Young people’s participation and civic engagement Generation Unlimited Decent Jobs for Youth, the Generation Unlimited works with a Global Initiative for Action two- pronged approach- coordinating Decent Jobs for Youth is the global initiative country level action through investment to scale up action and impact on youth agendas and implementing cross- employment under the 2030 Agenda for cutting innovations at scale. At Sustainable Development. It is a hub for the national level, Generation catalyzing partnership, collaboration Unlimited will establish an in-country, and coordinated action at country and multisector partnership group led regional level, grounded in evidence-based by the government to undertake a solutions. comprehensive landscape analysis of the current ecosystem for education, Launched in 2016, with the endorsement employment and civic engagement of of the United Nations Chief Executives young people. The analysis will be the Board for Coordination, Decent Jobs basis for a country investment agenda for Youth brings together governments, that will articulate a high-level roadmap social partners, youth and civil society, the and a portfolio of scalable initiatives for private sector, and many more partners investments, and Generation Unlimited advancing the vision: a world in which support sourcing of investment young women and men everywhere have opportunities and mobilization of greater access to decent jobs! financial and political capital to execute on these priorities for young people Through the commitment platform and aged 10-24. Where innovations are the Decent Jobs for Youth Knowledge required, Generation Unlimited will Facility, partners identify what works, share also support co-creation of solutions, innovations, and mobilize concrete actions particularly with young people. – from green and digital jobs to quality apprenticeships, youth entrepreneurship, At the global level, Generation Unlimited and the transition to the formal economy. will identify and scale innovations of With new spin-off initiatives in Namibia, greatest potential to address common Nigeria, Burkina Faso, and Kenya, and a challenges of young people, unlocking regional and global convening agenda, bottlenecks and brokering partnerships Decent Jobs for Youth works with like- to deliver on the innovations. minded partnerships to translate fragmentation into synergy.
Acronyms and initialisms
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child DRC Democratic Republic of Congo ESD Education for Sustainable Development GCE Global Citizenship Education HIV Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus IEA International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement SASM Student Anti-Sweatshop Movement SDG Sustainable Development Goal UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNV United Nations Volunteers US$ United States Dollar INTRODUCTION
The current generation of young people – numbering 1.8 billion – is one-quarter of the world’s population1 and a dominant force now and in the decades to come. However, investments in quality wage and self- employment fall short of young people’s aspirations, leaving a growing pool of young jobseekers with an insufficient number of decent jobs. Many education systems are struggling to prepare young people with skills which meet employer’s expectations. The COVID-19 pandemic and related global recession have further exacerbated the socio-economic challenges facing youth, which put at risk many of the gains made in recent years to advance young people’s opportunities.
Generation Unlimited and the Global Initiative on Decent Jobs for Youth are two multi-stakeholder alliances working together to mobilize action and foster skills, employment and the meaningful participation of young people across the globe. By bringing young people together with governments, social partners, the private sector, and a range of international and local organizations, they connect secondary-age education and training to a complex and fast-changing world of work, while easing the transition of young people into decent jobs. Efforts are also being made to foster youth-led entrepreneurship and empower a generation of young people to fully engage as part of their societies.
1 SECTION 1 THE STRATEGIC CASE
The 1.8 billion young Young people first and foremost have skills, enables them to build better a fundamental right to participate and relationships,7 and leads to policies and people in the world today engage meaningfully in society. According decisions that are more likely to address are a crucial resource for to Article 12 of the United Nations their needs.8, 9 Furthermore, given a Convention on the Rights of the Child, conducive environment, young people innovative social change signed by 196 countries, young people can then use these skills to strengthen towards a more equal have the right to have their voices listened civil society, increase accountability of and sustainable world. to and taken into account in decisions that governments and corporations10 and affect their lives.2 This right, alongside other work towards greater social cohesion. Throughout history, rights outlined in the Convention such as Lastly, when youth are enabled and civically engaged young the right to non-discrimination (Article supported, their participation and people have proven to 2) and freedom of expression (Article 13), engagement can be a powerful means puts a duty on governments to create an for them to challenge situations of abuse, be a powerful force for enabling environment for young people injustice and discrimination.11 change. In recent years to influence decisions and policies that impact them. The 2030 Agenda recognizes On the positive side, there are many alone, we have witnessed that “children and young women and encouraging examples of significant youth-led movements men are critical agents of change and improvements in young people’s participation and influence in the home, that have successfully will find in the new Goals a platform to channel their infinite capacities for activism at school, in their communities and in gained international into the creation of a better world".3 In the political sphere at local, national attention and challenged addition, in a 2013 resolution the United and global levels. At local level, an Nations General Assembly urged “Member example is greater youth participation established practices States and entities of the United Nations and contribution to decision-making in within public, private System, in consultation with youth-led city and district councils in Sierra Leone since the end of the civil war.12 At national and not-for-profit organizations, to explore avenues to promote full, effective, structured and and global level, an example is the organizations and sustainable participation of young people inclusion of youth delegates in countries’ institutions. and youth-led organizations in decision- official delegations to the United Nations making processes”.4 This resolution was General Assembly. Youth representatives reinforced by the United Nations Human provide input to their delegations on Rights Council in 2016.5 issues related to youth and participate through attending national and Despite these rights, young people still face intergovernmental meetings and unequal opportunities for participation informal negotiations. In the political and civic engagement. They typically sphere, young female leaders have taken experience a lack of voice and power to centre stage, from Malala Yousafzai’s make decisions that affect their lives and involvement in strengthening the global to create positive social change. This is movement for girls’ rights to education true across many contexts including the through to Greta Thunberg igniting a home, education, local communities, work, movement of young people protesting business and the political sphere. When and striking in demand for action to forms of youth consultation do occur, the mitigate climate change. In 2018 we saw topics are frequently tokenistic in nature, young people leading the protests for not given the same weight as adults, and gun control in the United States. In 2019 are hardly ever acted upon.6 we witnessed young people protesting in support of democracy and human This reality does not only breach a basic rights in Algeria, Chile, Egypt, Hong human right, but also leads to untapped Kong, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, potential for youth development and Russia and Sudan. Not only have young social improvement. When young people continuously demonstrated their people meaningfully engage in decision- capability to lead change, but the data making, it improves their problem- also suggest that young people (18–34) solving, negotiation and communication participate in demonstrations more than adults (35 upwards).13
2 Defining the opportunities and challenges The aim of this guide is to support the Generation Unlimited strategic priority to “Equip young people as problem-solvers and engaged members of society, helping to create a better world”, through providing evidence and guidance that has the potential to improve young people’s participation and civic engagement. This guide will identify successful strategies that can increase young people’s civic participation and boost the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values crucial for future civic engagement. It will identify structures that are likely to amplify young people’s voices in decision-making and benefit local communities.
