2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE

ADVANCING SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS Seville, Spain, 3-5 February 2005

PROCEEDINGS

edited by Norbert Steinhaus Advancing Science and Society Interactions

Proceedings of the

2nd International Living Knowledge Conference Seville, Spain, 3-5 February 2005 The conference “Advancing Science and Society Interactions” was part of a project called ISSNET which has been awarded financial support by the European Commission through the contract HPRP-CT-2002-00011. ISSNET is a ‚Thematic Network‘ in the 5th Framework Programme, under the theme ‘Improving Human Potential & Socio-economic Knowledge base’, section ‘‘Raising Public Awareness of Sciences and Technology’. For further information please see www.livingknowledge.org or contact Caspar de Bok, [email protected].

Proceedings of the 2nd International Living Knowledge Conference “Advancing Science and Society Interactions” Seville, Spain, 2-5 February 2005

ISBN 3-935907-03-6

Published by: ISSNET, c/o Wissenschaftsladen Bonn e.V., Buschstr. 85, D-53113 Bonn, Germany, phone: ++228 201 610, fax: ++228 265 287, [email protected], www.wilabonn.de

Editor: Norbert Steinhaus [email protected]

Layout: Norbert Steinhaus, Cover drawing: Detail of a painting by Manuel Garcia Campano

Printed by: Druckladen Bonn GmbH, November 2005,

Number of Copies: 300

A CD with all abstracts, contributions and additional information and material is enclosed to this publication.

The views expressed in the articles and papers are those of the authors and are not necessarily endorsed by the publisher. Whilst every care has been taken during production, the publisher does not accept any liability for errors that may have occured.

© The copyright for the contributions is with the authors.

A printed Book of Abstracts is also available: Avanzando en la Relación Ciencia-Sociedad / Advanc- ing Science and Society Interactions. 2nd International Conference, Seville, 3-5 February 2005. Edited by Teresa Rojo. Published by Pax Mediterranea, Plaza del Pelicano 4, 41003 Seville, Spain, ISBN 84-609-4228-7 TABLE OF CONTENTS

cience Shops are as diverse as the com- scope because Science Shops are just one of Smunities they serve. There is no structure of the players in the field of science and society an organisation that can be seen as the ulti- interactions. The role of universities, NGO’s and mate construction. How Science Shops are or- public bodies in this context must not be un- ganised and operate is highly dependent on derestimated. With its more than 100 presenta- their context. When establishing a network of tions the conference‘s goal was also to discuss Science Shops new contexts may add new or- options for improving the interactions between ganisation structures. What once began as part these different stakeholders. of the student movement and counter-culture of the early 1970ies in the Netherlands has now In the proceedings of the second Living spread over Europe and beyond. Knowledge conference we listed the presenta- tions of the plenary sessions. Those contribu- With the help of the European Commis- tions to the parallel sessions which gave addi- sion Science Shops have managed to organise tional information to the already published were themselves into a Europe-based global network also taken into account. Some of the listed texts through which know-how, expertise, experi- are written in Spanish according to the bilingual ences and research can be shared. In 2000 concept of the conference. SCIPAS, as first transnational project of Science All speakers‘ abstracts were previously pub- Shops, for the first time articulated and docu- lished in a book of abstracts which was released mented the various Science Shop models. The at the conference. You can find the abstract of policy of the emerging international cooperation every contribution to the conference as well as was labelled ‘Living Knowledge’, knowing that speakers‘ submitted additional material on the knowledge by being transformed, re-configured CD which is enclosed to this publication. and used to solve problems by empowering everyday people. The first Living Knowledge I want to say thank you to everybody who conference “Building partnerships for public contributed to the success of the second Living access to research”, which was held in 2001 in Knowledge Conference: To the European Com- Leuven, Belgium, was the first public output of mission who was very supportive in shaping the SCIPAS project and the arising network. the conference, the members of the EC project ISSNET, who spent a lot of energy in the inter- The second Living Knowledge conference national organisation committees, and all those „Advancing Science and Society Interactions“ who contributed in lectures, discussions or writ- held in Seville, Spain, now intended to improve ing for these proceedings. Finally I would like to the exchange of information and knowledge thank Teresa Rojo and Patricia Rojo and the staff among all involved in community based re- of Pax Mediterranea as well as the University of search and provided a forum where information Seville for the huge amount of work they have on community based research, carried out in spent to organise this international conference. both community and academic settings, was shared and developed. The conference not only Norbert Steinhaus focused on the Science Shop aspects of com- munity-based research. It had a much broader

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WELCOME NOTES MONICA MENAPACE 11 CASPAR DE BOK 12

INTRODUCTORY PRESENTATIONS Science Shops as Science - Society Interfaces A basic introduction – HENK MULDER 15 International Science Shop Networking – CASPAR DE BOK 21

Plenary Session INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS Meeting universities‘ obligations to communities to share, listen and learn from their experi- ences – GERRY MCCORMAC 29 ANPED – A NGO‘s experience on linking science and society – KIRSTEN KOSSEN 31 Impactos de los Apoyos Gubermentales en Poblaciones Rurales de México – ALBA GONZÁLEZ JÁCOME 35 Lessons learnde from the role of the Community Based Research Network (CRN) in US and Canada – KHAN RAHI: 36

Plenary Session OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS Science & Society in the EU 7th Framework Programme (FP7) for research and technologi- cal development – MONICA MENAPACE: 47 From sitting on a veranda to valueing the enrichment of engagement A view from the field ROGER O‘SULLIVAN 51 Bridging Gaps: Empowerment of the Community in Health Action Research – SAEED ASEFZADEH 54 Science Shops and Civic Sciences after ‘Lisbon‘ – ROB HAGENDIJK 56 Improving interaction between NGO’s, Science Shops and universities – MICHAEL S. JORGENSEN 56 Fondation Sciences Citoyennes - A NGO Perspective – CLAUDIA NEUBAUER : 65

Plenary Session PROCESSES, TOOLS AND INFRASTRUCTURES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY Advancing Societies’ Influence on Research Agendas – The role of Science Shops – PETER NIJKAMP 73 Promoting risk communication in Japanese chemical industry – OSHINORI KAWABATA, IKUO HORI AND SHIGERU MIYAKE 78 Increasing NGO participation in research and the policy agenda – EURIG SCANDRETT 82 Geo-virtual reality and participatory planning New Technologies for public participation – MARINA LOBO 85 Quality research @ community prices A decade of creating community-university parnerships through an applied sociology research center – JEFFRY A. WILL AND CHARLES E. OWENS: 88

CONCLUSIONS 93

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Parallel Sessions INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS NGO Cases Participatory Assessment of Delivery of Public Services – TOM THOMAS & KARUNA SRIDHARAN: 99 Cases universities & research centres Aprovechamiento didáctico de algunos fenómenos físicos expuestos, como actividades, en espacios sociales interactivos dedicados a la difusión científica“ – ROCÍO QUIJANO LÓPEZ, MIGUEL PÉREZ FERRA, LUIS C. VIDA SAGRISTA Y Mª. TERESA OCAÑA MORAL 102 Gender and Science Anxiety Research and Action – JEFFRY V. MALLOW 109 Cases Science Shops or CBR Environmental Protection and Democracy The Eco-Social Studies Centre of the University of La La- guna (Canary Islands) – JOSÉ MANUEL DE CÓZAR-ESCALANTE AND JUAN SÁNCHEZ-GARCÍA 113

Parallel Sessions OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS Opportunities in envrironmental Sciences Visualisation of Land-Use Changes in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany – KRISCHAN OSTENRATH 119 Valuing crop biodiversity on a farm in Hungary – BÁLINT BÁLAZS, GYÖRGYI BELAA; GYÖR- GY PATAKLAAB, BARBARA BODORKÓSA 122 Opportunities in Social Sciences La Formación de Competencias investigativas en la Educación superior de Colombia Un análisis hermenéutico de la politíca de calidad estatal – SERGIO TOBÓN & ARIEL CÉSAR NÚÑEZ ROJAS 125 La ciencia social al servicio de la gobernanza en la sociedad del conocimiento – BLANCA MIEDES UGARTE, DOLORES REDONDO TORONJO 127 Afirmación identitaria y Saberes indígendas Un Proceso en la Sierra Norte de Puebla (Méxi- co) – PIERRE BEAUCAGE 131 SLoTs - Social Learning Tools:The VGAS experience – TIAGO DE SOUSA PEDROSA, ÂNGE- LA GUIMARAES PEREIRA 147 Opportunities in Urban Regeneration Participative approach to the research experience on local processes towards sustainability – MA ÀNGELS ALIÓ, SÍLVIA MATEU, LAIA PEIDRO 150 A Curricular Framework for Sustainable Equitable Community Reinvestment – PHILIP NYDEN, DAVID & IRENE HALL, SAM MARULLO, TERESA ROJO, SARAH JANE KNOY AND NANCY AARDEMA 152 Opportunities in Health sciences Diagnosing Distraction Society‘s Influence on Prescribing Methylphenidate – DENAE FRIED- HEIM 161 Community-Campus Partnerships for Health Promoting Health Through Partnerships Between Communities and Higher Educational Institutions – JEN KAUPER-BROWN & SARENA D. SEIFER 176 Involving Citizen Participation in Allergic Pollinosis Prevention – DIANA CUPSA, ILIE TEL- CEAN, ZOLTAN ELLENES 179

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Parallel Sessions PROCESSES, TOOLS AND INFRASTRUCTURES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY Networks The REVOS project An European network for voluntary services – MIGUEL PRESENCIO AND ALAIN LABATUT 185 Building a constituency A strategy to empower Science Shops – DR. MAUREEN E. BUTTER 187 Knowledge in Living Networks – DR IR EELKE WIELINGA 190 EU Research Networks and Civil Society Organisations – MICHAEL S. JORGENSEN 193 Unraveling the Web How to improve the International Network of Science Shops – ELISE KAMPHUIS AND CORSTIAAN J. KUIJVENHOVEN 196 Participatory tools Tratamiento de los Contenidos del Módulo de Gestión del Agua, Desertización y Basuras y su Adecuación didáctica en Entornos cerrados – M. T. OCAÑA MORAL, R. R. QUIJANO LÓPEZ, M. PÉREZ FERRA Y L. C. VIDA SAGRISTA 201 Community Based Sustainability Plannung and Rural Development in the South-Borsod Re- gion, Hungary – BARBARA BODORKÓS, BÁLINT BALÁZS, GYÖRGYI BELA AND GYÖRGY PATAKI 212 DIALOG: Quebec Network on Native Questions. A new and innovative alliance between universities and aboriginal communities – CAROLE LÉVESQUE, MARIE-FRANCE LABRE- CQUE AND CARMEN LAMBERT 228 Infrastructures Centre for Knowledge Transfer A digital look at the Centre for Knowledge Transfer at Tilburg University – IRIS SLIEDRECHT-VAN LAVIEREN 232 Science Communication The Science Communication Escalator – DRS. ANN VAN DER AUWERAERT 237 Law Education through Mass Media Learning and teaching from the reality – MELISA GUE- VARA PAREDES 242 Science meets Society – KARIN REE 247 The Living Knowledge Magazine Experiences and future opportunities – NORBERT STEINHAUS 249

APPENDIX

CONFERENCE PROGRAM 251

SPEAKERS LIST 256

A CD with all abstracts, contributions and additional information and material is enclosed to this publication.

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WELCOME NOTES

Besides some opening remarks from the conference hosts as well as the local and international organisation, an overview of the regional and local interest for community-based research is given.

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Welcome Note MONICA MENAPACE

Project Coordinator. Unit Education and Science, Dir. Science and Society, Directorate General for Re- search, European Commission

he European Commission acknowledges the success of the conference „Advancing science and Tsociety interactions“ which attracted a large number of participants from all over the world and made them discussing together a variety of subjects. The richness of these discussions is summa- rized in these proceedings. The conference falls within the activities of a project financed by the EU „Improving Science Shops networking“, which strongly contributes to the Commission‘s aim of bridging the gap between science and society. The creation of a European Research Area (ERA) is the main objective of the current EU activities in the field of research and technological development. The ERA process has been launched by the European Commission in 2000 and has become one of the main elements for achieving the Lisbon and Barcelona goals. However, advances in science drive European growth, but sometimes give rise to fears and scep- ticism among citizens. The European Commission is determined to bridge the gap between the scientific community and society at large. Therefore, its Directorate-General for Research is working to make „science and society“ issues an essential element within the ERA process and the Framework Programmes for Research (6th and 7th). The „Science and Society“ theme supports activities that bring together policy-makers, researchers, and citizens. Initiatives have been brought together in an Action Plan that will mobilise people and resources from across Europe. The Science and Society Action Plan was agreed by the Commission in December 2001. The Plan sets out a common strategy to create a better connection between science and European citizens, alongside 38 specific actions covering all the themes mentioned below. The effort is supported in part through the EC‘s Sixth Framework Programme. FP6 includes „science and society“ activities, both as a specific „science“ and society“ programme and as a general theme integrated in the seven research priorities of the „Integrating the European Research Area“ programme. It is in this framework that the Commission has given its support to the Science Shops through a devoted action in the Science and Society Action Plan (Action 21), the financing of several projects under the 5th and the 6th Framework Programme and by keeping a dialogue with the Science Shops, the universities‘ associations and civil society associations on how to further promote Science Shops and develop them in new regions. Science shops create a direct contact between citizens, students and research institutions and contri- bute to a dialogue amongst the stakeholders on subjects sensitive for the society and where science play an important role. Moreover, Science shops activities contribute to the universities curricula development and make universities interact with the communities where they are located (the so called 3rd mission of the universities). The Commission is encouraging and will continue encouraging the development of Science Shops as it is an excellent tool to make science at the service of the society addressing practical problems at local level.

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Welcome Note CASPAR DE BOK

Coordinator of the International Science Shop Network ‘Living Knowledge’

s coordinator of the international Science Shop Network Living Knowledge it is a pleasure to Awelcome you all at the second Living Knowledge conference ‚Advancing Science and Society Relations. It is good to see so many people have taken the opportunity to come to the beautiful city of Seville to meet other experts and people that are interested in community based research and Science Shops. It is clear that the network has grown since the first Living Knowledge confe- rence in 2001 in Leuven, Belgium. Living Knowledge is really advancing science and society relati- ons.

The next two and a half day there will be many opportunities to share experiences and to meet interesting people working in the same field as you. If you think it are just a few lonely souls dealing with the same questions and activities as you, I hope this conference will prove there are many peo- ple like you. Here in Seville we bring together researchers, policymakers, representatives of citizens organisations and NGO‘s and students. The conference participants come from all over the world and from all kind of organisations. Please use this conference as a meeting place. You all do represent many different contexts. But what you all seem to have in common, is your interest in science and society relations and its practises. This conference might be a learning experience that brings you ideas, contacts and support.

I like to thank the members of the local organisation committee for the work they have done to bring you all together in this very nice location, the Salon Paraninfo‘ of the University of Seville, but also for the rest of the programme. Staff of Pax Mediterranea and the University of Seville have put a lot of work in this, as did many of their local partners. Also the members of the EC project ISSNET, who participated in the international organisation committee and employees of the European Commissi- on have been very supportive to shape this conference. All involved in the organisation have been full of ideas and good intentions. There has been a huge response from participants to contribute to the conference. Thanks for that. Bringing the ideas and contributions together in a conference that only lasts two and a half days, isn‘t easy. Without the commitment of people in the organisation committees we wouldn‘t have been here now to have some interesting days.

I hope you will all enjoy this conference, will get many new ideas and a lot of inspiration. I hope you will not only collect paper but also bring home a lot of action and energy to move forward with all the good work you do. Besides that, enjoy Seville.!

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INTRODUCTORY PRESENTATIONS

The general Science Shop concept is introduced as well as the international dimension of the Living Knowledge network with a focus on the European Union.

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2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 15 PLENARY SESSION

Science Shops as Science - Society Interfaces: A basic introduction HENK MULDER

Chemiewinkel, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands

cience Shops arose in the Netherlands in both those relevant to the client and those rel- Sthe 1970ies and can now be found in many evant to further research. This process means countries. Their development was bottom-up, that new knowledge is generated, or at least so there are differences. Some organisations existing knowledge is combined and adapted may perform like tasks but not use the name to context. “Science Shop”. The goal to give civil society access to research support is the same, how- Science Shops use the term “science” in its ever. They are a structural part of research infra- broadest sense, incorporating social and human structure, open to civil society. Science Shops sciences, as well as natural, physical, engineer- as a way of transferring knowledge are innova- ing and technological sciences. The word “pro- tive and effective and have a positive impact vide” in the definition means that Science Shops both on universities and on the civil society. make their services available on an affordable basis, free of financial barriers. Furthermore, A Science Shop is a unit that provides Science Shops seek to create equitable and independent, participatory research support supportive partnerships with civil society or- in response to concerns experienced by civil ganisations, hence the word “participatory”. The society. For the most part, these units belong word “equitable” in this mission statement also to universities, though some are organised as means that knowledge and ideas from society separate NGOs or non-for-profit companies. are used as a cross-fertilisation to the research Science Shops combine research (and teach- field; it’s a two way street. “Research support” ing where applicable) with service to society. can include educational projects, but makes Civil society organisations can simply approach clear that there is a difference with regular social a Science Shop with a problem in which they welfare based support to society. The words “in feel some research would be helpful for them response to”, so it’s not a science push type of to help solve their problem. The Science Shop operation. The word “concerns” makes clear that staff will then transfer these requests into re- Science Shops are not there to answer curiosity- search projects and find students and/or staff driven questions. to work on these projects, in close contact with the “client”. The results are handed over to the As a mission statement, Science Shops seek client and the Science Shop staff will support to: i) provide civil society with knowledge and the use of these scientific results by the client skills through research and education; ii) provide and will help to formulate follow-up proposals, their services on an affordable basis; iii) pro-

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mote and support public access to, and public responsibilities that are of general interest and influence on, science and technology; iv) create who also act as mediators between the public equitable and supportive partnerships with civil authorities and citizens. They may include trade society organizations; v); enhance understanding unions and employers’ organisations (‘social among policy makers and education and re- partners’), NGOs, professional associations, search institutions of the research and education charities, grassroot organisations, organisations needs of civil society vi) enhance the transferable that involve citizens in local municipal life; skills and knowledge of students, community rep- churches and religious communities. resentatives and researchers. Clients of Science Shops are community/ A variety of other tasks are sometimes voluntary groups, (environmental) NGOs, local/ performed by Science Shops, such as regular regional authorities, schools/pupils, patient university teaching and research, contract re- associations, labour unions, religious groups search, education and trainings for civil society, sometimes individuals. et cetera. Other clients might be student organisa- Demand tions, museums, police, parliamentarians/ political parties or as in some Science Shops Who are the clients of Science Shops? There other research institutes, SMEs or larger firms are some general selection criteria that most and industry. For help to individuals, Science Science Shops apply. The first one is that clients Shops sometimes apply the criterion that the may have no commercial aims, and the research problem should be of concern to more people. results must become public. Second, clients But, sometimes, if time or expertise allows, must be able to use the results of the research purely individual problems are solved. Science to achieve their mission – which means having Shops themselves can try to disseminate the some form of organisation to act within, and report to similarly interested stakeholders in that for the Science Shops it means that they must case. Sometimes questions are answered from produce results that are clear and applicable in others, such as small and medium enterprises context-; and third, the clients may not have and even industry, depending on the type of the (full) financial (and/or scientific) means question posed and on the other facilities a to acquire their research otherwise (or they host institute has or does not have to deal with should finance part or all of the project). This these questions already. distinction is made since there are already many possibilities for governmental organisations and Position of Science Shops at Universities business to have research done. Science Shops are all about balancing the scales. Science Shops have a special place in linking all three university missions: education, research, Their target groups fit well with the EC’s defi- and knowledge transfer to society (outreach). nition of civil society organisations as mentioned Universities have many relations with society, in the Science and Society Action Plan: organi- which can be structured as shown here. Four sations whose members have objectives and generic target groups can be distinguished,

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which all have their own dynamics and require served by Science Shops as well, depending specific attention. Towards individuals, there is a on the organisation of the specific university, supply of existing information from university to and depending on the type of the questions society. Concerning service to organisations, Sci- asked by this group of clients. In Romania, Sci- ence Shops generally take care of non-commer- ence Shops also accept questions from SMEs, cial contract-research, whereas transfer bureaux because the current economic situation in or business service centres cover commercial Romania makes them a suitable target group as research. The largest sums of money find their well. In the social segment served by Science own way to national authorities and industry, Shops there is generally little financial backing through public foundations and their funding and little subsidies exist. programmes, or through paid research con- tracts or by industry paying a professorial chair The reasons that Universities do support Sci- at university. The entrances for industry and civil ence Shops are many. Next to “pro deo” or PR social groups are separated and thus the risk for reasons, universities will also support Science conflicts of interests is diminished. Moreover, Shops as a way to obtain interesting research serving these different sectors requires different topics for scientists and students. Even though ways of working and likewise requires different professors and students are doing what they persons to do the job properly. should be doing anyway (supervising and learn- ing, respectively), Science Shop projects are Although they are commercial, Small and a little more work to organise than text-book Medium sized Enterprises are sometimes cases, which can give problems within the de-

Table 1: University – Society relations Target Group Facility

Individuals (e.g. students, seniors, pupils, Courses, Public Courses, Higher Education journalists, other individuals, general public) for Seniors, Distant Learning Courses, Public Lectures, Science Week, Open House, High-school desk, University Museum, PR Department

Civil Society Groups Science Shop NGOs Non-profit sector Local authorities (Internship Service)

Small and Medium Enterprises Transfer Bureau (Business Service Centre), Regional authorities Business Incubator (Science Park) (Internship Service)

National + International authorities Liaison Office Industry Contacts to NSF (National Science Foundation) Contracts, Paid chairs

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creasing university budgets and trends towards under staff supervision do much of the research commercialisation of science. Still, by linking to in many Science Shops,. Students learn valuable education and research Science Shops can be skills, such as communicating with non-experts implemented at low additional costs. and solving a problem in context. Students can At Groningen University, the nine Science earn credits for their work, which count towards Shops are paid for 50% by the Board of Uni- their degree. There are various ways of including versity and for 50% by their respective depart- Science Shop projects in the curriculum. One can ments. For both funders, the amount is quite award credits to projects as such, or students can little. The reasons for the University Board to fi- do projects as part of an existing course or prac- nance the Science Shop are, next to implement- tical period. A much used option is a MSc (or ing part of the third mission, the benefits for the BSc) thesis based on a Science Shop request. regional image of university, and a raised social To increase the benefits of Science Shop projects and political awareness of students. The depart- for the curriculum, Science Shop cases can be ments mention, next to an improved regional used as example in many other courses. Experi- image, also the practical education to their stu- ences from Science Shop work can also be used dents and incoming interesting research themes in methodological courses and teaching students as a reason for their co-financing. Both funders in general on science and society. Finally, there have a sense of „noblesse oblige“ as well.“ are now examples of how Science Shops have advanced new master programs. For university renewal it is interesting that in principal Science Shops can exist in all univer- Science Shops do have many benefits for mod- sity faculties where societal need can be met by ern higher education curricula by providing: university expertise. For instance in the Nether- • Case-examples in established courses lands there are Science Shops on environment • Projects in established courses but also law, health, pharmacy, physics, social • Projects as part of curriculum affairs et cetera. • Theoretical and/or methodological courses • Restructuring curricula Supply The results are improved student skills and To support the civil society organisations knocking raised awareness. Most university students in on the Science Shops’ door, there needs to be a Europe will not choose an academic career supply of research. How is this supply harvested? after graduation. Thus, higher education has In 71% of the Science Shops, the Science Shop to prepare its students in a flexible way, for staff itself performs part of the research. The many different kinds of jobs. Key elements in other major sources of scientific research are education thus must be “acquiring knowledge” voluntary students (34%) and students work- and the competence “to apply knowledge in ing for their course or diploma (71%) as well as context, in a rapidly changing society”. professional scientists or researchers, either on a voluntary base (45%) or paid (48%). Research Science Shop projects range from small stu- could be done by all of these actors in one dent projects, which students either do as vol- Science Shop). As earlier mentioned students unteer or for credits, to integrated project-courses

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and spin-off, such as distant-learning or master able course/practical/thesis period programs. Doing Science Shop projects teaches 5. Find a student (+ options for credit points) students valuable skills, such as communicative, or researcher (+ funds if required) social, managerial skills and the ability to work in a 6. Maintain communication and support the multidisciplinary setting. All this will help them be process, from start to finish of research able to produce scientific results in response to 7. Facilitate useable presentation/publication of social concerns, which will be actually useable. results (popular report, brochure, website, seminar, press release, etc.) Mediation tasks 8. Support client in implementing results and recommendations and formulate follow up Questions from civil organisations are rephrased actions (stakeholder meetings, legal pro- to scientific research projects. Students, under cedures, conferences, follow-up research supervision of a professor then perform the proposals) research, or a researcher does it. Students 9. Make inventory of follow-up research or re- usually obtain credit points for their research. search-themes (options for scientific publica- The research will lead to a report (or another tions, interesting themes for further research type of product) which is made to be of use (programs)) to the client. The student will have gained 10. Evaluation (with student, supervisor and cli- valuable skills (problem definition, project ent) based working, communicating, planning). The professor and/or the researcher will have case It is clear that there are a number of additional material for either future publication or further skills required in operating a Science Shop, next theoretical analysis. Moreover, for the professor to the overview on a specific scientific area, such involved this supervision is part of the teaching as communicative, social, managerial skills and obligation. So, in fact all actors are doing what the ability to work in a multidisciplinary setting. they are supposed to do: teaching, learning All to ensure that the answers given in response and researching. This is why a Science Shop to social concerns will be useable. can be implemented at relatively low additional costs and why Science Shops can also serve European Commission the non-profit sector. and Science Shops

Science Shop staff usually performs these In the recent years, the European Commission tasks: has decided to make Science Shop develop- 1. Receive/solicit clients and (new) societal ment one of the key-actions in DG Research’s relevant questions Science and Society policy. The EU has financed 2. With client, articulate problem (map the situ- two studies on Science Shops (SCIPAS and In- ation) teracts) and financed the project Improving 3. Preliminary research, leading to refusal or Science Shop Networking (ISSNET) from 2003, referral, a short advice and/or a scientific which will establish the International Science research question Shop Network, “Living-Knowledge”. In the 6th 4. Find a scientific (co-) supervisor and/or suit- Framework Program, Science Shops are sup-

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ported further. This is mentioned in Action 21 obtain scientific support to do research for their of the Commission’s Science and Society Action public goals. This support balances the public Plan. The reasons for the Commission’s support debates between civil society and government were summarised by their Director for Science and industry, which both do have regular (paid) and Society, Dr. Rainer Gerold: access to scientific research and advice. This ad- 1. The trust of citizens in science is helped by vances public decision making, because more Science Shops voices are heard, and better decisions can be 2. By contacts between the European Science achieved. Shops and the Commission there will be shorter communication lines between the Moreover, even the UN declaration of human citizens and European research policy rights already states: Everyone has the right … 3. When they approach a Science Shop, people to share in scientific advancement and its ben- are open to a scientific approach (Raising efits (Art. 27.1). Public Awareness) 4. Science Shops have their influence on young And closing with a quote of Dr. Rainer Gerold, researchers and research institutes (Raising Director Science and Society, DGXII – EC from Science’s Awareness) 2001: “Every science – and every society 5. The themes of research by Science Shops fit – needs a Science Shop”. well with European ideals

From 2004, the International Science Shop Network is actively supporting new members. A project called TRAMS (Training and Mentoring of Science Shops) has been granted by the Com- mission, which will start co-operation of existing Science Shops with institutes in countries like Iceland, France, Greece, Spain, Turkey, and the Baltic States.

