Synthesis Paper

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking

Patricia Ahern Paul Nuti Julia M. Masterson Photos courtesy of: Moscow Center for Gender Studies (top left), Patricia Ahern (top right), and Julia M. Masterson (bottom left) Design: Manu Badlani

Copyright© 2000 International Center for Research on Women and The Centre for Development and Population Activities Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking

Patricia Ahern Paul Nuti Julia M. Masterson

Table of Contents

Preface ...... 3

Acknowledgments ...... 4

Executive Summary...... 5

A Framework for Enhancing Women’s Political Participation and Decisionmaking ...... 7

Introduction ...... 7

Political Culture ...... 8

Civil Society ...... 14

Government Institutions ...... 26

Conclusions ...... 30

Recommendations and Lessons Learned...... 32

Appendix ...... 35

Bibliography...... 37 2

This publication was made possible through support provided by the Office of Women in Development, Global Bureau, the Agency for International Development (USAID) under the terms of Cooperative Agreement No. FAO-A-00-95-00030-00. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID.

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 3

Preface

n 1995, the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and The Centre for Development and Population IActivities (CEDPA) began working in partnership to manage the “Promoting Women in Development” (PROWID) grants program, funded by the Office of Women in Development at the United States Agency for International Devel- opment (USAID). PROWID was a four-year grants program that sought to improve the lives of women in developing countries and economies in transition by promoting development based on practical insights gained from field-tested interventions. PROWID grants supported 45 different activities implemented by partner organizations in over 30 countries, including action-oriented policy research, pilot interventions, and advocacy that contributed to economic and social development with women’s full participation.

PROWID projects were grouped into three broad crosscutting themes including economic growth and development; governance, civil society, and women’s leadership; and domestic . Additionally, a small number of projects were focused specifically on female genital cutting (FGC) and on the challenges and transformations for women in post-conflict transitions.

This paper is one of several analytical documents synthesizing the findings across PROWID projects and their implica- tions within the various theme areas. Recognizing that such themes overlap in their contributions to development, PROWID project staff worked in consultation with the partner teams in the field to identify key lessons derived from their project experiences and formulate recommendations for improving the design and practice of development. An overarching “best practices” synthesis paper concludes the set of documents, placing PROWID findings within a framework of development envisioned as the progressive realization of and structuring the full range of recommendations as a final programmatic contribution to the theory and practice of women in development.

All of the PROWID synthesis papers are available upon request from ICRW and CEDPA, and can also be found on-line at the web site of either organization. To visit the ICRW web site, go to http://www.icrw.org, click on “PROWID,” scroll down to “Publications,” and look for the PROWID Synthesis Papers section. To visit the CEDPA web site, go to http:// www.cedpa.org and follow the PROWID Publications link. Reports-in-Brief providing summaries of each project sup- ported by PROWID are also available from ICRW and CEDPA by request and on-line.

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 4

Acknowledgments

he authors wish to recognize all those who contributed to this document. Very special thanks and recognition are Textended to all the PROWID partner organizations that conducted projects pertaining to women’s leadership, advocacy and political participation as they relate to good governance and the strengthening of civil societies in their respective countries. Their concrete experiences formed the basis and inspiration for this synthesis paper and give credence to the theories contained herein. Without those experiences and the thoughtful analysis of results provided by our partners, this paper would not have been written.

In addition, very little could have been accomplished without the energy, insights and experience provided by several others. Heartfelt thanks are given to Meredith Miller Vostrejs and Sharon Heller who conducted valuable research and assisted in the writing and editing of countless draft documents. Deep appreciation is equally extended to Valerie Miller who contributed her expertise in the design of an initial framework for the document and provided analysis, feedback and encouragement throughout the writing process. The insights and comments on the various draft documents provided by Marcia Greenberg, the WIDTECH Project’s and Governance Specialist (with Development Alternatives, Inc.), Lisa VeneKlasen of the Global Women in Program at the Asia Foundation, and Sally Yudelman, Senior Fellow at the International Center for Research on Women, were invaluable to the content of this paper. Finally, without the participation, encouragement and support of colleagues at CEDPA and ICRW, this synthesis document and the experiences it represents could not have been produced.

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 5

Executive Summary

n countries around the world, move- A vibrant civil society is a prerequisite of democ- ments to establish democratic forms of racy. By building constituencies around particu- government increasingly influence interna- lar political concerns, civil society ensures that a range of citizens and interests can gain access to tional affairs and development strategies. political systems. Civil society actors, in particu- Organizations and community groups are lar politically conscious organizations and continuously finding ways to promote “good individuals, also contribute to the development governance” that support and respect the voices and interests of political skills on the part of constituents, a of a range of citizens. As detailed in this synthesis paper, the necessary component if citizen participation is to full involvement of women in political and economic arenas is be firmly established and remain a consistent also gaining ground as a legitimate goal, as well as a litmus factor in political life. test of the degree to which democracy has been attained. The nature of political culture and the role of civil By highlighting issues surrounding governance society in a given context is determined in part and civil society, the PROWID projects pointed to by government institutions, such as legislatures, various ways in which women can be integrated ministries, judicial entities, and local agencies. into the democratization process. The first Such institutions make up a realm in which civil section of this report establishes a framework in society actors can work to fulfill their political which this can be achieved, including discus- goals and in which policymakers and political sions of several elements organized under three leaders can demonstrate their commitment to central topics: political culture, civil society, and the democratization process. Importantly, government institutions. The structure and institutions provide a basis for judging govern- outcomes of 14 PROWID projects in the field are ment accountability with regard to responsibili- summarized to elucidate these aspects. ties to citizens and the creation of conditions that catalyze and reinforce both political activity A democratic political culture functions and is and empowerment by groups of citizens. critical to the advancement of women, primarily because it encourages political consciousness The PROWID projects considered in this paper and action. Consequently, as political alliances underscore the many channels that are available are formed and information is shared, power to women pursuing political involvement. As a relations within society and the political arena democratic political culture expands worldwide, shift, allowing previously marginalized groups it is increasingly important to examine how (such as women) to identify and fight for their women—and often the institutions to which goals. When this point is reached, the social they belong—take on new roles and identities, capital (i.e., the relationships, institutions, and develop new skills, claim individual and collec- norms that facilitate cooperation among various tive rights, participate in public decisionmaking groups) of a country is enhanced, and democ- processes, and establish an equal footing with racy can then gain a stronger foothold. their male counterparts. The PROWID project

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 6

generated a deeper understanding of the Use advocacy training as a means to under- reasons for women’s exclusion from civic life and stand and challenge inequitable societal about how best to foster their participation in structures. democratic process, in particular regarding the tools and strategies that can be applied to Power of the Collective Voice and Experience: promote participatory values, practices, and Facilitate the development of diverse net- institutions. works for women’s groups.

The lasting impact of women’s increased Support institutional capacity building. mobilization and political participation will Create forums for women to exchange ideas ultimately be seen at the level of the individual and reflect on their experiences. as women everywhere gain a heightened political consciousness and come to believe in Develop a written record for other organiza- the possibility of transformation. At the national tions. level, the political discourse will be altered to the point at which gender issues will be a shared Credibility as a Vital Asset: concern of a broad spectrum of political groups. In the long run, the broader the participation in Create and widely disseminate a credible the democratic discourse, the more likely it will body of information. be that a society’s development choices will Collect gender-disaggregated information as reflect the needs and concerns of all its citizens. a powerful tool for monitoring and assessing women’s progress. The following recommendations for program planning and implementation are subdivided The following are lessons that come from into three broad categories: collective project experiences:

Tools and Strategies to Foster and Strengthen Sustainable development requires women’s Women’s Participation: active participation in public decisionmaking.

Support policy analysis activities. Political consciousness results from critical thinking. Promote human rights education. Small steps provide the foundation for Continue skill building and support for enduring social change. women in public office.

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 7

A Framework for Enhancing Women’s Political Participation and Decisionmaking

Introduction This synthesis paper establishes a framework for examining the relationship between good Democratic transitions in many countries governance and women’s empowerment, and have ushered in new ideas about the reports on the ways that a sample of 14 PROWID citizen’s role in political life. The meaning projects have influenced this connection in of democracy and the responsibilities it specific countries and contexts. All the projects entails are continuously being negotiated described here can be viewed against the in new contexts of ideological exploration backdrop of three core elements, which provide and citizen aspiration. In recent years, as the reference points for understanding what hap- process of democratization has become more widespread, the pened in the field. These are defined as follows: complex relationship between governance and women’s Political culture. A democratic political empowerment has come under increasing scrutiny by academ- culture offers opportunities for the expression ics, development practitioners, and grassroots constituencies. and reconciliation of different views, de- mands governmental transparency, encour- One of the key issues at hand is whether the ages citizen participation, and supports a establishment of democracy can foster an strong civil society. environment in which groups that have tradi- Civil society. Characterized by effective tionally been excluded from full involvement in citizen representation and participation in economic and political arenas—such as political life, civil society is a constantly women—can gain greater control over the evolving network of politically active, aware circumstances that influence their lives. It has organizations and individuals that represent also become critical to determine whether new diverse interests, shape public dialogue, and systems of “good governance” allow women to influence political outcomes. gain political skills, claim individual and collec- tive rights, participate in public decisionmaking Government institutions. The creation of processes, and establish a more equal footing democratic bodies determines the degree to with their male counterparts. which government is transparent and accessible and whether policies reflect an Approaches to the overall empowerment of equitable balance of society’s interests. If women have begun to integrate tools and successful, organizations and individuals will strategies designed to promote democratic be able to themselves freely advocate for values, practices, and institutions. This trend has changes in policies, programs, laws, regula- stimulated fresh insights on and innovative field tions, and institutions. programs in the area of integrating gender concerns with development interventions. As The establishment of a framework containing illustrated herein, the PROWID project has these three elements does not suggest that the generated new understanding of the relationship involvement of women in democratization is a between governance and women, as well as mechanistic or universally applicable process. On new strategies for strengthening the inclusion of the contrary, this paper seeks to reconcile an women in the democratization process. understanding of key aspects of governance with

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 8

the widely varied experiences and activities of the that they attach to political behavior and norms, women, civil society organizations (CSOs), and both of which vary depending on social, cul- institutions involved in PROWID. Each of the three tural, economic, and political circumstances. In aspects is therefore broken down into distinct contexts where individuals are not free (for any components, which are then discussed and number of reasons) to gain and express knowl- illustrated with descriptions of specific PROWID edge, political consciousness may not exist and projects carried out by partners in country. open political activity may not be an option. In contexts where individuals are free to shape and In the final section of this paper, recommenda- understand the political influences on their lives, tions are presented for practitioners, communi- it is likely that political engagement is a shared ties, and policymakers regarding how they can value and is routinely practiced as a means of better create the conditions necessary for reconciling competing interests. women everywhere to secure equality, funda- mental freedoms, and human rights. Lessons In order to gauge the level of political conscious- learned from PROWID work in the area of ness in a particular situation, it is important to democracy and governance are also identified look at the extent to which citizens recognize and discussed. their ability to change circumstances and avail themselves of opportunities for political educa- Political Culture tion and awareness building. Any combination Establishing a participatory democracy is a of economic hardship, political oppression, challenging process that first requires recogni- cultural orthodoxy, and gender discrimination tion and understanding of the powerlessness may lead people to conclude that an alternative experienced by individuals under the prevailing vision for their lives is not possible, and subse- political systems. The next step is to work with quently inhibit them from claiming the things to citizens in such a way as to encourage political which they have a right—such as fundamental consciousness, organization, and advocacy. This freedoms, security, political participation, and approach in turn requires the development of autonomy. Many people are not in a strong new networks that can strive for common goals enough position to recognize that what appears and foster a political culture defined by proactive to be a “private problem” may in fact be part of norms and values (Gaventa 1995). Such a broader trends that affect thousands of others culture creates an environment in which effec- like them. This way of thinking can undercut tive political involvement is not only possible, the development of a political consciousness by but can be carried out without fear of violence obscuring opportunities to learn how to over- or repression. come constraints and exercise rights.