Participation and civic engagement are very broad and contested concepts that have been stretched and interpreted in many different ways.14 For this thematic guide, the following working definitions have been used:
• Participation is understood in terms of a process, i.e., “partaking in, and influencing, processes, decisions and activities”,15 where such behaviour requires positive attitudes, dispositions and interests in participation, along with a clear belief that one can make a difference. The definition insists on the need for young people behaved like adults they majority of teachers are not adequately participation to be anchored in the values were viewed as not representing the views trained to use the teaching approaches of human rights and based on knowledge of youth and when they behaved like youth required to build the knowledge, skills, and critical reflection. they were removed from the consultation attitudes and values needed for future exercise and replaced.18 These barriers to participation and civic engagement. • Civic engagement is defined as “how an influence and participation in decision- The lack of initial and continuous active citizen participates in the life making are not unique, but are indicative professional development on education of a community in order to improve of young people’s experiences of youth for sustainable development or global conditions for others or to help shape voice more broadly. citizenship education was highlighted by 16 the community’s future.” UNESCO as one of the major challenges for There is a lack of awareness and There are a wide variety of challenges implementing Sustainable Development capacity among adults to equip young Goal target 4.7.1 on global citizenship.19 that young people face in their path to people with the tools, support and participation and civic engagement. encouragement needed to be civically Young people face stigma regarding their characteristics and influence Young people’s right to be heard and engaged. Be it social workers, healthcare on society. With rising global concerns influence decisions in a meaningful professionals, teachers, youth employers of terrorism, young people are frequently way is rarely upheld and supported. or caregivers, many adults do not have associated with violence and extremism When young people are asked about their the skills and awareness to support and and at times labelled as a threat. These experience of involvement in decision- motivate young people to express their stigmas fuel policies that marginalize making, the experience they describe views and opinions and to be active in young people and evoke security measures is complex. For example, young people their communities and in wider society. An against them, rather than leading to more engaged in youth councils in the United example of this challenge is the scarcity supportive solutions that enable them to States reported experiences of adults not of quality teaching on youth participation participate positively in society.20 Indeed, taking their ideas seriously.17 Research in and civic engagement. Despite teachers’ the stigmatism of young people extends Ghana identified another barrier – when great influence on young people’s lives, the
3 further still. In a survey in Scotland or peer-to-peer initiatives. Access to such Landscape – Participation regarding public attitudes towards young opportunities is commonly influenced people, 25 per cent viewed young people by socioeconomic status, gender, and civic engagement as lazy, 40 per cent thought they lacked sexual orientation, ethnicity, citizenship trends amongst youth communication skills and 33 per cent saw and disability, with participation being them as irresponsible. When respondents dominated by young people who come As highlighted in the introduction, youth were asked about the portrayal of young from a more advantaged background. have the potential to be a positive force people in the media, 52 per cent felt Though these experiences of meaningful for change. United Nations Security they were portrayed in a negative light,21 participation are known to develop Council Resolution 2250 on Youth, Peace which could partially explain the negative the skills for future political leadership and Security highlights the importance of perceptions held by some. However, like positions, they still rest within the hands of understanding young people’s concerns, any other group in society, young people a privileged few. grievances and responsibilities, and are heterogeneous, and although these emphasizes the need for young people to be negative perceptions might hold true in There is a lack of data and research meaningfully engaged in decision-making some cases, the stigma they face as a available on the impact of young so that they can contribute to building 23 group acts as a barrier to their positive people’s participation and civic more equitable and peaceful societies. engagement in society. engagement, which hinders the identification of effective strategies. The United Network of Young Peacebuilders Beyond the challenges faced by young Due to these data and research gaps, undertook a consultation with over 140 people as a whole, there are unique those initiatives which are designed to young people from 56 countries. The challenges for specific groups of young boost participation and civic engagement consultation highlighted the “optimistic people. Vulnerable and marginalized have limited capacity to foster evidence- individual attitudes and behaviours of youth face inequities in access to based practice, and to identify and scale many young people driving peacebuilding opportunities for civic engagement. up best practice. This challenge, discussed efforts”, and commented that despite often These inequities affect which young in more detail below in the section on being excluded from political and policy people have the opportunity to gaps in the research, is an underlying processes, “most young people do not participate in activities such as school constraint in addressing the issues turn to violence as a solution for political 24 councils, youth councils,22 volunteering highlighted in this guide. change”.
4 Beyond positive attitudes and behaviours, conventional forms of political engagement Young workers also have less say in young people are also becoming effective such as voting and being a member of a their working lives than older workers. social activists by increasing their reach political party.28, 29, 30, 31 This is also reflected Trends suggest that young people are and impact through social media. For in the fact that only a few parliamentarians more likely to be in jobs that do not example, it is becoming increasingly are young people.32 As discussed in the allow for trade union representation; common for young people to use TikTok, opportunities and challenges section, there and where such representation is not one of the biggest social media platforms are additional inequalities when looking formally debarred, the relatively short today with a young user demographic, for at sub-groups of young people. Across the duration of job contracts for those now social activism. Young people have used world, there are large gender inequalities entering the labour market means the platform to organize a student strike as regards empowerment and political that young people have less time to over teachers’ pay, share their experiences leadership.33 For example, there are fewer self-organize, and do so at greater of racism and raise awareness of climate political party members that are young risk since they tend to have less secure change.25 In addition, many of the recent women than young men, and young contracts than older workers. Young protests mentioned in the introduction have women make up only 40 per cent of the people who do participate in unions been supported by social media networks world’s young parliamentarians.34, 35 This is often face institutionalized inequalities. both locally and internationally, spreading in part due to the social norms and cultural For example, negotiations can lead to ideas and creativity which authoritarian attitudes which discourage young women two-tier contract arrangements in which states then attempted to close down.26 from civic engagement, which in turn concessions are made for young and reduces their motivation to be politically new workers so that senior employees Young people’s participation also active. Education levels also influence most may retain their terms and benefits. manifests itself in their involvement in forms of political engagement, skewing it Despite this situation, young people at all decision-making that affects their lives towards those with more education. These levels have been active in trade unions – through school councils, student unions, inequalities by age and sub-groups have developing young workers’ committees youth clubs, national youth parliaments, an impact upon young people, and in to help young people participate in regional and international youth forums particular disadvantaged young women, unions’ democratic processes, and and advisory councils for international as their needs are less likely to be taken into advocating union structures that fairly organizations. It certainly appears that account in decisions which affect their lives. support young workers.36 the number of channels and structures for youth participation has increased since the United Nations Convention for the Rights of the Child was adopted in 1989, although this cannot be established on the basis of any existing evidence base.