Conclusions

Science shops as a way of knowledge and context interaction are an innovative and ef- fective means to advance science and society interactions, and have a positive impact both on universities (students, staff, curricula, research themes) and on civil society groups (media attention, policy influence, legal support). This provides a symbiotic relationship between these two communities. Science shops empower those that would not otherwise be able to

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International Science Shop Networking CASPAR DE BOK

Coordinator of the International Science Shop Network, Wetenschapswinkel Biologie, WBU, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands

his conference is part of the project ISSNET tell you more about the international aspects of T(Improving Science Shop Networking) that Science Shop networking and the EC support for has been funded by the European Commission Science Shops. (EC). Since 2000 there is a growing interest from the European Union in the concept and The EC context activities of Science Shops. The directorate Sci- ence and Society of EC Directorate-General Re- From the Eurobarometer on Europeans Sci- search intends to bridge the gap between the ence and Technology (2001) it became clear scientific community and society at large. ‘Sci- that Europeans do have conflicting views on ence and Society’ supports activities that bring science and technology, On the one hand together policy-makers, researchers, and citi- there is hope science can contribute to solve zens. major problems and there is confidence. On the Science Shops contribute to bridge the exist- other hand there is a lack of interest in science ing gap by their truly interactive approach of sci- and even distrust, scepticism or fear regarding ence and society interactions. In brief a Science impacts of science. There is a lack of mutual Shop can be defined as an organisation that understanding between the society and the sci- provides independent, participatory research entific community. support in response to concerns experienced The directorate Science and Society intends by civil society. In the previous presentation you to bridge the gap between the scientific com- have heard more in detail about the activities munity and society at large. This programme and the concept of Science Shops. Over the last supports activities that bring together policy- few years international interest in the Science makers, researchers, and citizens. One of the Shop model has developed, and similar organi- guiding instruments for the directorate Science sations have been established in a wide range and Society has been the Science and Society of countries. Because of cultural and socio-eco- Action Plan. With this action plan the EC wants nomic differences in Europe there is no single to ’promote the scientific education and culture structure for setting up and running a Science in Europe’, ‘bring science policy closer to citi- Shop. The Dutch Science Shop concept has zens’ and ‘put responsible science at the heart been adapted and modified by many organisa- of policy making’. 38 Actions are described tions in a way it fits in local contexts. There is an to achieve these goals. The EC will act as a increasing activity towards the development of catalyst to implement the actions mentioned an international network of Science Shops. I will in the plan.

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Action 21 of the plan is related to Science In general Science Shops are small and local Shops: “The networking of Science Shops in the organisations. They are intrinsically bound to lo- regions of the Union and the candidate coun- cal conditions, thus they are highly diverse in tries will be encouraged in particular through respect to organisation, approach, funding and the creation of a permanent inventory and a focus. To enable Science Shops to continue structure for the dissemination of work carried working for and with citizens on a long-term out on behalf of citizens and associations (e.g. basis, the network will undertake actions within database) and by the development of promo- strategic and political settings. Most Science tional tools.” Shops themselves are too small for these activi- Since 2000 the unique participatory and ties, therefore the network’s role is crucial. bottom up approach of Science Shops gained Networking of Science Shops does have interest from the EC. The EC is supportive to an impact on individual Science Shops on a strengthen the role of Science Shops as a me- practical and strategic level. On a practical level dium to improve public access to, and public it is obvious the sharing of expertise (e.g. by awareness of, science and technology. In a EC mentoring and training) and good practices is brochure on Science Shops, Rainer Gerold, EC useful for new Science Shops. But also existing Science and Society director states of the “By Science Shops can learn from each other by cutting away the layers separating science and adopting new processes, procedures and activi- society, Science Shops are helping to pave the ties. The networking has an impact on a practical way towards ‘science for society’ and ‘society level also because it improves the opportunities for science’.” This support has taken a variety for dissemination of results. Another important of forms, including the financing of in-depth impact is on thematic research cooperation.. By studies to find out how best to support these facilitating collaboration, the network allows for independent research organisations. Science breaking out of the local by broadening the base shops opened opportunities to perform or of knowledge and experience available on the mediate research activities for civil organisa- network. By discussing local citizens concerns tions, give access to research for those outside or local problems (e.g. on environmental is- of academia. Improved networking of Science sues, and urban planning) in the network it Shops will contribute to the goals of the science might become clear the dimension isn’t local at and society programme. all. Thus the network will be able to distinguish ‘local’ research themes for international research International networking cooperation. For Science Shops international cooperation Cooperation of Science Shops of will be does have national and local level spin off as beneficial to create opportunities to learn about well. Science shops are often seen as local and discuss current community-based research initiatives with local activities. Core activities of projects and to share experiences and to learn Science Shops are local indeed. Nevertheless from one another’s failures and successes. international networking makes clear similar There is a need for Science Shops not only local initiatives are everywhere and the role of to focus on research projects but to focus on Science Shops is recognised at many places. strategic issues as well. This international dimension and recognition of

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Science Shops does have impact on the rec- goals these issues can best be dealt with in close ognition at national or local level. International cooperation. SCIPAS concluded that a network of cooperation also offers new opportunities for Science Shops will have added value. funding of projects because it brings together SCIPAS initiated new initiatives in internation- expertise and needs on an international level. al cooperation of Science Shops like INTERACTS (Improving Interaction between NGO’s, Science SCIPAS Shops and Universities: Experiences and Expec- tations) and ISSNET (Improving Science Shop The first step to establish an international Sci- Networking). Both INTERACTS and ISSNET are ence Shop network was made in March 2000 funded by the EC as well. This conference is part by the start of the project SCIPAS (Study and of the EC project ISSNET. Conference on Improving Public Access to Sci- ence through Science Shops). It was financed by INTERACTS the European Commission. Beyond its intrinsic value, SCIPAS was an indispensable milestone INTERACTS was a EC-STRATA funded project for laying the foundation of an international (2002-2003) that examined the experiences network of Science Shops. SCIPAS led to seven and expectations of NGO’s towards universities reports and a scientific conference in 2001 in and intermediaries like Science Shops in order Leuven (Belgium). This conference in Seville is to draw out policy implications for future co- a follow up of the Leuven conference. operation. The project involved around 18 case The SCIPAS project was unique in its way it studies from six different countries within the collected and structured the scattered information environmental field and the social welfare and on Science Shops and their practices. By bringing health field about the impact of NGO interaction together good experiences SCIPAS made clear with researchers and intermediaries like Science what challenges there are for Science Shop in Shops. INTERACTS explored the potential of Sci- community based research. It not only showed ex- ence Shops as practice and instrument in future amples of good practices that can be adopted by Science & Technology policy. individual Science Shops. It also gave an overview of needs and opportunities for existing Science ISSNET Shops to improve the quality and impact of their activities (e.g. by structural exchange of informa- In 2003 the thematic network ISSNET tion, structured documentation). SCIPAS con- (Improving Science Shop Networking) started cluded that international cooperation of Science within the EC programme Raising Public Aware- Shops will be beneficial to create opportunities to ness of Sciences and Technology. Now ISSNET learn about and discuss current community-based is part of the Science and Society programme. research projects and to share experiences and to ISSNET is a consortium of 13 partners, from learn from one another’s failures and successes. Austria (2), Denmark (1), France (1) , Germany There is a need for Science Shops not only to fo- (2), Netherlands (2), Romania (1), Spain (1), cus on research projects but to focus on strategic United Kingdom (2) and USA (1). issues as well. Because the present position and The objectives of ISSNET are based on the size of most Science Shops and their common conclusions and recommendations of SCIPAS

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regarding the added value of an international community based research in general. It will also Science Shop network. The main objective of improves the options for citizens’ to participate ISSNET is to give citizens around Europe better in the dialogue between science and society. access to scientific information and expertise. The existing Science Shops in the network will The demand-driven approach of Science Shops share their expertise and support the develop- contributes to this objective and offers citizens ment of new Science Shops. The international a tool to contribute in the science and society Science Shop network will be an instrument debate. To achieve this, ISSNET wants to con- to link or initiate local or regional initiatives. In tribute to the improvement of: this way it will advance the outreach, size and impact of the contribution of Science Shops to • public access to scientific information and citizens’ access to scientific information, knowl- expertise in a demand and dialogue driven edge and expertise. To reach the objectives as way described above, the activities of ISSNET have • public understanding of science and tech- the following specific objectives: nology • the scientific society’s involvement of civil • Developing the strategic capacity of Science society knowledge and expertise in research Shops by exploring and describing concepts • collaboration and communication among and tools for Science Shops’ contribution to scientific organisations (e.g. universities, the development of the research agenda Science Shops) and other organisations and research methodology at universities. (e.g. citizen groups, regional representatives, • Developing the strategic capacity of Sci- NGOs, science museums, etc.) ence Shops and civil society by exploring • future university graduates’ interest in and and describing strategies and concepts for competence for co-operation with civil so- obtaining impact on societal discourses and ciety as part of the development of science Science & Technology policy through Sci- and technology ence Shop projects and community based • the awareness of scientists and policy mak- research. ers of research subjects that are of concern • Facilitating transnational community based to the public research themes by developing concepts and procedures for transnational community ISSNET will focus on instruments to facilitate based research co-operation. citizens access to scientific information and • Supporting new Science Shops by develop- expertise. Therefore it will develop collaborative ing a number of tools to assist in setting up, relationships with Science Shop-like institutions managing and developing Science Shops and networks inside and outside of Europe. and by developing concepts of existing ISSNET will be responsible for the start, set up Science Shops’ mentoring of new Science and maintenance of the international Science Shops. Improved visibility of Science Shops Shop network ‘Living Knowledge’ will also assist in the expansion of the net- The activities of ISSNET will support the dis- work of Science Shops within Europe, espe- semination and exchange of good practices and cially into the currently underserved Eastern materials in relation to Science Shops and to and Southern European regions.

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• Enhancing scientists’ capacity to work for Now over 300 people subscribed the online and with citizens and thereby increasing the Living Knowledge news- and discussion group, public access to scientific knowledge and over 450 people are subscribed to the Living expertise, through the sharing of training Knowledge Newsletter and around 3000 copies materials for community based research. of ‘Living Knowledge: International Journal of • Supporting the science, society and govern- Community Based Research’ are distributed. As ance debate by developing interactive fo- a result of these activities new initiatives have rums where organisations and stakeholders been developed to advance science and society involved in Science Shops and other types interactions from a community based perspec- of community based research can participate tive. Members of the network are involved in EC in discussing issues and sharing experiences Networks of Excellence and Integrated Projects related to community based research (an in- as well as other thematic research co-opera- teractive website, a Science Shop database, tions. A new Science Shop related EC project magazine and newsletter, conferences) is will start soon. This project will encourage • Exploring possibilities and concepts for fi- the development of emergent Science Shops nancing of the future international Science through the provision of training and mentoring Shop network. support. It will also support the ongoing profes- sional development of existing Science Shops An important part of the networking will be through the sharing of training materials and facilitated by the activities of ISSNET, like the the experiences from daily practices to update development of a website (with database, news professional development. and discussion group), magazine, conference and a thematic transnational pilot project. The The conference network will function as the international contact point for Science Shops and community based This conference intends to improve the ex- research. In this way ISSNET activities aim at change of information and knowledge among making a start with the implementation of ac- all involved in community based research. It tion 21 of the Science and Society Action Plan. will contribute to build equitable and supportive Therefore I’m pleased to present you the re- research partnerships and community based newed and restructured website of the Interna- research networks, exchange concepts and tional Science Shop Network Living Knowledge. tools for community based and participatory This renewed website will offer you an agenda action research in order to enhance scientists’ of up coming events, an international overview and policy makers’ awareness and capacity to of documentation about Science Shops, the op- work with and for citizens. This conference will portunity to meet and discuss with people who provide a forum where information on commu- work in the field of community based research, nity based research, carried out in both commu- links to national or thematic contact points and a nity and academic settings, can be shared and database with information about Science Shops developed. It will reflect the social impact and and alike organisations. Please have a look at scientific and democratic value of research from the new website (www.livingknowledge.org or a range of disciplines including social, natural, www.scienceshops.org) physical and technological sciences.

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The conference will not only focus on the References Science Shop aspects of community-based research. It will have a much broader scope. INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE SHOP NETWORK: Science shops are just one of the players in the http:/www.livingknowledge.org field. The role of universities, NGO’s and public SCIENCE AND SOCIETY, EC RESEARCH DIREC- bodies will be presented and discussed. It is an TORATE-GENERAL: http://europa.eu.int/ important goal of this conference to discuss comm/research/science-society options for improving the interactions between EUROPEANS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. stakeholders. The main themes of the confer- Eurobarometer 55.2, December 2001 ence will be experiences and networking on: EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2002): Science and • Local demands for research Society - Action Plan. EC publication 42-01- • Citizen participation in research and the 222. ISBN 92-894-3025-7 policy process EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2003): Science • Impact of communities’ ‘living knowledge’ on Shops: knowledge for the community. EC the research agenda publication EUR 20877. ISBN 92-894- • Infrastructures for mediation, dissemination 6246-9 and communication of community based research

I’m sure we all will hear many interesting ex- amples of community based research activities and interesting and new examples of science and society relations. The conference intends to be a meeting place for community based research activities rather than a scientific getting together. The conference organisations strongly beliefs it is important to bring together people from different background and with different perspectives. Therefore this conference will offer you a wide variety of presentations and oppor- tunities to network. A network is a flow that only moves with the contribution of its members. Living Knowledge can only facilitate activities of its members. So we invite you all to participate, be active and enjoy the conference. Of course we hope you will get home with many ideas to work on when you back at work.

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Plenary Session

INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS

This session focuses on the experiences of science and society interactions. It gives examples of perspectives from university politics, NGO’s, researchers and a community-based research network.

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Meeting Universities‘ Obligations to Communities to share, listen and learn from their Experiences GERRY McCORMAC

Pro Vice Chancellor for Community and Communications, Queens University Belfast

n 2001 Queen‘s University Belfast appointed, ment. This should relate to the community Ifor the first time, a Pro-Vice-Chancellor for and voluntary sector, but also the business Community and Communication. Such a seni- community, widening participation activities, or appointment in itself signalled a recognition lifelong learning and society more generally. It that both engagement with the community must also ensure that government and elected and communications with society required a representatives are aware of our work and strategic approach from the organisation. worth both directly through our education and Queen‘s is one of two universities in Northern research activities and indirectly through areas Ireland and has a unique relationship to the such as our culture and arts provision and our community it serves. It provides most of the support for local initiatives. graduates to the professions in Northern Ire- land; delivers, along with the University of Uls- It‘s important to have a strategy and posi- ter, about 34% of the research and develop- tively engage with the wider community but ment in the region; and is a magnet for inter- it‘s also essential that people are aware of national engagement. what‘s being done and how to interact with the University. At Queen‘s we have created Queen‘s is intimately connected in a number a web based Community Outreach Directory, of ways to the community it serves, both emo- that catalogues the work and provides a shop tionally and intellectually. Our outreach program- window for others wishing to collaborate with mes are directly linked to children in education. us. Academics are encouraged to participate in The complexity of the Northern Ireland political outreach activities and staff promotion profiles landscape makes Queen‘s an important neutral have been altered to acknowledge effort in venue for debate and intellectual input. The high outreach activity. offices held by many of our alumni influence the strategic direction of the region; and the impor- We have a series of schools programmes tance of the University in terms of research and such as Medics in Primary Schools and Primary development ensure that our actions and the Connexions which help raise aspirations for consequences are scrutinised and debated. higher education with primary school child- It is therefore essential that we have a well ren. Medics in Primary Schools is a module thought out strategy for community engage- in the medical curriculum that allows medical

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students to go into the classroom and teach health education to children. The student im- proves communication skills the children learn about good health. A win-win situation. Primary Connexions is a science conference organised in the University for school children. Other programmes include; art workshops where the University art collection is used to explain the visual arts to children; the outreach element of the Belfast Festival at Queen‘s which includes a wide range of community based arts activity and the recent CPR programme whereby medical students will be using a sophisticated learning scheme to teach all primary school children in Northern Ireland about cardiac re- suscitation techniques.

Universities are a huge resource providing not only the teachers, doctors, engineers and scientists of the future but also an intellectu- al capacity and willingness to help with the problems society faces. It‘s important that we listen to our communities and ensure access routes exist to the wealth of expertise.

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ANPED – A NGO‘s Experience on linking Science and Society KIRSTEN KOSSEN

Programmes Officer of the Northern Alliance for Sustainability, ANPED, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

ood morning, I was asked here today to activities can be subdivided in three main inter- Gpresent you with my view on the relation linked categories: between Society and Science from the perspec- • We act as a platform for our members to tive of ANPED, the Northern Alliance for identify common concerns and to design Sustainability. Three questions were given to me: and implement activities through issue re- lated working groups; 1. How do you see the state of the art in sci- • We offer network support and capacity build- ence and society interactions from an NGO ing activities. perspective in general? • We represent and participate in international 2. How do you link science and society in your forums and political processes, where we act organisation? as a voice for our members; 3. What examples can you give of relevant projects (not necessarily in cooperation with To provide structure to our work, seven is- Science Shops) sue-related working groups have been set up where members come together to share their During this presentation, I will do my best to experience and to design common action and answer these questions. But first I would like to advocacy campaigns. It is the aim of each give you an explanation of ANPED, so you will Working Group to help member NGOs do their understand the context of our perspective. job better as a result of effective cooperation ANPED is a democratic network of over around their chosen themes. ANPED’s current 100 local and national NGOs, national NGO working groups are as follows: networks, and environment, development and • Sustainable Production and Consumption consumer groups, located in the UNECE area. • Local Action for Sustainable Development We have many members in Western, Eastern • Human Rights and Sustainable Development and Central Europe, but we are currently explor- • Health and Environment ing how to expand to Southern Europe as our • Agriculture and Biodiversity network is not well represented in this part yet. • Nuclear Issues We work to empower Northern Civil Society • Water, Pollution and Health in creating and protecting sustainable communi- ties and societies world wide. Obviously, this is Due to time constraints, I will not go into a broad mission and therefore our programme detail on these working groups, but if you

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would like more information, I will be available An example of this can be found in the until tomorrow afternoon. More information is process of the Carpathian Convention. The Car- also available in this brochure I brought. By pathians are stretched out over 7 countries and working on cross-cutting issues which fit into is quite a sensitive area. In the past, each of the various political processes, like the United Na- seven countries formulated its own policy for tions Commission on Sustainable Development their part of the Carpathians. Obviously, a joint (CSD), the OECD, UNEP, European Union and policy was needed. Science contributed to this ‘Environment for Europe (EfE), ANPED endeav- process by defining mountain areas based on ours to build the capacity of individual NGOs. digital data and forest cover. Neutral techniques This is in particular important for smaller, newly were used to help define the boundaries of a established, groups who are not yet part of other bioregion and in this way science supported the regional or international networks. argument that there was a need for an agenda ANPED links organisations that are active lo- for mountains at the international level, instead cally and nationally. At the same time, the inter- of countries dealing with it in isolation from national activities of the International Secretariat each other. enables links to be made between international • Challenge assumptions processes and the local/national work, and for • Identify innovation those working locally to be informed of those • Highlight bad practice as well as good prac- international processes, which may affect their tice work. ANPED has a remarkable track record in • Inform at all levels facilitating NGO input into global political proc- esses such as the World Summit on Sustainable This links in very well into what ANPED is offer- Development and the Commission on Sustain- ing to its member organisations: able Development. • opportunity to find backing for ideas and ac- tions How do we see the state of the art in • a bridge between the local and the global science and society interactions from • strong voice on the International Level a NGO perspective in general? • Cooperation with colleagues in over 30 na- tions So, I will now go into answering the first question that was asked to me, how do we We feel that if an organisation like ANPED see the state of the art in Science and Society is able to interact with the scientific community interactions? Interactions between science and into a more systematic manner the service to society to date happens very much on an ad society, or in our case our member organisa- hoc basis, while both sides would benefit more tions, could be improved. However, there are if this interaction could take place in a more some barriers in making this happen. systematic manner. The value of research from A big problem for an NGO network like our perspective is that it could: ANPED is financial resources, unlike organisa- • Provide evidence and a background to sup- tions such as the WWF or Greenpeace ANPED port and inform policy development and does not have the resources for conducting its actions own scientific research. Another problem is the

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fact that scientific research often works from a As I said before, ANPED is offering several serv- long term perspective. A main area of ANPEDs ices to its members, such as work is building a bridge between the local level • opportunity to find backing for ideas and ac- and the international political arena. We try to tions get the local voice heard at the international • a bridge between the local and the global policy level. In most cases, what we need in • strong voice on the International Level order to back up our arguments is scientific • Cooperation with colleagues in over 30 na- data on the short term. Another reason why an tions organisation like ANPED is working from a short We would be able to offer these same services term perspective is the fact that organisations to the Science Shops as well. like ANPED work with very uncertain funding and they need research results for this year’s What examples can we give of rel- events. Therefore, it would be a challenge to evant projects? place the short term needs for scientific infor- mation into a long term framework. There also I was also asked to provide you with concrete seems to be a language barrier between the examples of the link between science and soci- NGO and the Scientific community, so what we ety within our organisation. As I stated before, need is common language. This is related to the we have no system in place for linking these fact that the NGO community finds it difficult to two. Therefore I will give you two concrete ex- make effective use of scientific research. What amples of where science could make a valuable is needed is a so-called ‘tool box of techniques’ contribution to our work. that can help make the research available and One example where science could really accessible to a wide range of users. make a difference is in our working group Hu- man Rights and Sustainable Development. One How do we link science and society in of the issues this group is working on is the our organisation? subject of Environmental Justice. Environmen- tal Justice deals with the issue that it is often So far, ANPED has not systematically linked the poor and marginalized groups that suffer science and society within our organisation. disproportionally from a bad and unhealthy However the ANPED network consists of a wide environment. variety of organisations, including science based In order to make a strong case we would organisations. ANPED sees this conference as need scientific case studies from different good start in pursuing a more systematic ap- countries that would clearly show the link be- proach in linking science and society. We would tween poverty and the exposure to a bad and like to explore where our network and the Sci- unhealthy environment. Science would then ence Shops could find areas to work together in provide us with a solid backing that we can use a way that would benefit both. to convince decision makers at all relevant levels Furthermore, ANPED is always looking on to develop proper policies. how it can strengthen and widen its network, Another example where a network such as especially in Southern Europe as in our mem- ANPED would benefit greatly from science is its bership base this area is not well represented. work related to the United Nations Commission

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on Sustainable Development. This is a functional ies on the state of affairs. Only if policymakers commission of the UN, that was set up in 1992 are aware of the real local situation in terms of to monitor and report on the implementation Sustainable Development, they will be able to of the Earth summit agreements at the local, decide on the right measures to take. regional, national and international level. We are currently in the first cycle, the review At the 11th session of the CSD, that took place session was held in April 2004 and in April in 2003, it was decided that The Commission will 2005 the policy session will take place. The now function on the basis of two-year “Imple- agenda for the following CSD’s has been set mentation Cycles”, including Review and Policy until 2017. This gives us the opportunity to work Years. The Review Year will evaluate progress with a longer term perspective, as we know for made in implementing sustainable development the up coming 12 years with what kind of stud- goals and identifying obstacles and constraints, ies science could help the NGO community. while the Policy Year will decide on measures to I think I quite used up the time that was speed up implementation and mobilize action to given to me, so I would like to take this oppor- overcome these obstacles and constraints. tunity to thank you all for your attention. I am Especially during the review year of each looking for a fruitful 2 days in which we will find cycle, policymakers would need local case stud- ways to effectively work together!

