Index

A Al-Qalab, S., 92 Abazeid, A., 66 Al Qudsi, H., 102 Abdel Latif, A., 102 Al-Shaikh, N., 102 Abdulmoneim, K., 89 Al-Sharq Al-Awsat, 95 Abdul Qadir, N., 97 Al-Tamimi, A. J., 57, 225 Abdulrahim, R., 59 Al-Tamimi, N., 152 Abdul Wahid, Taha, 99 Alterman, J. B., 36 Abu Al Khair, W., 225 Al-ubaidi, M., 127, 131 Abu Hussein, S., 93 American conservative, The, 70 Abu Suhaib al-Ansari, 43 Andalou Agency, 78 Accountability, 223, 232 Andersen, L. E., 153, 156 Administrative, 216, 219–221, 223, 224, Andrei Onticov, 91 226–229, 231 Ankara, 44, 48 Ahmad, T., 16, 20, 29 Annahar, 81 Ahrar al-Sham, 41, 42 Antonyan, T. M., 53 Aji, A., 17 Araabi, S., 232 AlAlam TV, 97 Arab Gulf, 179, 181, 182, 185–194 Al-Alkim, H. H., 110, 111 Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington Alami, M., 71 (AGSIW), 190 Alam, K., 56, 57 Arabi21, 80 Al Arabiya, 59 Arab League, 33, 39 Alarabiya English, 83 Arab News, 54 AlBdullah, M., 217 Arab Spring, 182, 184, 186 Albright, M., 18, 24 Army of conquest, The, 44, 45 Aldasouky, A., 219 Artesh, 191 Aleppo, 74–76, 80, 216, 218, 224, 225 Asharq Al-Awsat, 58 Alfadhel, K., 182 Asharq Awsat, 74 Al-Hussein, H., 92 Assaf, O., 154 Ali Khamenei, 90 Astakhova, O., 99 Centre for Studies, 29 Astana, 123, 126, 133, 134, 138, 142–144, Al-Khalidi, S., 17, 165 214, 230 Alkhshali, H., 138 Astih, P., 80 Alliances, 49–51, 57 Ataman, M., 19, 20 Allison, G., 113, 114 Atmaca, O., 14 Al Nusrah, 188, 189 Auton, G. P., 53 Al Qaeda, 41, 43, 216 Autonomous, 216, 217, 221, 223, 226, 231 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 235 to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 D. K. Khatib (ed.), The Syrian Crisis, Perspectives on Development in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5050-8 236 Index

Avidan, T., 156 Chan, S., 63 Axworthy, M., 192 Charountaki, M., 17 Aydınta¸sba¸s, A., 65 Chaziza, M., 36–38 Ayoob, M., 108, 116 China, 145–159 Citrin, R., 140 Clarke,C.P.,64 B Clarke, M., 40, 113, 114 Baboulias, Y., 141 Clayton, T., 15 Balance of threat, 125, 137 CNN, 18, 28 Ballistic missiles, 102 CNN Arabia, 89, 95, 102 Ball, Y. D., 196–198 Coalition, 219, 221, 222 Barfi, B., 17, 130 Cochrane, P., 176 Barnes-Dacey, J., 141 Cohen, Z., 28 Barnes, J., 60 Constitution, 227, 230 Barnett, Michael N., 124 Cook, S., 14, 15, 18, 24 Baron, K., 61 Cooper, H., 73, 132 Barron, R., 60 Cordesman, A., 188 Bar, S., 183 Crawford, T. W., 50 Bashar Al Assad, 32, 40, 41, 46, 49, 54, 55, 58, 61, 66, 71, 73, 88, 180, 185, 188 BBC, 88 D BBC News, 17, 22, 73 Dal, E. P., 180 Bega, A., 208 Damascus, 73, 74, 76, 77, 80, 83 Behravesh, M., 59 Daraghi, B., 75, 77 Belt and Road Initiative, 145–147, 149, 150 David, D., 76 Berchidsky, L., 92 Day After, The, 229 Bhardwaj, M., 107 Decentralization, 213–215, 223–232 Birnbaum, M., 25 Deconcentration, 226, 227, 232 Blanga, Y., 53, 57 Delegation, 223, 226, 227, 229, 232 Blank, S., 117 Delk, J., 208 Bodine-Baron, E., 208 Democratic Self-Administration (DSA), Bolopion, P., 33 214, 216, 217, 221–223, 231 Borger, J., 136 Democratic Union Party (PYD), 221, 222, Bormann, N. C., 225 231 Borshchevskaya, A., 89 Depoliticisation, depoliticised, 36, 37 Boukamal, 80 Deutsche Welle, 21 Bowen, A., 134 Devolution, 223, 226–229, 232 Brannen, S., 24 DeYoung, K., 55 Brennan, D., 59 DiChristopher, T., 52 Brinkerhoff, D., 228 Disinformation, 196, 199–203, 206, 208– Brown, C., 15 210 Brown, F., 221, 223 Dobbins, J., 231 Burnett, J. A., 109, 116 Donaldson, R., 112 Busch, G. K., 166 Donald Trump, 52, 54, 55, 60, 61, 65 Doucet, L., 143 Duchatel, M. D., 45 C Dunne, M., 96 Cafiero, G., 59 Cagaptay, S., 19, 27 Camack, P., 96 E Carvalho, S., 152 East Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM), Cederman, L. E., 225 (TIP), 40–45 Cetingulec, M., 65 Eckel, M., 133 Chang, L., 40, 44 Economist, The, 62, 81 Index 237