Young people are also involved in volunteering and civic service programmes, although there is no up-to-date global knowledge base on such activities at present. As one global example, in 2012 United Nations Volunteers (UNV) had around 1,000 volunteers under the age of 29. Sixty per cent of these were female and 80 per cent came from developing countries. UNV has noted a change in the way young people are approaching volunteering, moving away from structured engagement towards more diverse forms of engagement around national and global issues through mechanism like social media, public fora and participation in activities supporting local causes.27 In the five years between 2012 and 2017, UNV and its partners spent more than US$20 million on programmes to enhance youth participation and engagement in sustainable development and the promotion of peace.
Despite these encouraging examples of enhanced youth participation, the data suggest that young people are still less likely than older age groups to be involved in
5 and background characteristics.40 Some participation activities have also been found to predict improved mental health and health behaviours later in life.41 For example, longitudinal research from Ireland has found that participation in school decision-making leads to a more positive experience of school and to more positive health and well-being life outcomes.42
Beyond the moral reasoning, youth participation and civic engagement are worthwhile investments because they lead to positive social outcomes that have long-term benefits. According to the evidence, young people can learn to participate and engage civically from an early age, but unlike many skills that deteriorate over time, this training is likely to have a positive and durable effect into adulthood.43 Developing civic engagement habits, even in late adolescence, has been found to be crucial to continuing these practices into later life. Therefore, through investing in the development of active and engaged young people, societies can strengthen their democratic and civic culture, both now and into the future.
Excluding young people from decision-making and not supporting the development of their civic engagement capabilities is not without its consequences. When youth feel disenfranchised and do not have the appropriate capabilities to participate meaningfully in the public sphere, they can become disengaged and develop mistrust towards government.44 This can result in frustration and resentment Why do improvements Developing youth civic engagement among young political activists, and at also benefits society by positively times even have destabilizing effects on in youth participation impacting young people directly. As democracy and government.45 and civic engagement adolescence is a critical period of identity formation, growth, learning and physical The next section looks at the evidence of matter? and neurobiological development, what works to support youth participation and civic engagement to ensure the Above all, youth participation and civic it has significant influence on young 37 potential of youth can be unlocked engagement matters because it is a basic people’s future. According to the World and used as a positive force for change human right for young people. Since Bank, civic participation is one of the in society. the members of the younger generation key activities for a healthy transition to 38 are affected by many decisions in the adulthood. As noted in the introduction, political and public spheres, and will youth participation helps young people have to live with the consequences, they develop soft skills and build strong and have the right to influence such decision- meaningful relationships with the people 39 making processes in a meaningful way. around them. Research has also found It is therefore a moral obligation of that youth civic engagement is associated governments and societies around the with higher educational outcomes and world to support and improve young income levels in adulthood above and people’s engagement opportunities. beyond their family’s socioeconomic status
6 SECTION 2 WHAT WORKS TO SUPPORT YOUTH PARTICIPATION AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT?
Solutions – What countries including the content of the curriculum, is often politically driven, and can change with have done to support a change of government or policy. youth participation and Youth participation and civic engagement civic engagement can take many different forms, can be applied in diverse settings, and can cover an Transmitting information on its own is endless range of topics. Emerging lessons insufficient to develop young people’s on ‘what works’ are here provided under five active participation. Research shows that broad categories, based on evidence and young people learn participation and civic documented good practices: engagement skills, attitudes and dispositions most effectively through social, collaborative • Fostering laws, policies and budget and interactive methods.46 These social allocations supporting youth engagement learning processes can happen in the home, the school, and in non-formal education • Supporting, creating and sustaining from pre-primary age upwards. Activities structures for young people’s participation outside the home are most effective in and civic engagement teaching civic engagement skills from the mid teens onwards.47 Developing these skills • Instituting global citizenship education as an adolescent increases the likelihood of including curricula and teacher training participation and engagement as adults.48 • Investing in young people’s capacities, Evidence suggests that young people learn networks and partnerships including youth- to become civically engaged in real-world led movements, initiatives and networks environments, or in activities that reflect • Maximizing the value of volunteerism and the real world such as mock elections or community service simulations of United Nations meetings on climate change. Young people learn ‘What works’ includes evidence from participatory attitudes through interactions research about activities that have been and discussions with parents, teachers and shown to facilitate an increase in young peers concerning issues that affect their people’s levels of participation and civic lives, or other topics of current affairs. These engagement, as well as country-level discussions can take place in classrooms examples. It is important to note that the when a safe learning environment is created, majority of the evidence comes from studies or through school decision-making structures on American youth, with some from studies like class councils or school parliaments. They on youth in other high-income countries. can also happen in community-led activities, There is much less academic empirical youth clubs or initiatives led by young people. evidence on the impact of civic engagement Peers, parents and teachers can act as interventions with youth in low- and middle- role models and/or gatekeepers. They can income countries, with the literature that is introduce young people to communities available being largely descriptive.49 who are engaged and help support the development of values and beliefs that drive i. Fostering laws, policies and the ways in which they participate in society. budget allocations supporting One benefit of having activities in the school youth engagement environment is that all countries aim for the vast majority of young people to go to school; The right of young people to participate and since this is typically the first institution and be actively involved in all spheres of life and social environment outside the family needs to be supported by legislative and home that they experience, it is thus an ideal policy frameworks, and accompanied context for learning to participate in wider by the necessary budget allocations to society. The challenge of the formal education support sustained and institutionalized system is that what happens within schools, participation by young people.