Table 1: United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development: Cylcles and Clusters

CYCLE THEMATIC CLUSTER

2004/05 Water, sanitation, human settlements

2006/07 Energy for Sustainable Development, industrial development, air pollution, climate change

2008/09 Agriculture, rural development, land, drought, desertification, Africa

2010/11 Transport, chemicals, waste management, mining, 10 year framework of programmes on SPAC patterns

2012/13 Forests, biodiversity, biotechnology, tourism, mountains

2014/15 Oceans/ seas, marine resources, small island developing states, disaster management and vulnerability

2016/17 Overall appraisal of implementation of Agenda 21 and the programme of further implementation

Cross-cutting issues during each cycle are as follows: Poverty eradication, Changing unsustainable patterns of consumption and production, Protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social development, Sustainable de- velopment in a globalizing world, Health and sustainable development, Sustainable development of SIDS, Sustainable development for Africa, Other regional initiatives, Means of implementation, Institutional framework for sustainable development, Gender equality, and Education.

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Impactos de los Apoyos Gubermentales en Poblaciones Rurales de México ALBA GONZÁLEZ JÁCOME

Universidad Iberoamericana A.C.

Objetivo Resultados

Presentar a discusión los resultados de varios Varían de una a otra localidad estudiada; la gama estudios de caso realizados en: Ocotal Chico incluye cambios en la relación de la población en Veracruz, Cruz de Piedra y Raíces en el Es- con su ambiente inmediato, transformación de tado de México y Tucta, Tabasco, donde varios la agricultura tradicional en convencional, o en programas gubernamentales han sido aplicados la disminución de la diversidad agroecológica, en los últimos años. Los resultados e impactos cambios en la dieta, cambios en la organización en las poblaciones locales han sido diferentes e de la familia (de extensa a nuclear), incremento incluyen los siguientes: la relación de las pobla- de la migración estacional e internacional, pé- ciones con su ambiente, la agricultura tradicio- rdida del conocimiento local en el manejo de nal, las formas de organización de la familia, el la biodiversidad y la diversidad cultural, cambios mercado, la movilidad horizontal, la cultura local en la producción para el mercado y para el au- y sus relaciones regionales y nacionales. toabasto y ajuste a las nuevas relaciones con las autoridades municipales, estatales y federales. Metodología Estos resultados nos permitirán hacer propues- tas que permitan un mejor uso de los apoyos Los estudios fueron realizados dentro de la línea que los programas Oportunidades y Procampo de investigación Ambiente y sociedades rurales, aplican a las poblaciones rurales del país. auspiciada por el Posgrado en Antropología Social de la Universidad Iberoamericana. Se aplicó un modelo de ecología cultural basado en la investigación in situ apoyada con meto- dología antropológica (etnografía), el manejo de cartografía y aerofotografía, la obtención de genealogías e historias de vida, la investigación en archivos locales y nacionales y metodologías agroecológicas para entender las cuestiones relacionadas con la agricultura y el manejo del ambiente por las poblaciones humanas.

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Lessons learned from the Application of Community Based Research in Adressing Migration and Settlement Issues: A North American Perspective KHAN RAHI

Community-Based Researcher & Management Consultant, NGO Affiliation: Loka-Community Research Network (CRN) USA

want of first thank International Science Shop participation to effect public policy and social INetwork and the conference organizers for change. CBR in the United States and Canada is inviting me to be a part of the Second Living a complex subject that crosses many professio- Knowledge conference here in Seville. It is great nal, institutional and national boundaries. to join everyone and have the opportunity to share with you some thoughts on the critical The Tradition of Citizens‘ Participation: topic of CBR in the US and Canada. My presentation is about the status of com- Globally we are certainly facing very challenging munity-based research in the United States and times, as people all over the world deal with Canada. The focus of my talk is to capture the Tsunamis both visible and unreported. Against lessons drawn from the organizational experi- the backdrop of social and environmental ence of the Loka Institute and its Community upheaval, communities everywhere are in Research Network (CRN), based in the United search of methods, reminiscent of the 70ies States. This will be followed by an overview of when Science Shops, community control of the status of CBR in the Canadian context. But learning institutions and other citizens‘ sphere of before I begin my remarks, I should note that control emerged to give the people back what the views I express are mine alone, and not tho- rightfully belonged to them: their own space. se of the Loka Institute and other organizations Based on the interpretation of the pioneering that will be mentioned here. The analysis and work of Alexis De Tocqueville, John McKnight observations made here are based on my role (2002) has appropriately referred to the three as the CRN Coordinator and later as the Execu- powers of ordinary and self-appointed citizens: tive Director of the Loka Institute. the power to decide that there is a problem, the The Loka Institute has been the primary power to decide how to solve the problem, and advocate and has played a critical role in pro- to have the power to solve the problem. moting and framing community-based research In this larger global and philosophical con- (CBR) issues within the United States, providing text, the practice of citizens participation in the a forum for dialogue and resources for citizens‘ United States and Canada seem to reflect some

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of the ideals articulated and developed by John knowledge transfer to enable ordinary citizens to McKnight and Meredith Minkler in the US non- take action and engage in a mutual exchange ai- profit sector, the Canadian scientist and activist med at addressing society‘s challenges. In order Ursula Franklin and Budd Hall who have inspired to meet this challenge, however, we must leve- and pioneered much of the community-based rage available technical and financial resources, participatory research practices in Canada and and work to build the capacity of citizens and Terry Robson, in the Northern Ireland context. community organizations to provide an effective These writers, activists and practitioners have vehicle to solve problems that we are facing. In challenged us in our practice to be reflective of this context CBR has become an effective tool the rich North American tradition of voluntary ci- and has a strong track record in making citizens‘ tizens‘ participation, innovative in our approach interventions for social change possible. Pro- in conducting research, authentic in listeners to moting the CBR models into the „mainstream“ what the people to tell us how we would work of scientific and technological decision-making with them, apply transparency in our approach processes is essential to provide the opportunity and critically question funders‘ intentions when for participation to enhance the quality of life our autonomy and independence is compro- and to contribute to the development of a more mised by their financial contributions. What sustainable environment for all. learning has taken place and what lesson have In the US context, community-based research been drawn from our experience in the US and (CBR) emphasizes the incorporation of ordinary Canada have known no intellectual borders and citizens in finding solutions to the impact of are all profoundly imbedded within the specific scientific and technological decision-making citizens associations and community empower- processes. It is a collaborative and participatory ment framework applied in community based process that involves a partnership between research. citizens, including socially and economically Technological and scientific decisions have marginalized community members, grassroots increasingly become relevant to community activists and university researchers or professi- issues and it has become imperative for ordina- onal scientists aimed at finding critical solutions ry citizens and activists to participate and take to a wide range of social, environmental and action on the social impact of these decisions. economic problems. Community-based organizations and the ordina- Loka was founded in 1987 by a group of ry citizens have increasingly challenged univer- activists, community-minded academics and a sities and governments in the U.S. and Canada wide range of people who were active for years to direct their research and public educational in different areas of social and environmental resources to address „real-life“ issues in their justice projects and publications, such as the communities. Access to scientific and technical San Francisco-based Science for the People, knowledge and information is crucial in order to the Radical America, the Insurgent Sociologist, transform our communities. There is a growing etc. Richard Seclove, who finished his academic recognition that knowledge resources should no work in Massachusetts, is the founder and first longer be held solely in universities, research director of the Institute who put many of the and government institutions. This poses a new ideas together in a creative manner and stayed mode of collaborative problem solving and with it long enough to ensure it would work as

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initially conceived. Soon other researchers and in response to concerns experienced by civil community activists joined in to share the load society, created the impetus and the practical and move Loka and the CBR agenda forward. framework to take action in our communities The Loka institute and indeed the very on a wide range of issues. The magnitude of concept of creating a community-based net- the Science Shops‘ influence is multiplied when work within the US, and whatever similar or adding the volumes of issues and community equivalent initiatives that have been developed assets that were identified by many commu- in the Canadian context, have collectively and nities cross the US and Canada. It‘s in fact a individually been in response to the challenges remarkable achievement in and of itself. put forward by the Science Shops and the Da- nish models in Europe. These models put the The Role Played by Loka and Commu- average citizen in the position to make public nity-Based Research Network (CRN) policy recommendations on highly complex sci- in CBR: entific and technological issues. This approach to participation has demonstrated that when A particular source of inspiration and growth citizens are given the necessary tools, they for Loka has been through the work of the can make appropriate judgments and reach Science Shops in Europe, including the Dutch a consensus about complex issues with clear Science Shops and the Danish „citizen panel“ or guidlines for action. „consensus conferences“. In 1995, the Science The idea of bringing citizen input into scienti- Shops were particularly helpful in providing Loka fic and technological decision-making processes with the inspiration and essential support to cre- is shaped by different methods in different parts ate Community-Based Research Network (CRN) of the world. Gradually the concept has been as a grassroots and accessible resource network wrapped around a movement towards bringing for organizations and communities involved in citizen participation and input into the research participatory, community-based research. The process within communities. The Dutch have Network linked together academic researchers, modeled this process through the development grassroots activists, public and private funders, of „Science Shops“ within universities that and government officials through annual confe- provide research assistance to grassroots orga- rences, a listserv, a web-based database, work- nizations, local government, worker groups and shops, and trainings. This initiative put Loka in other public-interest organizations at little or no a unique position, providing it with an effective cost. Outside Europe the Dutch Science Shops and cost-efficient organization tool to help you and the Danish „consensus conference“ models tap into the wealth of expertise and knowledge have been developed in various forms in other across the US and also internationally through countries, including the United States, Australia, the Science Shops. This unique blend created South Korea, Japan, Turkey and Israel. more opportunities to promote the application These methods initially began to encourage of CBR methods for citizens‘ actions and also citizen input in scientific and technological deci- organizational challenges to conduct business sion-making processes. as a situation of organization within organization The Science Shops, which began to provide developed as well. independent participatory research support

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CRN has responded to most of the CBR The most immediate task at hand was to challenges and developed a number of unique review what the CRN was doing on the ground initiatives, including: and what were Loka‘s intentions as the trustee 1) holding an Annual Community-Based Net- and sponsoring agency. It seemed awkward and work Conference across the US and not in inappropriate for Loka to carry out a national one region of the country; mandate without much direct contact with the 2) 2)developing an outreach strategy connec- rest of the country. It seemed logical to move ting with the hard to reach marginalized the Annual Conference from Massachusetts communities, rural areas and special com- and hold it in another region of the country. The munity interest groups; first test of this strategy was to hold the CRN 3) initiating the regionalization of CRN efforts, conference in collaboration with the community initiating a series of regional chapters across groups affiliated with the university of Texas in the US; Austin. The conference was organized in colla- 4) conducting research and providing technical boration with local groups who were active in assistance to link up more directly with the citizens‘ actions on a number of community with the community-based organizations and issues, including the application of CBR on the service provides engaged in CBR activities; questions of social inclusion, environmental 5) building partnerships with organizations with justice, poverty, digital divide and particularly similar goals; 6) consolidating the CRN inter- engaging organizations from the minority national linkages. communities. A number of community-based organizations and faith centres associated with We have drawn several lessons from our the Mexican American community and activists experience in promoting CBR organizationally in South Texas were involved and contributed at Loka and CRN. It‘s essential to point out that immensely. the application of the concepts and the lessons The subsequent conference within this for- learned from our experience is culturally distinct, mat was held in Chicago in collaboration with regionally specific and linked to a tradition of the Center for Urban Research and Learning community-based advocacy distinctly associa- (CURL), Loyola University. CURL provided us ted with Loka and its supporters. In this experi- with an enormous amount of logical and organi- ence, Loka has a story to be told which involves zational support. CRN match CURL‘s input with the articulation of the social and environmental the engagement of a number of organizations impact of scientific and technological decision- and individuals from the African American, anti- making process without civic engagement and poverty, artists, public libraries, video makers involvement of ordinary citizens. and street organizers. My involvement at the Loka Institute happe- The themes and organizational structures ned to coincide at the time in which Loka and- of these two conferences reflected the local the Community Research Network (CRN) were issues and made sure to have a balance of both at a critical conjunction and engaged in a local and outside involvement to make the dialogue to identify strategic pathways for their conference both a local event but nationally respective mandates. and internationally relevant to CBR practitioners and supporters.

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One other significant feature of Loka/CRN ty action, resulting in a successful $114 million was a concerted effort to reflect the racial, cul- settlement with 200 corporate polluters, and tural and linguistic diversity in all activities. In the construction of a facility to remove the remai- two conferences just mentioned, we specifically ning wastes that has a net present value of targeted African American and South East Asian $600 million and will be in operation for the communities to increase their participation in next 300 years. our planned activities and to enlarge the scope The need to conduct research and to provide of discussion on the question of social inclusion technical assistance challenged Loka/CRN to act and other issues affecting marginalized com- strategically to engage in research activity direct- munities within the US. We made a concerted ly. This meant that Loka/CRN should seek for effort to address these concerns and include opportunity, find financial resources to conduct provision in the planning and implementation research and also provide technical assistance of all sponsored activities including the an- to community-based organizations on request. nual conferences and regional chapters to be The dissemination of research outcomes th- more inclusive and also to make sure specific rough publications encouraged another set community interest groups such as the any of partnerships to launch joint readerships to oppression groups, urban farming communities reach a much wider audience. We undertook and anti-poverty alliances are represented and a research and facilitation project to engage in add their voices. providing technical assistance to a large num- Associated with this was the notion of regi- ber of community-based agencies engaged onalization which involved organizing regional in a Local Learning Partnership. We worked in CBR chapters in the Northeastern and West collaboration with a wide range of community Coast States. We brought together a number of organizations, coalitions of data users, providers organizations, researchers and activists to brain and research analysts to using data-driven storm stratgegies to take action on local and re- agenda strategically for improving family and gional issues. These regional forums helped us neighbourhood conditions, in three cities of understand regional issues and connect better Boston, MA, Hartford, CT and Providence, RI. with organizations operating in these areas. The in the Northeastern States. The initiative gave regional chapters opened up opportunities for Loka/CRN the opportunity to work closely with collaboration and helped us promote CRN as community organizations with solid track record a method for citizens‘ engagement on scientific in CBR research including the Duddley Street and technological decisions affecting the quality Neighbourhood Initiative in Boston. of life locally and regionally. Again these initiative In addition to reaching out to work collabo- gave Loka/CRN the opportunity to link up direct- ratively on a number of outstanding social and ly with community-based organizations on the environmental issues, Loka/CRN initiated part- ground who have achieved remarkable success nerships to work on specific projects to promote in fighting different issues. Two examples from CBR and engage citizens in community action. the West coast come to mind: The Center for For example, we worked closely with the Center Community Action and Environmental Justice for Popular Education & Research, University of and the Stringfellow Acid Pits. The later group‘s California, Berkeley, to engage in having joint action against toxic dump galvanized communi- conferences on specific participatory research

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questions. Similarly, at the international level, organizational development challenges as they ongoing consultation and collaboration continu- become increasingly financially dependent or ed with the Science Shops Network in Europe. remain on a project-funding treadmill for a long A number of colleagues from the Science Shops period of time. have attended the CRN conference and have Loka and the CRN have played a functional shared their work and strategic insight on how to role, reflected on these premises and practiced improve our work. We are specifically thankful to a loosely defined notion of community-based colleagues from the Dutch and Danish Science research with a focus on the democratization Shops for their collaboration and information of science and technology to create the public sharing efforts. space for the science and technological decisi- In all our efforts, a particular issue that has ons. The CRN as a network promoted the out- create a common ground is funding as an come of solved problems on the one hand and ongoing challenge for most of the small, not- kept everyone to stay connected on the other. for-profit organizations whose mandate is public The CRN as a network forged links with many policy advocacy and/or support for the everyday problem identification and problem solving initi- struggles of local communities who are com- atives across many disciplines, single issues and mitted to create positive change. The biggest local, national and international contexts. challenges are faced by community-based or- Like any „good“ medicine applied to social, ganizations engaging in scientific research and environmental and heath problems, the ex- technological development, for several reasons. perience at Loka/CRN has been uneven with First, the research system is predicated on a demonstrated some side effects. There is no separation of experts and ordinary people. The doubt that over the year the CRN promoted and idea that the latter have a positive contribution popularized CBR in many corners and facilitated to make to research is therefore close to a ta- interaction across disciplines and contributed in boo within the established scientific community. creating a common language for the CBR. Second, scientific research and development are expensive undertakings with uncertain Lessons Learned: outcomes. Who gets funding falls between the big prestigious institutions (universities, corpo- The side effects: rate Research and Development labs, etc.) and 1) in going into the actual communities to do community groups, which seeks to address our research and provide technical assis- larger issues and immediate needs for shelter, tance and resources, we were very good food, youth services and the like. This combi- at facilitating and identifying the problems. nation of cost and risk causes funders to place What we learned, however, that it is essential primary emphasis on the prestige of those doing to identify the community assets and to give the research, while ignoring considerations of a the communities the tools they needed to diversity of voices in the research system and do what they had to do and provide capacity the effective outcomes that this diversity can building resources In our experience, we rea- yield. This vulnerability and constant search lized that much of the community assets are for core funding potentially jeopardizes the in- not recognized and communities, especially dependence of these organizations and create the African-American and Latino communi-

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ties are subjected to degradation and con- of the local of needs became an immediate stantly played against their weaknesses and source of tension and a challenge to deal problems not their strengths; with. In these situations, it was essential to 2) Open mindedness pays. We learned much learn to listen and working collaboratively from the communities which were very help us moving the CBR agenda forward; strong and successful in their level of civic 4) Partnerships, the Loka/CRN initiated and and local participation, demonstrating more responded to many calls to become a firm control over the research outcomes. partner in various CBR initiatives with other These communities were clearly linked Ngos on single and collective issues. The their community research involvement as toughest challenge for us was to gain the an investment in enhancing their daily lives. trust of others, establish a working relation- In these instances, CRB as a tool has been ship and develop a mechanism for sharing most effective. These categories of commu- the outcome of what we jointly set out to nity involvement provided us with the much do. In partnerships we were overwhelmed needed practical results from working toge- with the enormity of the tasks ahead of us: ther and their involvement and gave us the huge socio-economic dislocations and the opportunity to produce and grow together as disperse nature of most organizations and a community. This situation was particularly neighbourhood groups, poorly resourced to evident in out work with the Duddley Street deal with, required multiple CBR methods to Neighbourhood Initiative in Boston and va- help with data collection, reflect the influx of rious environmental justice networks across the migration and to help establish common the US; grounds for a variety of communities and 3) Plan outreach strategies and regionalization inner city groups to work together. priorities ahead of scheduled CBR activities. In our experience, we learned and gained We learned much from recognizing our own enormously from moving the Annual CRN limitations and from the discovery of the com- Conferences and from the development of munity assets in all these communities. Further Regional Chapters. This strategy provided us we learned that fostering trust and commit- access to resources within the African and ment made partnerships work and helped us Mexican American communities in Chicago incorporate them into enduring features of CBR and in Austin, Texas and linked us with a host practice; of other minority communities and inner-city communities and activists in a number of 5) Our experience suggest to us to conclude cities once we moved CRN from its birth that CBR will be successful in one field or set place in Massachusetts. In working with of issues and region. Tempting as this con- these communities we learned that in order clusion might be, however, we could say for for the Loka/CRN to remain relevant and certain that the specificity of a CBR practice connected, it was necessary to incorporate and outcomes might not work in another and do our advocacy work with the local and area with similar features. We have learned regional agenda in mind. The national and that CBR approach should be supported in international concerns and the imperative its independent sphere of influence.

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Organizational challenges From our experience, we can say that alt- There are some organizational issues that are hough the work of Loka/CRN has influenced specific to Loka/CRN but they might be useful the process of redefinition of research, the for others if similar circumstances prevail: CBR environment is full of disparities and lacks a) it helps to map out and understand the uniformity. We are also saying that there are CBR environment before plunging into any a variety of CBR „colonies“ emerging, remain initiative inviting public participation. Without isolated from one another and each one with a adequate funding, the outcome of CBR different definition of CBR and indeed the noti- initiative could negatively affect long-term on of community itself. This diversity in the US civic participation. In our case, in the US and and Canadian context is the CBR‘s strength. Our Canada the politics of funding has divided challenge has been, and still is, to find a way to the sector into two camps: the small and articulate the specificity of our experience to en- grassroots NGOs vs big research and deve- hance and promote CBR practices elsewhere. lopment agencies and universities; The success of Loka/CRN can be summa- b) avoid dilemma due to the co-existence of rized in diminishing the significance of the organization within an organization which tradition of what Meredith Minkler (2003) calls is essentially a structural arrangement con- the „outside expert“ approach to research. By in- sisted of a supportive system and mutual creasing community demands for authentic and vulnerabilities; collaborative approach in research, we would be c) map out the structural challenges in order to better placed to identify local priorities and re- balance out local and regional priorities and search questions that matter to our daily lives. national imperatives and global concerns; d) identify and develop mutually agreed guide- The Canadian Context lines and shared values, apply a transparent framework to build trust, learn to work to- An Overview of CBR Issues and Challenges gether and to strengthen networking as a In the Canadian context, CBR practices have strategy to produce, grow and regenerate. taken a variety of approaches, including initiati- ves by individual research institutions, most of Conclusion: which has been directly or indirectly initiated by the government through a parliamentary decisi- We can say that Loka/CRN has contributed on-making system. significantly to a thriving and expanding CBR The Science Shops momentum in Canada culture, demonstrating commitment to citizens‘ has happened differently which consists of participation and to dissemination of socially a conglomeration of various institutions and relevant research outcomes. This has further dispersed communities. Unlike in the US, contributed to the divide between community- in Canada we cannot associate names of a based research applied by community and mar- single individual with any nationally significant ginalized groups and the large and prestigious CBR structural initiative. Canada is a country research and development and academic insti- of regions and linguistic divide. In addition, the tutions in the US. parliamentary political system provides Canadi- ans different mechanisms for participation and

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for taking structural action. In regards to CBR, Other CBR practices and structures in there are some notable examples which con- Canada are initiated by individual universities duct participatory research and resemble CBR and other research institutes. The University of functions in the European Science Shops mode. Victoria in British Columbia has recently made The most prominent and prestigious initiative is institutional commitment to undertake taken Community University Alliance (CURA) which is community-based research initiatives within a initiated by the Social Science and Humanities multidisciplinary framework. Budd Hall, who Research Council (SSHRC) an arms-length go- has pinioered a number landmark communi- vernment agency. CURA projects are university- ty-based participatory research initiatives and based, peer-reviewed research initiatives within Kelly Bannister a locally known community and a partnership framework between community academic activist are leading the initiative at this and universities. university. The CURA program began as a pilot project In the rural setting, the Trent Centre for in 1999 with an operating budget of $8 million Community-Based Education in Peterborough, with the intent to producing significant multidis- Ontario has indeed made a number of signifi- ciplinary research outcomes, new knowledge, cant contributions in promoting and sustaining knowledge transfer, and capacity building. The CBR within a smaller urban centre with issues program further intended to opening doors for affecting rural life in Ontario. new research approaches, providing benefits to These are small but significant initiatives with academia through community partnerships. The potential to grow and expand their own CBR community partners stress the positive impact practices and will eventually become an impor- university-based researchers could have on lo- tant source of inspiration for other centres and cal community issues. These are one university community groups. only applications with $200,000 grants per year stretched over 3 years. Another partnership initiative with parti- cipatory research features is the Canadian Metropolis Project which began in 1997. The project consists of six (6) centres of excellence structured as a consortiums of the non-govern- mental organizations (NGOs), universities and policy-makers. The Metropolis Project is a set of coordinated research activities carried out participating agencies that share perspectives on immigration policy by means of applied academic research. Its main goal is to improve policies related to migration and ethno-racial diversity by incorporating scientific findings from a multidisciplinary perspective. The centres are funded over a six year period. All operations are university-based.