In developing political consciousness, individuals Changing a political culture requires both and groups analyze situations, abandon their individual and collective actions, for example sense of isolation from politics, and acquire the educating on political structures and how confidence to strive for political change political power is exercised, improving public (VeneKlasen 1996). This process requires access to information, and increasing respect by strategies for building awareness, promoting policymakers for citizens’ opinions, voices, and education, alleviating internalized oppression, right to influence decisionmaking. Certain key and supporting indigenous knowledge, all of issues must be examined when assessing the which enable people to challenge existing values state of political culture and what is needed to and norms. As noted above, the constraints move toward democracy, as discussed and blocking such transformations can be significant, illustrated below. particularly for women. For example, women often possess the skills and language necessary Political Consciousness to articulate political ideas, but do so only in The character of political culture hinges in part culturally acceptable, private ways, such as on the consciousness of citizens and the value through stories, humor, music, and discussions

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 9

with family and friends. This type of political to strengthen consciousness can be redirected if public spaces their self- (e.g., community organizations, popular confidence, education centers, and classes) become skills, and available for discussion and analysis, and for organizational linking daily forms of resistance and aspiration to abilities. In the public sphere (Gaventa 1995). one indication of the change El Centro para la Participación Democrática y that resulted, el Desarrollo (“The Center for Democratic the women Participation and Development”) who partici- (Cenzontle). A project in Nicaragua provides pated in the Cenzontle’s ongoing work in the areas of credit, technical the first illustration. In the last 20 years, war, Cenzontle support, and training helped generate jobs for unemployed natural disasters, and unfavorable national and project were Nicaraguan women international economic policies have under- at the fore- mined living conditions in Nicaragua. These front of community recovery efforts following factors have combined with a male-dominated Hurricane Mitch in October 1998. society to spur a sense of exclusion, fatalism, and low self-esteem among women, which has in Partners for Change. Another example of turn limited their political participation and citizen action is in Romania. Recent economic, decisionmaking power. Many women are social, and political transitions there have impoverished and feel that they are unable to changed the lives of many people: one of the influence the circumstances that guide their hardest hit groups has been women, who are lives. increasingly faced with , violence, and reductions in social services. Confronted by In 1998, Cenzontle initiated a project in three downsizing of state-owned industries, women Nicaraguan communities to improve the are often the first to lose their jobs and the last socioeconomic conditions among poor women to be considered for new or “restructured” by providing them with microenterprise positions, despite holding qualifications that are development opportunities and information and skills for political empowerment (Cenzontle “Before being organized, it was like I didn’t exist, like I lived in 1999). Founded in 1989, the Nicaraguan another world, as if I didn’t have rights, as if I weren’t human. That nongovernmental organization (NGO) supports was before because I just made due with what I had to do at home. advocacy related to women’s social, economic, We didn’t have the right to credit or anything else, but we already and political participation, and has come to knew that we could organize ourselves. When Cenzontle came, it recognize that women will be unable to be- was different because there was more open participation. We come active in political and decisionmaking learned there was a rotating fund for women, especially for women that didn’t have access to credit through other means. Then we processes unless they understand the value of were meeting, and for me it was their own knowledge and abilities. Using something important, a new popular education and consciousness-raising experience, not just about credit methodologies, Cenzontle involved 150 poor but about values and knowledge women from both rural and urban areas in that I didn’t have. It is important interviews and workshops to explore issues of to participate and I learned that in power and self-esteem, gender equity, women’s the training on citizen participa- rights, and leadership. tion. I entered politics because I said maybe this is an opportunity to help other peasant women like As a result of these efforts, women began to me.” identify new, active roles for themselves in —Filomena Gradis, a 45 year-old society. Training modules on advocacy, commu- Cenzontle project participant nity, social participation, and citizenship helped

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 10

at least patterns from a gender perspective and were comparable introduced to internationally accepted human to those of rights norms. In addition, two training-of- male trainers workshops involved a total of 40 women colleagues. (effectively resulting in a network of trainers on Those gender awareness), and more than 60 women fortunate and men from Energetica affiliates attended enough to three regional consultative meetings. hold jobs often cope Project participants came to understand the with unfavor- linkages between the lack of leadership and able work decisionmaking positions for women in both the Participants in a regional consultative meeting in Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Romania conditions workplace and trade unions, as well as the fact such as that women were often subjected to unfair health and safety hazards and inflexible work hiring and firing practices. They began to hours that increase women’s existing burdens of realize that the situations in which they found childcare and household management. Gender themselves were not necessarily permanent, and discrimination and little or no experience of that women have the ability to advocate for political participation have only exacerbated equitable treatment. They also recognized that women’s sense of powerlessness and inability to women can and should take on more leadership see change as possible, let alone as within their and decisionmaking roles within the home, the control. workplace, and the community. Many partici- pants requested and received additional training Partners for Change, a Romanian NGO, uses in advocacy, working with the media, and advocacy, training and education programs, building constituencies for women-focused strategic partnerships, and written materials to agendas within Energetica. increase society’s awareness of human rights and gender equity and to bring about positive and Power equitable change in Romanian society. In 1998- Political culture is partly defined by the under- 99, Partners collaborated with the women’s standing and exercise of power in a given branch of the Energetica Trade Union Federation context. Experiences of power shape advocacy (“Energetica”) on a project to address women’s strategies and influence the degree of success feelings of powerlessness and futility in relation that citizens are able to achieve. If citizens, to employment and the workplace (Partners for either out of ignorance, discrimination, or Change 1999). oppression, view power as fixed, their ability to transform power relations will be limited. If, on Needs assessment tools and activities were used the other hand, they understand the exercise of to determine project participants’ levels of power to be an outcome of constantly shifting understanding of gender roles and responsibili- interactions, they will be in a stronger position ties in the home and the workplace (in particular to push for change. According to this view, within the energy industry), as well as the knowledge can always be attained and alliances current political and economic situation in established for the purposes of transforming Romania. For example, a questionnaire was political conditions. distributed to participants to elicit discussion among women on how they spend their days In general, women have often understood (e.g., caring for children, housework, or paid power in terms of who has “power over” them, employment) and what aspects they felt were rather than as the power that is exercised on needed to improve their situations (e.g., their behalf or for a larger common good. Since childcare or flexible work hours). Participants many women have been denied power in the then analyzed and defined challenges and public sphere, they have exercised power

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 11

primarily in the private sphere.1 Many have little influence and respond to global economic experience working with both other women and changes, specifically the impact of the neoliberal men in the pursuit of social goals. As a result, model of economic globalization on small-scale women engaging in public political activity for farmers and food resources and availability (Via the first time are often pressured to conform to Campesina 1999). As the traditional monitors of the norms and values of the existing political food security on the household level, women culture, and lack alternative models of power to have been adversely affected by economic follow (Batliwala 1997). restructuring which has displaced workers, disrupted markets, undermined environmental At the same time, however, the private sphere integrity, and altered regulatory frameworks. enables women (as well as other oppressed groups) to challenge power differences and seek The project was organized by the Via Campesina alternatives to the status quo in less visible ways. Women’s Working Group in collaboration with As noted earlier, many women appear to accept three regionally-based organizations.2 The their subordination, but resist it in discreet, Working Group brought together 200 small socially acceptable ways that lessen the chance farmer and peasant women from 37 countries to of retribution. This awareness and skill can engage in workshops in which they identified inspire the formation of social movements and analyzed trends that hinder women’s located within communities and lead to orga- leadership in decisionmaking. Participants nized political action (Miller 1994). gained knowledge about the international economic and political forces affecting their rural A versatile understanding of power may provide communities, became aware of existing gender- openings to transform power relations. Al- related barriers, and gained the ability to though citizen groups, women, and others often articulate needs and goals. lack power that is generated by money, control, and authority, they have access to alternative The workshops and follow-up exchanges sources of power. These include alliances of resulted in advocacy initiatives, including large numbers of like-minded people, knowl- proposals to modify laws related to women edge and information, perseverance, resilience, farmers and land reform. Groups met with intuition, creativity, good planning and organiz- government officials in their countries on a ing, moral authority, honest relationships, and range of issues, including access to credit and the ability to nurture life (VeneKlasen 1996). When power is conceptualized in these ways, political culture is enriched and the possibility of change increases.

Via Campesina Women’s Working Group. The Via Campesina project provides a good illustra- tion of how experiences of power influence advocacy. Established in 1993, it is a global movement of organizations representing peasants, small and medium-sized farmers, workers, rural women, and indigenous agrarian communities. As part of PROWID, Via Campesina launched the “Peasant Women on the Frontiers of Food Security” project to strengthen the potential of farm and peasant Bolivian women of the Via Campesina movement gather at a American women throughout the Western Hemisphere to assembly in

1 The private sphere designates activities related to the household and family (e.g., cooking and child care), for which women everywhere have historically held primary responsibility. 2 These were: Coordinadora Latinoamericana de Organizaciones Campesinos (“Latin American Coordination of Peasant Organizations,” or CLOC) in ; the Asociación de Organizaciones Campesinas Centroamericanas para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo (“Central American Peasant Association for Cooperation and Development,” or ASOCODE) in ; and the Windward Islands Farmers Association (WINFA) in the Eastern .

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 12

technical assistance, biodiversity, food security, institutions can converge, and where ordinary and trade rights. In addition, workshop reports citizens can claim their rights as citizens with and education materials underscoring the work dignity, independence, and vision (Evans and of farm and peasant women and the gender Boyte 1992). aspects of food security and agricultural sustainability were widely disseminated among An evolving political culture depends on these rural constituencies. spaces for the creation of social capital, which is often defined as the web of relationships, The workshops demonstrated that peasant institutions, and norms that help people cooper- women understand the significant role they can ate and coordinate with one another for the play within the larger community. Many of common good. In other words, the level of these women learned that they, their families, social capital in a given context reflects the and communities need to advocate for alterna- degree of social cohesion that exists, and is the tive models of rural agricultural development “glue” that holds institutions together and that would allow women to determine sustain- ensures that they function effectively (World able and equitable farming policies and systems. Bank 2000).3 The common ground recognized through the project ended a pervasive sense of isolation and By enhancing levels of reciprocity, cooperation, powerlessness among participants and encour- and coordination, a web of social capital and the aged increased participation in decisionmaking proactive political culture it promotes are and advocacy in new arenas of power. instrumental in the development of sound governance, economic prosperity, and healthy The Via Campesina project also pioneered societies (Miller 1994). It determines the extent women’s leadership development by working to which people are engaged in collaboration interregionally and drawing connections be- and information exchange, share experiences, tween local and global concerns. The interna- and feel connected to a broad desire for change. tional exchanges enabled rural women from People become confident in expressing them- throughout and the Caribbean to selves publicly, draw strength from one another, recognize mutual concerns and the value of and recognize that each has unique skills and controlling sources of economic security. They perspectives to offer. Social capital is therefore also learned to take responsibility for crafting an the concrete manifestation of a dynamic political advocacy platform to highlight the impact of culture. globalization on agricultural communities and gained understanding of the international and The NIS-US Women’s Consortium. PROWID political forces that undercut the viability of rural projects in the Newly Independent States (NIS) communities. Importantly, the collaborating provide many examples of a burgeoning civil partners were able to apply their new confi- society though at an early stage of development. dence, knowledge, and leadership skills in Mechanisms to include NGOs in formal creating greater gender awareness and equity policymaking dialogue are virtually absent, while within their own organizations. the capacity of NGOs to channel citizen partici- pation to influence public policy remains Social Capital extremely limited. Founded in 1992, the NIS-US As a democratic political culture develops, Consortium is a coalition of 200 women-led individuals and groups begin to take on new NGOs that seek to increase women’s participa- roles and identities, gain self-respect, develop tion and influence in the economic, political, new skills, and adopt values of cooperation. and community life of the NIS. In a 1998-99 With some energy and effort, spaces in the PROWID project administered by Winrock political culture can be transformed to provide International, the Russia office of the Consor- settings in which private lives and public tium—which represents 98 organizations from

3 The World Bank has defined several key sources of social capital in the context of social and economic development: families, communities, businesses, civil society, the public sector, ethnic relations, and gender-based networks.