7 There are a number of different national policies that provide an enabling Argentina: Adolescent participation in environment for the development of youth 50 participation and civic engagement. One of participatory budget processes these is national civic service (compulsory The provision of technical assistance to develop a training manual and or voluntary) for youth at the end of by UNICEF to the Government of methodologies for central government school/university, where youth spend a Argentina facilitated the involvement and municipal officials. The outcome period of time (from a few weeks to a year) of adolescents in participatory of the support was the involvement of undertaking training, building skills for work budget processes, including budget more than 30,000 adolescents from and life, and doing social action projects in monitoring and analysis. This over 38 municipalities in participatory their communities. Another is participatory included collaboration with the budgeting through dialogue, innovative budgeting activities. Both of these can be Chief of Cabinet of Ministers and the communication tools, and forums for introduced through legislation and require Argentinian Network of Participatory discussion. Monitoring of trends in sub- Budgets, and increased the visibility of national budgets has shown that the significant and regular financing. Although adolescents in participatory budgeting percentage of overall public investment both of these actions are at the national or processes. Technical assistance helped in children has increased. state level, they need to be implemented at the local level and supported by the necessary infrastructure, including youth representatives being consulted while the ensuring that law reform processes include and engage with each other and then strategies are being designed, and then platforms for youth participation and represent the voice of students in influencing actively involved so as to ensure effective representation.52 societal change. implementation. Many of these activities require significant • Youth councils and youth clubs (both An alternative to national civic service is financing. The introduction of compulsory connected with local authorities) which the introduction of service learning within national civic service and compulsory provide young people with the opportunity to the school curriculum. Service learning is participatory budgeting by all local engage in community decision-making. an educational approach which combines authorities are relatively high-cost activities. learning objectives with community service Participatory budgeting in schools, service • Youth parliaments (connected with to provide young people with practical learning and school councils are relatively national government) which provide young experience of serving the needs of society. low-cost activities as the infrastructure people with an opportunity to use their A particular benefit here is that this enables in schools already exists. Nevertheless, voice to bring about social change through critical reflection on the experience of introducing these activities in schools meaningful representation and campaigning volunteering with the support of teachers requires further training for teachers. with national government. (see also the section below on volunteerism and community service). ii. Supporting, creating and sustaining • Co-management bodies (typically organized structures for young people’s connected with governance of international Interventions can be introduced through participation and civic engagement organizations) where youth and public legislation and policies through the national authorities responsible for youth issues education system. These include the Young people’s participation and levels have an equal say, can share ideas and compulsory provision of elected school of engagement experiences, and there is an atmosphere of councils,51 which should then be empowered As enshrined in Article 12 of the United mutual understanding and respect.53 to have significant influence on young Nations Convention on the Rights of the people’s decision-making in schools. Having Child, young people have a fundamental The range of influence on decisions goes a policy stipulating a curricular subject on right to participate in decisions that affect from full, where young people have complete global citizenship education or education them, which should include having their control; to collaborative, where joint for sustainable development (ESD) is opinion listened to and considered. There decisions are taken with other stakeholders; another strategy for developing youth are different structures that enable young to consultative, where young people are participation. This needs to be coupled people’s participation and their voices to be considered to add value to decisions; and 54 with ensuring that quality teacher training, represented and heard in decision making. finally to little/none. The literature suggests which includes the teaching of participatory These include: that the critical factor in ensuring young methods for teaching and learning including people’s participation and rights are upheld simulation activities, is a core part of the • School councils and student unions is making sure that the participation teacher professional development policy. (both connected with education process is meaningful.55 To be meaningful, Continuous professional development of governance). School councils operate in the following four principles have been head teachers can be offered to help them many primary and secondary schools suggested (see Figure 1): introduce a whole-school approach to ESD. whereas students’ unions operate in many colleges and tertiary-level education • Space: a safe and inclusive opportunity for Other important legislation includes institutions (e.g., universities and diverse groups of children to form views allowing the formal registration and polytechnics). School councils are a forum • Voice: being supported to express their views independent functioning of youth-led for young people to participate in formal • Audience: their views need to be listened to associations such as child clubs, student governance processes, whereas student • Influence: their views need to be acted upon 56 unions and children’s associations, and unions are platforms for youth to co-create and feedback given about the outcome
8 Figure 1: Features of meaningful participation Source: Lundy, L., ‘“Voice” Is Not Enough: Conceptualising Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child’, British Educational Research Journal, vol. 33, no. 6, 2007, pp. 927–942.
Space Voice Safe and inclusive Expression of views opportunity to form must be facilitated and express views freely in a medium of choice
Influence Audience The view must This view must be acted on as be listened to appropriate
9 Boston, United States: Example of full control An example of full control by young to select. The youth council members 1. Installing solar-powered benches people is the ‘Youth Lead the Change’ receive training on participatory that charge phones along bus routes project in Boston, United States, where budgeting from adults in the mayor’s the mayor annually sets aside US$1 office and a consultancy company, which 2. Installing new and improved water million of the capital budget for youth was reported by the young people as fountains and water bottle filling (12–22) to oversee and manage.57 The crucial to the project’s successes. In 2016, stations Boston Youth Council (comprised of the year that the research project was 3. Placing trash and recycling bins in around 85 young persons who are undertaken, 718 projects were proposed streets in areas of need.59 consulted regularly on youth policy in the by young people, and the winning city) facilitate and collect ideas for new project (voted for by 4,482 young projects from young people across the people) was for a new app on youth jobs, city. They support the development of resources and events in the city.58 The youth proposals and then empower the three winning projects in 2019, each with young people to vote on which proposals around 3,000 votes, were:
Council of Europe: Example of collaborating with young people An example of collaboration in decision Council of Europe’s youth sector are Europe policies more broadly. making with young people can be found made on the basis of a consensus The joint decision-making structure at the Council of Europe, where there between the Advisory Council and the supports youth councils, youth is a co-management system on youth European Steering Committee for Youth, organizations and youth networks to policy and youth priorities. An Advisory comprising nominated experts from formulate and make joint decisions on Council on Youth has been created,60 the Member States. These decisions are youth policy. The youth co-management comprised of 30 representatives then taken forward to be adopted by the structure was awarded the World from youth organizations nominated Committee of Ministers. The Advisory Future Council bronze award in the by the European Youth Forum.61 Council is also tasked to provide advice category ‘Youth Civic Engagement and Decisions regarding the work priorities, to the Committee of Ministers on Political Participation for Sustainable programmes and budgets of the questions concerning youth in Council of Development and Peace’.62
Nepal: Example of consulting young people A local-level example of consulting decisions are undertaken on how to it was estimated that about 80,000 young people on priorities and spend their budget, the local authority children were involved in them. budgets comes from Nepal, where the must undertake a consultation with Adults are trained as youth workers to government has made explicit policy young people. The voices of young facilitate the children to define their provisions for child participation in local people are sought through structures needs and their priorities through governance. In Nepal, at least 10 per called child clubs. These clubs have creative activities run in these clubs. cent of the capital grants received by to represent the diversity of youth, The youth workers are then required to local governments have to be allocated including gender parity. Each club present the children’s priorities to the to the priorities of young people. Before contains about 30 people, and in 2017 local authority.63