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Plenary Session

OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS

In this session some options for the improvement of science and society relations are described. It gives an overview from the perspectives of NGO’s, the EC, universities, researchers and Science Shops.

44 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 45 PLENARY SESSION

46 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 47 PLENARY SESSION

Science & Society in the EU 7th Framework Programme (FP7) for Research and technological Development MONICA MENAPACE

Project Coordinator. Unit Education and Science, Dir. Science and Society, Directorate General for Research, European Commission, Brussels, Belgium

he European Commission is currently pre- development of future European Union programs Tparing a proposal for the 7th Framework to support research activities and policies. They Programme. The legislative proposal is expected imply a significant expansion of the European to be presented to the Council and Parliament Community research budget for the period 2007- in the course of 2005. The objectives of this 2013. Six major objectives are identified: program – all referring to the Lisbon and Barce- – Creating European centres of excellence lona objectives - are to establish a critical mass through collaboration between laboratories of resources in key areas, to strengthen excel- – Launching European technological initiatives lence through competition and transnational or technology platforms to create a frame- co-operation, to improve co-ordination of na- work where enterprises, universities and tional activities and to increase human resourc- financial world authorities work together. es. The content of this proposal is based on: Also to define a common research agenda – The Commission communication “Science and define legal and regulatory conditions to and Technology, the key to Europe’s future carry it out. - Guidelines for future European Union policy – Stimulating the creativity of basic research to Support research” (COM(353)2004) through competition between teams at – the result of a wider consultation an the European level as a support mechanism and previous communication not as an obligation for transnational co-op- – a thorough assessment of evidence and eration or predefined thematic constraints. impacts Selection will be based on scientific excel- – a still ongoing exercise to identify specific lence and an evaluation by peer review. research themes which also includes a gen- – Making Europe more attractive to the best eral consultation (closed on 31 December researchers 2004). The Commission is currently process- – Developing research infrastructure of Euro- ing the contributions received. pean interest with mechanisms such as trans European networks. Also to support essential In the mentioned communication the Europe- services for Europe such as telecommunica- an Commission has proposed orientation for the tions.

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– Improving the coordination of national re- snational collaborative research (over 90% of search programs responses). These actions are established ones with proven European value added. However, In addition, two new areas for European-level there is also widespread support for the new research activities are presented: space and objectives to launch European Technology Initia- security. tives (86% of responses) and to stimulate the creativity of basic research (81 % of responses). In its plans, the Commission proposes using the Concerning the development of infrastructures most efficient means of implementation, includ- of European interest and the coordination of na- ing management through partnership with the tional programmes, the Support was high (86% Member States and research actors, and “exter- and 85% of responses respectively). nalised” management. Concerning other aspects for future European support to research, there is a particularly high Online Consultation importance attached to improving science and society relations (detailed below); to supporting The online consultation “Science and Technol- innovation (88% of responses) to support to ogy, the key to Europe’s future - Guidelines for research by and for SMEs (88% of responses); future European Union policy to support re- and the importance of focusing EU efforts an search” was open to all interested organisations topics of major European interest (88% of and individuals between 30 July and 15 October responses). 2004. Over 1700 organisations and individuals As concerning Science and society aspects, from across Europe and other countries, and although it was not a specific part of the Guide- including universities, large companies, SMEs, lines, participants in the consultation were asked associations and government bodies respond- to rate the importance of taking into account ed to the consultation. Major findings from the interactions between science and society in analysis of the responses are the following: the design of future European research pro- There is very strong support (over 97% a of grammes and initiatives. Participants attached a responses) for the need to strengthen support very high level of importance to this aspect and for research at the European level. Furthermore, commented an the need to achieve better con- there is strong agreement that this would have nections between science and society at large. an important impact an Europe’s research ca- Many comments highlight the need to focus an pacities and capabilities (over 95% of respons- young people and science education. Several es) and that this would contribute significantly responses underline the importance of ethical to Europe’s competitiveness, social welfare and aspects of research and the need for genuine sustainability (over 92% of responses). debate. A small minority of respondents express There is also strong support for the 6 major a degree of scepticism or caution. Some stress objectives (over 80% of responses for all ob- that `societal’ considerations should not take jectives) set out in the Commission Commu- precedence over scientific criteria. A few warn nication. Support is particularly strong to make that such considerations tend to increase the Europe more attractive to the best researchers amount of paperwork involved for programme (over 95% of responses) and supporting tran- participants.

48 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 49 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PLENARY SESSION

Science and Society in the 6th Frame- Potential Science and Society aspects work Programme in the 7th Framework Programme

In December 2001 the Science and Society Ac- The Commission is actually preparing a propos- tion Plan was agreed by the Commission. The al. The science and society directorate which is Plan sets out a common strategy to create a also managing the current science and society better connection between science and Europe- activities, has produced some discussion papers. an citizens, alongside 38 specific actions cover- Please remember that the following is based on ing all the themes mentioned below. The effort internal working papers and does not represent will be supported in part through the EC’s Sixth the official view of the Commission. Framework Programme. FP6 includes “science and society” activities, both as a specific “sci- The general aim is to continue science and so- ence” and society” programme and as a general ciety activities as in FP6, integrated and adapted theme integrated in the seven research priorities to new needs. Possible fields are: of the “Integrating the European Research Area” programme. The work focuses on the following – “Trust in research” (governance): This in- main themes: cludes to promote the debate on science-re- lated issues, respond to public concerns and - Governance and scientific advice: promoting encourage mutual understanding between the effective use of scientific advice, and en- different viewpoints as well as developing couraging interaction between experts, civil procedures for an inclusive debate involv- society groups, citizens and policy-makers. ing scientists, policy makers, industry and - Ethics: helping researchers confront impor- civil society groups. Other objectives might tant ethical issues that arise in the course of be the fostering and supporting of local scientific research initiatives networking (e.g. Science Shops) - Scientific awareness: helping to stimulate and the improvement of the way scientific an interest in science, demonstrating its knowledge feeds into policy making by de- relevance by improving communication and fining policy relevant research themes and dialogue with the public. timely and transparent access to expertise. - Science and education: sparking the interest – Strengthening the scientific workforce (young of young people in science, encouraging people, careers in science, gender equality) a dialogue with universities to promote a through science education in primary and Knowledge Based Society secondary schools by curriculum develop- - Women and science: encouraging and sup- ment, support of science teachers, links porting gender equality in science. with tertiary education, contest for young scientists and participation of disadvantaged More information: http://europa.eu.int/comm/ or underrepresented groups. research/science-society – Communicating science through European Science Events and European Science News Services.

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Activities may take the form of out these research activities. Science shops are – Networks a possible answer for this problem. How can the – Optimizing national efforts (open method of EU help? One idea is to transpose the CRAFT co-ordination) instrument for SMEs to a CRAFT for civil society – High profile events (prizes, science weeks, organisations. CRAFT for SME takes into account conferences) the specific difficulties of SMEs in carrying out – Specific research research. Several SMEs with similar problems – Studies, surveys and data collection join and choose a « research performer » (fully paid) to carry out the research for them, guar- One of the related activities will be the anteeing that the SMEs become the owner of “Forum of university based research”, with 18 the results. Civil society organisations could do high level experts in a follow-up discussion on the same and Science Shops could become the “The role of the Universities in the Europe of appropriate science performers. It is of interest Knowledge” and the workshop “The Europe of that civil society organisations could become Knowledge 2020: a vision for University-based the initiators of the research which designed on Research and Innovation (April 2004), aiming at their needs and not only join big projects man- helping the Commission to define an EU policy aged by others. framework and formulate recommendations for concrete actions. The report is expected for May 2005 with some input for FP7 and an action plan on university-based research. There will also be a follow-up of the Science Shop work- shop “Thinking the future and twinning old/new shops” which was held in November 2004 which had 40 participants from Science Shops (mix on experienced « old » ones and new initia- tives), NGOs and universities’ associations.

It will be discussed that FP7 could explicitly envisages specific « community based research projects ». The situation today is that of course civil society organisation are free to submit and participate to all kind of projects in FP6 but an instrument is missing that takes into account the civil society specific needs. On the one hand many of the organisations (in particular at local level) have an increasing need for inde- pendent scientific support for effectively being able to carry out their activities and negotiate with stakeholders, on the other hand, they have limited availability of own resources for carrying

50 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 51 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PLENARY SESSION

From sitting on a Veranda to Valueing the Enrichment of Engagement: A View from the Field. ROGER O‘SULLIVAN

Director Rural Community Network, UK

Background ting of policy and establishment of programmes, My title comes from the famous approach of Universities focus on intellectually orientated traditional ethnography - where-by researchers research and teaching while community / non sat on the veranda and studied the locals from government organisations (ngo) concentrate afar. It would seem that we have come along on actions. way since then. But if we take the veranda as There are of course strengths and weakness an example of our place of safety, this paper with the present approach, for example, when makes the case that to avail of opportunities we addressing policy. While Government have an must move from each of our verandas as we understanding of the wide policy agenda, on define them and value the enrichment of true the other hand they are often disconnected engagement. from the issues on the ground. The high quality In order to advance the debate, this paper research and analysis which Universities produ- outlines the state of play between key players ce, sadly has a very limited focus/market. The and moves on to discuss how we can address community / ngo sector have real connected- the weakness of this situation by focusing on ness but with a narrow focus and are too often building on each sector‘s expertise. It considers reactive rather than pro-active. some of the challenges that face us but will Each sector has a different mantra in support focus on the opportunities and benefits of mo- of their position and approach to work: Govern- ving from our place of safety to a more enga- ment tend to declare „You need to understand ged and partnership approach in advancing the the wider EU policy framework within which we relationship between Science and Society. are working“, Academia often pronounces that „You need to read all the research literature to Traditional Position understand the complex nature of the issue“ and of course the community/ngo sector claim: When considering the way forward for Science „If you see and experience what we have, you and Society the words of the poet John Hewitt would be in a stronger position to act“. Each has come to mind: „you can only know where you elements of truth but they do not tell the whole want to be when you know where you come story or by themselves help to comprehensively from“, so let us explore the present stances. address deficits in policy, for example the com- Traditionally Government‘s function is in the set- plexity of rural poverty.

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Promoting Partnerships & Recognising Creating a climate of fairness can also recognise the Challenges diversity of skills and knowledge and the inter- dependence of each for success. It would be naive to claim that it is easy to es- tablish a partnerships model as a way forward, Ensuring Ownership some of the challenges that face us include: · Power relationships - usually based upon While grounding ourselves in pragmatism RCN income and number of staff. have found common to success is the stage at · Creditability - each sector will wish to remain which people are asked to participate. It is ne- credible within their primary target group, cessary to build a group sense of ownership and (the community/ ngo sector they will not recognise the appropriate level where partners want to be seen ‚palling up‘ to government). feel comfortable in participating. In an ideal si- · Social status - more linked to the academic tuation getting ‚buy in‘ (agreement) should take world - with peer assessment a large percen- place from the identification and most certainly tage of how one is perceived is often depen- at the design stage of a programme. Planning dent on the status of whom they work with the programme is an essential part of ensuring and where they publish. ownership. Of course it is important to recogni- · Taking risks - larger organisations are cau- se that in a partnership there may be different tious of doing anything different than what roles and responsibilities in line with the overall they and their colleagues already do.

Creating the Climate Citizen Control

For effective working partnerships to be establis- Delegated Power Citizen Power hed, rather than interaction taking place, it is ne- cessary to recognise the value of Partnerships. Partnership Relations must be built in formal and informal ways. Being invited to take part in a project or Placation programme is unlikely to promote the feeling of partnership in itself. Rural Community Network Tokenism (RCN) has learned that space and time must be Consultation created to allow for a cross fertilisation of ideas, understanding of institutional boundaries and Informing getting to know the people involved. Regarding the process of engagement it is Therapy Non participation important to stress that partnership is not about setting up a committee, group or forum which may be its manifestation, but it is a metho- Manipulation dology with an underlying philosophy. It is an opportunity to build on valuing the principles of diversity, interdependence and of course equity. Arnstein’s Ladder of Citizen Participation

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agreed terms of reference. From a community / Reflection ngo perspective we are very conscious of being asked to take part, often at the latter stages, rather The purpose of a partnership approach is to than being involved right from the planning pro- ensure effectiveness in addressing real needs cess. Therefore promoting mutual dependency that exist. But for partnerships to be successful rather than individual expertise and the sum of and to bridge the gaps of often mistrust or per- the resources together helps to build a feeling of ceptions that exist between the various sectors, group ownership and responsibility. By focusing there is a need for real engagement, not toke- on an agreed outcome different partners can see nism, and risk taking based on active partnership where their work and efforts fit within the overall development. Some practical reflections of this project. What Arnstein‘s Ladder of Participation has process include recognition that workloads often shown is that partnerships are a tool to ensure require adjustment: one area may increase with greater citizen control but as the diagram here others reducing. Time and space are needed for illustrates, there can often be a fine balance bet- a partnership mindset and methodology to deve- ween tokenism and citizen power. lop. Buy in from senior staff within each sector is essential. Being open to having your knowledge Benefits challenged is necessary as this will most certainly happen! Wanting to be part of a continually lear- It goes without saying that the primary purpose ning rather than a stagnant culture should be an for any partnership is to ensure that the issues underlying approach/attitude. For example part- are addressed/identified. There are a number ners may need to reflect on their attitudes and of beneficial spin-offs from this approach to behaviours to make the partnership work. Some- work. If a partnership is designed with an agreed times it is necessary to go slow to make progress outcome then it can be a ‚win/win‘ process with and by this I mean, things may take a long time at relationships built which can have a much longer the start to ensure that everyone is onboard. This life span and indeed help to foster creativity and could be viewed as time ill spent but it is far from innovation. From a community development per- wasted time. Focusing on outcomes rather than ceptive partnerships help create an opportunity outputs ensures the opportunity for agreement for networking and the sharing of information and purpose. As way of a conclusion here are and building social capital. The collective process some questions you may want to ask yourself which recognises interdependence leads to a and reflect upon: greater strength and a more integrated and holi- stic perspective taken with strengths built. Finally, o Where is your veranda / place of safety? partnerships can form part of the process of em- o What opportunities/risks are you willing to take powerment which can have not only individual to advance the partnership methodology? benefit but also wider community implications. o What support is needed? Empowering people is not just about saying o How would you rate your organisation‘s attitude that people in principle, have a right to a say in towards effective participative partnerships? how things and decisions are made - it is about o Do you recognise how working inter-secto- addressing power relationship and supporting rally can bring added value? people in a process of change.

52 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 53 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PLENARY SESSION

Bridging Gaps: Empowerment of the Community in Health Action Research SAEED ASEFZADEH

Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran

n order to develop a country‘s research capa- of the main stakeholders and determined the Icity effectively, we need to prioritize in terms health problems of the people and formulated of „how and who“ will be using the research them into more than 200 research topics. products. Without a concreted effort to focus According to these topics, the versatile health on the priority problems in health research ca- teams led by the academicians, are to launch pacity, people would be trained, organizations community based research projects. Now, the built and institutions strengthened with no clear lay persons as the member of the research end goal. Countries should look at were capaci- team lag before the experts and this condition ty is most required and enrich these areas first. leads to misunderstandings. What we could do (1,2) is to build the capacity to mobilize the resources through continuation of the coalition. In the past, health research in Iran has been characterized by low adherence to priority Bridging gaps research, and removal from the communities‘ real health needs. The situation could cause To bridge the cultural gap between the com- widening of the gap between the universities munity and the academicians (4), we organized and the people‘s needs. The necessity for em- some meetings and assessed the learning powerment During the past three years, in an needs of the community volunteers for action attempt to develop equity in health, the modern research. Setting the learning objectives, we approach of participatory health research priority prepared a specially designed practical guide setting in the Universities of Medical Sciences in book for their training and organized several Iran - that they are responsible both for medical workshops. education, research and delivery health care to More than 110 people who were NGO‘s defined the population - pushed them to revise members, housewives and female community their policies towards shortening the 10/90 health volunteers participated in the workshops gap by building partnership in health research to be empowered in critical thinking as well as activities. (3) participating in the community based research projects. After six months, the health volunteers Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, co- defined 14 health problems and conducted vering a population of about 1100,000 (64% interventions to solve them. Now, they are urban & 36% rural ), also revised and developed capable of problem finding and analyzing it, its health research policies towards socially ac- data collecting and processing, and examining countable goals through involving a broad range the interventions independently and collaborate

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with the researcher in progress of nine partici- References: pation health research projects. Some of them also motivate and train the other volunteers in 1. COHRED. (2000): The ENHR Hand book. action research. Our experience is to be genera- Document 2000.4 lized to other universities. 2. BOELEN, C. (2001): Towards Unity For Health. Case studies. Geneva: World Health Conclusion Organization. 3. ASEFZADEH, S. (2003): Building up Partner- The critical first stage in any participatory pro- ship: Setting Health Research Priorities. The cess is to lay the basis for the relationship bet- Network News Letter. TUFH, Dec. 2003: 7 ween the project workers and the community 4. RICHARDS, R. W. (1996): Building Partner- and the key issue is the notion of the fact that ship, Educating Health Professionals for the community participation is not merely an input Communities They Serve. Jossey - Bass to the project but the basis upon which it will Pubs. 1996:17-21 operate. Keeping this matter in mind, our expe- rience indicate that the community volunteers within the research team can facilitate: a) getting entrance to the selected community, b) getting to know the community and creating awareness of the project, c) gaining the trust of the community, d) operational management of the project, e) establishing the basis of community partici- pation to develop the project and f) mobilizing and pooling the resources.

At the end, our experience in Iran reveals that the empowerment of the community in actions research can develop the skills and abilities to enable people to facilitate and manage the process of the participatory research better and have a say to what is done. People can build partnership in the research that they as a part of the population are the real owners of the results, and they stride towards equity in health. On the other hand, by bridging cultural gaps the researchers‘ and academics‘ attitudes are reoriented towards responding the real health needs of their communities - it is a give-and- take process.

54 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 55 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PLENARY SESSION

Science Shops and Civic Sciences after ‘Lisbon‘ ROB HAGENDIJK

Political Science Department, International School for Humanities and Social Sciences, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Dutch Science Shops this and a committee was formed with mem- bers coming from environmental organizations, Science Shops came into existence in the 1970s unions, health groups to analyse the demand for in The Netherlands1. They were places where support received by the shop and to come up citizens and civic organizations could go to get with recommendations for research program- help with the technical and scientific aspects mes on key social and environmental problems. of problems they have. Support is provided The special fund just mentioned was supposed at a no-cost or low cost basis. In many cases to grow and encompass some 15% of the uni- questions was provided on the basis of available versity research budget after some years. expertise and -if needed- the shopkeepers tried Some such programs - f.e. on occupational to find researchers who could do or supervise health - were indeed started under the aegis of a small research project. Most of the work was this initiative. Yet, the University Councils were carried out by students voluntarily or as part already under attack in those days for giving to of their thesis work or traineeship. Shops had much power to students and personnel, making some young academics as professional staff to the universities difficult to handle as a party of provide for supervision and continuity. Essential budget cuts and managerial reform. Their role for the functioning of the shops has always been would be curtailed in the mid-1980s and in the the availability of socially motivated students 1990ies they would disappear altogether. In the who would act as volunteers or interns. 1980s major budget cuts were imposed on the In the 1970s and 1980s the Science Shops universities. In combination these two trends led were an important part of Dutch university to the marginalisation of Science Shops. A num- policies, often supported and protected by the University Councils that were elected from 1) On the history and current practice of Dutch Science Shops in English see Nicole Farkas, Bread, cheese, and expertise: the academic and administrative staff and the Dutch Science Shops and democratic institutions. (Troy NY: student body. These Councils decided about Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2002. PhD Thesis), Corinna overall university policy and were in charge of Fischer, Loet Leydesdorff, & Malte Schophaus, ‚Science Shops in Europe: The Public as Stakeholder‘, Science & the university budget in those days. At my own Public Policy, 31(3), 2004, 199-211. university the Science Shop was seen as an indi- 2) n those days most of the university research budget came cator of urgent needs that should be integrated directly from the state and was controlled by the university parliament. Only a small amount of the money for publicly in university research policies and funding in a funded research was distributed on a project or program more structural way. Funds2 were put aside for basis by national foundations.