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 13

35 regions—launched advocacy campaigns on roles in influencing public opinion and the issues related to the advancement of women’s policymaking process. legal, economic, and social status (NIS-US Women’s Consortium 1999). A variety of The Federation for Women and Family methods were used, including meeting with Planning. To build similar opportunities for federal and regional policymakers; collaborating dialogue in , the Federation was estab- with government bodies focusing on women’s lished in 1992 as a coalition of NGOs to pro- issues; gaining access to government docu- mote the reproductive health and rights of ments; holding strategy sessions with member Polish women. It launched a project under organizations; and participating in issues forums PROWID to involve women in lobbying and with a variety of NGOs in order to expand advocacy on these issues (Federation for Women coalitions. and Family Planning 1999). The Federation’s core belief—that a ’s right to choose and The Consortium’s capacity to promote citizen- decide freely if and when to have children is a ship and extend technical assistance to the NGO basic human right, without which women are community has encouraged activism among denied full and equal participation in develop- women and other citizens, allowing a norm for ment—served as the basis for its organizing and such activity to gain a foothold in Russia. In this advocacy activities. way, the Consortium project helped build social capital and establish the necessary structures for One of the main goals of the project was to women to pursue public advocacy. As a result, equip women with skills and knowledge needed individual participants gained a stronger sense of to create change through democratic processes. citizen responsibility and women-led NGOs This was accomplished primarily through the became more visible and were recognized as production and dissemination of written materi- contributors to public policymaking. More women within the Consortium attained new knowledge and became well-versed on the gender aspects of a range of economic, social, and political issues. A stronger group identity was subsequently forged.

In addition, reciprocal relationships were established with government officials. For example, at a forum in Moscow, several women’s groups developed and articulated a clear position statement on then-President Yeltsin’s proposed electoral law changes in order to increase the chances that women would win elected offices. Consortium member groups also produced original, alternative policy statements on sex trafficking, gender bias in the political arena, and microcredit opportunities for women, and fed them directly into deliberations at international seminars. Finally, groups became more assertive in crafting gender-sensitive language for legislative proposals and other sources of public information, and the Consor- tium produced numerous materials for use by its members. These actions indicate that Consor- tium members gained a profound awareness of Public education pamphlets on women’s sexual and reproductive health prepared their interests, direction, and complementary by the Federation

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 14

als (i.e., press releases, manuals, fact sheets, useful to view the evolution of civil society as an bulletins, and advocacy guides), as well through inquiry into why and how people become meetings, workshops, seminars, and confer- engaged in public affairs. ences. As part of a promotional campaign, a user-friendly set of fact sheets on reproductive The formation and strengthening of civil society health, sex education, male responsibility, is an ongoing process that determines how and sterilization, and contraception was produced why people become engaged in public affairs, and widely disseminated to members of Parlia- and varies according to culture and context. ment, local authorities, policymakers working on Local capacity to participate in civil society can education and health care issues, the media, and be built within the political arena through the general public. several channels. One avenue for action is raising political awareness to encourage people The establishment of an Advisory Council made to organize around common grievances, seek up of scientists, politicians, and health out allies, and contribute to the policymaking policymakers helped the Federation tailor its process. Other possible strategies include messages, select appropriate advocacy tools, opening access to and communicating with and build professional relationships. In addition, formal governmental and policymaking institu- the Federation formed a national network of 220 tions; imparting skills and knowledge that advocates who created local support groups enable citizens and organizations to be effective focusing on family planning and sex education. advocates; and influencing the form and function of government institutions over time to In short, the Federation introduced new and protect and promote civil society. important perspectives on sexuality, gender relations, and human rights into public discus- Strengthening citizens’ capacity, leadership, sions on reproductive health in Poland, thereby organization, and power gives them greater charting a path for ordinary citizens to advance voice and serves to counterbalance the exercise their concerns democratically. By bringing of excessive authority by governments and together usually disparate groups of people, the members of the political or economic elite. A Federation supported the view that citizens can vibrant civil society can also support justice initiate change by working together and being through the work of organizations that hold more proactive. This is the essence of social governments accountable for promoting the capital, and a strong indicator that a more human rights of their citizens. The extent to pluralistic political culture may be emerging. which civil society is capable of becoming a viable arena of political activity and expression is Civil Society determined by constituency building, access to As mentioned above, one of the central compo- political systems, political skills development, nents of social capital is civil society, a concept and institutional development. These aspects that highlights the accomplishments of organi- are discussed in detail below. zations that occupy the space between formal government institutions and grassroots constitu- Constituency Building encies. It is one of the building blocks of a Political consciousness, as noted earlier, is an democratic nation state (Holloway 2000). While important precursor to individuals and groups the term is occasionally used in ways suggesting choosing to exercise power. In order to advance that civil society is a static entity, it is more reform on specific issues, people must first be accurate to view civil society as a constantly able to analyze their situation and identify evolving network of politically conscious and constraints to and opportunities and prospects active organizations and individuals with a range for action. When a critical mass of citizens of interests, all of which help to shape public begins to coalesce around common grievances, dialogue and influence political outcomes.4 It is a constituency—the linchpin of proactive civil

4 As the concept of civil society takes root, the term “civil society organization” (CSO) is increasingly used. However, it only makes sense to use the term CSO if it has a different meaning than NGO, such as a community association, social service center, or savings club (Holloway 2000).

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 15

society—emerges and can position itself to In the context of PROWID activities, constituency inform public opinion. Constituency building is building has emerged around the rights of a natural extension of political consciousness women and the need for a human rights-based because it results when people examine their approach to development. Expanding educa- own lives and the lives of others around them. tion initiatives have helped women learn more about their rights under international covenants As constituencies begin to articulate their and agreements.5 As a result, women participat- purpose and forge a public identity, they are ing in PROWID projects have come to regard better able to see themselves in relation to other each other as political allies, understand the groups, the state, and the citizenry at large. obligations placed on their governments under Constituencies can both build bridges among international agreements, and organize groups like-minded civil society actors and become into constituencies driven by human rights antagonists when views, aspirations, and concerns. Further, in learning about rights and political demands diverge. In practical terms, responsibilities, many women have discovered both processes require constituencies to mobilize tangible opportunities for political participation. political and financial resources, attract support- ers, and coordinate strategies; such tactics in The increasing success of women-focused NGOs turn enable previously acquiescent and disparate in transforming public dialogue on women’s groups to become more active (Gaventa 1995). rights and pressuring governments to enact measures which safeguard these rights is An important aspect of constituency building is testimony to the importance of building con- ensuring clarity and unity of purpose. Many stituencies for political action. This has been constituencies often fail to look closely at the particularly evident as women’s organizations causes of the problems they hope to alleviate or and their members have come to understand the consequences of the initiatives they plan. If the gender implications of current policies and constituency building is intended to expand legislation, assessed their impact on women, citizen participation, then the focus of any and advocated for change so that policies and advocacy initiative should reflect the actual laws are responsive to the conditions, needs, views of a broad group of people. Engaging the and rights of women. When this is the case, and potential beneficiaries of an initiative in defining advocacy options are open to women, a political and analyzing a problem and determining the culture can emerge in which government policy solution is therefore a critical step for institutions are, at least to some extent, open to organizations (VeneKlasen 1996). reform. Even if structural obstacles remain to overcoming inequitable policies, the fact that When decisionmakers do not represent the women have the freedom to craft appropriate majority of a given constituency, members may advocacy strategies marks an important step find it more difficult to contribute their own forward. expertise and may feel disengaged from a campaign (Miller 1994). In addition, within a Women, Law and Development International. broad-based constituency, the leadership may An example of successful constituency building see the grassroots as lacking the knowledge or is from the Central Asian Republics (CAR), where sophistication necessary for effective policy governmental and nongovernmental organiza- advocacy. Consequently, policy-related compro- tions are relatively new, legal systems often fail mises may be made during an advocacy process to function, and cultural attitudes frequently without consulting the communities most lead to discrimination against women and immediately affected by the outcome (Gaventa prevent individuals from challenging authority. 1995). In the long run, this can weaken the In light of these factors, the transition from power of a constituency. Communism has left many in Central Asia

5 These include the 1949 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1966 International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 16

well as on how to access and use human rights mechanisms. WLDI then assisted groups in the design and implementation of practical advo- cacy strategies to promote and protect women’s human rights. A primary objective of the project was to build a constituency of women, men, institutions, and governments that supports human rights as a means to achieve social justice, and that is active in meeting this goal. Through its training workshops, WLDI enhanced the human rights knowledge and advocacy skills of women activists and NGO leaders, deepening participants’ knowledge of gender and power and the role of law and civic participation in Project participants meet at an advanced human rights training for NGO leaders improving the status of women. in Kiev, Ukraine

vulnerable to human rights violations and in In Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, WLDI worked to possession of few skills or opportunities for transform apathy and lack of self-confidence, redress. Growing unemployment and wage which in many cases prevented women from cutbacks, as well as the dismantling of social becoming politically active. To this end, training services such as day care, have hit women the sessions on human rights issues and organiza- hardest because of their unequal and often tional strategies, as well as public education insecure place in the labor market. Other campaigns, were conducted using context- worrisome trends include a rise in domestic specific curricula and training materials. Many violence and a loss of trust in law enforcement officials and local citizens were reluctant to agencies, with a consequent decline in the participate in the trainings because they believed reporting of rape and other violent crimes. that advocating for women’s rights meant opposing the government. In reality, the work- Understanding the structure and practice of the shops were a catalyst to changing the attitudes of international human rights system and building local authorities through increased cooperation advocacy capacity is an important first step between them and project participants, as well as toward upholding women’s rights at the facilitating a broader understanding of women’s national level. In 1998-99, Women, Law and human rights at the local level. Development International (WLDI) undertook, in cooperation with the Network Women’s Pro- In Kazakhstan, WLDI worked with local NGOs gram of the Open Society Institute (NWP/OSI), a and research institutes to study the issue of program to provide training and technical women’s deteriorating economic status. The assistance to strengthen NGOs in Kazakhstan, team coordinated with national NGOs to Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan educate women on their economic, political and (WLDI 1999). WLDI works to build capacity and social rights, further attracting public attention consensus on the gender dimensions of rights, to the problem and providing information that clarify the role of law and its potential to can help women become more active in politics, increase women’s empowerment, strengthen and in turn to fight for their economic rights. women’s rights networks, and hold governments Project participants also generated new research accountable to human rights commitments. on women’s poverty and used it to fuel advo- cacy campaigns, including, for example, an The WLDI project in CAR sought to improve effort by the country’s Feminist League to advocacy on women’s human rights by educat- monitor the government’s compliance with the ing individuals and organizations on human Platform for Action adopted in 1995 at the rights concepts, laws, and systems at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. national, regional, and international levels, as Participants from Turkmenistan focused their

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 17

duced reports and guidelines on women’s human and and political participation for use by governments. In 1996, B.a.B.e. launched the Women’s Human Rights Network for Education and Action (WHRNEA), an education and advocacy project aiming to foster communication and collaboration among women activists and professionals (B.a.B.e. 1998).