10 Youth participation in trade unions Trades unions are also more developed Youth participation in the Throughout the past two decades, young and active in high-income countries than in private sector people have increased their representation many low- and middle-income countries. There is very little evidence to draw on in unions in both the global and local with regards to the engagement of young arena. There has been a growth in youth Research has identified several success people in the private sector. Although we participation in international trade factors regarding how to encourage know that young people participate in this unions such as International Trade Union young people’s participation in unions. sector as employees, entrepreneurs, union Confederation and the International A cross-country comparative analysis members and consumers, the research Transport Workers’ Federation. At both identified that young people were much does not address forms of engagement national and local levels, young people more proactive and involved in unions and influence that youth might have. have developed organizations such as when they were encouraged to develop labour rights activist organizations and skills for leadership within the union and We can, however, draw on research young workers’ committees, to assist enabled to collaborate with each other to on youth engagement platforms and 66 young people to participate in trades promote the engagement of their peers. apply their promising examples of good unions’ democratic processes and Another critical success factor was support practice to the private sector. One such advocate for union structures that fairly through activities such as mentoring from example is including young people as support young workers.64 older union members, which was highly board members. Having young people on influential on the success of young workers’ boards is an emerging practice in various However, despite the growing youth participation and engagement in unions.67 public and third-sector organizations, such engagement in unions, there are still Research from France, Germany, the United as schools, city councils and non-profit significant challenges stemming from Kingdom and the United States has also organization.69 Research has shown that young people being less familiar with the found that when unions enabled young young people’s participation on boards organized labour market and their own members to take action on wider social can lead to innovations and improve the rights as workers. This means they tend issues such as immigration and climate productivity of the organization, as well as to have precarious employment and face change as part of their union activities, they provide a great opportunities for young institutionalized inequality in unions.65 tended to be more engaged.68 people to develop their skills, build their confidence and shape their identity.70 Given the evidence of its positive impact, similar participation by youth in the private sector is likely to yield positive benefits.
Young people are critical consumers with the power to influence the market. Although not a conventional form of engagement, consumer activism is one way in which youth can influence change.
United States consumer activism: The Student Anti-Sweatshop Movement (SASM) Operating on hundreds of campuses in the United States, the SASM was an influential voice in the anti-sweatshop movement around the turn of the millennium. Its aim was to pressure multinational companies to improve working conditions in their factories and stop sweatshops.71 As part of its work, SASM established the Worker Rights Consortium, an independent global monitoring organization fighting for transparency of working conditions in apparel factories.72
11 action on sustainable development Developing global citizenship training are participatory approaches that allow young people to critically for teachers engage with different points of view, The introduction of the global areas of the curricula and life of the while also involving them in decision learning programme in Northern school. The lead teachers then worked making in classes on ESD and with the Ireland (and the other three countries with their schools to conduct a self- implementation of ESD within the school of the United Kingdom) aimed to evaluation of the school and develop overall.83 Simulation activities, such as strengthen the capacity of lead a whole-school action plan. The lead United Nations global climate change teachers and school senior leaders to teachers’ approaches and attitudes summits where young people need to embed global learning as a whole- were found to have changed on the argue from the perspectives of different school approach. The lead teacher basis of this experience of professional countries and stakeholders, have also received professional development training, leading them to revise their been found to be one of the successful which, among many other things, predominantly liberal-charity-based participatory strategies for teaching addressed how to challenge perception of poverty in favour of action on climate change.84 Two key stereotypical images of poverty, how greater activism, and to grasp the enabling features are skilled teachers and to implement child-centred simulation need to address the underlying causes a supportive school.85 and participatory methods, and of inequality.78 In the most engaged provided an overview of the schools in the programme, students iv. Investing in young people’s Sustainable Development Goals and had also made this shift in attitudes capacities, networks and partnerships how they correspond to the different and actions. including through youth-led movements, initiatives and networks
Through education (formal, non- formal and informal) iii. Instituting global citizenship Teachers need training in order to acquire It is critical to ensure that formal, education including curricula and the relevant skills, be empowered to adopt non-formal and informal education teacher training a whole-school approach, and employ programmes provide all young people, participatory forms of learning on global including the most disadvantaged, The education system – both formal citizenship education issues. There are with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and and non-formal – is the main place for various teacher training programmes values required for participation and civic equipping young people with the skills on learning for sustainability, but few engagement. This will require capacity and capacities to participate and civically have been rigorously evaluated. One building and training of teachers and engage. This highlights the need for an example of a programme which has been other adults working with young people appropriate curriculum, for teachers to be evaluated comes from Northern Ireland. trained in participatory pedagogy, and (parents, caregivers, youth workers, health for learning to include the development of The literature suggests that teaching workers and community leaders) around: foundational and transferable skills that about sustainable development, and Knowledge of young people’s rights, how are important for civic participation and even attending a school with a certified • they can participate, and safeguarding engagement (see Secondary Education United Nations Education for Sustainable issues and Skills for more details). Development school programme, are not sufficient to develop young Core skills such as communication, active Compulsory citizenship education in • people’s attitudes and skills in this listening, negotiation, etc. schools has been effective in mitigating area.79 As mentioned in the introduction socioeconomic inequalities in civic to this section, the effective methods • Respectful attitudes and behaviours 73 engagement in the United Kingdom, for achieving action are those that towards all young people86 74 75 the United States, and Chile, and the combine knowledge transmission with creation of an open and safe environment participatory forms of learning.80 Key to It will also require developing the for discussion in the classroom has been this is a whole-school approach to ESD capacities of young people themselves 76 a positive outcome in the United States. that incorporates students, teachers and providing opportunities for them to Research also shows that it is a lack of and headteachers, and that the school develop the relevant skills, attitudes and access to participatory forms of learning as a whole practices active citizenship. values. at school that increases socioeconomic ESD needs to be covered horizontally Within the school environment, inequalities in political engagement. across subject disciplines – including in opportunities for disadvantaged groups, Methods that increase access to these environmental, social and economic including young women, to take on forms of learning for disadvantaged subjects. Topics should include climate leadership roles has been reported as an groups, such as citizenship classes within change, biodiversity and sustainable effective way to enhance their learning vocational education and training, and a consumption and production,81 and the about political leadership. This could take greater focus on participatory learning at relationships and conflicts between these place within school councils as well as schools containing less-well-off students, different factors and interest groups.82 unelected forms of school leadership such are likely to be effective in reducing Effective methods for teaching youth inequalities in civic engagement.77 as prefects and captaining sports teams.