Egypt, 88, 97, 98, 103 German News Agency, 95 Elazar, G., 151 , 180, 189 Elections, 213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222, Gibbons, T., 132 224, 225, 230, 233 Gobat, J., 168 Elhadidi, A., 64 Goddard, S. E., 50, 51 Enders, D., 60 Goldberg, J., 21 Erdogan, 44, 48 Goldenberg, I., 77, 231 Erdogan, R. T., 14, 15, 19, 21–29 Goodarzi, J., 53 Erdo˘gan, S., 108, 116 Gordon, P., 63, 231 Er¸sen, E., 65, 142 Gore-Chernomyrdin Agreement, 88 Ethnic cleansing, 96, 103 Gorenburg, D., 204 Etilaf, 219, 220 Governance, 213–217, 219, 221, 223–233 Euphrate Shield, 19, 20 Grady, J., 77 Euronews, 52 Graham, B. A. T., 225 Europe, 123–126, 133, 134, 140–144 Greenberg, D., 54 European Union (EU), 33 Griffiths, J., 132 Evstratov, A., 206 Grove, T., 59 Executive, 216, 218, 220, 221, 223 Guardian, The, 55, 69, 78 Gulf, 145–149, 152–155, 157, 158 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 106, 107, F 109, 110 Farr, J., 183 Gulf states, 40, 48 Faucon, B., 76 Gunter, M. M., 64 Felgenhauer, P., 198 Guzansky, Y., 137 Fenton-Harvey, J., 154 Financial Tribune, 65 Fisk, R., 76, 80 Five principles of peaceful coexistence, 34 H Flanagan, S. J., 24 Hafidh, H., 76 Forbes, S., 78 Haid, H., 74 Fortrin, J., 23 Hajjar, B., 219 Fragile, 215, 217, 223, 228 Hamid, S., 94 France 24, 75, 93 Hanauer, L., 62 Francis, E., 171 Hannon, J., 23 Frantzman, S., 63, 75 Harakat Al Nujaba, 74, 76 Fraser, S., 18, 25 Hariri, K., 81 Freeman, C., 82 Harrison, R., 61 French News Agency, 89, 98 Hassan, H., 180 FT, 188 Hassan Rowhani, 90, 94 Fua, 80 Hatahet, S., 230 Fulton, J., 152, 154 Hawez, A., 19 Fulton, W., 130 Hawrey, K., 74 Future for Advanced Research and Studies, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), 214, 216–218, 66 220, 232 Hazef Al Assad, 17 Helmus, T., 208 G Hennigan, W. J., 55 Gaddis, J. L., 52 Heras, N., 231 Garver,J.W.,36 Herzog, M., 58, 63 Gates, S., 225 Hezbollah, 53, 57–59, 62, 63, 70, 71, 73, Gaub, F., 108 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82–86, 89, 93–95, Gehrke, J., 79 180–184, 189, 191–193 Gelbart, J., 56, 57 Higginbottom, J., 165, 167 Geopolitics, 161, 169, 173, 174 Hincks, J., 27 238 Index

