the use tory (NREL) (2012). of solar panels called, concentrating Land impacts from utility-scale solar power (CSP), converts the sun’s solar systems can be minimized by put- light to electricity, by using mirrors ting them at lower-quality places such to concentrate the sun’s heat, deriving as brown fields, discarded mining land, thermal energy instead. Egypt receives or existing transportation and transmis- Renewable Energy in Egypt 9 sion corridors. Smaller scale solar PV (Bastasch et al., 2006) arrays, which can be built on homes or Wind turbines may also scatter commercial buildings, also have mini- electromagnetic signals causing inter- mal land use impact. ference to communication systems (Pa- However, the investment cost of tel & Shrivastava., 2009). Most wind solar power plants is currently very high power comes from onshore turbines, in comparison with fossil hydrocarbon but offshore projects are appearing based power plants (Lashin , 2015). too (Crnković et al., 2010). Offshore 5(b) –Wind energy wind facilities require large space be- cause the turbines and blades are big- Egypt has a high potential for ger than their land-based counterparts. wind energy, especially in the Red Depending on their site, such offshore Sea coast area. Wind produces no air installations may compete with differ- or water pollution, involves no toxic ent types of other sea activities, such as or hazardous substances and poses no fishing, oil and gas extraction, naviga- threat to public safety, so it is considered tion, recreational activities and aquacul- the cleanest and most sustainable mean ture (https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/ for generating electricity. Wind is also environmental-impacts-wind-power) profuse, inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes it a possible and large- 5(c) – Hydroelectric power scale alternative to fossil fuels ( Hydroelectric power includes large https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/ scale hydroelectric dams that continue environmental-impacts-renewable- to be built in many parts of the world energy-technologies) or small run-of-the-river plants and It might have challenges to wild- both are associated with environmental life and habitat and also contribute to impacts.Hydroelectric facilities aerodynamic noise from commercial can have a chief effect on aquatic wind turbines moving parts, especially ecosystems( for example, fish and other the gearbox. Technological advances, organisms can be injured and killed by such as decrease blade surface imper- turbine blades). Also it can decrease fections and using sound-absorbent ma- biological diversity or change water terials can diminish wind turbine noise quality (Patel and Shrivastava, 2009). 10 El Safty AMK and Siha MS

Flooding land for a hydroelectric than normal river water. As a result, the reservoir has an great environmental reservoir will have elevated than nor- impact: it destroys agricultural land, mal amounts of sediments and nutrients, wildlife habitat and scenic lands. In which can cultivate an excess of algae and many instances, such as the High other aquatic weeds. These weeds can Dam in Aswan, entire communities crowd out other river animal and plant- had also to be relocated to make way life, and they must be prohibited through for reservoirs. This occurred when manual harvesting or by introducing fish Lake Nasser was produced as a result that eat these plants. In addition, water of the Nile River being blocked. As a is lost through evaporation in dammed result, more than 120,000 people in reservoirs at a much advanced rate than Egypt (lower Nubia) and Sudan had in flowing rivers ( https://en.wikipedia. to be resettled. Some were moved to a org/wiki/Aswan_Dam#Environmental_ newly formed buildings along the shore and_cultural_issues) of the lake, while others were moved Reservoir water is low in dissolved more than 45 kilometers away to lands oxygen and colder than normal river that were completely foreign to them ( water. When this water is released, it https://visionlaunch.com/aswan-dam- could have negative impacts on down- environmental-impact/) .Also when the stream plants and animals. To reduce Aswan high dam was built, the entire these impacts, aerating turbines can be Temple of Abu Simbel was moved, so it placed to increase dissolved oxygen wouldn’t be flooded and damaged when and multi-level water intakes can help Lake Nasser filled up as well as also to ensure that water released from the shifted Philae, Kalabsha and Amada reservoir comes from all levels of the temples to different places to maintain reservoir, rather than just the bottom the treasures of the Ancient (which is the coldest and has the lowest safe (https://www.mbarron.net/Nile/ dissolved oxygen) (Biswas and Torta- envir_nf.html). jada , 2012) Apart from direct contact, there can 5 (d) – Biomass also be wildlife impacts both within the Biomass — plant material and ani- dammed reservoirs and downstream. mal waste — can be used to create trans- Reservoir water is usually more stagnant portation fuels and generate electricity. Renewable Energy in Egypt 11