12 Targeted non-formal leadership of their fathers. Challenging social norms Youth participation interventions are also described as being and stereotypes in men and women is able to contribute to girls’ leadership critical to effecting change.89 in peacebuilding development, such as the girls in CARE’s and prevention of leadership development projects.87 Informal education also plays a role. For Here girls learnt and practised five instance, 160 youth cafés in Ireland have conflict essential leadership competencies: (i) supported mental health in young people, An evaluation of child and youth voice to express their own opinions, (ii) particularly youth from disadvantaged participation in peacebuilding, decision-making, (iii) self-confidence, (iv) urban areas, helping them to enhance looking at interventions in organization and (v) vision. The learning their sense of connection within their 90 Colombia, eastern Democratic activities run out of school were co- communities and to stay safe. Republic of the Congo and designed with the girls involved. Through youth-led initiatives and Nepal,91 found that children and youth peacebuilders have had an Parents and community leaders can movements impact in four main areas: also be important role models for young Youth-led initiatives, networks and people, developing their capacity, movements have been successfully 1. Young peacebuilders have introducing them to other activists, and gaining international attention and become more aware and active challenging prevailing cultural norms influencing countries around the world. citizens for peace where appropriate. Mentoring and Youth-led initiatives, defined as initiatives for community improvement that are 2. Young peacebuilders have intergenerational partnerships can be important in this respect. Malala’s father, designed, planned and implemented by increased cohabitation and youth, may include social entrepreneurship reduced discrimination Ziauddin Yousafzai, was an education activist in Pakistan long before people had as well as community service. An example 3. Young peacebuilders have heard of his daughter, and Malala talks of a national youth-led initiative comes reduced violence about the strong influence her father had from Nepal: after the 2015 earthquakes, on her activism. One of the factors that UNICEF partnered with a youth-led 4. Young peacebuilders have was reported to improve the chances of organization which had pre-existing increased support to vulnerable young women becoming future leaders district-based networks, and hundreds of groups through community in the United Arab Emirates88 was the volunteers visited homes in villages and organizations attitudes and degree of open-mindedness camps to exchange information, distribute Key to success was:
1. Building the capacity, knowledge, skills and experience of children and youth through training and opportunities to develop skills through involvement in youth associations and clubs.
2. Supportive families who encouraged their children to actively participate in peacebuilding activities and efforts. This was particularly important for female youth in Nepal, who faced greater restrictions on their mobility compared to male youth.
3. Challenging cultural attitudes, beliefs and practices which affected peacebuilding efforts, e.g., discrimination towards certain groups, or traditions undermining gender equality including early marriage.
13 leaflets and show community members how to use essential supplies. Democratic Republic of the Congo: Youth-led initiatives are unique in Youth struggling for change comparison to other forms of youth engagement in that they are initiated and The LUCHA movement is a nationwide The youth-led movement helped to facilitated by young people themselves initiative of young people from all challenge the Congolese people’s backgrounds in Democratic Republic expectations of their government and are typically centred on grassroots of Congo (DRC). The movement uses and helped them use non-violent activities.92 Although youth-led initiatives non-violent approaches to influence the approaches to hold it to account. and movements are covered on social DRC government to improve services Through their successful campaigning media and in news articles, they have not and deliver social justice. Active since and activities LUCHA also influenced been a focus of many academic studies, 2012, LUCHA has its origins in the city of the role of young people in politics – making it challenging to identify common Goma. It led various campaigns such it provided young people with a success factors and barriers. However, one as a call for better water infrastructure different and non-violent form of study from the Democratic Republic of in the city and a campaign for the political expression and made the the Congo does provide some promising construction of roads. In 2015, it gained political world more respectful of models for good practice in the use of traction nationally when acting as a young people. One of the key success mobile phones and social media in youth key driving power behind the #Telema factors which enables LUCHA to engagement around peace-building in a (‘Stand Up’ in Swahili) protests, aimed achieve its aims was its ability to use setting of protracted conflict. to stop President Joseph Kabila from mobile phones and social media. By altering the constitution in order communicating effectively using these In recent years there has also been to stand for another term in office. technologies it was able to bypass some an increase in youth-led movements. Since 2015 it has continued its work of the challenges social movements These include, amongst others, Malala nationally to fight for improved service face in DRC, such as bad infrastructure, Yousafzai leading a global movement provision. Research shows that LUCHA and was able to rapidly organize, advocating girls’ right to education; Greta has contributed to change in the DRC. mobilize and protest.93 Thunberg spearheading a movement of young activists demanding urgent action to mitigate climate change; and youth activists leading protests in Hong Kong. These examples demonstrate how South Africa: #RhodesMustFall #FeesMustfall young people are not only engaged in An example of young people leading confronting the issues of institutional social issues at community and national their own initiatives without support racism, access to education, and level, but have also been leading world- from adults, and of considerable reform of the Eurocentric university changing movements. pressure and police violence in curriculum.94 The campaign did not resistance to their voices, is the black achieve all its goals, but it did lead to a Through digital media knowledge student protest #RhodesMustFall global movement that removed statues and skills #FeesMustfall that began in the of colonial leaders and changed the As the three previous examples University of Cape Town, South Africa curricula of universities across the world demonstrate, much of today’s political in 2015. The purpose of this movement so that they covered broader non- engagement occurs online. Research from was to decolonize the university by Eurocentric knowledge. high-income countries has found that young people have less affinity for ‘dutiful’ citizenship acts such as voting, preferring instead to use digital networking, self- expression (especially through social Youth-led movements on climate change media including the use of imagery, art and memes), volunteering and protests Youth action on climate change has countries registering strike actions, as forms of the “personalized politics of been crucial in raising awareness and demonstrating the power of a strong increasing the political profile of this youth leader and social media to build expressive engagement”.97 topic. As a 15-year-old, Greta Thunberg’s awareness and promote youth activism A recent global study covering 11 countries 2018 protest outside the Swedish through collective action.95 There are analysed Internet use among 9–17 year Parliament demanding stronger action also other relevant organizations here, olds, asking young people whether they on climate change has made her an such as the Conference of Youth (COY) discuss political and social problems international young leader in this area. that meets on the weekend before with others online and whether they have Her actions, closely followed and shared the United Nations Climate Change by many on social media, provided Conference, bringing together youth been involved in a campaign or protest momentum for youth to strike under from across the world to exchange online.98 Approximately 25 per cent of the Fridays for Future banner, and in knowledge, experience and practice, adolescents aged 15-17 years engaged 2019 involved hundreds of thousands thus strengthening the international politically online in Brazil and South Africa, of students in 1,664 cities across 125 youth climate movement.96 with smaller percentages in the other