Holliday, J., 180 K Holmes, A., 25 Kahf, A., 213 Houck, C., 61 Kahl, C. H., 231 Huang, K., 37 Kajjo, S., 26, 27, 168 Huasheng, Z., 35 Kalin, S., 99 Hubbard, B., 81, 132 Kanat, K., 23 Huet, N., 129 Kanner, I., 156 Hug, S., 225 Karar Ahmed, G., 35 Hussain,N.H.,114, 115 Karasik, T., 153 Hussein, S., 93 Karaveli, H., 129 Hybrid governance, 225, 227 Kardas, T., 180, 181 Hydrocarbons, 161, 162, 168, 169, 171, 173, Karim, U., 115 177 Karoui, H., 35 Kassir, J., 81 Kasyanov, N., 101 Katona, V., 168, 169, 172 I Katz, M. N., 108, 109, 111, 115, 120 Ibish, H., 109, 110, 137 Kaura, V., 112 , 214, 216–218, 220, 230, 232 Kefraya, 80 iemed.org, 181 Kemp, R., 71 IISS, 190 Kessler, G., 70 Information Unit Omran Centre for Strategic Kessler, O., 155 Studies, 218, 221 Keyman, E. F., 28 , 49, 50, 52–63, 65–67, 70–80, 82–103, Khalaf, R., 135, 227 161–166, 170–175, 177 Khalidi, A., 15 Ish Maas, O., 156 Khalidi, S., 75 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), Khalifa, S., 98 62, 73–75, 191–193 Khatib, L., 66 Islamic State, 180, 183, 190 Kinzer, S., 196 Islamic State (ISIS), 17, 19–21, 25, 27, 38, Kishk, M. A., 91, 100, 101 41, 43, 44, 47, 48, 55, 61, 64 Kobani, 21 Israel, 53, 56–60, 62, 63, 67, 70, 73, 75–77, Koleilat Khatib, D., 79, 82, 83 79, 80, 82–84, 86 Kosebalaban, H., 15 Issaev, L., 230 Kostial, K., 168 Issa, P., 151 Kozhanov, N., 108, 109, 117, 118, 197, 205 Itani, F., 60, 64 Krasilnikov, S., 204 I-wei, J. C., 150 Kreutz, A., 108, 110, 112 Izumikawa, Y., 50, 51 Krieg, A., 134 KUNA News Agency, 102 Kurdish, 215, 216, 221–223, 229, 230 Kurdistan Regional Government, 22 J Kurds, 13, 16–23, 25–27, 94, 95, 166–168 Jabr, R., 100 Kursun, A. M., 180 Jackson, D., 227 Jackson, P., 229 Jebhat al-Nusra, 41 L Jenkins, G., 16 Labott, E., 71 Jiang, Y., 153, 156 Landler, M., 55 Johnson, R., 228 Lavi, G., 154 Jones, S., 76, 77 Law 107, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221–225 Joscelyn, T., 42 Law 66, 76 Jospeh, S. N., 124 Legrenzi, M., 124 Josselin, D., 181 Liik, K., 140 Index 239