Similar to the WLDI project, B.a.B.e. found that building a constituency for women’s human rights was critical to making women’s voices heard and Women’s rights activists from the Central Asian Republics their concerns represented in national policies and participate in a WLDI training session legislation. B.a.B.e. aimed to form a loose regional network of women’s human rights efforts on domestic violence as a human rights advocates through training and the development violation, conducting a series of workshops at of strategies. Five workshops and two regional schools and factories and with local NGOs to seminars brought together 165 women represent- create a base of advocates in favor of amending ing 69 women’s groups from Bosnia-Herzegovina, relevant laws. Many project participants found Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia, as well that constituency building through awareness- as panelists from Austria and Italy. Workshops raising and educational initiatives not only built introduced women to basic human rights theory sustainable citizen participation, but was also and existing national and international mecha- viewed by governments as nonthreatening. nisms to promote and protect women’s human rights. More advanced training was provided to Be Active, Be Emancipated (B.a.B.e.). In help women adapt this knowledge to local needs another relatively new transition from Commu- and contexts. Participants devised advocacy nist rule to democracy—in the Yugoslav succes- strategies in their communities to address issues sor states—heated ethnic conflict, war, and a such as violence against women, reproductive deterioration of social and economic structures rights, and the rights of refugees and displaced resulted. Women have been greatly affected by persons. this change, suffering declining status and opportunities and the erosion of formerly In the context of upcoming elections, project established rights. They have also been the first participants from Bosnia-Herzegovina formed group in the war-torn region to begin rebuilding the first women’s joint coalition and conducted a contacts and to work against a continually voter education campaign in that region, reinforced environment of prejudice and hate. reaching more than 60,000 women. In In the nascent context of civil society, women’s Macedonia, the first interethnic group was groups have begun to form, born of the pressing formed to provide primarily rural women with need for humanitarian and psycho-social human rights and advocacy education and assistance for women victims of war. training. In addition, women from Eastern Slavonia, Croatia, formed a caucus within an Be Active, Be Emancipated (Budi aktivna, Budi existing human rights organization. emancipirana, or B.a.B.e.) was established in Croatia in 1994 as an advocacy and lobbying Access to Political Systems organization committed to systemic approaches When civil society is strong and responsive, to social change based on women’s rights and citizens have the capacity not only to influence full participation in society. It has conducted decisionmaking, but to enter the political arena human rights education and training in Bosnia- (Gaventa 1995). This process requires citizens to Herzegovina, Croatia, and Ukraine, and pro- understand the nature and functions of political

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 18

institutions (such as local assemblies and previously in this paper (see section on social national legislatures and agencies), as well as capital), the NIS-US Women’s Consortium aims how to navigate the prevailing political culture to increase women’s participation and influence and structure. In short, access to the political in economic, political, civic, and community life system must be engineered. For women, throughout the NIS. The Consortium’s Russian barriers to such access have always existed in the office serves members through information form of functional illiteracy, gender discrimina- dissemination, networking, and technical tion, and entrenched political norms. The assistance. As part of the PROWID project greatest challenges are to gain access to the administered by Winrock International, the political system, and then to transform the Consortium focused on increasing the ability of dominant political culture so that it is more Russian women’s NGOs to launch advocacy inclusive of previously marginalized groups, such campaigns on issues identified as crucial to as women. advancing women’s legal, economic, and social status (NIS-US Women’s Consortium 1999). By Many countries where PROWID activities have helping women activists become more savvy been undertaken are not shaped by about advocacy and learn the mechanics of the longstanding traditions of citizen participation legislative process, the project effectively created and advocacy, or cannot mobilize the resources opportunities for political access. necessary to build citizen participation. Civil society actors frequently blaze the trail to By holding strategy sessions and conducting political access by educating citizens, gaining advocacy activities, NGO participants learned institutional visibility, and enhancing the values how to navigate Russian political institutions, of citizen participation. In bringing citizens gain visibility for their organizations and together to gain access to the political arena, women’s issues, communicate with member community organizers have learned a great deal organizations and government officials, collabo- about the importance of developing the skills of rate with each other, and increase their input in citizen leaders in coalition building, media, the legislative process. To these ends, the canvassing, fundraising, tactical research, Consortium convened strategy sessions prior to organization building, and how to run meetings meetings of key government committees, such (Gaventa 1995). as the Interagency Commission to Improve the Status of Women; the Presidential Commission Perhaps most important, access to a political on Women, the Family, and Demography; and system is gained through credibility. An organi- the Parliamentary Committee on Women, the zation or constituency of actors that is able to Family, and Youth. This effort resulted in direct consistently and authoritatively demonstrate its meetings with legislators, a better understanding expertise on a public policy issue, or successfully of how bills become laws, an appreciation of the mobilize a broad-based advocacy campaign, interplay between the executive and legislative enhances its credibility and legitimacy as a branches in Russia, and the establishment of contributor to policymaking. In this way, gender expertise committees within the Consor- credibility facilitates access and can change the tium to review all draft legislation on social quality of dialogue between civil society actors issues. Further, through information-sharing and and state institutions. advocacy alerts, the Consortium bolstered the ability of local NGOs to monitor the implemen- The NIS-US Women’s Consortium. In situa- tation of federal programs. tions where NGOs and other citizen groups have previously been dismissed, the ability to articu- Because Consortium members took the time to late an agenda and inform public dialogue can access and review key government documents earn them respect and appreciation. In the (e.g., budget, draft legislation, and reports), Newly Independent States (NIS), nascent they demonstrated an ability to engage in policy women’s coalitions hold great promise as dialogue on an equal footing with officials and advocates and agents of change. As described to grasp the workings of government institu-

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 19

tions. The deliberate approach taken by the Consortium paid off in the form of credibility and respect from high-level federal officials and regional policymakers. Member organizations are now often consulted by Duma (parliament) members and government agencies on issues important to women.

Be Active, Be Emancipated (B.a.B.e.). Simi- larly in Croatia, as discussed previously (see section on constituency building), the advocacy and lobbying organization B.a.B.e. has focused overt approaches to increasing access to political life. The signature feature of B.a.B.e.’s work is a high degree of community-level participatory education and training for women on human B.a.B.e. and Ad Hoc Coalition members spread their election campaign messages throughout Zagreb, Croatia rights advocacy, supplemented by orientation on how the legal system, legislative process, and media operate and can be used to safeguard monitoring body). In each case, B.a.B.e. made a women’s rights (B.a.B.e. 1998). valuable contribution to framing the public discussion on women’s issues, while at the same The organization was successful in gaining time accessing the political system and institu- legitimacy for citizen mobilization as a means of tions with a distinctly grassroots style. transforming dialogue on public policy. By conveying empowering human rights messages Political Skills Development to large numbers of women, B.a.B.e. drew Once representatives of civil society gain access public attention to the larger issue of women’s to a seat at the decisionmaking table, it is critical political participation and leveraged access to that they have a set of skills to engage state decisionmaking entities. Specifically, human institutions and to develop technical and rights education was fashioned into targeted organizational expertise. Only then will citizen actions and alternative strategies and proposals. engagement in political affairs be institutional- In Croatia, B.a.B.e. formed a coalition of 18 ized. Even when basic advocacy and participa- organizations, the Women’s Ad Hoc Coalition to tion skills are fairly well established, many Monitor and Influence the Elections of ’97, women may seek to expand and hone their which ran a “51% Campaign” to promote abilities. However, becoming skilled participants women’s participation in policymaking and in corrupt and unaccountable political structures political offices.6 Members who had participated and institutions is not empowering for women if in the campaign workshops and seminars the nature of politics and the way political drafted a statement to the Governmental power is exercised ignores the need for new Commission on Equality denouncing the directions in gender-related issues. As NGOs increase in violence against women throughout experiment with collective and rotating leader- the region. ship, public accountability, and collective planning, action, and analysis, many women are In collaboration with its Croatian NGO network, attempting to build a new culture of power B.a.B.e. prepared the NGO Report on the Status based on a different value system (Batliwala of Women in the Republic of Croatia, which it 1997). The basis for this shift derives from the presented at the January 1998 session of the relationship between women in political life and Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of a broader, politically conscious women’s move- Discrimination against Women (the CEDAW ment in civil society.

6 The Coalition advocated for 51 percent representation of in order to reflect the proportion of women in the population at large.

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 20

It is important to note that the process of for the purpose of gaining leverage in creating building skills fosters a greater sense of owner- and changing public policy. ship of political processes by individuals, which can in turn generate strong, sustainable organi- The Center for Legislative Development. In zations. By sharing responsibility for activities the Philippines, the need for legislative advocacy and their outcomes, many women involved in is particularly critical in regions where sectors of PROWID activities have gained self-esteem and a the population (including women and minori- greater sense of identity and accomplishment, as ties) are alienated from governmental structures. well as increased their commitment to and Since the early 1990s, the Center for Legislative investment in what they are doing. For ex- Development has focused its initiatives and ample, involving women in participatory action resources on involving women throughout the research has helped entire communities diag- Philippines in public advocacy. The organization nose the cause of local environmental health also seeks to achieve gains for women in problems, or to recognize that their oral tradi- development by publishing popular materials tions and “folk” knowledge—which are often and conducting training sessions in partnership maintained by women—can be a valid basis for with local women’s organizations. As part of its action. In accepting responsibility, women see Women in Politics Program, CLD initiated a value in what they know, can learn, and have to project under PROWID called “Legislative offer, gain a fresh appreciation of themselves Advocacy for Women’s Rights” in the Cotabato and their potential within the community, and Province on the Philippine island of Mindanao develop an understanding of their rights. (CLD 1998). The project aimed to facilitate women’s full, informed participation in political Finally, it is important that the skill development life by increasing their presence in local elections of civil society actors be geared toward the long- and government term. Civil society programs do not always draw on a systemic or political analysis of the prob- The advocacy project had three central objec- lems they wish to address, and thus are often tives: consciousness raising, political participa- confined to providing short-term services to tion, and alliance building. CLD trained women alleviate the immediate symptoms of structural from 21 communities in a variety of skills inequality (VeneKlasen 1996). Groups and necessary for running election campaigns and leaders who develop strategies and skills that provided support to help them become effective combine a vision of long-term change with the and responsive legislators. Through the project, achievement of short-term goals are well- participants came to understand the structure of positioned to strengthen organizational capacity public policymaking and gained awareness of political channels, structures, and power rela- tions. Armed with this technical grasp of the broader context, women became directly engaged in the political process, lobbying government on issues such as clean water, health care, and literacy.

CLD carried out its advocacy project in two phases: training and planning. Training involved a series of seminars on topics such as political awareness, gender analysis, legislative advocacy, developing legislative proposals, the electoral process, and campaign organizing. Soon after training took place, project organizers recog- nized the need for an entity that could serve as a

Women develop strategic campaign messages as part of the electoral training focal point for collaboration. This led to the supported by CLD establishment of a 200-member, province-wide

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 21

alliance of women advocates and elected women’s rights as human rights, policy advo- officials dedicated to studying and promoting cacy, community and social participation, issues that affect women in local communities. citizenship, conflict resolution, negotiation, The Women in Advocacy for Rural and Urban business administration, basic accounting, Opportunities in Mindanao (KABARO) provided marketing, enterprise feasibility, and credit a venue for mobilizing support for election administration. campaign activities. Cenzontle activities were based on a collabora- Project participants and KABARO members tive learning process that began with discussions organized a parade and symposium with the of participants’ perspectives and experiences, theme “Women’s Month, Women’s Vote, and followed by input and guidance from Cenzontle Women’s Political Power” that was attended by program directors and facilitators (promotoras more than 600 women. Impressively, of the integrales). These 150 female facilitators were women who received advocacy training under selected through interviews, dialogue sessions, the CLD project and ran in local and municipal and workshops. Women were selected based on elections, 47 percent won their seats. Participa- their communal leadership experience, credit tion in the project also spurred the participation record (either with Cenzontle or other nonprofit of women in legislative council activities and financial institutions), enterprise initiative, status local governmental committee hearings. as heads of households, literacy levels, and KABARO alliance members also met with local desire and willingness to develop leadership leaders and introduced 20 legislative proposals abilities. directly benefiting women in their respective local councils. The alliance has gained expertise Cenzontle also helped present several policy and visibility, further spreading awareness and proposals to the Nicaraguan government, expanding avenues of collaboration with including one on national reconstruction women’s advocates and both governmental and following Hurricane Mitch in October 1998 that nongovernmental agencies. Law enforcement focused on the issue of women’s access to and officials and lawyers have turned to KABARO for control over economic and material resources. information and guidance on gender-related Project participants were also active in discus- concerns, while civic organizations have ben- sions that led to the formulation of proposals in efited from its input on community issues and other areas, including access to credit, employ- problems. ment practices, health, labor laws, and violence against women. In addition, Cenzontle co- El Centro para la Participación Democrática y sponsored a regional workshop to train facilita- el Desarrollo (“The Center for Democratic tors throughout Central America and Mexico on Participation and Development”) the theory and practice of political advocacy on (Cenzontle). In Nicaragua, the NGO Cenzontle gender-related issues. also supports advocacy related to women’s social, economic, and political participation as Through the workshops and advocacy activities, discussed previously (see section on political project participants gained knowledge and skills, consciousness). The organization has made and in turn they began to think in terms of what popular education an integral part of its ap- they could accomplish. Women gained a new proach to facilitating the involvement of women appreciation of themselves, a fresh perspective in the public sphere. As part of PROWID, on their rights, an understanding of political and Cenzontle produced 15 training modules social conditions in Nicaragua, and a resolve to designed to improve technical skills in business address challenges in their lives. Consequently, development and citizen participation, as well as the civic groups to which project participants to counteract patterns of subordination and were associated became stronger, with members negative self-esteem (Cenzontle 1999). The better able to define and defend their rights, modules focused on gender equity, organiza- articulate their needs, and participate in public tional development, self-esteem, leadership, decisionmaking in their country.