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ber of them survived, but often with difficulty. In ment. They would perform their role alongside some places they are seen as a way to attract their role as ‚shops‘ were citizens could go to talented students interested in social issues to with their questions and concerns. By using the the science faculties. Some shops have become institutional networks among shops already in more commercial, like the Chemistry Science place, Science Shops could also contribute to Shop in Amsterdam. When I told a colleague at the transnationalization of public deliberations my university that I was going to a meeting of a so urgently needed. European network of Science Shops he looked The suggestion to expand the role of Science puzzled and asked: ‚eh…wasn‘t that something Shops to include activities to promote public de- from the seventies? Do these shops still exist?‘ liberation has been inspired in part by the STAGE While many Dutch academics hold Science project- a thematic research network funded by Shops to be a relic from the past, the reality is the EU- that has analysed the recent experiences slightly different. My colleague, although he is with public engagement initiatives in eight Euro- a politically progressive professor, did not know pean countries and across various domains5. that Science Shops have become an export pro- In what follows I will first discuss some recent duct for The Netherlands. And he did not know experiences with public engagement with sci- that Science Shops have become a part of EU ence. Secondly, I will relate these experiences to policies to open up academic science and to the economic and technological reform agenda strengthen the civic role of universities3. of the EU. Thirdly, I propose the concept of ‚civic The support from the EU for the Science Shops is science‘ to demarcate research and research most welcome. Especially in so far as its purpose related activities (like Science Shops) from re- is to orient academic research to pressing social search as a part of economic innovation policies. needs and to open up the science system up Promoting ‚civic science‘ as defined should be an to public problems and concerns of ordinary citi- important goal of EU policies and Science Shops zens. Yet, there are also reasons to be cautious. could be a useful instrument in such policies. In my view Science Shops can play a more prominent role in the opening up of the science Promoting public engagement with sci- system and in public engagement initiatives. ence, technology and innovation They could become an important nucleus of what one may call civic science, i.e. publicly The interest in public participation in science funded science that serves the needs4 of and technology has long roots in EU countries citizens and focuses primarily on citizens‘ con- but since the 1990ies there has been a distinct cerns. This requires, however, a strengthening shift towards more deliberate forms of engage- and expansion of their current role. Science ment6. In part this has happened in response to Shops could also act as (co-)organizers and moderators of public deliberations about new 4) John Keane, Global Civil Society? Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2003) technologies and their consequences, as cen- 5) See Rob Hagendijk, Peter Healey, Maja Horst and Alan Irwin, tres for informal participative technology assess- Science, Technology and Governance in Europe: Challenges of Public Engagement. STAGE Final Report, Oxford: James Martin Institute, University of Oxford. 2005. Final report and 3) http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/science-society/ case study reports from the STAGE project are available at scientific-awareness/shops_en.html http//:www.stage-research.net/

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an outburst of public unrest about food scandals many others, advised policy makers to engage (BSE, FMD etc) and import of GM food (soya). with the public in a more open manner and at EU opinion surveys from the late 1990ies sho- earlier stages (‚upstream‘ the flow of the inno- wed a very low level of public confidence in vation process9). governments and regulatory authorities among The opposition to biotech, data on public the general public if it comes to handling such distrust of governments and such evidence of issues. Agricultural biotechnology was seen as citizens‘ ability to engage in rational argument one of the fronts of global economic compe- about the effects of science on peoples‘ lives tition, yet it was heavily contested. To attribute convinced policy makers that more open forms the European opposition to genetically modified of engagement with the public were needed. food to public ignorance and their manipulati- As a result, new policy documents started to on, as US representatives use to do at the time, appear reflecting these new views on public was no option for European leaders. The public understanding at least partially and experiments opinion surveys suggested that people who had with wider and more open public engagement at least some understanding of genetic modifi- were launched10. In designing such public con- cation were even more sceptical about it then sultations, the well-known Danish consensus those who scored the lowest with respect to conferences became important examples to be knowledge and understanding7. Furthermore, a introduced in modified forms in other countries. whole range of ethnographic studies from the In various countries (f.e. The Netherlands and 1980s and 1990ies had shown that lay people the UK) nation-wide debates about GM food are very well able to assess the implications of and agricultural biotechnology were announced new technologies for their personal life even if and organized11. At the institutional level initia- their formal schooling and command of scien- tives were taken to reform the system of food tific knowledge was limited8. On the basis of safety regulation. Participation from representa- such research authors like Brian Wynne, Sheila tives from civic society was made a part of the Jasanoff, Robin Grove White, Alan Irwin and consultative mechanisms. The STAGE project has been part of attempts

6) Ibid. and CEC, Science, Society and the Citizen in Europe to assess these changes across eight European (Brussels: European Commission, countries. The project shows that there has 7) EC-DGXII, The Europeans and Modern Biotechnology. indeed been an infusion in European science Eurobarometer 46.1 (Brussels: EC-DGXII, 1997), 87. See also John Durant et al., ‚The Public Understanding policy with deliberative democracy. Yet, it also of Science‘, Nature, 340 (1989), 11-14; George Gaskell shows that the changes vary considerably across et al., ‚Biotechnology and the European Public‘, Nature domains and countries. Developments are con- Biotechnology, 18 (2000), 935-938. 8) See Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne Misunderstanding Science? tested and it is not always clear whether some The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology (Cam- of the no doubt well-intended initiatives do not bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); House of Lords, Select Committee on Science and Technology Science and Society. House of Lords, (available at www.publications.parl 9) James Wilsdon and Rebecca Willis, See-through Science: iament.uk); Robin Grove-White et al., Wising up: The Public why public engagement needs to move upstream, (London, and New Technologies (Lancaster: CSEC, 2000). Meinolf Demos, 2004). Dierkes and Claudia von Grote (eds.), Between Understand- 10) Op. cit. Ibid. note 5 ing and Trust: The Public, Science and Technology (Amster- 11) See the case study reports on http://www.stage- dam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000). research.net

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boil down to just another form of political mar- well-entrenched forms of policy-making in which keting. As the experience with the Dutch debate ordinary citizens hardly play a role. Various mixtu- about GM food shows, a focus on the views of res of types of governance can be found in the ‚ordinary citizens‘ may also serve other political European countries depending on the issues at goals12. The debate was organized in such a way stake and the specific political and cultural traditi- that citizens were asked about conditions under ons in that country. It is very important to analyse which they would find particular GM products and assess how various types of governance are admissible for the Netherlands or not. Principled combined in particular countries and cases and discussions whether biotechnology should be why this is so. To facilitate such an analysis we introduced in agriculture or not were ruled out have drawn up a typology that allows one to look as politically useless and practically irrelevant. in some details at how various formats are being NGOs criticizing this way of framing the debate combined in particular ways depending on nati- caused a public row. The organizers, angered onal political cultures and the issues at stake13. by the stubborn attempts by civic groups to This is helpful not only for analytic reasons, but challenge the terms of reference for the debate, also because it may encourage reflection how to leashed out in attempts to publicly sideline and promote critical and effective public engagement delegitimize civic groups and their tactics to with science in the future. Thirdly, we should be dominate civic debate. aware of the fragility of attempts to institutionalize The Dutch example may be a little extreme. In public engagement with science and technology, the GM Nation debate in the UK did not explode especially if it comers at moments and in forms in this way. UK scientists would claim that this de- that does not fit with agenda‘s of industrial and bate had been hijacked by critical NGOs that were political leaders. campaigning against GM food, but these groups Overlooking the experience from our case stu- themselves were sceptical about the extent to dies one sees similarities as well as divergences which the government would take the conclu- between countries and fields of science. Overall sions seriously. Both examples and our other there is a distinctive trend towards more public case studies suggest at least three conclusions: engagement, but it is also clear that the pendu- First, there is the importance to move beyond lum may shift again in the opposite direction. mere acclaim for public deliberation and to look critically at the ways in which public engagement The Lisbon strategy is organized and deployed. Secondly, widespread public deliberation about science and technology The interest among policy makers for public par- is still very much restricted to some highly visible ticipation cannot be adequately understood wit- cases and issues, like GM food. Partiality is a hout paying attention to the innovation agendas major characteristic of the move towards delibe- governments have developed in response to rative democracy. Our case studies show how de- globalization, radical technological change and liberative modes of engagement exist alongside 13) Rob Hagendijk and Egil Kallerud, Changing Conceptions and 12) Rob Hagendijk, Myrthe Egmond. (2004). The GM Food Practices of Governance in Science and Technology in Eu- Debate in The Netherlands, 1999-2002. Stage Report rope: A Framework for Analysis, Stage-discussion paper no 35. Amsterdam, Universiteit van Amsterdam. See http: 2. Amsterdam, Oslo. 2003. Available at http://www.stage- //www.stage-research.netl research.net/

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international trade and competition. In fields like for radical change. Passages about this need to IT and genomics national governments closely convince and enrol the public stress the need watch one another as they seek to improve to engage with the public. There is mention of the incentives to attract high tech industries public debates that should take place, but it is and to capitalise on investments in scientific hard to believe that these debates are supposed and technological research. In the face of rapid to leave much room for voices that are critical advances in the US innovation agenda, Euro- or sceptical with respect to the goals set by the pean leaders agreed on the Lisbon strategy in European governments. In the presentation of 2001. According to this strategy Europe should its agenda the Barroso Commission has made it become the most competitive knowledge eco- clear that ‚science for growth‘, ‚competiveness‘ nomy in the world by 2010. The Lisbon strategy and ‚employment‘ are the dominant elements15. encompasses major reforms of various sectors This fits very well with the shift towards stressing including the establishment of the so-called Eu- science-industry partnerships rather than radical ropean research area and the standardization of forms of public engagement. That the change is educational systems across Europe. Educating not restricted to the policy discourse at the high- the public about ICT and key technologies is est level of the EU is suggested by the franming an integral part along with creating new jobs of the debates about the up coming 7Th Frame- and fostering investment in new high tech work Programme of the EU - the program under companies. To realize the ambitious goals also which science and society activities are funded, requires a critical review of regulatory practices including Science Shop activities. In the starting including the removal of regulatory obstacles to document from June 2004 the whole issue of innovation. For the Lisbon strategy to succeed it public participation, which figured so prominent was considered essential that the public would in previous document is not mentioned at all. understand the urgency of the reforms and de- It seemd that concerns about ‚science-industry velopments that were envisaged. This resulted partnerships‘ had replaced those about demo- in the endorsement of public engagement as a cracy, public unrest and participation16. constitutive principle of innovation policy Obviously the relation between politico-econo- Recently and especially in 2004 the EU mic agendas and the agenda for public engage- leaders have become increasingly concerned ment varies over time and across locations. The and skeptical about the realisation of the Lisbon first may be articulated in response to changes agenda. The US‘ lead in the field of technologi- in the external international situation, while the cal innovation seems to grow, new economic gi- second reflects concerns over internal opposition ants like China and India are emerging as global to policies and lack of legitimacy. In combination, players in the field of technological innovation however, they illustrate once again the claim that and the Lisbon agenda is not progressing ac- democracy is not just about principles that should cording to schedule14. The documents preparing the installation of a new EU commission stress 14) Facing the challenge. The Lisbon strategy for growth and the importance of stepping up technological in- Employment. Report from the High Level Group chaired by Wim Kok. Brussels, November 2004 (http://europa.eu.int/ novation and regulatory harmonization. The Kok comm/Lisbon_strategy/index_en.html) committee is very critical of the delays and stres- 15) José Manuel Barroso, Europe 2010; a European renewal. ses the need to convince everybody of the need Speech World Economic Forum, Davos, 29 Januari 2005.

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govern public discourse but also about the limits Alan Irwin18 has introduced the term ‚sci- and structural boundaries of what can and what entific citizenship‘ to refer to a conception of cannot be legitimately put up for debate. citizens that are prepared and competent to en- gage with the scientific aspects of their everyday Civic Science lives and beyond. From his research and that by others he concludes that citizens are well able Debates about the knowledge society and glo- to develop that competence especially where it balization inevitably lead to the question what comes to issues that are directly relevant to their the future role of citizens and consumers in such everyday concerns. In so-called knowledge so- societies will be. Obvious questions are: What cieties scientific citizenship is of key importance room is there for civic debate and deliberation and needs to be developed and promoted. about key technological developments? How are Especially if one wants to involve the public in such debates to be organized in an increasingly ‚upstream‘ decision making with respect to sci- interdependent world? How are the results of entific and technological development, however, such debates translated in political decision- this requires ‚civic science‘ as a basis for such making and what economic constraints limit the competences and their public mobilization. options? Somewhat less obvious but equally cen- Civic science or citizens‘ science is used here tral questions concern the availability of scientific to refer on the one hand to the engagement of and technological knowledge and know-how to non-specialist citizens in science and technology those participating in such deliberations and their in order to explore and assess the consequences command of that knowledge. It is important that current and future developments in science and citizens have access to trustworthy knowledge technology for one‘s everyday life and the public about new technologies and scientific advances good. On the other hand ‚civic science‘ refers to and the consequences of new technologies for research that is primarily oriented towards the their everyday lives, for health, for work and jobs, public interest, is made available to the public for culture, for the environment, or for social secu- and keeps critical distance from private interests rity. Such knowledge and it being trustworthy and and the state as a policy actor. Civic science so independent of vested interests becomes all the defined is an essential ingredient of democratic more important as state budgets for science shrink society and geared to developing knowledge and are increasingly tied to conditions about being and by making that knowledge publicly avai- supportive to industrial innovation. The effect of lable in the context of public deliberations and the emergence of so-called Mode II science17 is political decision making. Defined in this way that it becomes less clear whether publicly funded civic science encompasses science education, science is sufficiently independent.

17) See Michael Gibbons et al., The New Production of Knowl- 16) 7th framework document. Science and technology, the key edge; The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contem- to Europe‘s future - Guidelines for future European Union porary Societies (London: Sage, 1994); H. Nowotny et al., policy to support research. Brussels, 16.6.2004, COM(2004) Re-Thinking Science: Knowledge and the Public in an Age of 353 final. Uncertainty (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001). I am grateful for Peter Healey, James Martin Institute, Oxford 18) Alan Irwin. Citizen science : a study of people, expertise and University, for his analysis of the framing of issues in this sustainable development. (London ; New York; Routledge, document. 1995).

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university extension activities and all sorts of and accepted part of national economic policy campaigns for or against science at large as around the globe. However much such activities well as campaigns against of in favour of spe- may be in the national interest and even in the cific developments in science and technology. public interest, according to the definition just The demarcating criterion is whether or not given such activities do not constitute civic sci- the activities take place in the public sphere as ence. They are a part of economic policy. opposed to the world of science as such, the The distinction just made between ‚civic sci- private sector or governmental management. ence‘ and ‚private science‘ serves to highlight the Evidently, Science Shops are by definition part ambiguity in the construction of the liberal demo- and parcel of ‚civic science‘. cratic state. As Chantal Mouffe20 has pointed out Civic science refers to ‚civil society‘ or ‚the in her critique of deliberative democratic theory, public sphere‘ as the public that is non-private theorists of deliberative democracy tend to ignore domain as distinct from the market and the that the liberal democratic state is an inherently nation state. Citizens, media organizations and unstable historical compromise between princip- voluntary associations of various sorts are the les of economic liberalism on the one hand and key players in this public sphere. The internet citizens rights on democratic representation on is probably the fastest growing ‚agora‘ of civic the other. As the eminence grise of contempora- society that emerged in early modern Europe ry political science Robert Dahl puts it: in early news magazines and pamphleteering. ‚Democracy and market capitalism are like Public institutions like universities and professi- two persons bound in a tempestuous marriage onal organizations and regulatory agencies have that is riven by conflict, and yet endures becau- a special responsibility to inform the general pu- se neither partner wishes to separate from the blic i.e. to inform civic society about science and other…. The two exist in a kind of antagonistic its implications for society. As such they are con- symbiosis.‘21 stitutive of civil society. If they do not function A similar observation can be made with properly and if they fail to support the public and respect to the division between the public its representatives, democracy will be in crisis. sphere or ‚civil society‘ and the state. Between Science Shops are constitutive elements of that the state apparatus and the political elite on the civil society. They not only address the concerns one hand and civil society there is also some, of individual groups or citizens but they normally often cultivated distance. Rather obvious are the also report about their work and their findings sometime tense relations between the media in the public realm to encourage public debate and the state. Various civic organizations have about science-related public issues. ambiguous relations with the state bureaucracy Civic science stands in opposition to ‚private and established political parties. Such tensions science‘ and initiatives to promote private ap- are notr accidental and to be deplored. They are propriation of scientific results and knowledge.

Evidently, there are grey areas, especially where 19) Jean L. Cohen, Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political state science and technology policy may be Theory (Cambridge: MIT, 1999); David Zaret, Origins of geared toward promoting a particular field of democratic culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000) science or technology. The science base of the 20) Chantal Mouffe, The Democratic Paradox (London: Verso, local, regional or national economy is a normal 2000).

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constitutive to liberal democracy and associated they are otherwise involved. One does not have with civil rights. to be an enemy of private enterprise to see the To acknowledge and integrate such structu- danger of insufficient review and transparently ral differentiation into the analysis is important organized accountability. Government-funded in my view. Practicing liberal democrats have research institutes may provide the independent a tendency to downplay such tensions every critical knowledge, but they may also become too now and then when they advocate consensus closely intertwined with bureaucratic and political models as the essence of democracy. Ignoring interests. Rather the universities and academies the constitutive ambiguities and antagonisms of public science may still the best candidates to of liberal democratic societies leads to a far provide a critical knowledge base essential to the too rosy picture of what may be achieved th- proper functioning of civic society deliberations rough open-minded deliberation and exercises and critical review of what governments and to promote consensus. For Mouffe democracy private interest do22. is not so much about deliberative consensus Against this one may argue that universities but about dissensus and agony. Agony about are not particularly well-known for their open- the best way to move forward is characteristic ness to the general public. It is exactly that of democracy operating under the structural openness that Science Shops could promote. conditions of economic liberalism and respect As such it is fortunate that the EU is supporting for civil rights. Agonizing about the boundaries the work of Science Shops and their networ- between the economic and the political domain king across Europe and beyond. Provided the and between the state and the public sphere is Science Shops remains focused on providing very much a part of that. knowledge and support to citizens and groups To use the notion of civic science and civil at low costs and does not become a managerial society (or public sphere) as structurally differen- instrument in serviced of other goals then the tiated from the political and economic domains public good Science Shops may fulfil an essen- implies that one can more clearly delineate what tial function. public engagement requires and how to promote Serving as a constituent of civil society should it. Civic science should serve civil society and the not stop in my view with answering questions public interest as it is articulated in the public of whoever turns to the shop. Certainly that is domain. Civic science should serve the repre- important and it is a line of work that should sentation of civil concerns in the formal political be further supported. Yet, Science Shops could system. Civic deliberation should independent of also serve civil society in promoting other forms the other main actors in the economic and po- of public engagement. The recent experiences litical field. One of the problems of the develop- in The Netherlands and other countries, among ment of mode II science and regulatory science other things with GM food, suggest that such is that the scientists loose their independence debates are best promoted and managed and critical distance from the processes and by organizations that operate at considerable configurations with state and industry in which

22) The public still accords an important role to academic sci- 21) Robert Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven: Yale U.P., 1998), ence as a source of advice on critical problems with technol- p.166. ogy. See op.cit. note 7..

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distance from the government and its bureau- between economic liberalism and civil society. cracies. Science Shops have good antennas for In designing public participation such tensions the problem and concerns of normal citizens. should be addressed more explicitly to avoid ill- They are also trusted by many citizens and conceived expectations with respect to the goals NGOs. They are staffed by young people with and limits of public consultation. Enhancement relatively open minds. To promote the abilities of lay citizen participation through government of such people to moderate debates and to get initiatives may lead to tensions between NGOs at the heart of problems may be one of the best claiming to represent the public and those in investments in the future one may make. charge of such initiatives. In part such tensions have to do with the more structural issues just Conclusion mentioned, as such limits are at odds with views and agenda‘s NGOs are pursuing. It is better to Science Shops are very much alive and thriving. acknowledge such problems upfront than to let They may play a useful role in promoting EU them simmer in the frustration that comes from science policy and may play a role in managing encouraging inappropriate expectations with re- programmes and activities geared towards spect to what might be achieved through public enhancing public participation in scientific, deliberation exercises. technological and socio-economic innovation. Now that the Lisbon agenda appears more It has been argued in this paper that the role difficult to realise, there is concern that enhan- of Science Shops could be broadened to en- ced public engagement will be tuned down and compass various forms of public deliberation become more like public relation exercise and about changes and about the effects of current political marketing. If that happens, cynics would policies on citizens‘ concerns. Through their be correct to argue that the sudden love affair work the shops have excellent connections with of policy makers with the public and ordinary groups and people that are affected but have citizens is just another Machiavellian ploy to fend little opportunities to engage with science. off the latest avalanche of massive frustration. Over the last five to ten years EU policies The recent shifts in the EU mentioned above have not only encouraged public participation, may be seen as evidence that the interest for but also critically reviewed and adjusted the what ordinary citizens think about technological assumptions on which public engagement acti- change is already fading. But public engagement vities are based. This has been done in response may be like tar, once it is on your hands it is hard to problems with current innovation policies and to wash off. Public involvement of civic society is scandals, scientific evidence from studies of pu- not something one can put on or off like a switch. blic understanding and as a part of optimistic Even though the process is fragile and may get economic policy agenda‘s. stuck temporarily as the Lisbon strategy fails, the Ideals of deliberative democracy have in- European public wants more and not less ac- spired the policy drive towards participation. countability for their leaders. The debates about An important criticism of such models is, ho- the EU constitutional agreement and referenda wever, that they ignore the tensions between also may be seen as another signal for this. democratic deliberation and decision-making and structural and constitutional differentiation

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Improving Interaction between NGO’s, Science Shops and Universities MICHAEL S. JØRGENSEN

Associate Professor and Co-ordinator, The Science Shop c/o Department of Manufacturing Engi- neering and Management, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark

he INTERACTS research project (“Improv- courses, research agendas and university Ting interaction between NGOs, Universities curricula. and Science Shops: Experiences and Expecta- • Dialogue about the expectations for and tions”) was a cross-national study by Science perspectives on co-operation between Shops and institutions with Science Shop expe- NGOs, researchers and Science Shops ex- rience from seven different countries – Austria, pressed by stakeholder groups at scenario Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Romania, workshops Spain, and the United Kingdom. It was con- ducted in the period from January 2002 to The public discourses on science and December 2003. The aim was to improve the society in most of the INTERACTS partners interaction between small-to-medium non-gov- countries are connected to the concept of the ernmental organizations (NGOs), universities knowledge-based society. Co-operation be- and Science Shops by analysing the experi- tween science and society is perceived to be ences of and the future expectations for co- important, but the focus for politicians and uni- operation between such NGOs and universities versity policy-makers is mainly to generate and through intermediaries such as Science Shops. distribute knowledge with the aim of increas- The project was funded by the European Com- ing economic competitiveness. This means mission under the programme „Improving the that scientific knowledge primarily is seen as a Human Research Potential and the Socio-eco- means to achieve economic goals rather than nomic Knowledge Base“. satisfying the needs of civil society.

The focus of the INTERACTS research project Key findings from the national case was: studies • The political and institutional contexts of co- operation between NGOs, Science Shops Twelve of the INTERACTS case studies were and universities in the partner countries. based on projects conducted by university- • The experiences of interaction between based Science Shops and nine case studies NGOs, researchers, students and Science on projects conducted by community-based Shops and the impact on societal dis- Science Shops.

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The case studies show that when NGOs or university researchers and students, citizens citizens approach Science Shops, their need groups and policy makers. The scenario for knowledge can be categorised as one or workshops identified a desire among the par- more of the following 1) Scientific analysis ticipants for more networking and continued of a problem, 2) Enhancement of knowledge discussions of how to develop the dialogue around a certain topic, 3) Research on impact between science and society. The scenario of governmental projects, 4) Development of workshops further showed a wish among the NGO- community-based solutions, or 5) Evalu- participants for more open universities, which ation of NGO or community services/projects. are willing and interested in addressing prob- To get access to free or low cost research and lems and issues perceived important by civil independent research through the Science society. More democracy in societies’ decision- Shops is important to the NGOs. making processes was also an issue, which the participants at the scenario workshops The co-operation with Science Shops can identified as important for the future dialogue have an impact on the NGOs, such as building between science and society. up capacity in the NGO for analysis, network- ing and service delivery, and influencing the Policy recommendations public discussion about a topic, sometimes by referring to an analysis as a scientific analysis. The INTERACTS consortium has drawn out The case studies also show that Science Shops policy recommendations for the strengthen- contribute to the roles and tasks of the univer- ing of the role of Science Shops in a more sities by contributing to student competencies democratic form of societal governance. The and skills through the possibilities for problem- recommendations relate to five policy issues, based learning, and by contributing to the stra- which emerged through the project. Concrete tegic societal role of universities. Science shops proposals were developed for initiatives, which might act as knowledge repositories ensuring could be taken by universities, governments at continuity and progress from project to project different levels, NGOs, the European Commis- and act as an antenna for new societal top- sion and the Science Shops and their networks. ics, whereby new research and teaching areas The five policy issues are: might be established. • How can Science Shops support the role of Key findings from the national sce- NGOs in developing civil society? nario workshops • How can Science Shops influence the cur- ricula of universities to make them more The future expectations for co-operation and responsive to the needs and demands of dialogue between NGOs and universities civil society? through intermediaries such as Science Shops • How can Science Shops influence the re- were discussed through seven scenario work- search agenda to make it more responsive shops held in the INTERACTS partner countries to the needs and demands of civil society? as one-day events with participants represent- • What contribution are Science Shops able ing different role groups: Science shops staff, to make to regional development?

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• How can Science Shops become economi- Some of the recommendations for govern- cally sustainable? ments and the European Commission are: • Encourage universities to establish commu- Some of the recommendations for universities are: nity-based research and learning • Co-operation with citizens and NGOs • (Co-)finance community-based research should be incorporated into the institutional and learning, including the establishment policies and profiles for research and cur- of formal mediation channels like Science ricula at universities: Shops • Formal channels for this co-operation • Establish processes of co-ordination among should be developed, including dialogue the EU-countries and accession countries about future curricula and research in relation to co-operation between science • Co-operation with citizens and NGOs and civil society and the role of community- should be integrated into the curricula and based learning in curricula made a part of the staff tenure criteria • Invite NGOs to influence the needs, plan- • Part of the local research funding should ning and implementation of public and be available for co-operation between civil private projects, programmes etc. society and researchers.

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Fondation Sciences Citoyennes: A NGO Perspective CLAUDIA NEUBAUER

Fondation Science Citoyennes, Paris, France

he Fondation Sciences citoyennes (Citi- ence, they affirm that a science for all must Tzens‘ science foundation) is a NGO dedi- be built with all and in the dialogue with for- cated to the redistribution of expertise and merly devalued knowledge. research capacities towards citizens’ move- ments. Engine of emancipation during several centuries, science, becoming today techno- We are living witnessing a transformation science, is a wonderful and tremendous of the nature of risks, disparities and dangers strength. But to serve the wellbeing of all created by the dominant modes of production the whole of human beings of our planet, and consumption. The liberal globalisation this power requires other control than the exacerbates these threats and intends to only mere will to know, the desire of power subject research and technical development or the logic of profit. Thus, after the era of to the requirements of solvability. These last the “control of nature” there must thus come years the accumulation of crises (Chernobyl, the one of the “control of science”, of the asbestos, contaminated blood, ESB, GMO…) scientific citizenship. showed the need for taking into account other interests and risks than those defined The Foundation “Citizens’ Sciences” aims by techno-industry and techno-science. They at supporting and prolonging the current question the actual system of expertise and movement of democratic and civil appropria- science, provoke a revival of social mobilisa- tion of science, in order to put it at the service tion and lead to the emergence of initiatives of the common good. concerning the implication of ‘profanes’ in research, expertise or vigilance, a process Our objectives are in particular: which led to a certain opening of science • To increase the capacities of research and its institutions. and expertise of the civil society, such as NGOs, consumerists and citizens move- Facing the merchandising of knowledge ments, trade-unions etc. We support the and the living, these mobilisation and ini- constitution of a «scientific third sector», tiatives embark upon a democratic develop- meeting better increasing social and ment and a new social pact for a responsible ecological demands, neglected by the and solidary citizens’ science. Far from being dominant scientific orientation, whether reducible to “a rise of irrational beliefs”, to a they are defined by the state or by private lack of information or to popularisation of sci- industry.