Lister, C., 125 N Livingston, S., 39 Nader, A., 152, 156, 157 Livshen, A., 207 Naghshineh, A., 74 Local Administration Councils (LACs), Nasr, V., 71, 82 215–221, 223–225, 228, 229, 231– National Council of Resistance of Iran, 75 233 National Defense Forces, 74 Local Administration Council Unit, 216, 218 National, The, 82 Local council, 213–225, 228–230, 232, 233 NATO, 87, 88, 90, 91, 98, 101, 103 Local Defense Forces, 74 Nau, H., 113 Longman, J., 134 Nawras Center for Studies, 94, 100 Lons, C., 152 Nelson, E., 207 Lopez, C. T., 162 New Arab, The, 101 Nexon, D. H., 50, 51 Los Angeles Times, 28 Nikolskaya, P., 77 Lucas, S., 54 Nimmo, B., 207 Lynch, M., 81 Nissenbaum, D., 57 Nissen, T. E., 197, 198, 204 Nogee, J. L., 112 M Nonneman, G., 137 Madaya, 80 Notte, H., 109 Magnuson, M., 208 Nuruzzaman, M., 116 Majidyar, A., 58, 59 Makieh, K., 171 O Malsin, J., 26, 61 O’connor, T., 59, 139 Marcellino, W., 208 Ogbonnaya, U. M., 107 Marcus, J., 24, 63 Oktav, Z. O., 180 Martini, J., 231 Olive Branch, 20 Mazzetti, M., 60 Olwi, M., 90, 101 McDonnell, P. J., 33 O’Mahony, P., 227, 229 McKernan, B., 25 Omran Center for Strategic studies, 214, 216, McKew, M., 203 218, 219, 221, 224 Mehr Iranina News Agency, 95 Opposition, 214–221, 223, 229, 232, 233 Meliksetian, V., 162, 163 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun- Mendelsohn, J., 208 tries (OPEC), 99 Meye, J., 71 Orttung, R., 207 Middle East, 195–198, 205–211 Osseiran, N., 84 Middle East Eye, 23 Özdemir, C., 19, 20 Mikail, E. H., 111, 112, 115, 117 Özertem, H. S., 109 Mohamad, S., 27 Mohammed, I., 53, 131 P Mohsen, P., 73 Page, J., 38 Monaghan, A., 199 Paradox, paradoxical, 32, 38, 47 Moore, J., 83 Paraskova, T., 161, 177 Moradi, O., 172 Parello-Plesner, J., 45 Morghentau, J. H., 125 Participatory, 215, 223, 225, 228, 232 Morris, L., 55 Paton, C., 136 Morse,E.L.,51 Peacemaking, 213, 215, 217, 228 Moubayed, S., 174, 175 Pearson, W. R., 65 Mroue, B., 18, 25, 79 Peri, O., 59 Muraselon, 56 Periphery, 213, 228, 230 Muslim Brotherhood, 182 Perry, T., 66 Muslim Brothers (Ikhwan), 41, 46 Petersen, P., 202 240 Index

Petkova, M., 173 , Moscow, 31–33, 35, 38, 39, 41, 44, Phillips, C., 64, 109, 118 46, 48 Pierret, T., 54 Russian News Agency, 89–91 Plett Usher, B., 79 Russia’s Today, 93, 96 Popescu, N., 108 Rydell, M., 54 Popular Republic of China (PRC), 31, 32, 36, 37, 39 Porter, T., 140 S Power-sharing, 214, 215, 223, 225, 230 S-300, 89 Propaganda, 196, 200, 201, 203, 205–211 S-400, 88, 91, 98 Proxies, 179–181, 184, 188–190, 192–194 Sadjadpour, K., 53 Putin, 77 Said-Moorhouse, L., 132 Saker, The, 56 Salafist movement, 182 Q Saleh, J., 29 Qalamoun, 80 Salvation, 216, 220, 232 , 56, 64–66 Sanger, D. E., 73 Qiblawi, T., 77, 138 , 49, 50, 52–56, 61, 63–66, Quds Force, 192 105–107, 109–113, 115–120 Quester, G. H., 126 Sazak, S., 28 Scheid, B., 164 R Scobell, A., 152, 156, 157 Rabah, M., 81 Scott, E., 155 Rabinovich, I., 62 Scott, Z., 229 Radin, A., 208 Seckin, E., 58 RadioLiberty, 72 Semler, A., 206 Rajan, J., 111 Sergei Lavrov, 89, 102 Rand Corporation, 97 Shaar, K., 165 Ras Al Ain, 26, 27 Shahidsaless, S., 124, 142 Rasmussen, E., 84 Shahryarifar, S., 114 Rational Actor Model, 105–107, 112–114, Shakoor, F., 114, 115 120 Sham Network, 85 Rauhala, E., 38 Shanghai Organization, 89, 90, 101 Rawabet center, 76 Shapiro, J., 140 Republic of , Ministry of Foreign Sharafedin, B., 75, 132 affairs, 15 Sharibzhanov, I., 206 Reuters, 61–63, 66, 75, 77, 78 Sharp, J. M., 33 Rice University’s Baker Insititute, 20–22 Sharq Awsat Newspaper, 231 Ries, B., 132 Sherlock, R., 75, 130 Ripley, T., 54 Shia, 70–74, 76, 77, 79–82, 84–86, 185, 186, Roberts, D., 188, 189 188, 191, 192 Roberts, E., 138 Shih, G., 39 Robinson, A. J., 51 Shiite Fundamentalism, 182 Rocha, D., 107 Siegle, J., 227 Rocha, V., 132 Sinjab, L., 60, 86 Rohde, D., 139 Slackman, M., 83 Rosenfeld, J., 18 Slobodien, J. R., 53 Ross, D., 92 Smith, A., 135 Russia, 49, 51–53, 58, 59, 64, 65, 67, 76, Smyth, P., 63, 74, 86 77, 85–89, 91–103, 106–112, 114– Sonne, P., 139 120, 123–128, 130–133, 136, 140– Southfront, 231 144, 161, 167, 168, 170–173, 177, Sputnik, 56, 230 178, 195–200, 202–210 Stabilization, 213–216, 220, 221, 223, 232 Index 241