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 22

The Center for Russian, Central, and East leadership training workshops. More than 40 European Studies at , the women participated in and contributed to each Kharkiv Center for Women’s Studies (KCWS), of the nine workshops, representing 19 NGOs Ukraine, and the National Information Center and 13 communities. Sessions included prob- on Women’s Organizations and Initiatives lem identification and prioritization, strategic (OSKA), Poland. Working in a very different planning, fundraising, public relations, leader- political climate, women’s access to political ship, working with government officials, and the power has not increased in the democratic gender aspects of public policies. transition sweeping through Eastern and Eurasia. In Poland and Ukraine, both the current As a result of the project, several advocacy political climate and a lack of political skills on initiatives were launched on the local level. In the part of citizens prevent many potentially Poland, NGOs conducted an initiative in local active women from influencing policies that schools to increase knowledge about women’s affect their daily lives, including areas such as rights, and the Women’s International Founda- childcare, reproductive health and rights, tion formulated platforms for women running in domestic violence, education, unemployment, local elections that focused on reproductive and workplace discrimination and harassment. rights and women’s employment and social Consequently, governmental structures are less security. In Ukraine, Journalists for Women’s accountable to and representative of women Rights produced a newsletter featuring women than is desirable. candidates and campaigned on their behalf in local elections, while the Union of Women of For this reason, from 1996-98, the Center for Poltava conducted workshops on women and Russian, Central and East European Studies at political leadership and campaigned for eight Rutgers University initiated and developed a women candidates in the 1998 city council collaborative project with OSKA and KCWS. election (two of whom won). In both countries, OSKA is a collaborative effort of leading Polish women attended local public policy delibera- women’s NGOs aiming to provide access to tions and visited with town administrators, information, initiate joint projects, and develop mayors, and local officials. Some groups also strategies to educate the public and policy- lobbied government officials on the oblast makers on the vital role of women in a demo- (regional) and national level for the inclusion of cratic society. KCWS is an association of lawyers, women’s issues on policy agendas, including journalists, sociologists, and historians commit- reproductive rights and funding for health ted to implementing integrated programs to services and education. foster women’s social, economic, and political development. Institutional Development Another aspect of a strong civil society is the Together, the three organizations trained women development of non-state institutions, the activists and leaders of women’s NGOs in order effectiveness of which can be judged by their to heighten awareness of the role of gender in level of success in winning policy and legislative decisionmaking and to increase political partici- victories, increasing the political arenas in which pation by and for women in local communities they operate, and strengthening their organiza- (Rutgers et al. 1999). Underlying this approach tional capacities (Miller 1994). If such condi- was the belief that women’s political participa- tions are achieved, civil society is likely to tion would compel the government to be more consolidate and expand the scope, functioning, accountable and representative of women. accountability, and effectiveness of organizations Using an advocacy and training model devel- representing marginalized constituencies. oped at Rutgers, the project identified the skills necessary for women to work together success- Building strong and viable women’s organiza- fully at different levels of political development, tions remains one of the principal challenges to which were then discussed in advocacy and shaping a more democratic and influential civil

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 23

society. Women’s involvement in the democrati- ships between the sexes and to improve women’s zation process has enhanced the number, living and working conditions. To this end, GEM prominence, and visibility of actors that repre- operates regional training centers, provides sent the concerns of citizens in relation to formal training and education programs to promote institutions of governance. As a sign of their women’s economic and social opportunities, and growing influence, women’s groups are more conducts social and economic analysis. frequently called upon to serve as issue experts and provide policy input, providing evidence As part of a project to promote women’s that the process of institutional development involvement in independent enterprises that was among civil society actors (such as NGOs and initiated in 1997-98 under PROWID, GEM community-based organizations) is gaining underwent an institutional strengthening momentum. In turn, such institutional develop- process known regionally as sistematizacion ment is an indication of the increasing activity (“systematization”) (GEM 1999). This is a form and clout of civil society and the importance of of “stock-taking” which involves members in citizen participation. reflecting on project experiences and results, ultimately giving organizations the opportunity While a single advocacy campaign may be to evaluate the quality of its work and document successful in facilitating the change or adoption lessons learned. of policies, any forward-looking strategy should incorporate steps to consolidate the dimensions Systematic analysis was undertaken collaboratively discussed above (i.e., constituency building, by participants and project staff. This served to access to political systems, and political skills both strengthen the learning and organizational development). In the long-term, the operational capacity of GEM and its seven regional centers strength of civil society actors will lie in their and to generate new employment opportunities ability to produce the social capital necessary to for women. For example, the systematization achieve policy reform in a pluralistic society. process provided GEM with feedback that Without an emphasis on their own organiza- regional centers should acknowledge the lack of tional development and maintenance, civil opportunities for women in areas characterized society actors will find it difficult to sustain their by extreme poverty, prompting the integration efforts, be influential participants in the political of advocacy efforts into its job placement process, and hold governments accountable program in order to promote policies that (Miller 1994). benefit the poor.

Grupo de Educación Popular con Mujeres, A. During the PROWID project, more than 100 C. (“The Popular Education Group for training sessions and workshops were held to Women”) (GEM). Despite considerable strides in strengthen the organizational and technical skills Mexico’s economic and social development, of the women who make up GEM and the millions of people in the country continue to regional centers. Strategic plans to promote endure conditions of extreme poverty, with women ranking among the poorest of the poor. Issues related to class and ethnicity have com- Cristina, a 35-year old Nahuatl from Xiloxochico and a member of pounded an unequal distribution of wealth and an indigenous artisan women’s cooperative, participated in opportunity, in turn spurring the marginalization capacity-building activities run by the regional center in Puebla. “In Maseualsiuame we formed teams of artisans who would go to of Mexican women. These circumstances other cities to sell goods,” explains Cristina. “At first it was difficult prompted GEM to strengthen the ability of to convince our families and husbands to allow us to go, but the regional organizations to generate innovative training we received and the support from our organization gave development projects that benefit poor indig- us the strength we needed to realize our potential and carry out enous, peasant, and urban women. Founded in our responsibilities. I am no longer fearful of speaking in public, 1986, GEM is a Mexican NGO active in six states talking to local officials, or being away from home…I am now a with the mission of assisting women’s groups to leader, valued and respected in my community and in the region.” transform unequal and discriminatory relation-

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 24

economic development and business skills were NGOs, and other civic and governmental explored. In addition, 18 workshops were held institutions. A reference manual and a journal with directors and staff from the regional were developed for each activity, meeting, and centers, as well as 100 women with whom the workshop conducted during the project and centers worked. Issue areas included ap- distributed to directors and staff at each center. proaches to development; organizational skills; development planning; policy advocacy; self- In order to expand its institutionalization efforts, esteem; strategic planning; and the process of GEM conducted ten “Gender and Business systematizing project experiences. Development” workshops for representatives of NGOs in other Mexican states that hoped to In addition, research and publication initiatives improve the entrepreneurial skills and capacities enabled GEM to share its work with NGOs and of both their organizations and the women with citizen groups—both throughout Mexico and in whom they worked. GEM also channeled other countries—that seek alternative ways to resources through projects and specific agree- combat poverty and inequality. The publication, ments with the centers for training programs, Construyendo un Nuevo Poder: Centros Regionales business investment projects, community de Capacitación a la Mujer (“Constructing a New development, and financing activities. For the Power: Regional Women’s Training Centers”), is a first time, opportunities were created for the detailed final report on the experiences of regional centers to meet and exchange ideas establishing and strengthening regional centers. with NGOs in order to foster joint planning and Designed as a case study, it describes the to maximize advocacy efforts at the local, background, process, activities, and impact of, regional, and national levels. as well as lessons learned from, the entire project, thus serving as a model for replication As a result, women from the regional centers by other civic groups seeking to improve have served as mediators and issue experts and organizational capacity. drafted legislation on economic and social policies that affect women. In Chihuahua, for Seven issues of the quarterly newsletter Mujeres example, the Centro de Atención de la Mujer Empresarias (“Women Entrepreneurs”) were also Trabajadora (“Center for Attention to Working published, and 3,600 copies were distributed to Women”) advocated for and achieved the women participating in programs at regional establishment of a state government estancia centers, community members, local and regional (“office” or “division”) for women’s issues. The Centro is working with the state Congress to develop a two-year plan to address such con- cerns as women’s legal rights, family violence, child care, and health conditions in the work- place. GEM also pioneered an important public/ private partnership by conducting training programs on administering microenterprise and income generation activities for social service agencies in the government.