14 countries. In Ghana and the Philippines, 10 The Digital Age offers multiple ways of Three key enablers of digital civic per cent and 17 per cent had been involved learning for participation, both on- and engagement include equitable access in political discussions online respectively, offline. Offering out-of-school learning to technology, civic education in schools while 8 per cent and 10 per cent had been through a digital format is an alternative and open civic space. The main barriers involved in online protests. Other research approach for developing offline political include a lack of trust (fear about hacking), has found that young people’s digital civic engagement in new democracies. This harassment and trolling, and the use of engagement is positively correlated to method was successfully applied in the data and surveillance.104 offline youth political participation.99 recent elections in Tunisia,102 where films and tutorials were designed and put v. Maximizing the value of Despite young people being more online with the aim to increase political volunteerism and community service comfortable than adults on social media, efficacy and voter turnout. The initial Volunteering is a broad activity in which few have the knowledge or skills to know results suggest that this method was many young people engage. Originally how to engage effectively in public life low-cost and highly effective. and how to develop impactful digital conceived of as being a choice, unpaid, media content. One of the potential Another digital approach to civic and undertaken for altruistic purposes, breakthroughs for teaching young people learning is to enable discussions between the concept and purpose of volunteering to develop digital civic engagement, based politicians and young people at school, has since evolved. Compulsory community on the latest and most rigorous research, creating ‘digital surgeries’ through video- service has challenged the idea that is the provision of structured opportunities conferencing platforms. This method volunteering is a choice, and the idea to learn about and practice the creation involved training teachers on how to of volunteering for learning and skills and sharing of digital media content tied facilitate the exchange, training students development for employment purposes to societal issues in schools.100 It is learning to build their political efficacy, and then has challenged the belief that it must be through participation that creates action, a one-hour lesson in which the young purely altruistic. Compulsory community and here it is important that the content people asked the politician questions. service is the focus here, since the is relevant to the lives of the young people The evidence suggested that one in benefits for civic outcomes have been involved. This highlights the need for digital three of the digital surgeries led to a demonstrated; volunteering for labour literacy as a precursor for digital civic specific action by the politician after market skills, however, is covered elsewhere engagement by young people.101 the surgery.103
15 under School to Work Transition. It is in the areas of organized volunteering, service learning and community service105 programmes where research has identified factors for successful outcomes. It is acknowledged that informal volunteering and mutual support are important and more common among the less well-off and in less developed countries.106 Time and effort given by people who have very little are often the life blood of political uprisings for equality and democracy, such as in the struggle against Apartheid in South Africa.107
Over the years, volunteering per se has seen mixed results regarding its effectiveness on civic outcomes. Structured compulsory community and elective service-learning programmes show clearer results regarding the potential civic benefits for the individual. These activities, organized at school or university, require unpaid work experience in the community. Nevertheless, there is considerable variation in implementation practices. Despite the variation, the evidence of positive benefits regarding compulsory community service programmes undertaken at school is strong and for those young people who have participated, it significantly increases their chances of future political engagement.108 According to Canadian research, the level of impact depended largely on two features of the volunteering experience: (i) sustained commitment to one placement, and (ii) a positive experience as evaluated by the student.
In Denmark, youth are offered opportunities to build skills by connecting local and international service placements with a focus on civic participation. The youth wings of 72 Danish volunteer youth organizations including the youth wings of political parties, as well as humanitarian youth organizations, student organizations and the Scouts, receive services from the Danish Youth Council, which represents around 600,000 young members and promotes youth participation nationally and internationally.109
Service learning is defined as a teaching and learning strategy that attempts to integrate community service within an academic curriculum. It has been applied in schools but is more widely available at universities. A meta-analysis of 62 studies of service-learning programmes identified that the benefits to the individual
16 of undertaking these programmes were 4. Support young people with training • Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of the increased levels of civic engagement and and facilitation. Both adults and young different types of youth participation/civic social skills,110 as well as improvements in people need to be trained and mentored engagement projects. attitudes towards the self, and in school in facilitating young people’s participation and academic performance. There were so that they can serve as trainers and • Rigorously evaluating and assessing four critical success factors identified from facilitators. the outcomes of participation and civic these programmes: (i) linking programmes engagement activities for young people, to academic and programme curriculum 5. Facilitate the process in such a way as well as future participation levels and or objectives; (ii) youth voice in planning, as to ensure that it fully incorporates how young people’s participation has implementing and evaluating the the values of human rights and affected the policies undertaken. experiences; (iii) having community democracy. The process needs to be • Rigorous evaluations or assessments of partners involved; and (iv) providing voluntary and respectful, and young youth networks and youth partnerships. young people with opportunities for people should receive clear information on their right to express their views and critical reflection on the experience after To plug this gap, a key area for future the purpose and scope of different the service has been undertaken. investment must concern better opportunities to participate and engage. knowledge of the barriers and impacts If decisions are taken using authoritarian Implementation principles of the whole range of youth-related methodologies, democratic values will policies, interventions and initiatives that that underpin young not be learnt. constitute the global youth agenda. In people’s participation 6. Ensure that young people know that order to make significant progress in and civic engagement they have been listened to and their the field of evidence-based youth policy views were taken into consideration. on participation and civic engagement, Below is a list of key principles for youth This means that those in positions of power significant investment and research participation and civic engagement must be willing to relinquish some of their are required to map and evaluate the activities, drawn from research and control to young people. Young people effectiveness of existing activities. guidance on youth participation and should also receive clear feedback on how engagement.111 their participation has influenced decisions 1. Identify and address barriers to and outcomes, and be supported to share participation, including stigma, this feedback with their peers. discrimination and prevailing social 7. Gather data (disaggregated norms, and include the full diversity where possible) on participation of young people within engagement and civic engagement work to ensure and decision-making activities. This investment in youth participation and means targeting of young women, those civil engagements is targeted on the from less-advantaged backgrounds, those most effective interventions that can with disabilities, and other social groups. demonstrate impact. Without taking this into account, it is likely that inequalities in engagement and power in society will continue to be reproduced. The gaps – Knowledge, data and mapping 2. Create a safe environment and do no harm. This is where young people can There is a lack of coherent and systematic express their views in a safe space without data collected on youth participation fear; gender-based violence, for example, and civic engagement, which makes it impacts on the possibility for young very difficult to identify priority areas for women to express their needs in a public investment. There is a shortage of data at environment. Rival groups may first need the national, regional and global level for: to meet in separate spaces before engaging together. Young people need to • Mapping the different types of youth be able to participate in risk assessment participation/youth civic engagement and mitigation and know where they can opportunities/platforms for young go to receive additional support if needed. people by country, region and globally (with data disaggregated by age, 3. Ensure that the decisions in which gender, socioeconomic background and young people are involved are geography wherever possible). meaningful to them, e.g., decisions on priorities on budgets, young workers’ • Deciding on budgets and expenditure rights, opportunities for non-formal on diverse youth participation and informal learning, how schools are opportunities/platforms by national managed, and broader societal issues or local governments, charities and such as climate change.112 international organizations.