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• To stimulate the freedom of expression and debates in the scientific world, to support whistle blowers and the develop- ment of public controversies and «hybrid forums» on the stakes of strong scientific technicality. Far from fearing interventions of the public and far from technocratic log- ics, pluralism and controversies constitute sources not only of a better exploration of possible worlds and, therefore, of better decisions, but also of an active appropria- tion of scientific knowledge by the public.

• To promote the democratic elaboration of scientific and technical choices. We sup- port and organise public debates on pub- lic policies regarding research, technology and expertise. We will also carry out the vigilant analysis of new deliberative meth- ods multiplying these last years in order to support those which advance a genuine technical democracy.

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Plenary Session

PROCESSES, TOOLS AND INFRASTRUCTURES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY

This session views examples of concrete activities to link science and society. Examples range from a strategic to a practical level including a funder, NGOs, researchers, and a community based research organisation.

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Advancing Societies’ Influence on Research Agendas – The Role of Science Shops PETER NIJKAMP

President NWO, Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, The Hague, the Netherlands

Science is a public good that does not only belong to the realm of scholars but has also a broader societal meaning and impact. Consequently, there is a need to position science in an open civil society where the science community has to meet several standards: quality, relevance and accessi- bility. From these perspectives, science communication and marketing is a strategic vehicle to favour science literacy in a modern society. Science shops have the best seedbed conditions to flourish if they are an integrative part of an academic system that is oriented towards society. They reflect the academic responsibility in a civil society and are one of the means of the university systems to develop an open accountability system to society at large. In this context, Science Shops may offer important role models for societal accountability.

Prefatory Remarks the construction of a bridge between two Science is one of the great expressions - sometimes disjoint or different – worlds. of the human mind. Just like arts, science But if science is establishing a dialogue with seeks to create new perspectives on complex society, then the question arises: what does phenomena. It operates at the frontiers of our society mean for science and what does sci- knowledge. Consequently, scientific progress is ence mean for society? a key feature and critical condition for a modern Nowadays, it is rather common to speak of knowledge society. The strategic importance of a science (or knowledge) paradox in order to an advanced knowledge society has convinc- indicate that available scientific knowledge is ingly been demonstrated in the EU Lisbon and not always properly deployed to tackle impor- Barcelona agenda. tant problems in society. In my view, this is a It is clear that science cannot be under- rather superficial description of a complex phe- taken in isolation from a modern knowledge nomenon. Indeed, it may happen that existing society. It is a public good supported by the knowledge is not always timely used, but it taxpayer’s money. And therefore, society at may also happen that existing open knowledge large may ask a justification of fundamental is not accessed by the (potential) user or that choices made in the actual execution of the (potential) user is not at all in a position scientific research. Thus, a dialogue between to articulate his (or her) knowledge demands. science and society is a sine qua non for Therefore, to address the knowledge paradox

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calls for dedicated action lines. These are in university in Italy, after Bologna. Culture, sci- particular: ence, economy and science were intertwined in • popularisation of science Padua and they formed a strong alliance. Upon • professional science communication entering the oldest building of the University of • interaction and dialogue with the user. Padua, you would see in the great hall, directly in front of the magnificent Aula Magna, Galileo’s Can Science Shops help to implement lectern. This historic lectern is made of rough these action lines? Europe has witnessed the wood and has no intricate carvings or other emergence of several types of Science Shops in embellishments. Indeed, science has no need the past decades. Science shops offer a remark- for expensive frills. able spectrum of diversity in many countries, But Galileo’s lectern has one special char- but they have one thing in common: they are acteristic: it stood on four wheels! Whenever grass-root research institutions aiming at build- Galileo discovered something – after a period ing bridges between science and society – on of intellectual introspection and experimental the basis of a bottom-up approach – in order research – he rushed to his lectern, which was to facilitate the knowledge needs of local com- then pulled through the streets of Padua. munities. They can act as meaningful vehicles to cope with the above mentioned knowledge On the street corners and plazas of the paradox, as they address also the three action old city he told the gathering crowds about lines sketched above. Science shops have been his new discoveries and ideas, and engaged rather successful in many countries, but have his fellow citizens in lively debate. Galileo can also a permanent struggle on their profile and rightly be called the founder of interactive sci- mission. Before addressing the latter strategic entific communication. Compared to him, our issue, I wish to eludicate the debate by offering modern Internet is just a ripple in a fast-moving some historical and general notes on the rela- current. tionship between science and society. Science is so fascinating that it begs to be passed on. The heart of science beats not only In Search of Role Models in the spacious halls of academia, but also in the very centre of our society. Scientific research is a Scientific inventions – and science in general search for unknown expanses; it is an expedition – call for a sharing of insights with society at to ever-changing horizons that offer an abun- large. Science literacy makes up an important dance of surprises. Is it not exhilarating to hear social basis for accepting and discussing new about the birth of new stars, the political decep- knowledge. I would like to invite you to take a tions of Cleopatra, the use of prime numbers in short historic journey to the ancient and beauti- our information-economy, risk-analyses of new ful Italian city of Padua, a city that still reflects its cancer treatments, or the public support for past grandeur of high society and groundbreak- genetically manipulated food? Who would not ing science. Padua was where the great scholar want to tell more about these subjects; and who Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made his important would not want to know more? There is no limit discoveries on physics and the solar system, to scientific curiosity. and it was the home of the second oldest

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The Modern Knowledge Society into an increase in labour productivity, which is a prerequisite for economic growth and the After the Industrial Revolution, the Service creation of a healthy competitive position in the Revolution, the Information Revolution and the world. Many empirical studies have shown that Network Revolution, we have now entered the the quality of human capital plays a crucial role era of the Knowledge Revolution. Knowledge and in this process. Reports in the literature have scientific research have drastically changed our convincingly demonstrated that investments daily life, our economies and our social constel- in education produce a high return for the lations. We live in an age characterised by an ex- economy. Recent work by the OECD concluded plosive development of knowledge. Our society that a 10% increase in the duration of education has developed more knowledge in the time span produces in the long term an extra contribution of one generation than mankind had achieved to the GNP of approximately 4.7% per person. in the many centuries of human history that The OECD also concluded that increasing the preceded it. Whereas only one dissertation was R&D intensity of businesses by 0.1% of GNP produced in the United States in the year 1870, will eventually lead to an extra growth of 1.2% now there are an average of 40,000 dissertations of GNP per person, thanks in part to the result- produced there every year. The Netherlands is ing technological innovation and more efficient also following this trend: at the moment an aver- forms of organisation. My own research based age of 10 dissertations are defended each day on comparative analysis of 123 empirical model in our country. Scientific development over the studies conducted in many countries also centuries has always been characterised by an clearly indicated that investments in education increase in diversity, specialisation and access to and research have a positive impact on eco- knowledge. Universities have been transformed nomic growth almost anywhere in the world. into multi-versities aimed at the mass production Unfortunately, such findings about the necessity of knowledge. The body of current knowledge for citizens to be well educated at each step is not a permanent collection of immutable in the whole education chain stand out in stark insights, but is in itself subjected to unprecedent- contrast to decreasing investments in the Dutch ed dynamics. The provost of The Johns Hopkins knowledge-based economy. University in Baltimore expressed this idea bril- liantly during a graduation ceremony in which he A study recently published by SPRU (Science offered the new graduates the following words of and Policy Research Unit) in Sussex demon- wisdom: ‘On the day you graduate half of your strates quite convincingly that the following knowledge is already obsolete. The problem is benefits can be expected from a research cul- that we don’t know which half.’ Knowledge has ture that is better integrated in society: indeed become volatile. Nevertheless, it is a • production of new scientific information and critical success factor in modern economic and socially-relevant insights; technological systems. • better education and training of graduates; Science has not only economic and techno- • development and utilisation of new scientific logical value, but also cultural value. We now networks and international cooperation; speak of a knowledge-based economy. Scien- • improvement and expansion of problem- tific and technological progress are translated solving capacity in our society;

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• creation of innovative activities; premise that the whole adds value to each ac- • development of scientific knowledge on tor or participant. No partner gets a free ride, behalf of culture and society. and there are no losers, only potential benefits for each party involved. Each network is held Knowledge and Networks together by ‘matching’ interests, as is clearly il- lustrated by the ‘networks of excellence’ in the The nature of scientific research is changing EU framework programmes. drastically, including a structural transformation Networks are based on cooperation in a from: context of competition. A guiding principle is • solitary research to teamwork, particularly the notion of trust. Without trust no one will based on broad research networks and clus- succeed. Greater trust offers greater security, ters; and thus a greater willingness to invest, includ- • monodisciplinary research to multidiscipli- ing in knowledge. In order to achieve the 3% nary initiatives (often with a strong social Barcelona norm, Europe will have to create and science component); consistently manage a policy framework within • a local tradition to international cooperation which both public and private parties can oper- and an international orientation. ate based on synergy of interests and network- ing. As the name suggests, networking implies It would be no exaggeration to say that in getting the work done. If networks don’t work, our modern network society and network sci- they degenerate into ‘not-works’, which have ence a nearly genetic transformation has taken no need for. place from the lonely office researcher to the The scene of knowledge creation and dis- open knowledge networker. The distinction is semination has thus drastically changed in the clear: the absent-minded professor locked in his past decade. What is the role of Science Shops dusty office fights a lonely battle with his over- in this changing environment? The last section stuffed bookcase, while the network scientist’s will address this strategic question. battlefield is limited to his PC screen through which he can command the world. Knowledge Science Shops in (Inter)action creation and network usage are two interlinked phenomena. Networks are based on knowledge Science shops have become established in- synergy and they lead to greater benefits than stitutions in many Western societies. They grew solo activities. They are based on voluntary from an informal activity inspired by student cooperation with the objective of achieving movement and counter culture into a non-profit the best results through mutual competitive institution embedded in the university system. interests. This is also the case for European Their success was largely due to the fact that networks. in a modern civil society many knowledge and Networks are varied and often completely research needs cannot be met by conventional different in design, construction and use. They channels. They have turned into an important in- are not a goal in themselves, but an instrument; terface in meeting the varied demand for knowl- that is, they are directed at achieving a desired edge in our society. Access to knowledge has result (which can differ per actor) based on the thus become a basic mission of Science Shops.

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They have acquired a good status and image selves from the mainstream research tradition in in many countries by the fact that their low-bar- an academic institute. It ought to be embedded rier constellation enabled them to provide a in common research programmes as defined by better science service to the community. Their research departments in universities, or by the action potential is based on interaction and dia- scientific community via their research councils. logue with society. Due to their bridge function with societal knowl- Notwithstanding their current successes in edge issues, they may even become vehicles many university systems, the position of Sci- in formulating challenging research questions to ence Shops does not remain undisputed. Their research departments or even research coun- recognition depends on several roles that do cils. A high-quality research environment and a not always reinforce each other, since Science professional (non-amateuristic) research man- Shops are often seen as: agement are therefore critical success factors • An interesting source of knowledge at low for Science Shops in a modern civil society. costs • An effective exchange platform that offers knowledge services to the community on the basis of mediation and brokery func- tions • A contributor to the achievement of science literacy in a civil society through the provision of access to knowledge by science commu- nication • An institution aiming at science accountabil- ity to society at large by the interface with citizens through informal or low - threshold communication channels • A centre for the provision of research training and communication to capable students.

In reality, these different roles show up in various modalities in several countries. There is not a unique and unambiguous model for Science Shops. But whatever the appearance and mission may be, one fundamental condi- tion would have to be met in all cases: Science Shops ought to be professional, high-quality knowledge centres at the service of the commu- nity. It should not be a source of cheap research for society, but be driven by regular standard practices of scientific research. Consequently, Science Shops would not have to isolate them-

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Promoting Risk Communication in Japanese Chemical Industry TOSHINORI KAWABATA, IKUO HORI AND SHIGERU MIYAKE

Research Institute of Science and Technology for Society (RISTEX), Japan,

Introduction

The Science Shop, born in the Netherlands in the 1970ies, has now become a worldwide ac- tivity. In Japan, the activity has been introduced mainly in the field of science and technology studies (STS). Now it draws much wider con- cerns, including the policy makers of science and technology. For example, as shown in Fig.1, a governmental document, the Annual Report on the Promotion of Science and Technology of FY 2003 by MEXT, introduces the Science Shop as a citizen-participatory research, responding to the anxieties of civil societies. Although the Science Shop has not been formed yet in Japan, there are certain moves Fig.1. Growing Concerns for Science Shops toward it. The research by the authors is one of them, which is to promote risk communication plastics, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, cos- in the chemical industry. In the following pres- metics and so on. Since Japan is a small coun- entation, general aspects of risk communication try with much population (four times as many in Japan are introduced and then the research in the population, four fifth as large in the area by the authors is discussed. as Spain), risk communication has been one of the major concerns for the Japanese chemical Risk Communication in Japanese industry (Fig.2). Various kinds of risk commu- Chemical Industry nication are being taken in each company, as will be informed by its brochure. In addition, the Japan is the second largest after the U.S. in industry jointly formed Japan Responsible Care production of chemical materials. In 2002, it Council (JRCC) in 1995, following the initiative produced nearly two hundred billion dollars of of Canada in 1985. JRCC, now consisting of

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more than one hundred companies, informs the industry’s offers to keep the society safe and health (http://www.nikkakyo.org/English/ index.php3).

Not only in the industry, but also in the public sectors, a variety of actions are taken. For example, Pollution Release and Transfer Regulation Law (PRTR) was enacted in 1999 (http://www.meti.go.jp/ policy/chemical_ management/law/l3.htm). Now, a governmen- tal report announces annually the kinds and the amounts of chemical substances produced in each area. An organization named Chemical Substances Advisors is also in work (http://www. ceis3.jp/adviser/). The advisors are officially ap- proved specialists ready to answer to citizens’ questions on chemical substances. Now there

are twenty five advisors. In addition, there are Fig.2. Chemical Industry in Japan (a brochure of Nikkakyo) a number of public agencies engaged in risk communication, such as, Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute (http://www.cerij.or. soil to answer the questions of citizens (http:// jp/ceri_en/index_e4.shtml), Japan Chemical In- www4.ocn.ne.jp/~kanshi/). Citizens' Science In- dustry Ecology-Toxicology & Information Center itiative carries out a number of research projects, (http://www.jetoc.or.jp/english_index.htmlter) one of which is alarming the electromagnetic or Japan Environmental Sanitation Centre (http: waves being radiated from Tokyo Tower (http:// //www.jeas.or.jp/english/index.html). www.csij.org/). The Japan Institute of Land and Environmental Studies does surveys or advice Various types of NGOs are formed with for citizens or sufferers (http://ha2.seikyou.ne. deep concerns for chemical substances or en- jp/home/kokudo/Eindex.html). vironmental issues, especially for air pollution, dioxins, asbestos or environmental hormones. These research-typed NGOs do not call Their activities are varied; having symposiums, themselves ‘Science Shop'. However, accord- publishing journals, learning by themselves, ing to the classification by Henk Mulder, there doing research or measurements, or launch- are two types of Science Shop, non-university ing political movements. As far as surveyed by based and university based. In that sense, they web-site, more than 40 NGOs were counted, are substantially doing work of Science Shop of among which NGOs doing research or meas- the former type, although they are not strongly urement were counted several. The examples networked with each other. are as follows. Environmental Monitoring Laboratory measures the atmosphere, water or

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Research for the Promotion of Risk The former survey showed that the industry Communication was worried about how much and on what ways it should take for risk communication. The latter The authors belong to RISTEX, the Research indicated that roughly 90 % of the residents Institute of Science and Technology for Society. living nearby the plants were anxious for their RISTEX was founded in 2001 under the guid- operations. Then the application of web-site was ance of the Ministry of Education, Culture, proposed to meet these problems, because it Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT. RISTEX could provide the risk communications of the aims at solving S/T related problems in our industry in a uniformed way. In addition, citizens society with an annual budget of about 23 mil- would be accessible to them quite easily. lion $, or 18 million €. Various research projects are being carried out, with periods ranging from The web system is now under construction, three to five years (http://www.ristex.jp/english/ which will be operated by a public organization. english/top_e.html). The system provides general information, such as product uses or responsible cares, or risk The authors’ project is to promote risk com- communications of relevant industries. In addi- munication between the chemical industry and tion, the supposed organization asks chemical, the citizens, as shown in Fig.3. At the beginning gas or steel companies on such items as the of the project (2004), two ways of survey were hazards and toxicity of chemicals they have, made. One of them asked to major chemical necessary actions of residents in emergency or companies on what kinds of risk communica- safety managements they take. The answers are tion or environmental protection they took, or informed on the web and will be renewed peri- what kinds of difficulties they had. 740 answers odically or eventually (now about thirty tentative were obtained. The other asked to citizens on answers have been obtained). how they were evaluating these activities of the companies. Roughly 19,000 answers were Citizens are accessible to the web. They obtained. may compare the activities of these companies on the web and decide how safe they are or Risk Communication for Chemical Industry by Chemical Process Safety Group

Fig.3. Research by RISTEX Fig.4. Risk Communication using Web Site

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how they should do in emergency. In addition, mation concerning chemical substances, risk if they have any questions, they may ask to a managements or safety operations of chemical corresponding company through the web. If the companies. Citizens are accessible to the infor- answers were not satisfactory for the citizens, mation and able to compare each activity of the they would need a different organization to have companies and understand how they are safe. an independent answer. And vise versa for the Questions and answers may be corresponded companies. That means this system needs a between the two sides on the web. Science Shop. A Science Shop is conceived in the system Towards the Establishment of a to give independent answers. The shop will be Science Shop networked with other relevant works around a central shop which is to be set up next year in The Science Shop was conceived early in Osaka University. the project. The authors have sought the pos- sibilities in the academic fields. Now, Hideyuki Hirakawa of Kyoto Women’s University, who is Science Shops networked around a the main introducer of Science Shops to Japan University (Osaka Univ.) and devoted to promote citizen participation, is going to set up it in Osaka University next year. It is presumed that the shop by the authors will be networked with relevant NGOs, centering at Osaka University, as shown in Fig. 5.

Summary

In Japan, where huge amounts of chemi- cal products are produced in highly populated Fig.5. Concept of Science Shop by RISTEX areas, various ways of risk communication are being taken. Besides the efforts of the industry, the governmental sectors and the public sec- tors are also engaged in risk communication. Especially, there are a number of NGOs doing research works for chemical substances or en- vironmental issues, which will be worthy of the name of Science Shop. However, in general, citizen participation is not sufficient in the com- munication.

The research project of the authors is to pro- mote risk communication using a web site. The system, now under construction, provides infor-

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Increasing NGO Participation in Research and the Policy Agenda EURIG SCANDRETT

Head of Community Action, Friends of the Earth Scotland, Edinburgh, UK

’d like to start with a bit about myself. Like Carbide’s successor), continuing to demand Imany people here probably, I started out as justice. an academic scientist, conducting research in Since the establishment of a devolved parlia- plant ecology until 1989, when I became a ment for Scotland, Friends of the Earth Scotland community educator. I’ve worked for Friends of (FoES) has made environmental justice its the Earth Scotland since 1997. I say this be- campaign focus. What we understand by envi- cause of the influences which led me to make ronmental justice is encapsulated in the strap the change from research science to commu- line ‘no less than a decent environment for all, nity education. One influence was the radical with no more than our fair share of the earth’s science movement which in the 1980ies was resources’ thereby combining the social justice still relatively strong, including the Science with environmental problems. Locally, the poor- Shops across Europe. The second major influ- est and most disenfranchised communities suf- ence however was a negative one. In the UK, fer the worst environmental problems. Globally Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was in the and intergenerationally, the resource consump- process of moving public services into private tion of the richest countries, and the richest markets, and scientific research was one of her within all countries, deprives the poor and future targets. Publicly funded science, she argued, generations of access to these resources and should be ‘near market’ to feed into the market- the life support systems of the planet. able science funded from private sources. It In support of environmental justice, FoES was clear to her that science was not to be for has focused on the traditional NGO activities social progress, as I would understand it. It of research, lobbying and campaigning, but certainly confirmed to me that Science is politi- also developed work in community action and cal, and that as a scientist I needed to make popular education, with groups most affected by political choices. pollution and contamination. Such communities But the final event which brought home to have had to react to incidences of acute envi- me the political nature of science was Decem- ronmental injustice – an inappropriate develop- ber 1984, when Union Carbide’s Bhopal pesti- ment or a polluting incident – or else the deg- cide factory leaked methyl isocyanide into the radation of their environment through chronic community, killing a total of 20,000 people. 20 neglect. Through working with these communi- years later I was honoured to march alongside ties, it was clear that local activists were looking survivors of that corporate abuse of science for the skills needed to interpret the problems to the Mumbai headquarters of Dow (Union and plan and execute a campaign, but also the

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knowledge to understand the causes of envi- received by those actually studying the course. ronmental injustices, the better to tackle them Other influences in the project were the radi- at source. cal science movement, with its epistemological Recognising the need for sustained and approach emerging from political struggles, and intensive learning for environmental justice the environmental justice movement in the USA activists, Friends of the Earth linked up with an and elsewhere in which communities have co- academic institution – Queen Margaret Univer- ordinated their campaigns against environmen- sity College (QMUC) - to provide an accredited tal racism into a social movement. course in environmental justice. Funding was The course which formed the core of the obtained from a variety of sources, including the project took place over 18 months, through UK Lottery (Community Fund) European EQUAL 6 residential schools and community-based programme (Scottish Workforce Empowerment support. In collaboration with the University through Lifelong Learning); Scottish Executives’ College, it was ensured that the same rigour Widening Participation fund (Metropolitan Ac- was applied to campaigning and community cess and Articulation to Community based development as to academic study. Assessment Higher Education Delivery (MAATCHED)); and methods were developed which were relevant the Royal Society’s Committee for the Public to local campaigns, such as running a participa- Understanding of Science). tory meeting or influencing the media. At the The approach which the course took was end of their study, agents received a Higher dialogical, drawing on the educational meth- Education Certificate in Environmental Justice, odology of Paulo Freire’ Pedagogy of the which is a recognised qualification in terms of Oppressed and the popular education move- access to higher levels of university education ment. The curriculum was therefore negotiated and employment in community work and envi- – activists brought their own knowledge and ronmental non-profit sectors. experience to the classroom and tutors brought A distance learning version of the course theirs: the NGOs’ environmentalism and access has also been developed utilising printed study to academic knowledge. We also drew on the guides and webCT technology to replicate the radical adult education tradition, especially that kinds of dialogues which can take place in a of Ettore Gelpi, with the focus of the curricu- group setting. Although no substitute for direct lum on social conflict arising in the relations of contact, this makes the resources more acces- production. sible for community activists in more remote A further influence was the practice of the communities, disabled agents and for workplace ‘community agent’, a rural development model study by trade union activists. used in South Asia in which local community The curriculum which FoES and QMUC put leaders are recruited, trained and supported as together included the issues believed to be rel- they mobilise and organise in their own commu- evant to diverse environmental justice struggles, nities. Applying the same model in Scotland, we including principles of environmental justice and recruited activists in urban and rural communi- sustainable development, science of the envi- ties, minority ethnic communities and workplace ronment, economics, social movements and (trade union) communities, to ensure that the political change, planning and environmental wider community benefits from the education law, sustainability auditing, community develop-

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ment, media and communications, project plan- ing scientific knowledge, FoES has collaborated ning and fundraising, health and safety and the with the Centre for Human Ecology to develop environment and the ecological debt. The issues ScienceAid, a clearing house for linking politically which the agents brought as being relevant to committed scientists with communities facing their communities included Opencast coal min- environmental injustice. Although connections ing; waste landfill; quarrying; road building; air are being made, we are far from the kind of role pollution from a petrochemical plant; fish farm- which Science Shops have played in many parts ing; wind generation and public participation. of Europe. In today’s Scotland, economic con- Our understanding of environmental justice straints on even sympathetic scientists of good has developed through carrying out this project. will militate against initiating projects which The economy may be regarded as a through might have been possible 30 years ago. flow of materials and energy, from extraction of A related project which FoES has initiated is raw materials and fuels, through manufacturing Accessing Relevant Knowledge (ARK), which and transformation, distribution and consump- aims to provide scientific expertise in support of tion and finally disposal of waste. Each of these communities facing local environmental justice processes have the negative environmental struggles. This includes helping with access and impacts which economists call externalities interpretation of public records, working with the – pollution, waste, contamination – which Scottish Environment Protection Agency to im- affect the communities living near to the proc- prove their accountability to local communities esses, the workers who work in the plants, and exposed to pollution, and developing lay moni- the wider environmental systems which affect toring methods, such as diffusion tubes, and the communities far distant from the source of the Bucket Brigades lay air monitoring devices which problem. What economists call externalities, originated in the USA. The ARK work is being leads to social conflict: community action, in- developed by our community science coordina- dustrial struggles, political campaigns and social tor Heidi Bartlett, contactable through Friends of movements. the Earth Scotland (www.foe-scotland.org.uk/ Ettore Gelpi identifies social conflict as a nation/ark.html). source of curriculum for lifelong education. In this case, the curriculum is derived from an educational response at the point of conflict over environmental resources. This leads to a more profound understanding of environmental justice struggles occurring at the environmental limitations to the capitalist economy. Through this praxis, a political ecology analysis of capital- ism is constructed, which contributes to social change for environmental justice. The agents for environmental justice project was just one of a series of community action projects in which Friends of the Earth has been involved. Particularly in the issue of democratis-

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Geo-virtual Reality and participatory Planning: New Technologies for public Participation MARINA LOBO

Coordination – Barreiro Municipality: Luis Cerqueira, [email protected]; Nuno Banza, [email protected]; Research–New University of Lisbon: GASA –Sciences and Environmen- tal Engineering Department, António Câmara, [email protected]; João Serpa Ferreira , [email protected]; Joana Soares, [email protected]; Marina Lobo, [email protected]; Development – Ydreams: Edmundo Nobre, [email protected]; João Batalha , [email protected]

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Quality Research @ Community Prices: A Decade of creating Community-Univer- sity Parnerships through an applied Sociology Research Center JEFFRY A. WILL AND CHARLES E. OWENS

Jeffry A. Will, Associate Professor of Sociology and Director, Northeast Florida Center For Community Initiatives, University of North Florida, Jacksonville; Charles E. OWENS, Professor of Criminal Justice and Associate Director, The Florida Cente, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, USA

In this paper, we present a case study of an applied sociological research center at a medium sized urban University in Florida that has been particularly successful in its efforts to combine the academic and service components of the University’s mission with the applied, as well as more traditional academic research. Over the past decade nearly $2.5 million has been obtained in applied contract research, involving a dozen faculty, with over 50 students (undergraduate and graduate) employed on research projects, and over 300 student volunteers participating.