GEM’s project activities raised the visibility of women’s work and the value of their contribu- tions to the Mexican economy and society. This was possible because GEM acknowledged the importance of exploring its own strengths and weaknesses, a process that “professionalized” its performance, elevated its image, and made its PROWID project partners participate in a regional workshop on advocacy and the work better suit the needs of its constituencies. promotion of rural women’s rights in Latin America hosted by GEM

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 25

Tambuyog Development Center. In a different assumed decisionmaking roles and responsibili- rural setting—in the Philippines—a lack of ties by selecting their own governing bodies, regulation in the fishing industry has led to the electing board members, and establishing issue- unlimited extraction of natural resources, related committees (e.g., on credit and savings, environmental degradation, and increasingly typhoon relief, and environmental protection). strained economic conditions within the sector. Members of the pilot groups gained representa- To address these growing problems, many tion on local fisheries and aquatic resources NGOs and government agencies in coastal areas management councils and began to coordinate throughout the Philippines have adopted community outreach, for example through Community-Based Coastal Resource Manage- initiatives such as coastal cleanups and children’s ment (CBCRM) programs. This strategy aims to education programs on waste management. transfer access and control of the fishing Together with local governments, the groups also industry’s resources to local communities, with coordinated International Women’s Day activities, the long-term goal of establishing community including public lectures and discussions on property rights. women and development. Some of these initiatives were supported through savings and Since 1989, the Tambuyog Development Center credit programs established by the members of has operated a range of programs throughout newly-formed organizations. Thus, in addition to the Philippines to strengthen fishing communi- strengthening institutional capacity, these ties and support the emergence of organized, programs enhanced women’s income-earning self-reliant groups that control and sustainably potential. manage their own resources. In 1997-99, Tambuyog launched a pilot CDCRM project Throughout the project, Tambuyog staff devel- under PROWID throughout the Philippine island oped and tested new indicators for monitoring of Palawan to actively involve women in local and evaluating the integration of gender into resource management organizations and sustainable development programs. These community decisionmaking processes, thereby indicators are slated to become standard enhancing their economic status and sustainable program tools. Sample indicators include resource consumption (Tambuyog 1999). increased access to financial resources and higher numbers of women-held leadership Historically, the participation of Filipino women positions in Resource Management Cooperatives in resource management has not been formally (RMCs). In large part due to Tambuyog, the acknowledged, principally because of a miscon- local RMCs have opened their membership and ception that they were not actively involved in leadership to women, primarily through the the fishing industry and therefore had no stake establishment of women’s committees. As this in coastal resource management. Tambuyog’s PROWID project demonstrated, combining strategy for empowering local women began institutional awareness with local strategies with community organizing and leadership designed to enhance women’s positions and formation. An initial gender awareness work- participatory skills is an important way to shop and training session on feminist research mitigate problems that confront entire commu- was conducted with 12 women identified as nities. local researchers and organizers. Subsequently, a total of eight training sessions were conducted Women and International Law Program at with an average of 25-40 participants each. American University. The third example of an institutional development project from PROWID As part of the project, two new women’s groups is in the legal sector. Throughout Latin America, were formed, which Tambuyog assisted with social norms and legal systems are often charac- skills training in strategic planning, organizational terized by a lack of attention to gender equity, development, advocacy, and public speaking. As resulting in laws or practices that do not take a result, the organizations gained prestige and into account the experiences and needs of

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 26

women. Furthermore, men with traditional education. In the short term, the AU project views tend to dominate the legal field through- increased the number of both law professors in out the region, holding most of the key adminis- Latin America teaching from a gender perspective trative and teaching positions in law schools, as and law courses addressing women’s rights and well as the majority of leadership and issues. In the long term, these achievements will decisionmaking positions in the legislature and prepare a new cadre of legal practitioners, judges, judiciary. In order to address significant prob- and policymakers who are capable of making lems of violence against women and gender bias gender-equitable decisions and interpreting and in legal systems throughout the region, the applying the law in a non-biased manner. Women and International Law Program at American University’s (AU) Washington College Government Institutions of Law launched the “Transforming Women’s To some extent, the character of the political Legal Status in Latin America” project in 1997 culture and the roles of civil society will be (AU 1999). The AU program, established in determined by government institutions such as 1984, aims to incorporate the experiences of legislatures, ministries, judicial entities, and local women in all aspects of legal education, contrib- agencies. It is in this realm that civil society ute to research and advocacy on women and the actors (e.g., NGOs, private sector associations, law, and promote awareness of the ways that community groups, and religious organizations) laws affect women’s lives. can demonstrate their utility to policymakers and where the capacity of leaders to craft The project included four integrated activities. policies that reflect an equitable balance of First, a Pan-American Conference was held to society’s interests and composition is tested. It is examine Latin American legal systems from a also at this level that the degree of transparency, gender perspective and discuss the challenges of accessibility, and accountability of government is integrating women’s human rights into law determined. school curricula and legal doctrine. Second, fellowships in teaching, research, and advocacy National and international institutions form the were awarded to notable Latin American most common and visible arena for citizens to women’s rights advocates interested in law. advocate for changes in policies, programs, Third, Regional Fellowships were awarded to laws, and regulations. Accordingly, when enable advocates and legal scholars writing and assessing how responsive such institutions are to teaching from a gender perspective to join the changes in political culture, it is important to faculties of law schools and institutes. And note whether and in what way national institu- fourth, a textbook entitled Genero y Derecho tions contribute to an environment conducive to (“Gender and the Law”), the first of its kind in political activity and show any signs of transfor- Latin America, was published and distributed to mation. In addition, the viability of advocacy law professors, practitioners, and fellows to activities and the roles of civil society actors introduce new ideas and approaches into the should be assessed. legal system and to affirm the legitimacy of gender perspectives. Institutional Reform Transforming government institutions so that These initiatives facilitated a professional relation- they are more responsive to all constituencies ship between academic institutions and women’s and interests, including those of women, is a rights groups, generating new intellectual slow process. Although such institutions are frameworks and approaches to integrating critical in shaping the direction of change, the gender into legal curricula. The systematic “official” political culture is often characterized exchange of teaching experiences and method- by and does not take into ologies between North and South America, for account the experiences and needs of women. example, provided women’s rights activists with The will to reform must therefore exist within opportunities to broaden the scope of their legal institutions if change is to occur, and it is this

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 27

will that is often bolstered by the actions and state and its many agencies or branches must advocacy initiatives of civil society actors. The work to promote and legitimize women’s entry realization that institutional reform requires into the political arena (Batliwala 1997). deeper changes among interest structures and power relationships in the political culture is a There are many ways for the state to carry out necessary insight underscoring how slow and these responsibilities. For example, it can difficult change will be (Carothers 1999). mandate women’s representation in political bodies or recognize the efforts of women leaders In seeking to reform institutions of governance, from civil society. Action by the state can often women aim to enhance their access to and break through the traditional boundaries that control over social, economic, political and restrict women’s access to participation and intellectual resources. The transformation of decisionmaking in the public sphere, and traditional gender relations both in the private subsequently allow them to attain formal and public spheres is the principal means to political power. Actions can sanction women’s reach this end. These shifts can manifested as presence in local self-government and send out changes in the gender-based division of labor, a broader social message that advocates a shift women’s equal access to resources (e.g., food, in a particular area of gender power relations health care, employment, education, and credit), (Batliwala 1997). In short, the state can help changes in legislation and public policies, and establish an environment in which women are women’s increased participation in public enabled to be politically active. decisionmaking (Batliwala 1997). While national institutions are ultimately respon- In many contexts, women’s participation in sible for ensuring gender equity, various ele- political life has begun to change the traditional ments of civil society can assume the role of rules of engagement in public decisionmaking watchdog by promoting gender-responsive and resulted in new opportunities and political legislative action. NGOs, state agencies such as discourse. As a result, individuals and organiza- women’s commissions, and tions increasingly recognize the linkages be- agencies are some entities that often scrutinize tween civil society and government institutions, government operations in order to safeguard the and are more able to feed their concerns into rights of citizens. Further, civil society’s inherent the policymaking process. As leaders and connection with grassroots activities puts it in a organizations gain a sense of their own power, strong position to determine whether or not they are better able to envision alternative women are able to realize gender equality, and political scenarios and position themselves to to thereby balance the statutory power of the take on more responsibility, in turn resulting in government to ensure compliance with legisla- transformed institutions of governance. tion aimed at improving the status of women.

State Accountability Citizen participation in legislative outcomes can A major dimension of political life is the ebb and help institutionalize gender awareness, consoli- flow of negotiating the proper role of the state, date democratic practices, and build constituen- particularly with regard to its responsiveness to cies in support of women.7 Effective advocacy the many competing interests that exist in a free may also influence governmental decision- society. For those seeking gender equity, a making by educating leaders, policymakers and commonly held view is that the role of the state those who implement policies about women’s is to create conditions that catalyze, reinforce, or economic and social conditions and rights; enable women’s grassroots efforts to secure their reforming policies, laws, and budgets; develop- empowerment. In addition, the state is seen to ing new programs; and supporting measures to be required to live up to its obligations to its enhance the transparency, democracy, and citizens, as espoused in international human accountability of legislative processes rights treaties such as CEDAW. Accordingly, a (VeneKlasen 1996).

7 It should be noted that the existence of competing interests in a democratic society means that civil society actors representing disparate constituencies and holding opposing views may struggle not only against the state, but each other as well.

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 28

The Moscow Center for Gender Studies. In tions for modifications to current laws, policies, Russia, the transition from a centralized to a and programs, or to suggest new ones in areas market economy has had an enormous impact where none existed. In addition, the informa- on state funding for social services, including tion was used to raise the awareness of public maternal and infant health, income support, and officials, members of the press, academics, child welfare programs. However, the gender- NGOs, and community groups on gender- related effects of these changes have not been inequitable legislation and procedures. assessed. Thus, while it appears that newly implemented laws, policies, and administrative For instance, after reviewing documents in the decisions, including budgetary allocations, may area of women’s employment policy, MCGS have created a new pattern of discrimination found that the declining labor market position of against women, no empirical data have been women is largely the result of legislation and generated to describe the actual effects. social norms that are biased against women. As an example, there is little control over hiring and To address this informational gap, in 1997-98, firing policies that are discriminatory towards the Moscow Center for Gender Studies (MCGS) women. Public advertisements of job openings undertook a gender analysis of current and often state the desired sex or age for applicants. pending Russian laws and state programs in the Further, the lack of gender-sensitive legislation areas of employment, reproductive health, mass permits the perpetuation of unstated and media, and migration (MCGS 1998). Through unofficial attitudes that would strengthen the project, MCGS underscored the role of civil traditional family values and raise the birthrate— society organizations in raising gender aware- each having clear implications for women who ness and holding governments accountable for prefer to or must work. promoting gender equity. MCGS is an NGO founded in 1990 to conduct research on gender In the area of reproductive health, a variety of discrimination in Russian society and to explore laws that regulate pregnancy, birth, and abor- methods for incorporating gender concerns into tion were examined. MCGS concluded that the the country’s rapidly expanding civil society. inordinately high abortion rate in Russia and the large number of unplanned and unwanted As part of its goal to incorporate gender aware- pregnancies result from a lack of information on ness into the Russian legislative process, MCGS family planning options, insufficient access to published its findings and analysis in four contraceptive devices, and poor gynecological booklets and three policy papers. The data and care. The analysis also underscored inconsis- reports were then used to make recommenda- tency between policies and funding decisions; for example, although abortion is available from the state, health clinic funding has decreased dramatically.

Through its research and extensive, often groundbreaking documentation, MCGS pro- moted public awareness about gender-related issues and trends. Roundtables and workshops on each of the four theme areas were organized, and both print and broadcast media were used for wide dissemination. This included journal, magazine, and newspaper articles, and appear- ances of the research team on news programs and talk shows. MCGS also used the Internet to disseminate findings and participate in confer- ences. In addition, the MCGS project directly Members of MCGS review findings from their gender analysis of Russian legislation and indirectly contributed to the drafting and

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 29

passage of several bills and amendments related stacles to equity in development resources and to women. In coordination with the Russian opportunities. Women’s Consortium, MCGS prepared a list of gender analysis experts for a Deputy Prime In 1998, the Centre for Rural Legal Studies (“the Minister, who agreed to finance analysis into Centre”) undertook a study of rural women other topic areas. A proposed initiative to farmworkers in the Western Cape Province to establish two positions for gender specialists in determine their socioeconomic status and to the Council of the Federation (the upper cham- assess the South African government’s compli- ber of the Russian Parliament) is being consid- ance with commitments made under CEDAW, in ered. MCGS also forged linkages with officials particular Article 14 on the obligation to pro- on both regional and local women’s policy mote the equal participation of rural women in committees, and an MCGS director was invited development. The Centre, a South African NGO to create a university course on “Gender Studies established in 1991, conducts research, training, and Public Policy” at the Moscow School for and advocacy to promote and protect the rights Social and Economic Studies. MCGS will also of farmworkers, and has successfully influenced provide a gender analysis program for fellows policies on democratization and land reform, as from Russian universities and Commonwealth of well as agricultural labor laws (the Centre 1999). Independent States (CIS) countries. The Centre project provides a case in point of Internationally, the project team contributed to how NGOs are holding governments respon- the development of gender analysis training sible, while at the same time helping govern- organized by the United Nations Development ments to honor their commitments to gender Program (UNDP) and the Organization on equity and social justice. Advocacy efforts Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) for included lobbying government officials and five Central Asian countries. In short, the MCGS conducting workshops with trade unions, legal project underscored the important role that civil advice offices, and NGOs. In the area of re- society actors on a variety of levels play in search, a survey of employers and women holding governments accountable to their farmworkers contributed to a report that was citizens. launched on South ’s National Women’s Day in 1999. It received extensive media The Centre for Rural Legal Studies. Another coverage and was distributed to NGOs, farming compelling example of civic organizations organizations, and provincial government holding the government accountable is in South departments. In addition, two discussion Africa. Following the first post-apartheid, documents (on CEDAW and the lives of women democratic elections in 1994, unprecedented farmworkers) were produced for use by govern- support was given to gender equality, which is ment representatives, among others. Finally, an guaranteed in the Bill of Rights contained in the educational pamphlet titled Women Farmworkers: country’s new constitution. The government Know Your Rights provided rural South African ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All women with information on CEDAW, South Forms of Discrimination against Women African labor and tenure law, and legal service (CEDAW) in 1996 and accepted the Platform of organizations. Action adopted at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. It also estab- lished a “Gender Management System” com- “There were times when I felt very despondent and thought of just giving up, but the lawyers prising an Office on the Status of Women, told me I had rights and that I must not be contact persons and departments on gender intimidated…I have always thought it was the issues within provincial legislatures, and an man who had the rights to a property, not a independent, statutory Commission on Gender woman. [Now] I feel great.” Equality (CGE). Despite these formal commit- —Mary, a 31 year-old farmworker from De Soorns, ments to gender equality, however, rural South Africa farmworkers in South Africa face serious ob-