17 SECTION 3 CALL TO ACTION
Young people Political leaders and It is critical that young people policymakers participate and civically engage to To advance youth engagement, it is vital voice their opinions and advocate for that political leaders and policymakers them to be heard in decision making. choose to perceive youth as partners Young people are encouraged to: for good rather than threats to contain. This will require the following: • Lead from the front and to encourage their peers to engage, assess their needs, • Provision of an enabling environment for plan their initiatives and take action to young people’s participation and civic improve their societies. engagement through laws, policies and budget allocations that facilitate • Engage in governance structures in schools (e.g., school councils), local this. This will need to involve active communities (e.g., youth community implementation of such laws and policies centres), politics (e.g., national councils and a commitment to spend budget and youth parliaments) and work (e.g., allocations in full. unions, business associations, chambers • The creation and strengthening of of commerce) to discuss key issues, governance structures and platforms present youth perspectives, create tools in schools, workplaces, local for greater participation and influence communities and politics, through decision-making. which young people can share their concerns, have a voice and influence • Get active online and take part in discussion platforms where issues such decision making. This will need to include as the quality of education, the future independent local and national youth of work, green economy, job matching, councils elected by youth organizations, digital connectivity, and entrepreneurship elected student councils/unions, and opportunities are being discussed, for youth representation on boards and example through local blogs and vlogs. in unions or professional associations. Linked to the point above, such platforms • Get engaged in local communities require regular budgets and at least – for example at the municipal level, co-representation on decisions on youth in school and university governance policy at the level on which they are structures and through youth community working. centres – to discuss key issues such as education, employment and mental • Mainstreaming global citizenship health. education in both formal and non- formal learning settings. This will include creating a relevant national curriculum; ensuring that teachers and youth workers are appropriately trained in participatory methodologies to support the processes of facilitating youth voice; and ensuring that head teachers understand and adopt a whole-school approach. Schools working together with youth workers who have experience in these methods may be an option worth exploring.
18 • Investment in young people’s Business leaders Social partners capacities, networks and partnerships through formal, non- Business leaders need to: Social partners need to: formal and informal education and youth programmes, and the provision • Provide opportunities to connect youth • Co-create and design their programmes of space and opportunities to develop to business networks and markets and services with adolescents and and practice the skills and competencies through the creation and strengthening young people through regular engagement required for civic participation and of online platforms and multimedia throughout the different phases of engagement. This could include the campaigns that raise awareness of programme design and delivery. introduction of compulsory community opportunities for youth and provide them Promote and encourage greater service or service-learning courses space to engage and influence change on • participation and representation of a at schools and colleges or as young key issues affecting them. diverse range of young people in their people leave formal education. These Support leadership development organizations, increasing their voice in social opportunities should be targeted at • programmes for young people dialogue. This may include challenging disadvantaged social groups. to develop their skills, and provide social norms and stereotypes, especially • Promotion and protection of young opportunities for them to have meaningful in relation to gender, but also in relation to people’s rights to participate and opportunities to engage in the workplace. other marginalized groups. Encouraging the engage through different structures use of quotas within leadership positions in Consider including youth on boards, so including through unions, youth-led • non-governmental organizations, civil society, as to allow them to influence businesses’ coalitions and collective bargaining. youth councils and youth parliaments is one creation of more opportunities for important strategy that can help to create employment and entrepreneurial training new role models and change social norms.113 for young people. • Strengthen initial and continuous • Invest in mentoring opportunities for training of social workers, including young people to help them find space teachers and youth workers, on how to and an audience for their voice and teach young people the skills for civic influence. engagement and participation. Teachers and youth workers are also role models, and therefore their everyday practices in schools and other spaces need to be as democratic as possible.
• Raise awareness among employees, shareholders and associates about the rights of young workers, including through digital technology and social media.
• Advocate meaningful engagement of young people in politics, education and the workplace, and actively implement strategies to make sure their rights are respected.
19 REFERENCES
1 United Nations, Department 9 Martin et al., ‘An Examination of 17 Collins, M. E., A. Augsberger 26 Castells, Manuel, Networks of of Economic and Social Affairs, Children and Young People’s Views’ and W. Gecker, ‘Youth Councils Outrage and Hope: Social movements Population Division (2019). World in Municipal Government: in the Internet Age, Polity Press, Population Prospects 2019, Online 10 Gaventa, J., ‘Towards Examination of activities, impact Cambridge, 2012. Edition. Rev. 1. Participatory Governance: and barriers’, Children and Youth Assessing the transformative Services Review, vol. 65, 2016, pp. 27 United Nations Volunteers, ‘UNV 2 Article 12 of the United Nations possibilities’, in Participation: From 140–147. Youth Volunteering Strategy 2014– Convention on the Rights of the tyranny to transformation, edited by 2017: Empowering youth through Child enshrines participation as a Samuel Hickey and Giles Mohan, 18 Adu-Gyamfi, J., ‘Can Children volunteerism’,
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© Generation Unlimited, Global Initiative on Decent Jobs for Youth, 2020 Cover photo: © UNICEF/UNI217907/Abdul