Introduction ologies have been present since the pioneering days of August Comte and Herbert Spencer. Public Institutions of Higher Education in the Much of the debate today is largely one waged United States are facing a number of chal- “at the coasts” – the regions of the U.S. intel- lenges, including funding opportunities, massive lectually dominant because of the prestigious enrolment growth, and competition from for “Ivory Tower” Universities. Smaller, regional (and profit (often on-line) institutions. An increas- often urban) Universities, however have not had ingly important, and controversial, challenge is the luxury, nor the inherent resources to enjoy the debate over the role of University Faculty the debate – many faculty at these universities and their research on addressing public social (particularly from the social sciences) are thrust problems. While some academic pundits such into the day-to-day realities and social issues as Professor Stanley Fish argue that academics facing their communities. should remain focused on more “intellectual” university pursuits, others, including current In this paper, we present a case study of American Sociological Association President an applied sociological research center at a Michael Burawoy argue for a very explicit and medium sized, urban University in Florida that actively engaged “Public Sociology.” While this has been particularly successful in its efforts to debate may appear to be of recent origins, ten- combine the academic and service components sions between the “Pure” and “Applied” Soci- of the University’s mission with the applied, as

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well as more traditional academic research. In Other major projects within the community 1995, three faculty members from the Depart- include an annual examination of Race Rela- ment of Sociology and Criminal Justice joined tions in the community, prison reform, program forces to establish the Northeast Florida Center evaluation of a number of programs including for Community Initiatives (CCI). The founding juvenile justice interventions, infant mortality faculty included: A Community Sociologist with reduction, and HIV/AIDS interventions, among extensive work in rural community development others. The work of the Center for Community in Kansas; A Criminologist with expertise in So- Initiatives has allowed the University-Communi- cial Psychology and the intersection of race and ty partnership to build, as well as to provide for crime; and a Sociologist specializing in Urban high quality research at community affordable Sociology and Evaluation Research. costs. This experience has been a true “win-win” situation for all parties involved. Over the past decade nearly $2.5 million has been obtained in applied contract research, Footnotes involving a dozen faculty, with over 50 students (undergraduate and graduate) employed on 1 See the I. M Sulzbacher Center for the Homeless (http: //www.imshomelesscenter.org) for one of the primary research projects, and over 300 student vol- homeless providers who used this information for program unteers participating. Typically, research team development. A comprehensive list of CCI projects can be members work directly with persons directly seen at http://www.unf.edu/coas/scj/CCI/index.html. affected by the research to ensure community participation. Faculty associated with the Center also integrate research projects in classroom based learning activities as well as community service based learning processes. The Center has also played a central role in the develop- ment of a new Masters Program in Applied Sociology.

In addition to the University benefits gained through the work of the Center, the local com- munity has also benefited from the availability of the intellectual resources provided through CCI. Research team members from CCI worked with the local Homeless Coalition from 1993- 2000, conducting an annual census and survey of homeless persons to ascertain the condi- tions facing the most needy in our community. Results from this project were used to garner several million dollars in program support from government and private foundations to develop programs for the homeless.1

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CONCLUSIONS

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European Commission should strengthen Citizens’ Involvement in Research CASPAR DE BOK AND NORBERT STEINHAUS

cientists all over Europe are more and the conference. Because of the wide variety of Smore creative in developing activities to presentations it will be impossible to include all improve the public understanding of science sessions and presentation in these conclusions. and technology. Science Shops and Communi- Some general lines can be given however. ty Based Research (CBR) centres have shown that they can facilitate the approach of Science Advancing science and society interactions and Society by providing independent, partici- is like democratising the world. In a democ- patory research support in response to con- racy it is about listening and talking, there is cerns experienced by civil society. Sharing the a dialogue. The dialogue between society and expertise of Science Shops advances citizens’ science needs to be a two-way street where all ability to participate in the dialogue between listen as much as they talk. To give science and science and society. society an understanding of each others needs a different approach for citizens‘ participation With over 100 presentations – not only from in science is necessary. Within the concept an European context but also from North-, of ‚social demand‘ for knowledge there is an Central- and South-America, Africa, Middle increasing necessity for communication from East and Far East – the 2nd ‘Living Knowledge’ society to researchers. The dialogue between Conference offered of a the huge palette of the public on the one side and researchers different experiences and interesting examples and experts on the other side will be more of community-based research and science promising, when the public is able to discuss and society relations. From the presented ‚science/society‘ issues in full knowledge and concepts in science and society interaction understanding of scientific ‚facts‘, of the results to the specific examples of good practices it of the research, of scientific action and of the became clear that these interactions still need way in which research operates in practical advancements. But the conference also made terms. The dialogue also will be more produc- clear that these advancements can be made, tive when researchers better understand public by offering a lot of ideas to take home. It also needs and societal demands. offered many options for linking initiatives, or- ganisations and people. Advancing science and This 2nd ‘Living Knowledge’ Conference in- society interactions is about people and about cluded themes like ‚the impact of communities perspectives. on the research and policy agenda‘ and gave ideas on how citizens can participate in research Juan Maestre, Phil Nyden, Carmen Teodosiu and policy making. The conference encouraged and Caspar de Bok tried to present some ge- the development of infrastructures for mediati- neral conclusions that can be taken home from on and communication of community based re-

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search and discussed local and global de-mands facilitates collaboration and research coope- for access to research, science, education and ration at an international level. It broadens technology. At least three main conclusions can the base of knowledge and experience and be drawn: increases citizens empowerment. Community based research cooperation will also give op- Growing need for true participatory portunities to develop citizens based research activities themes within research institutes and research consortia. In addition to the demands made on research and development by commerce and industry, Strengthening the EC Science and So- ‘civil society’ organisations have their own ciety programme research needs. Community based research shows a great and attractive variety in involving At the ‘Living Knowledge’ conference there societal groups. But there is still a growing was a strong will to built on the momentum need for true participatory activities, having ci- to strengthen the EC Science and Society tizen groups and researchers working together programme by giving input to its activities. In in research projects on a base of equality. The the 6th framework programme the EC started ‘public’ demand to discuss questions on social a process to implement science and society values, and the risks associated with scientific interactions in the European Research Area. progress is still emotional but no longer igno- This process isn’t finished yet and should rant on technical questions. Citizens more and be continued in 7th framework programme. more refuse the ‘traditional’ process of passive Looking to the future, the conference partici- consumption of a knowledge actively acquired pants would like to see Science Shops playing by experts. Facing problems and involved in a role in introducing new research themes to conflicts on different levels citizens want to be the EU agenda driven by the needs of local able to take part in the research and decision communities. “In FP7 we would like to see making process civil society representatives involved in the agenda setting, with sufficient support for Breaking out of the local small scale themes as well as large”, says Caspar de Bok from the Utrecht Science Science Shops and similar organisations in Shop and project coordinator of the EC pro- community based research (CBR) in general ject called ISSNET (Improving Science Shop are small and local entities, bound to local Networking). “In science, research and the conditions. And even citizens concerns and Lisbon agenda,” he continues, “the economy needs for research seem to be very local. From should not always play the leading role – we the examples given at the conference it beca- also need to keep an eye on social capital.” me clear that the expressed societal demands The conference participants and all actors in are not local at all. At many places all over the „science/society“ issues are invited to give in- world the same needs and the same demands put to the development of new ways and new for the sharing of knowledge are expressed. activities that strengthen citizens involvement Breaking demands and needs out of the local in research.

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We cannot communicate without a dialogue. tory process. Especially in research projects In addition to the demands made on research citizens involvement is more and more impor- and development by commerce and industry, tant from the very beginning. Of course, there ‚civil society‘ organisations have their own is no ideal way of communication between research needs. Diffusion of knowledge often scientists and citizens, but all experts agree focuses on communication from researchers to that every country can profit from the experi- society, but increasingly there is a demand for ences of national projects by cooperating on communication from society to researchers. an international level.

“There is still a tendency to present ‘the pu- The 2005 International Science Shop blic’ and ‘the experts’ as two separate monoliths”, Conference was obviously an important step Alan Irwin, dean of social and environmental stu- in forwarding the Science Shop movement. It dies at Liverpool University wrote in the Living did not only present useful approaches in know- Knowledge magazine. He continued: “We should ledge transfer but also opened possibilities for be aware of the challenges (and opportunities) future cooperation to foster new organisational the new openness for public engagement and forms in connecting scientific and civil society. scientific citizenship offers for the future”. Science shops are still small entities and their activities benefit the local community, but At the 2nd Living Knowledge conference within a network they can reach a critical mass in Seville many examples have been given to to promote local challenges and experiences to improve citizens involvement in any participa- a broader level.

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Parallel Sessions

INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS

In the parallel sessions of this track cases of science and society interactions are presented. The parallel sessions intend to give some concrete examples of interactions between different type of stakeholders. It might give you ideas how to link with stakeholders your not linked with yet or how to improve or continue your links. All 4 parallel sessions in this track focus on different stakeholders; public administrations, NGOs, Research institutes and Science Shops.

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NGO CASES Participatory Assessment of Delivery of Public Services TOM THOMAS AND KARUNA SRIDHARAN

Praxis – Institute for Participatory Practices, New Delhi, India,

he participatory assessment of Govern- programmes, and giving people the oppor- Tment of Orissa’s (GoO) delivery of public tunity to evaluate the impact and benefits services was commissioned by the Poverty of the substantial public investments that it Task Force of Government of Orissa with sup- has made, is truly commendable. Indeed, if port from DFID, India. The findings from this the exercise can traverse its logical and full study are meant to feed into the Public Sector course, it would stand out as a pioneering Reforms programme underway in Orissa, effort in public accountability and responsi- through policy and planning for poverty reduc- ble (responsive as well) governance in the tion, and strategic decision making about al- subcontinent. In a wider context, the exercise location of financial resources. The exercise must be viewed as further democratizing our was viewed as contribution to strengthening governance processes. accountability and democratising governance Across locations and categories of partici- processes. pants, Panchayat was the institution perceived This review, through participatory ap- to be most important. The other top most im- proaches (implying activity participation of all portant institutions are the Hospital/ Health groups throughout the process of research) Centres, the Block office, PDS and School. sought to provide an insight into people’s Anganwadi, Veterinary services, Agriculture perceptions about government services, and office and the RI/Tahsil office form the middle seeks to understand the constraints of the category while the Forest office, Post Office, service providers in ensuring effective service Banks and Police form the lowest categories delivery. It is expected to help re-orient the in terms of importance. The five institutions focus of various investments and services, perceived to be most important - with the wherever found necessary, for promoting eco- exception of School - also figure as high on nomic and human development. The poverty corruption. task force would use the review findings to While the services do reach the poor, formulate recommendations for strengthening however inefficient it may be, it is the poor- (1) policy and planning for poverty reduction est who get disproportionately left out. Cor- and (2) strategic decision making about allo- ruption, caste discrimination (rampant in cation of financial resources. almost all institutions and services), physical This step, by the Government of Orissa, of distance to the services, predominantly male undertaking a review of it’s poverty reduction service providers and lack of participation and

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ownership were key cross institutional issues. students, availability of qualified and well The cost of corruption, caste discrimination, mannered health care provider, and assured physical distance etc. impact most severely employment at minimum wages emerged as on the poorest, pushing them further on a key issues. downward spiral, analysed during the course The main cause of land alienation identified of the study. by the people is dependency on moneylend- Views of service providers were captured in ers and inability to pay back loans because the study. Key factors affecting the provision of the exorbitant rates and low agriculture of efficient services include overwhelming productivity. Lack of access to formal credit workload and expectations (e.g. for angan- institutions and non possession of legal land wadi workers), lack of job clarity coupled with records exacerbate the situation lack of capacity and supervisory support (also The formation of Self Help Groups in some anganwadi workers), lack of infrastructure districts of the state has had a tremendous support for health care providers, lack of impact on the lives of not only the SHG mem- capacity building and gender sensitisation for bers but also the village that they belong to. women elected representatives, and unrealis- But at the same time it was found that only tic margins in PDS grain distribution. formation of SHGs does not help the cause of The study also focused on critical influ- empowerment, and clarity of purpose, local ences on people’s usage and satisfaction leadership, capacity building of workers and with services. Equal participation, primacy of members, and linkages with other govern- panchayat as provider of all basic necessities, ment agencies were among the key drivers ownership and access, flexibility and simple of effectiveness. procedures, checks on corruption, regular- Contrary to common perception, poorer ity of teachers and their ability to motivate people put more trust in government insti-

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tutions than NGOS. Key factors behind this programmes that offer a fair deal to its poor are notions of permanency and ownership and not leaving them to the harsh realities of (in spite of the physical and social distance social Darwinism that is at work in most third experienced by most of the people from the world market places. This State is mandated lower categories of well being). Aspects such to arbitrate in favour of its poor, for it realizes as flexibility, transparency, accountability and that the playing field to which it commits its participation imply key lessons that need to citizens, sans distinction, is unfavourably tilted be imbibed from the NGO and the private against its vast majority. A study of this nature sector. should be treated as yet another mirror that Source of most of the above suggestions is the people are holding to their government. people’s spirit of hope, optimism and positive The image reflected there in might not be flat- engagement with the state. The legitimacy of tering. But if the aim is to set standards and the State in an underdeveloped third world draw motivation from client feed back, there context like ours cannot be divorced from will be no dearth of pointers here. A state the survival exigencies of its underprivileged survives because its people need it. The poor majority. This is the rationale for a ‘welfare’ need it the most. state that intervenes in the economic life of the nation, designing and implementing

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CASES UNIVERSITIES & RESEARCH CENTRES Aprovechamiento didáctico de algunos fenómenos físicos expuestos, como ac- tividades, en espacios sociales interacti- vos dedicados a la difusión científica“ ROCÍO QUIJANO LÓPEZ, MIGUEL PÉREZ FERRA, LUIS C. VIDA SAGRISTA Y Mª. TERESA OCAÑA MORAL.

Universidad de Jaén, e-mail: [email protected]

La difusión de la Ciencia no se encuentra restringida al ámbito educativo escolar, hoy en día la sociedad ha creado espacios de comunicación que permiten una estrecha relación entre ambas (Sociedad-Ciencia). En estos lugares de difusión científica el aprendizaje tiene unas características especiales, es un proceso individualizado que no puede ser impuesto. El individuo que llega a estos espacios lo hace de forma espontánea, influyendo en el aprendizaje sus experiencias, conocimientos previos e intereses particulares.Como reto importante se puede plantear cómo apoyar a la difusión del conocimiento científico desde instituciones de divulgación social. Es difícil seleccionar los conteni- dos que se exponen y los materiales para que sean los más idóneos y puedan cumplir los objetivos didácticos marcados por los diseñadores de módulos interactivos en estos espacios marcados por la difusión científica a una sociedad vasta y heterogénea. Para nuestro trabajo hemos escogido diferen- tes fenómenos físicos y la resolución de determinados problemas mediante elementos interactivos que podemos observar en diferentes espacios cerrados dedicados a la difusión de la Ciencia. Estos giran en torno a un tema de crucial importancia: las máquinas. Es fundamental porque desde la Educación Primaria se trabaja la relación entre máquinas y la sociedad en que vivimos. Hemos seleccionado esos temas ya que en los contenidos de las etapas de Enseñanza Obligatoria se incluye el estudio de los mismos. Basamos este trabajo en el estudio realizado para comprobar la posibilidad del aprovechamiento didáctico de dicho material y su relación con los diferentes conteni- dos reflejados en el Diseño Curricular propuesto por la L.O.G.S.E.

Las maquinas y la sociedad · Agregado de diversas partes ordenadas entre sí y dirigidas a la formación de un todo. Buscando el significado de máquina, nos en- · Traza, proyecto de pura imaginación. contramos con múltiples acepciones, de las cuales seleccionamos las siguientes: Si observamos en diversos Museos de Cien- · Artificio para aprovechar, dirigir o regular la cias -centros de difusión de la ciencia- podemos acción de una fuerza. encontrarnos con aparatos que nos muestran

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diferentes fenómenos físicos como el Efecto Ven- de diferentes fenómenos físicos y químicos. turi, la Presión Hidrostática, Sistemas de Poleas, Estas experiencias se disponen a medida que diversos tipos de Engranajes, Arcos Catenarios, tienen un grado de implicación elevado en a Circuitos Eléctricos, etc. Estos artefactos, normal- conceptos esenciales y desde un punto de vista mente, llevan indicado en unas leyendas ¿cómo científico; conceptos tan importantes como la funcionan? e intentan conseguir en el visitante electricidad, magnetismo, temperatura,…. una reflexión sobre lo que pensaban que ocurriría al ponerlo en funcionamiento y ¿qué es lo que Estudio comparativo de los conteni- realmente ha ocurrido?. Estas explicaciones son dos de „Las maquinas y la sociedad“ muy significativas porque, a través de ellas, se propuestos por la L.O.G.S.E. y los que pretende cambiar unas actitudes negativas y un ofrecen los espacios interactivos tanto hostiles hacia la ciencia. En los Museos de Ciencias y en los centros Según el tratamiento que la L.O.G.S.E. da a este escolares se aúnan características -divulgación, tema en Educación Primaria y Educación Secun- difusión de contenidos, experimentación, etc.- daria, observamos una presencia amplia de estos que desarrollan y consolidan cambios de actitud contenidos. De tal modo que se han de desarrol- favorables hacia la visión de la ciencia y su rela- lar capacidades en los tres niveles de Educación ción con la sociedad. Primaria; en los cuatro cursos de Educación Opinamos al igual que afirman Benayas y Secundaria en diferentes áreas de conocimiento; Marcén (1995) que „El desarrollo de los valo- en esta última etapa se desarrollan capacidades res es principalmente un proceso social y se tanto para la asignatura de Ciencias de la Natura- va forjando progresivamente en las personas“, leza, Tecnología y Física y Química. incluyendo en estos valores el cambio de ac- Podemos observar los contenidos que se ven titudes negativas hacia un positivismo en las reflejados en el REAL DECRETO 830/2003, por actuaciones y reflexiones del individuo. el que se establece que la Educación Primaria A edades tempranas es importante que se contribuirá a desarrollar en niños con una edad refuerce este desarrollo en valores y cambio de comprendida entre los siete y los doce años las actitudes con actividades que se realicen fuera siguientes capacidades: del centro escolar, interaccionando con activida- g) Conocer los aspectos fundamentales de las des lúdico-científicas que se encuentran en su Ciencias de la Naturaleza, la Geografía, la entorno social. Historia y la Cultura. Lo difícil de dichas actividades es conseguir i) Desarrollar el espíritu emprendedor, fomen- que estén adaptadas a los distintos niveles de tando actitudes de confianza en uno mis- desarrollo psicosocial del visitante. Aunque con mo, sentido crítico, creatividad e iniciativa bastante frecuencia se consigue despertar el in- personal. terés suficiente como para provocar curiosidad j) Iniciarse en la utilización, para el aprendizaje, y la participación del público. de las tecnologías de la información y de las Es una norma generalizada, o debiera ser- comunicaciones. lo, que en Museos y Parques de Ciencia se proponga mediante elementos interactivos la Íntimamente relacionada con el desarrollo resolución de problemas y la experimentación de dichas capacidades está la tabla que a con-

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tinuación presentamos, en ella se refleja una tas disciplinas, matemáticas y científicas, y relación entre los diferentes ciclos de Educación conocer y aplicar los métodos para identi- Primaria, los contenidos -que se aproximan al ficar los problemas en los diversos campos tema „las máquinas“- que se deben trabajar en del conocimiento y de la experiencia, para su los mismos y las actividades que se plantean, en resolución y para la toma de decisiones. espacios interactivos cerrados, en conexión con h) Adquirir una preparación básica en el campo los preescriptivos de la L.O.G.S.E.: de las tecnologías, fundamentalmente medi- Así mismo, los contenidos que se ven refle- ante la adquisición de las destrezas relacio- jados en el REAL DECRETO 831/2003, por el nadas con las tecnologías de la información que se establece que la Educación Secundaria y de las comunicaciones, a fin de usarlas en contribuirá a desarrollar en niños con una edad el proceso de aprendizaje, para encontrar, comprendida entre los trece y los dieciseis años analizar, intercambiar y presentar la informa- las siguientes capacidades: ción y el conocimiento adquiridos. f) Concebir el conocimiento científico como un i) Consolidar el espíritu emprendedor desarrol- saber integrado, que se estructura en distin- lando actitudes de confianza en uno mismo,

DESARROLLO DE CAPACIDADES- EDUCACIÓN PRIMARIA ACTIVIDADES EN CENTROS IN- CICLO CONTENIDOS SEGÚN LA L.O.G.S.E. TERACTIVOS

10. La ciencia y la sociedad: importancia de los avances científicos El principio de Arquímedes Máquinas simples Primer ciclo para mejorar la calidad de vida. Grandes investigadores, invento- Palancas res y científicos. Importantes descubrimientos e inventos que han Poleas y polipastos hecho avanzar la Humanidad. 10. Máquinas y aparatos. La palanca: funcionamiento, tipos de palan- Máquinas simples Segundo ciclo Palancas cas y sus diferentes usos y aplicaciones más frecuentes. 5. La ciencia: presente y futuro de la sociedad. En la cultura y el ocio: el libro (papel, tintas); el arte (pinturas y colorantes); la música (cintas y discos compactos); el cine (fotografía, vídeo y DVD); el deporte (materiales más flexibles y fuertes). En el hogar y la vida diaria: fibras textiles, pinturas de paredes y cosméticos. En el transporte: neumáticos, air bag, nuevos materiales del automóvil a las naves especiales. En la informática y telecomunicaciones: Circuitos eléctricos Giroscopio chips, CD-Roms, soportes magnéticos y fibra óptica. En la Máquinas simples Tercer ciclo construcción: materiales aislantes y barnices. Palancas Engranajes 8. Máquinas y aparatos en la vida cotidiana. Tipos de máquinas y sus Poleas y polipas-tos usos más frecuentes. Utilización de aparatos y compuestos. Elec- tricidad, herramientas mecánicas, medios informáticos, productos químicos, radiactividad. Beneficios y riesgos de las nuevas tecno- logías y productos. Medidas de prevención. Primeros auxilios. 11. Concepto de energía. Fuentes de energía y materias primas. Ener- gías renovables y no renovables. Desarrollo sostenible.