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 30

the Status of Women. The collaboration be- tween the CGE, a statutory body with a man- date for achieving gender equity, and the Centre proved to be a powerful model for government and civil society partnerships for the achieve- ment of shared goals. Conclusions It is common for citizens (particularly women) in transitional societies or emerging to be resigned to the idea that they cannot change things or improve their circumstances. Even in instances of entrenched attitudes of powerless- ness formed over decades of authoritarian rule, however, tools and knowledge are available for individuals and communities to transform their Materials produced by the Centre for Rural Legal Studies to promote equal rights for thinking. Encouraging women’s engagement in women on in South Africa a vibrant civil society is an essential component Throughout the project, the Centre collaborated of democratic development: This process assists closely with the CGE. As a result, the Centre was women in gaining greater control over the invited to host workshops for the Western Cape circumstances that affect their lives and their CGE and the Departments of Agriculture, Labor communities—and consequently affords them and Land Affairs, to raise awareness of CEDAW greater decisionmaking power. Such methods as and to work with public servants to develop advocacy training, consciousness raising, gender-sensitive indicators of achievement. The network building, and political and gender CGE has now pledged to conduct research on analysis are ways for women to combat the fear pay equity in agriculture, used the research to and apathy that underpin powerlessness and to evaluate South Africa’s compliance with CEDAW, generate faith in the possibility of transforma- and collaborated in developing a set of indica- tion. PROWID field experiences in the area of tors to track achievement in formulating gender- governance and civil society demonstrate that sensitive policy with regard to the status of rural the selection and sequencing of methods to women. These indicators include incorporating promote women’s democratic participation vary a focus on rural women in program and budget widely, reflecting the nuances of different preparation; prioritizing research on women cultural, economic, geographic, political, and living or working on farms; complying with anti- social contexts. Thus, although objectives and discrimination provisions under CEDAW; and outcomes were often similar, each project made making available education, training, and distinct contributions. services in support of women’s rights. As a democratic political culture expands Because of the Centre project, the CGE has worldwide, it is increasingly important to deepened its commitment to implementation of examine how women—and often the institu- CEDAW and plans to replicate the educational tions to which they belong—take on new roles processes used in the Western Cape in other and identities, develop new skills, claim indi- provinces of South Africa. Moreover, the CGE vidual and collective rights, participate in public has pledged to use the Centre’s research findings decisionmaking processes, and establish an on women farmworkers as part of South Africa’s equal footing with their male counterparts. The Year 2000 report to the Parliament on progress PROWID project generated a deeper under- made toward CEDAW compliance, as well as in standing of the reasons for women’s exclusion future reports to United Nations bodies such as from civic life and about how best to foster their the CEDAW Committee and the Commission on participation in democratic process, in particular

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 31

regarding the tools and strategies that can be seen at the level of the individual as women applied to promote participatory values, prac- everywhere gain a heightened political con- tices, and institutions. sciousness and come to believe in the possibility of transformation. At the national level, the Questions remain, however. Will women’s political discourse will be altered to the point at involovement in social movements and political which gender issues will be a shared concern of activism lead to changes in the behavior of a broad spectrum of political groups. In the political elites toward them, and a shift in the long run, the broader the participation in the contours of political life to include women? The democratic discourse, the more likely it will be lasting impact of women’s increased mobiliza- that a society’s development choices will reflect tion and political participation will ultimately be the needs and concerns of all its citizens.

Rosa Isela Serrano Castro, member of the coordinating commission of the AMMOR, or Asociación Mexicana de Mujeres Organizadas en Red A.C. (“Mexican Association of Women Organized in Networks”), and member of the Via Campesina Women’s Working Group Leadership Commission, speaking at the Association of Women in Development conference in Washington, D.C. in November 1999

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 32

Recommendations and Lessons Learned

Recommendations The following recommendations for program governments accountable, and create their own planning and implementation are subdivided options and choices. into three broad categories. Continue skill building and support for Tools and Strategies to Foster and Strengthen women in public office. Women’s Participation: Women’s political participation is a critical element in the development of a democratic Support policy analysis activities. society, and offers practical experience and Becoming familiar with public policy and lessons for strengthening civil society generally. policymakers, and learning how to organize in As such it is an integral element of women’s order to access key audiences, encouraged enhanced status involving issues of power and women in the PROWID projects to become more powerlessness, equal access and control of engaged in political processes. Education and resources, and the strategies that can create training about legal systems, electoral processes, change agents and transform institutions and and legislation can help women become better structures in society. PROWID projects success- informed and able to demystify public policy fully increased women’s participation in electoral and become better advocates for their needs. and legislative processes by training women to Issue forums, lobbying of policymakers, and build constituencies, become candidates, and monitoring of governments’ actions enable run campaigns in local and district elections; to women to hold officials accountable, often for develop electoral campaign messages that the first time. Relations with government promoted issues identified by women as being officials, other civic groups, and the media critical to their well-being; and to organize and should be encouraged to foster greater opportu- create support for those who would take political nities for disseminating information and and legislative action on these issues. By partici- strengthening policy advocacy efforts. pating in training sessions and developing and implementing advocacy strategies, women Promote human rights education. realized the need to work vigorously to promote Human rights education should be integrated gender equitable policies. However, women in into programs, where appropriate, as it can play local, regional, and national political positions a catalytic role in enabling individuals, particu- must continue to develop skills in building larly women in the case of PROWID, to become coalitions with the broad spectrum of CSOs and agents of positive change. By introducing a elected officials in order to govern effectively. value system that promotes self-respect and recasts individuals’ relationships to their commu- Use advocacy training as a means to nities and governments, women become aware understand and challenge inequitable societal that they have rights and are capable of partici- structures. pating in decisionmaking processes. This new Projects utilized participatory processes that knowledge results in an enabling environment enabled women to critically analyze their where individuals accept responsibility, hold situations and create action plans focused on

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 33

advocacy and policy change. To be effective, posal writing, strategic planning, organizational program organizers should make sure activities management, and in collaborating with the that respond to women’s immediate concerns media (e.g., in producing informational bro- (such as employment or land use) are comple- chures and organizing seminars and press mented by strategies that address underlying conferences). Further, efficient communication structural constraints, and advocacy efforts are modes (e.g., e-mail and Internet access) are vital integrated into their programmatic strategy for developing organizations to be able to development processes. For example, an respond to community and policymakers’ needs income generation project was most successful and requests. when it integrated advocacy efforts (in addition to credit and training programs) at the local and Create forums for women to exchange national policymaking levels, as a means for ideas and reflect on their experiences. participants to play a role in decisionmaking Grappling with concepts like citizenship, processes that govern economic opportunities. freedom, and pluralism requires individuals to question virtually everything they know to be Power of the Collective Voice and Experience: true about their roles in society, as well as to challenge longstanding power relations and Facilitate the development of diverse patterns of inequality in cultural, political, and networks for women’s groups. socioeconomic structures. This process can be Several of the PROWID activities were spear- both exhilarating and disquieting. Women can headed by advocacy coalitions, composed of a make unique, valuable contributions and should diverse range of CSOs, which were crucial in be encouraged to engage in this type of ques- creating and sustaining activism and improving tioning; thus, programs should be designed to advocacy efforts. Networks can provide strong provide women with the space and time to support systems for women advocates and confront, discuss, and take action on these ideas. promote dialogue for collaborative analysis and action—for instance, encouraging women to Develop a written record for other organi- vote, lobbying government officials, or running zations. for elected office. Organizations should be Much of the work by women’s organizations brought together as partners to foster a sense of throughout the world is pioneering, often being strength in numbers, and capability and power, done for the first time in some communities. By decreasing activists’ feelings of marginalization documenting project processes, one organization and isolation. Local community organizations can serve as a resource for many women’s groups serving women should create linkages to and civic institutions seeking alternative means to exchange information with other peers and address such issues as poverty, transforming leaders at the regional and international levels, unequal power relations, or increasing women’s enhancing their capacity to inform and influence access to and ability to compete in the labor citizens and policymakers at home. market. Similarly, current activists can provide a legacy to the next generation of activists with Support institutional capacity building. concrete, real-life examples of strategies from PROWID partners recognized that activism and their projects. Materials (such as organizational the use of participatory learning processes training manuals) are most effective when they requires time, flexibility, and resources. Despite contain popular concepts and stories tailored to the fact that it may be challenging and time match the target audience. consuming, grassroots-level organizations need ongoing support to strengthen their abilities to Credibility as a Vital Asset: design processes and build mechanisms that ensure sustainability. Many women’s groups are Create and widely disseminate a credible relatively young, lacking both essential organiza- body of information. tional skills and concrete experience. For Civil society organizations, especially nascent instance, groups need further training in pro- women’s groups, must establish credibility to

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 34

send their message to policymakers and other issues—such as community development, land important actors (e.g., the media and other rights, health and education, violence in the CSOs) with whom collaboration is essential. In community, and the environment—into formal several cases, the lack of accurate information decisionmaking bodies. Development priorities and other resources, including reliable statistics, and policies should be articulated in close was an impediment to the PROWID partners’ collaboration with these leaders and their efforts to promote desirable legislative responses organizations in order to increase gender equity to such advocacy objectives as improved and accurately address stakeholder concerns. If women’s reproductive health or more equitable there is a true commitment to participation, employment practices. Thus, well researched, these groups must be given the freedom to objective fact sheets and other reports and experiment with strategies and programs and documentation should be created to provide a adapt them to their circumstances. While this credible body of information for legislators or may mean less predictable avenues to develop- the media. ment, it is likely to result in more responsive and sustainable outcomes. Collect gender-disaggregated information Political consciousness results from critical as a powerful tool for monitoring and assess- thinking. ing women’s progress. Women and other marginalized groups often Access to information, and the ability to analyze inherently possess the skills and language and disseminate it, is essential to promote necessary to articulate political ideas. But when accountable and efficient structural reform. they are exposed to new information and modes Information was used in PROWID projects to of expression, and are able to evaluate and raise awareness about women’s human rights; internalize them, the possibilities for change develop mechanisms for including women, men, increase. There is no substitute for “owning” and youth in promoting gender equity; enhance knowledge. Beyond simple access to informa- gender sensitivity in the legislative process; and tion, it is the power of analysis, critical thinking, hold governments accountable to women’s and application that has enabled women in concerns. However, a dearth of gender-disaggre- PROWID projects to recognize their ability to gated data was a significant impediment in change circumstances, assert their rights, and project planning and overall promotion of take advantage of opportunities to transform women’s rights, as well as in making accurate their lives. policy recommendations. Whenever possible, gender-disaggregated statistics should be Small steps provide the foundation for gathered, and surveys and databases developed, enduring social change. to strengthen data collection on the status of Efforts by PROWID partner organizations to women and enhance practitioners’ efforts to promote women’s human rights, encourage inform policymakers. political participation, or build constituencies contributed to subtle changes in the political Lessons Learned climate. Advocacy is a time-consuming process The following are lessons that come from that is highly sensitive to political and economic collective project experiences: crises and does not always offer quick or direct results. Any efforts, though, that produce even Sustainable development requires women’s the slightest change in the willingness of people active participation in public decisionmaking. to become politically active or express them- Women’s involvement in public discourse brings selves without fear marks an important step in some of the key people who may be most the creation of an improved climate for advo- knowledgeable about and committed to cacy and women’s empowerment.