Stacey, J. A., 61 USA, Washington, 32, 36–38, 45–48 Staun, J., 197, 202 US Department of State, 29 Stent, A., 109 Uyghur, 31, 40, 42–45, 47 Stephen, H., 18 Strategy, 145–152, 154–156, 158, 159 Stratfor American Center for Strategic and V Security Studies, The, 100 Van Damn, N., 86 Striem, E., 137 Van Puyvelde, D., 184 Strom, K., 225 Varulkar, H., 59 Sun, D., 152 Vassiliev, A., 110 Sunni, 185, 190, 192 Violent Non-State Actors (VNSA), 179–194 , 49, 50, 52–67, 70–81, 83, 85, 86, , 88–91, 93, 99 123–144, 161–177 Vohra, A., 141 Syrian crisis, Syria, 31, 32, 40, 48 (SDF), 189, 214, W 216, 218, 223, 232 Wagner, D., 136 Syrian Interim Government (SIG), 216, 219, Wahl, L., 197, 199, 202 220, 228 Walcott, J., 61 Syrian observatory for human rights, 167 Wallace, W., 181 Syrianoor, 95 Waltz, K., 125 Syrian war, 105, 106, 109, 110, 113, 120 Wang, H., 164 Warrick, J., 21 Washington Institute, 74, 86 T Washington Post, The, 55, 63 Tahir, A., 94 Wastnidge, E., 56 Tawfeeq, M., 138 Watkins, S., 170 Tax, M., 221 Wedeman, B., 84 Taylor, A. R., 111 Wedge strategy, 49–52, 55–57, 66, 67 Terrorism, radical , militancy, Wehrey, 191 Jihadist, Islamists, 32, 37–40, 42–48 Wehrey, F., 134–136 TEV-DEM, 221, 222 Weisman, S., 71 Tharoor, I., 198 Weiss, C., 41, 43 Thompson, L., 187 Whitaker, B., 69 Tiezzi, S., 45 Wike, R., 84 Tisdall, S., 189 Wilgenburg, W., 20 Todd, C., 208 Wills, A., 132 Tremblay, P., 132 Wilson, S., 21 Trenin, D., 115 Winkelman, Z., 208 Trump, 13, 20–28 Winter, C., 84 Tsvetkova, M., 204 Wintour, P., 126, 128 Turkey, 13–30, 34, 39–41, 43, 44, 46, 48, 78, Wood, D., 154 84, 88, 98, 99, 103 Worral, P., 201 Turkey’s now, 88, 90 Wucherpfennig, J., 225 2254, 230

X U Xenakis, J., 83 Ulrichsen, K., 135, 136 , 38–41, 44, 45 UNDP, 226, 227, 229 United Nations Security Council (UNSC), 31–35, 47 Y United States (US), 13–15, 17–30, 50–52, Yacoubian, M., 21, 60, 62 57, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 123, 125–133, Yaha, M., 81 136, 139, 140, 163, 165, 166 Yanarocak, H. E. C., 41, 44 242 Index

Yayla, A. S., 64 Z Yazigi, J., 17 Zabadani, 80 Yehoshua, Y., 55 Zakharov, A., 230 Yesiltas, M., 180, 181 Zakheim, D., 65 Yodfat, A., 110, 111 Zanotti, J., 15, 29 Yom, S., 186 Zdanowski, J., 108, 116 Yongzheng, Q., 40, 44 Zelikow, P., 113, 114 Yoo, H. J., 51 Zenn, J., 43 Young, K., 25 Zimmt, R., 156