Sources of biomass resources for pro- majority of the alkali metals ( Li,K,Na ducing electricity are various, ranging and RB) will substantially modify soil if from energy crops (like switch grass), applies as fertilizer ( Peter et al , 2013). corn stover (i.s. stalks and leaves), 6-Life Cycle Uses for to agricultural waste left behind after Environmental Impact Assessment of harvest, manure, wheat and rice straw, different Energy Sources: household garbage, vegetative and ur- Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is ban waste. Both the type of feedstock used by the national or regional scale for and the way in which it is developed environmental impact assessment that and harvested significantly affect land attempt to capture impacts from every use and the power produced from bio- phase of the project, for comparison mass (https://www.ucsusa.org/resourc- between different energy sources es/biomass-resources-united-states#. (Gagnon et al.,2002). It is a method VurSfuIrIdU) to characterize the average impact of Biomass power plants have some a typical facility for comparisons and similarities with fossil fuel power planning and is commonly reported plants: both involve the combustion with a Net Energy Ratio (NER). NER of a feedstock to generate electricity. is defined as the ratio of useful energy Thus, biomass plants were like, but not output to the network to the fossil or identical, concerns about air emissions nuclear energy consumed during the and water use as fossil fuel plants lifetime of the project starting from (https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/ the extraction of raw materials to the environmental-impacts-renewable- decommissioning of a facility and energy-technologies). The main the disposal of equipment. Life-cycle outcome of aching is bonding of oxygen emissions from renewable energy in the ash mainly as oxides, silicate, use are small compared with those phosphates, hydroxides, and carbonate from fossil fuel plants. (https://books. residual minerals. Carbon is partially google.de/books?id=FZ2VUOX1gb retained as carbonates and graphite AC&pg=PA119&dq=Life+Cycle+U (charcoal). Nitrogen is dominantly ses+of+Energy&hl=en&sa=X&ved= released to the flue gas, while sulfur is 0ahUKEwjlgNqe3ODnAhXoQhUIH mostly retained in the ash sulfates. The dylAOgQ6AEIbDAI#v=onepage&q 12 El Safty AMK and Siha MS

=Life%20Cycle%20Uses%20of%20 lar energy, the strength of the resource Energy&f=false). (which will affect the capacity factor of For renewable energy sources, NERs the installed technology) is also a critical are expected to be greater than one, indi- assumption. For silicon PV specifically, cating a positive return of energy invest- the NER is highly dependent upon the ment. For fossil-fuel and nuclear technol- thickness of the wafer and the efficiency ogies, NERs are smaller than one, with of the cell/module produced. The highest average estimates of 0.3, 0.4, and 0.3 for estimated NERs are generally for wind, coal, natural gas, and nuclear power, re- followed by biopower and then solar PV spectively. Renewable energy sources (Fig.2). Hydropower is also expected to NERs are strongly influenced by a num- have high NERs, although the results ber of underlying assumptions, such as shown in the graph, from a single study, plant capacity and life expectancy. For are not as high as anticipated (Gagnon et electricity generation from wind and so- al., 2002).

Figure (2): Net energy ratios for various renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Source: NAS/NAE/NRC, 2010a. (https://www.nap.edu/ read/12619/chapter/7#198) Renewable Energy in Egypt 13

7-Conclusion Large Dams: A Global Assessment, 379 Water Resources Development and Management, The type of renewable sources of DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-23571-9_17. energy and its intensity of environmental Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/234129914_Impacts_of_the_High_ impacts varies depending on the Aswan_Dam geographic location, the specific 4. Crnković D , Šljivac D and Stojkov M (2010): technology used, and a number of other Influence of Wind Power Plants on Power System Operation – Part One: Wind Power Plant factors. By understanding the current Operation and Network Connection Criteria. and possible environmental issues Tehnički vjesnik; 17(1): 101-8. related with each renewable energy 5. Edenhofer O, Pichs C, Madruga R, Sokona Y, Seyboth K, source, we can act to effectively avoid et al., (2011): Renewable Energy or reduce these impacts as they become Sources and Climate Change a greater part of our electric supply. Mitigation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139151153 8-Recommendations: 6. EIA (Energy Information Administration) (2018): Country Analysis Brief: Egypt. To meet the ambitions of renewable Retrieved from: https://www.eia.gov/beta/ energy targets set by the government, international/analysis_includes/countries_long/ Egypt/egypt.pdf. and https://energypedia.info/ studying the adverse environmental wiki/Egypt_Energy_Situation#Hydro. impacts of various sources is mandatory. 7. Gagnon L, Belanger C and Uchiyama Y (2002): Awareness by EIA is needed for Life-cycle assessment of electricity generation options: The status of research in year 2001. planning, based on preventive approach Energy Policy; 30(14):1267-8. DOI: 10.1016/ before installing any renewable energy S0301-4215(02)00088-5. system and ensures proper selection of 8. IEA (International Energy Agency) (2017): IEA Energy Balances for 2015, Egypt, OECD/IEA, project site. Efforts should be directed Paris. Available at: www.iea.org/ Sankey/#? towards increasing role of different c=Egypt&s=Balance. renewable energy sources in the mix of 9. IEA (International Energy Agency) (2019): World Energy Outlook 2019. Available at fuels. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy- outlook-2019/renewables#abstract [Accessed References 29th Feb. 2020]. 1. Bahgat G (2013): Egypt’s Energy Outlook: 10. Jacobson MZ, Delucchi MA , Bazouin Opportunities and Challenges. Mediterranean G , Bauer ZA , Heavey CC et al. (2015) Quarterly; 24(1):13. : 100% clean and renewable wind, water, 2. Bastasch M, van Dam J, Søndergaard B and and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy Rogers A (2006): Wind Turbine Noise – An roadmaps for the 50 United States”. Energy Overview. Can Acoust; (34:2): 7–15. Environ Sci ; 8 (7): 2093–2117. doi:10.1039/ 3. Biswas A and Tortajada C (2012) : Impacts of C5EE01283J. Available at : https://pubs. 14 El Safty AMK and Siha MS

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