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 35

Appendix

Project Contact Information

American University Center for Legislative Develop- Grupo de Educación Popular ៑ Ms. Tammy Horn ment (CLD) Con Mujeres A.C. (GEM) American University ៑ Ms. Sheila Espine-Villaluz ៑ Ms. Ana Maria Fernandez G. Washington College of Law Center for Legislative Development Saravia 4801 Massachusetts Ave., NW Philippine Social Science Center GEM, Cerrada de Tochtile, No. 10 Suite 465 Rm. 217 Sol. Santo Domingo, Coyoacan Washington, D.C. 20016, USA Commonwealth Avenue Mexico, D.F. 04369, MEXICO Phone: 202-274-4183 Diliman, Quezon 1121 Phone: 525-619-0935 Fax: 202-274-4130 PHILIPPINES Fax: 525-619-0935 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 63-2-927-4030 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 63-2-927-2936 Be Active, Be Emancipated E-mail: [email protected] Moscow Center for Gender (B.a.B.e) Studies

៑ Centre for Rural Legal Studies Ms. Martina Belic ៑ Ms. Elena Kochkina B.a.B.e ៑ Ms. Alida van de Merwe c/o Open Society Institute Prilaz Gjure Dezelica 26/II Centre for Rural Legal Studies Bolshoi Kozlovski Pereulok 13/17 Zagreb 10000, CROATIA P.O. Box 1169 Moscow 107078, RUSSIA Phone: 385-098-353937 Stellenbosch 7599 Phone: 7-095-332-4532 Fax: 385-098-9426 SOUTH AFRICA Fax: 7-095-241-6922 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 27-21-883-8032 E-mail: [email protected], Fax: 27-21-886-5076 [email protected] Center for Russian, Central E-mail: [email protected] and Eastern European Studies NIS-US Women’s Consortium Cenzontle ៑ Ms. Ann Graham ៑ Dr. Elena Ershova Center for Russian, Central and ៑ Ms. Malena de Montis Solis Russian Consortium of Women’ s Eastern European Studies Cenzontle NGOs Rutgers University Apartado Postal 5334, Belmonte #5 Olimpisky prospekt 16, Room 2383 172 College Avenue, P.O. Box 5062 Managua, NICARAGUA Moscow 129090, RUSSIA New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA Phone: 505-265-1425/2983 Phone: 011-7-095-288-9633 Phone: 732-932-8551 Fax: 505-265-1425 Fax: 011-7-95-288-7066 Fax: 732-932-1144 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Federation for Women and ៑ Ms. Sheila Scott ៑ Ms. Alexandra Rudneva Family Planning Winrock International Kharkiv Center for Women’s Studies 1611 North Kent Street ៑ Ms. Wanda Nowicka Bulvar Mira 44, Rm. 51 Federation for Women and Family Arlington, VA 22209, USA Kharkiv 310108, UKRAINE Planning Phone: 703-525-9430 Phone: 380-572-405-285 ul. Rabsztynska 8 Street Fax: 703-525-1744 Fax: 380-572-121-015 01-140, POLAND E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 48-22-632-0882 Fax: 48-22-631-0817 ៑ Ms. Agata Zakrzewska E-mail: [email protected] National Information Center on Women’s Organizations and Initia- tives (OSKA) ul. Falata 2 m. 48 Warszawa 02-534, POLAND Phone: 48-22-49-5179 Fax: 48-22-49-5179 E-mail: [email protected]

Women’s Paths to Participation and Decisionmaking: Promoting Gender Equity in Public Life 36

Partners for Change Via Campesina WLDI – Central Asian ៑ Ms. Livia Deac ៑ Ms. Doris Gutierrez Hernandez Republics ៑ Ms. Nicoleta Druta Via Campesina Internacional ៑ Ms. Margaret Schuler Partners for Change Colonia Alameda, Casa #2026 Women, Law and Development Occidentului Street, 11 Avenida Alonso Guillen Zelaya International Bucharest, ROMANIA 11 Calle, 3 y 4 Aves., Apartado 1350 Connecticut Ave., NW Phone: 401-330-1275 Postal 3628 Suite 407 Fax: 401-330-1275 Tegucigalpa MDC, Washington, D.C. 20036, USA Phone: 504-235-9915/232-2198 Phone: 202-463-7477 Tambuyog Development Fax: 504-232-2198 Fax: 202-463-7480 Center E-mail: [email protected] Email: [email protected] ៑ Ms. Gaynor Tanyang ៑ Ms. Annette Desmarais Rm. 108-A, PSSC Building ៑ Ms. Nettie Wiebe Commonwealth Ave. Via Campesina Women’s Working Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Group PHILIPPINES c/o NFU, 250-C, 2nd Avenue South Phone: 632-926-4415 Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Fax: 632-456-4415/1907 Phone: 306-652-9465 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 306-664-6226 Email: [email protected]

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 37

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Moscow Center for Gender Phillips, Anne. 1991. Sparr, Pamela, ed. 1994. Torres, Carlos Alberto. 1998. Studies. 1998. Engendering Democracy. Mortgaging Women’s Lives: Democracy, Education and “Gender-based Expert University Park, PA: The Feminist Critiques of Structural Multiculturalism: Dilemmas of Analysis of Russian Legal Pennsylvania State Adjustment. London: Zed Citizenship in a Global World. Reform.” Final end-of- University Press. Books, Ltd. Lanham, MD: Rowman and project report for PROWID Littlefield Publishers, Inc. to the International Center Porter, Fenella, Ines Smyth Staudt, Kathleen. 1998. for Research on Women. and Caroline Sweetman, eds. Policy, Politics and Gender: UNIFEM. 1999. 1999. Women Gaining Ground. West Engendering Governance and NIS-US Women’s Consortium. Gender Works: Oxfam Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press. Leadership. Annual Report. 1999. Experience in Policy and New York. “Women’s Advocacy in Practice. Oxford, UK: Oxfam Sweetman, Caroline, ed. 1998. Russia: The NIS-US Women’s (UK and Ireland). Gender, Education and Training UNIFEM. Consortium.” Final end-of- (Oxfam Focus on Gender). “Women’s Empowerment project report for PROWID Sen, Gita and Caren Grown. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishers Revisited.” Progress of the to the International Center 1987. Llc. World’s Women Report. for Research on Women. Development, Crises, and Accessed on-line January 28, Alternative Visions. New Tambuyog Development 2000 at www.unifem.undp.org/ Partners for Change. 1999. York: Monthly Review Press. Center. 1999. progressww/empower.html. “Training and Technical “Engendering Community- Assistance to Promote Schuler, Margaret, ed. 1995. Based Coastal Resource Gender Equity.” Final end- From Basic Needs to Basic Management.” Final end-of- of-project report for Rights: Women’s Claim to project report for PROWID to PROWID to the Centre for Human Rights. Washington, the Centre for Development Development and Popula- DC: Institute for Women and Population Activities. tion Activities. Law and Development.

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 39

VeneKlasen, Lisa. 1996. Walter, Shirley and Linzi World Bank. “The Challenge of Democ- Manicom. 1996. “Social Capital for racy-building: Practical Gender in Popular Development.” Lessons on NGO Advocacy Education: Methods for PovertyNet Home Page. and Political Change.” In Empowerment. London: Accessed on-line May, Andrew Clayton, ed. NGOs, Zed Books, Ltd. 10, 2000 at Civil Society and the State: www.worldbank.org/ Building Democracy in Women, Law and poverty/scapital. Transitional Societies. Development Interna- Oxford, UK: INTRAC tional. 1999. Publications. “Step by Step: Training Women to Use the Via Campesina Women’s International Human Working Group. 1999. Rights System to “Peasant Women on the Promote and Defend Frontiers of Food Security.” Women’s Human Rights Final end-of-project report in Central Asia.” Final for PROWID to the Centre end-of-project report for for Development and PROWID to the Centre Population Activities. for Development and Population Activities.

For more information on the projects discussed in this paper, the following Reports-in-Brief can be ordered from ICRW or CEDPA, or can be accessed on-line at either organization (www.icrw.org or www.cedpa.org): ៑ “Advocacy for Women’s Reproductive Health and Rights: Developing a Grassroots Strategy in Poland.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Food Sovereignty in Latin America and the Caribbean: Strengthening the Role of Peasant Women.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Fostering Gender Fairness in Coastal Resource Management: A Community-Based Project in the Philippines.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Gender Analysis of Russian Legal Reform.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Human Rights, Advocacy, and the Empowerment of Women: An Education and Action Project in the Yugoslav Successor States.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Legislative Advocacy for Women’s Rights: Training Candidates for Local Elections in Cotabato, Philippines.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Lobbying for Women’s Political Rights: Strategies in Poland and Ukraine.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Promoting and Defending Human Rights: Building Capacity among Women in Central Asia.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in- Brief. ៑ “Promoting Equitable Development for Women Farmworkers: Research and Advocacy in South Africa.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Promoting Gender Equity: A Training and Technical Assistance Project in Romania.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Promoting Opportunities for Women’s Social Enterprise: A Regional Effort in Mexico.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Strengthening Women’s Advocacy in Russia: The NIS-US Women’s Consortium.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Strengthening Women’s Political and Economic Participation: A Training and Education Project in Nicaragua.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief. ៑ “Transforming Women’s Legal Status in Latin America: Integrating Gender into Doctrine and Education.” 1999. A PROWID Report-in-Brief.

Promoting Gender Equity in the Democratic Process: Women’s Paths to Political Participation and Decisionmaking 40

Founded in 1976, the International Center for Research Founded in 1975, the Centre for Development and on Women (ICRW) is a private, nonprofit organization Population Activities (CEDPA) is a gender-focused, in- dedicated to promoting economic and social develop- ternational nonprofit organization active in over 40 countries with of- ment with women’s full participation. ICRW generates quality, em- fices in Egypt, Ghana, India, Mali, Nepal, Nigeria, Romania, Russia, pirical information, and provides technical assistance on women’s pro- and South Africa. CEDPA’s mission is to empower women at all levels ductive activity, their reproductive and sexual health and rights, their of society to be equal partners in development. CEDPA collaborates status in the family, their leadership in society, and their management with over 130 indigenous organizations on initiatives that seek to im- of environmental resources. ICRW advocates with governments and prove the lives of women, men, youth, and children. CEDPA builds multilateral agencies and engages in an active policy communica- the capacity of its partners to provide quality, sustainable programs. tions program. It collaborates with other nongovernmental institu- Youth development, reproductive health, human rights, and strength- tions to advance women’s economic opportunities and rights in de- ened democracies and civil societies are achieved through strategies veloping and transition countries. such as training, service delivery, social mobilization, and advocacy.

PROMOTING WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT

International Center for Research on Women The Centre for Development and Population Activities 1717 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Suite 302, Washington, DC 20036, USA 1400 16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036, USA Tel: (202) 797-0007 Fax: (202) 797-0020 Tel: (202) 667-1142 Fax: (202) 332-4496 http://www.icrw.org e-mail: [email protected] http://www.cedpa.org e-mail: [email protected]