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el sentido crítico, la iniciativa personal y la de la cultura o en la ocupación del tiempo libre capacidad para planificar, tomar decisiones y -aparatos de música, televisión, video juegos, asumir responsabilidades. ordenador, teléfono,…- y que se fundamentan en una base científica. Al igual que en la tabla anterior, en las que En cambio en Educación Secundaria el a continuación presentamos se relaciona con el desarrollo de ciertas áreas de conocimiento, en desarrollo de las mas arriba mencionadas cap- concreto a la de Ciencias de la Naturaleza o, acidades, en ella se refleja una relación entre dependiendo del centro, a Física y Química y a los diferentes cursos de Educación Secundaria, Tecnología (esto, obviamente, atendiendo a los los contenidos -que se aproximan al tema departamentos de los centros escolares). „las máquinas“- que se deben trabajar en los En cuanto al tratamiento del tema „máquinas mismos y las actividades que se plantean, en sociedad“ en los centros interactivos, es decir, en espacios interactivos cerrados, en conexión con Parques y Museos de Ciencias, observamos que los preescriptivos de la L.O.G.S.E.: hay salas muy saturadas de actividades y otras Comprobamos, claramente, cómo en Edu- en las que sólo se dispone de zonas de obser- cación Primaria el tratamiento de capacidades vación. Ambas situaciones, extremas, no son del hasta conseguir su desarrollo lleva un carácter todo adecuadas ya que en aquellas en las que de interdisciplinariedad implícito, pues no pode- se exponen modelos de diferentes maquinarias mos diferenciar determinados artefactos -como de distintas épocas -dependiendo de la edad del los circuitos eléctricos, engranajes, etc.-, en su observador-, el resultado se puede volver en con- relación con materias de conocimiento del tra de los objetivos fijados por los organizadores medio, bien natural o social, y con la ocupación de la misma. Es decir, si es demasiado joven y del tiempo libre mediante el ocio y la cultura no le interesan estos temas casi pasará sin mirar pues van imbrincados entre sí. Hay muchas y detenerse en los estantes (o exposición). En maquinarias que se emplean en el desarrollo ese momento lo relacionan con una sala típica

DESARROLLO DE CAPACIDADES- EDUCACIÓN SECUNDARIA ACTIVIDADES EN CENTROS IN- CURSO CONTENIDOS SEGÚN L.O.G.S.E. TERACTIVOS 3. Estructuras y mecanismos.—Estructuras resistentes: Estructuras de barras. Triangulación. Esfuerzos básicos. Elementos resistentes. Aplicaciones. Circuitos eléctricos Arcos catenarios 4. Electricidad y electrónica.—Circuito eléctrico: funcionamiento. Elemen- Máquinas simples Tecnología - 1er tos. Circuito en serie y paralelo. Efectos de la corriente eléctrica: luz Palancas curso y calor. Aplicaciones. Engranajes Poleas y polipastos 7. Tecnología y sociedad.—La tecnología como respuesta a las necesida- Presión hidrostática des humanas: fundamentación del quehacer tecnológico. El proceso inventivo y de diseño. 3. Estructuras y mecanismos.—Mecanismos de transmisión y transforma- ción de movimientos. Relación de transmisión. Aplicaciones. Circuitos eléctricos Giroscopio Tecnología – 2º 4. Electricidad y electrónica.—Circuito eléctrico: magnitudes eléctricas Palancas curso básicas. Simbología. Efectos de la corriente eléctrica: electromagne- Engranajes tismo. Aplicaciones. Máquinas eléctricas básicas: dinamo y motor de Poleas y polipastos corriente continua.

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de museo en la que el espectador sólo ha de En aquellas zonas de los parques interactivos utilizar su visión. Quizás si se intentase poner en los que hay muchas actividades, bien rela- paneles en los que se relacionasen fenómenos cionadas por el mismo fundamento científico, físico-químicos con la obtención y aplicación o bien por distintos, el visitante se agota física en una máquina -junto con su evolución, si la y mentalmente al realizar tantas actividades en hubiese- cumplirían un objetivo más de estas poco tiempo y no se consigue la interiorización exposiciones „ampliar y desarrollar la capacidad de los conceptos, procedimientos y actitudes de relación entre la teoría y su aplicación“. que se perseguían al diseñar las actividades.

DESARROLLO DE CAPACIDADES- EDUCACIÓN SECUNDARIA ACTIVIDADES EN CEN- CURSO CONTENIDOS SEGÚN L.O.G.S.E. TROS INTERACTIVOS 1. Los sistemas materiales y la energía.—Sistemas materiales. Escalas de observación macro y microscópica. La energía como propiedad de los sistemas materiales. Variación de la energía en los sistemas materiales: cambio de posición, forma y estado. Tipos de energía. Fuentes de energía. La Tierra: un sistema material en continuo cambio. Giroscopio Ciencias de la 2. Los cambios de posición en los sistemas materiales. Representación gráfica de Palancas Naturale-za- 2º movimientos sencillos. Las fuerzas como causa del movimiento y la deforma- Poleas y polipastos curso ción. Masa y peso de los cuerpos. Energía mecánica.

3. La energía que percibimos.—Propagación de la luz y el sonido. Diferencias entre ellas. Otros tipos de ondas. Percepción de la luz y del sonido: el ojo y el oído. El calor: energía en tránsito. Efectos. Calor y temperatura. Los termómetros. Propa- gación del calor. Aislantes y conductores. Percepción del calor: la piel. 7. Electricidad.—Cargas eléctricas y su interacción. Física y Química Circuitos eléctricos Campo eléctrico. Conductores y aislantes. Flujo de cargas, generadores y corriente 3er curso Giroscopio eléctrica. Circuitos eléctricos sencillos. La electricidad en casa. I. Fuerzas y energías. Potencia 2. Movimientos y fuerzas.—Trayectoria y posición. Batería Humana Desplazamiento y espacio recorrido. Velocidad y aceleración. Interacciones entre los El principio de Arquí- cuerpos. Tipos de fuerzas. Leyes de la Dinámica. Tratamiento cualitativo de la medes fuerza de rozamiento. Gravitación. Peso de los cuerpos. Giroscopio Física y Química Máquinas simples 4º curso – op- 3. Fuerzas en fluidos.—Concepto de presión. Presiones hidrostática y atmosférica. Palancas ción A Aplicaciones. Pascal y la multiplicación de la fuerza. Arquímedes y la flotación de Engranajes barcos y globos. Tensión superficial. Poleas y polipastos Viscosidad 4. Trabajo y energía.—Trabajo mecánico. Aplicación a máquinas y herramientas. Presión hidrostática Potencia. Energía mecánica. Principio de conservación. Energías tradicionales. Efecto Venturi Fuentes de energía. Energías alternativas. Degradación de la energía. 2. Las fuerzas y su equilibrio.—Interacciones entre los cuerpos: fuerzas. Sus tipos. Composición y descomposición de fuerzas de la misma dirección y angulares. Potencia Equilibrio de fuerzas. Leyes de la Dinámica. Tratamiento cualitativo de la fuerza Batería Humana de rozamiento. Fuerza gravitacional. Peso de los cuerpos. Concepto de presión. El principio de Arquí- Fuerzas en el interior de los fluidos. Presiones hidrostática y atmosférica. medes Física y Química Arcos catenarios 4º curso – op- 3. Trabajo, potencia y energía mecánica.—Concepto de trabajo. Unidades. Trabajo Máquinas simples ción B mecánico. Aplicación a máquinas y herramientas. Concepto de Potencia. Energía Palancas mecánica. Principio de conservación. Engranajes Poleas y polipastos 4. Intercambios de energía.—Calor y transferencia de energía. Principio de conserva- Presión hidrostática ción de la energía. Efectos del calor sobre los cuerpos.

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Conclusiones fenómeno o contenido científico que se ap- lica en una determinada actividad (se busca El aprendizaje de la Ciencia mediante la difusión una reflexión sobre lo que pensaba que científica no formal, es decir, mediante la realiza- ocurriría el visitante y lo que realmente pasa ción de experiencias fuera del aula tras conocer al poner en funcionamiento la actividad). previamente los conocimientos, creencias e · El aprovechamiento didáctico de algunos de intereses particulares del niño, tiene característi- los módulos es tal que, podríamos afirmar cas especiales al ser un proceso individualizado, que, se cumple el siguiente objetivo „Iden- no impuesto y espontáneo. En función de estas tificar, conocer y valorar la contribución que connotaciones podemos afirmar lo siguiente: los recursos tecnológicos prestan al desar- · Este sistema para reforzar contenidos cientí- rollo del medio, así como la medida en que ficos tiene un potencial didáctico enorme. El satisfacen algunas necesidades humanas niño de diferentes edades que visite estos (alimentación, información, comunicación) centros desarrollan la capacidad de relación formulando en cada caso el juicio crítico más entre contenidos científicos y su aplicabilidad acorde con la realidad, adoptando posicio- en la sociedad en la que viven. nes favorables hacia su orientación pacifista · Existe una fuerte concordancia entre los y obtención de una mejor calidad de vida. contenidos reflejados en el Diseño Curricular propuesto por la L.O.G.S.E. y los expuestos en estos centros interactivos. · El acúmulo y concentración de actividades Referencias bibliográficas en un espacio reducido provocan el can- sancio y rechazo de su realización por el AGUILERA, I. y QUIJANO, R. (2002). „Adecua- visitante y didácticamente no se desarrolla la ción didáctica de los módulos de temática construcción del conocimiento, pretendido, Medioambiental en Museos de Ciencia euro- mediante la interiorización de contenidos. peos“. En „Museos de Ciencia ante el públi- · La información no siempre se presenta en co“. Salamanca. Universidad de Salamanca. una zona claramente iluminada, en algunos http://cianciaantepublico.usal.es casos es escasa. ALLEN, S. (1997). Using Scientific Inquiry Activi- · Los contenidos observados en estos espa- ties in Exhibit Explanatios. Science Education. cios interactivos no formales se expresan Phoenix. Vol. 81, nº 6. pp.: 715-733. de forma clara y con un lenguaje sencillo y BENAYAS, J. y MARCÉN, C. (1995). La Educa- comprensible para todas las edades. ción Ambiental como desencadenante del · Para que la asunción de conceptos sea efec- cambio de actitudes ambientales. I Jornadas tiva se requiere la intervención del profesor, sobre actitudes y educación ambiental. Edit. que se prepare la visita previamente y que se Perales, F. J.; Gutiérrez, J. y Álvarez, P. Univ. trabaje en el aula lo observado y experimen- de Granada. pp.: 132-156. tado en los centros interactivos. (Es uno de BROUARD, M. A. y POL MÉNDEZ, E. (1998). La los objetivos principales que persiguen los comprensión de los contenidos del museo. Museos y Parques de Ciencias). Didáctica de las Ciencias Sociales, Geografía · Es acertado el procurar una reflexión sobre el e Historia. Nº 15. pp.: 15-30.

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CONSEJERÍA DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA DE ternacional. París. UNESCO. Nº 195, vol. 49, LA JUNTA DE ANDALUCÍA. (1992). „Decreto nº. 3. pp.: 26-27. 105/1992, de 9 de junio, por el que se esta- blecen las Enseñanzas correspondientes a la Educación Primaria en Andalucía“. (BOJA nº 56 de 20 de junio de 1992). FISHER, M. S. (1997). The effect of humor on learning in a Planetarium. Science Education. Phoenix. Vol. 81, nº 6. pp.: 703-713. PÉREZ, C.; DÍAZ, Mº. P.; ECHEVARRÍA, I.; MO- RENTIN, M. y CUESTA, M. (1998). Centros de Ciencia. Espacios interactivos para el apren- dizaje. País Vasco. Servicio de la editorial de la Universidad del P. Vasco. QUIJANO, R. y AGUILERA, I. (2002). „Erosionó- metro: Aplicación didáctica en las primeras etapas de la enseñanza obligatoria“. En GÓMEZ y LÓPEZ (Eds.): „La Ciencia en la Educación Infantil y Primaria“. Madrid. CSIC y Grupo de Didáctica del Imaff. QUIJANO, R. y AGUILERA, I. (2002). „Papel didáctico de los paneles de exposición fo- tográfica en los Parques de las Ciencias“. En GÓMEZ y LÓPEZ (Eds.): „La Ciencia en la Educación Infantil y Primaria“. Madrid. CSIC y Grupo de Didáctica del Imaff. QUIJANO, R. y AGUILERA, I. (2003). Los Mu- seos de Ciencias como herramienta didácti- ca: el papel de los módulos interactivos en el estudio de las estrategias de adaptación de los seres vivos. Jaén. Guadalbullón, nº: 11. Pp.: 11-24. REAL DECRETO 830/2003 (2003). „B.O.E. nº 157, por el que se establecen las enseñanzas comunes de la Educación Primaria“. REAL DECRETO 831/2003 (2003). „B.O.E. nº 158, por el que se establecen la ordenación general y las enseñanzas comunes de la Educación Secundaria“. TERRY, C. J. (1997). Los museos de tecnología del Canadá se ponen en línea. Museum In-

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CASES UNIVERSITIES & RESEARCH CENTRES Gender and Science Anxiety: Research and Action JEFFRY V. MALLOW

Physics Department, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

ver twenty five years ago, I coined the ety Questionnaire is the instrument used in all Oterm „science anxiety,“ and co-founded of our subsequent research studies. with psychologists the first Science Anxiety Cli- Typically 2/3 of the Science Anxiety Clinic nic, at Loyola University Chicago1. Science anxi- clientele was female. Studies have shown that ety usually manifests itself as panic in science science anxiety begins as soon as children start classes, but is distinct from test or performance to learn science: age eight or lower in the U.S., anxiety, and from math anxiety. Techniques and that greater science anxiety among girls developed in the Science Anxiety Clinic reduce begins at the same time8. science anxiety by blending three separate ap- proaches: science skills learning, changing of A group of Danish female physics teachers, students‘ negative self-thoughts, and desensiti- under the title Piger og Fysik [Females and Phy- zation (through muscle relaxation exercises) to sics] was doing similar work with female stu- science anxiety producing scenarios2. dents9. In 1991, as Guest Professor at Roskilde University, Denmark, I investigated whether sci- The first studies were carried out with students ence anxiety was (1) related to gender, and (2) at the Loyola University Science Anxiety Clinic3,4. varied across national lines, between American The instruments were four questionnaires, for and Danish students10. In both national groups, math anxiety5, general anxiety6, test anxiety7, females scored higher on a variety of science and science anxiety3. The students‘ muscle anxiety measures than did males. Science anxi- tension was also measured by electromyography ety proved also to be related to general anxiety while they pictured science anxiety scenarios. and to field of study, with nonscience students having more anxiety. For those students who The Science Anxiety Questionnaire asks expressed „acute“ science anxiety; viz., who students to imagine themselves in certain gave „much“ or „very much“ responses to one situations and to rate their level of anxiety on or more of the science items, Danish females a 5-degree scale: „not at all,“ „a little,“ „a fair and males registered lower anxiety than their amount,“ „much,“ and „very much.“ Items are American counterparts. Furthermore, Danish evenly divided between science and nonsci- females registered lower than American males. ence content, with emphasis on analogous These results suggest several conclusions. First, situations; e.g., studying for a physics exam vs. there is no „natural“ female tendency towards studying for a history exam. The Science Anxi- science anxiety. Second, remediation attempts

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that are effective for one gender or nationality ther possibility is that Danish students keep the should be effective for both. This has been same teachers throughout primary school; this shown to be the case in the American science relationship itself might build confidence. Note, anxiety clinic2,3,4 and in the Danish classroom9. however, that neither greater exposure nor clo- Danish gymnasium students gave me writ- ser relationship to the teacher reduces gender ten comments on why they had chosen to differences in science confidence. These dif- study humanities („language line“) or science ferences play a substantial role in enrollment („math line“). The math line in gymnasium is differences internationally in science programs evenly populated by both genders, while the of study14. language line is almost all females, many of whom chose it to avoid science. I also inter- My co-workers and I then examined the viewed Danish university science students, effect of an introductory physics course on focusing on gender issues in their educational science anxiety15. Our cohort consisted of experiences11. Female students still tend to- Loyola University students enrolled in physics ward biology and chemistry, avoiding physics courses for nonscience students, for pre-health in much greater proportions than do males. profession and biology students, for chemistry From their responses, it appears that females‘ students, and for physics and pre-engineering selection of science study, while increasing, is students. The science anxiety questionnaire still made in the face of gender related obstac- was administered unannounced on both the les, albeit not overt discrimination. first day (pre-test) and last day (post-test) of each class. This study reconfirmed that the In a subsequent investigation12 I considered strongest predictor of science anxiety is gene- whether the nature of science teaching plays a ral anxiety; the next strongest is gender. Our role in national differences in science anxiety. pre- and post-test results showed that an in- The American Association of Physics Teachers troductory physics course tended to somewhat workshop, Developing Student Confidence in reduce acute science and general anxiety. We Physics13 includes a teachers‘ Personal Self-In- also found that students in an interactive phy- ventory questionnaire describing various class- sics course16 taught by a person of their own room scenarios, and asking teachers to select gender reaped some additional benefit. Finally, their most likely responses. The inventory was we discovered that anxious females tended administered at national meetings of both the to stay in their physics courses, while anxious Danish Association of Physics Teachers (Fysikl- males tended to drop out. Frerforeningen) and the American Association of Physics Teachers. Danish and American Our most recent study examined science teaching practices sampled by the question- anxiety among university nonscience stu- naire did not differ significantly, and therefore dents17. We administered the Science Anxiety could not account for the lower Danish science Questionnaire to several hundred humani- anxiety. One possible explanation may simply ties, social science, mathematics, business, be that the constant exposure to science from education, and nursing students who were the early school years makes Danish students taking science courses. Our results show that more confident than American students. Ano- nonscience students, both female and male,

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are more generally anxious and more science ment of Science-Anxious College Students, anxious than science students, with very high Ph. D. dissertation, Loyola U. Chicago. percentages in nursing and in education (our 5. Richardon, R. C. and Suinn, R. M. (1972). future teachers). The Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale: In our current work, we are investigating Psychometric Data. J. Couns. Psych. 19: whether there is a correlation between 551-554. constructivism and science anxiety and gender. 6. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., and Lu- We are designing and testing a 5-degree-scale shene, R. E. (1970). STAI Manual for the questionnaire („strongly agree“ to „strongly State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Consulting disagree„) on constructivist beliefs, to be admi- Psychologist Press, CA. nistered to American and Danish students and 7. Alpert, R. and Haber, R. N. (1960). Anxiety teachers. The questionnaire includes, for ex- in Academic Achievement Situations. J. Ab- ample, statements such as „Physicists‘ current norm Psych. 61: 207-215. ideas about particles that make up the atom 8. Chiarelott, L. and Czerniak, C. (1985). Sci- will always be maintained as they are18“ and ence Anxiety Among Elementary School „Science reflects the social and political values Students: An Equity Issue. J. Educ. Equity of the culture in which it is practiced19.“ Should and Leadership 5: 291-308; (1987); constructivist beliefs prove to be correlated ----- Science Anxiety: Implications for Science with science anxiety, we shall be developing Curriculum and Teaching. The Clearing and proposing explicit classroom and external House 60: 202-205. techniques for teachers and advisers to help 9. Beyer, K., Blegaa, S., Olsen, B., Reich, J. and students examine how these beliefs may affect Vedelsby, M. (1988). Piger og Fysik (Fema- their feelings toward science. This should lead les and Physics [in Danish]), IMFUFA Texts, to implementation of learning strategies that Roskilde University Center, Roskilde, DK. make science more accessible to students, 10. Mallow, J. V. (1994). Gender-Related Sci- both female and male. ence Anxiety: A First Binational Study. J. Science Education and Technology 3: 227- 238. References 11. Mallow, J. V. (1993). The Science Learning Climate: Danish Female and Male Students‘ 1. Mallow, J. V. (1978). A Science Anxiety Pro- Descriptions. Contributions to the Seventh gram. Am. J. Physics 46: 862. GASAT Conference, Waterloo, CAN, 75-87. 2. Mallow, J. V. (1986). Science Anxiety, H&H 12. Mallow, J. V. (1995). Students‘ Confidence Publ., Clearwater, FL. and Teachers‘ Styles: A Binational Compari- 3. Alvaro, R. (1978). The Effectiveness of a Sci- son. Am. J. Physics 63: 1007-1011. ence-Therapy Program on Science-Anxious 13. Fuller, R., Agruso, S., Mallow, J., Nichols, Undergraduates, Ph. D. dissertation, Loyola D., Sapp, R., Strassenburg, A. and Allen, G. U. Chicago. (1985). Developing Student Confidence in 4. Hermes, J. (1985). The Comparative Effec- Physics, Amer. Assoc. of Physics Teachers, tiveness of a Science Anxiety Group and a College Park, MD. Stress Management Program in the Treat- 14. Mallow, J. V. (1998). Student Attitudes and

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Enrolments in Physics, with Emphasis on Gender, Nationality, and Science Anxiety. In Jensen, J. H., Niss, M., and Wedege, T. (eds.) Justification and Enrolment Problems in Education Involving Mathematics or Phy- sics, Roskilde U. Press, Roskilde, DK, 237- 258; Seymour, E. and Hewitt, N. (2000). Talking About Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences, Westview Press, Boulder, CO; Tobias, S., Urry, M., and Venkatesan, A. (2002). Physics: For Women, the Last Fron- tier. Science 296: 1201. 15. Udo, M. K., Ramsey, G. P., Reynolds-Alpert, S., and Mallow, J. V. (2001). Does Physics Teaching Affect Gender-Based Science An- xiety? J. Science Education and Technology 10: 237-247. 16. Hake, R. (1998). Interactive Engagement vs. Traditional Methods: A Six-Thousand Student Survey of Mechanics Test Data for Introductory Physics Courses. Am. J. Physics 66: 64-74. 17. Udo, M. K., Ramsey, G. P., and Mallow, J. V. (2004). Science Anxiety and Gender in Students Taking General Education Science Courses. J. Science Education and Techno- logy 13: 435-446. 18. VASS, Views About Sciences Survey (1996). http://modeling.la.asu.edu/R&E/ Research.html 19. NOS, Views of Nature of Science Questi- onnaire (2002). http://www.flaguide.org/ tools/diagnostic/views_of_nature_ questionnaire.php; http://www.flaguide.org/ tools/tools_discipline.php

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CASES SCIENCE SHOPS OR CBRS Environmental Protection and Democracy: The Eco-Social Studies Centre of the Uni- versity of La Laguna (Canary Islands) JOSÉ MANUEL DE CÓZAR-ESCALANTE AND JUAN SÁNCHEZ-GARCÍA

Centro de Estudios Ecosociales of the University of La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain

enerife, an island of ecological diversity and The creation, at the beginning of 2003, of the Tvaried landscapes, is under enormous envi- Eco-social Studies Centre of the University of La ronmental pressure from the development of Laguna (CEES), falls within this scenario of change transport infrastructures, coastal pollution and in the relations between the community and the mass tourism, among others. The current situa- University. The CEES is conceived as an interdisci- tion is the result of territorial interventions often plinary research centre whose objectives include responding to obsolete development models. spreading the knowledge acquired and fostering The situation is further aggravated by the fragi- eco-social values within the university, and also lity of its singular bio-geographical conditions. among institutions and civil society. Primarily, the After years of relative impasse, environmental Centre endeavours to act as an institutionalised concern among large social sectors is reacting crossroads between the university community, in- forcefully, materialising in a series of actions stitutions and civil society. The Centre is currently in addressed to halting environmental deteriorati- a consolidation process; its members are training on associated to the insufficiently democratic on community-based research methodologies, decision-making process. Representatives from transmitting these, in turn, to students interested different NGOs, associations and platforms are in socio-environmental issues, and enacting, with addressing the University for the start-up of re- the expected difficulties, different activities. search which would provide valid information to improve citizens’ participation processes in the The main activities organised specifically by the resolution of environmental problems. Centre (or in which it has co-operated directly) This demand would grant institutional form to include: the academic scientific community’s mesh of con- - Three editions of the “Environmental Policies cerns and initiatives. Growing citizens’ demands and Interdisciplinary Research” courses. similarly affect aspects of the research agenda Various Spanish experts have been invited and the development of mediation and commu- to participate in these and to relate their nication mechanisms. Consequently, research un- experiences on the issues at hand, with a derway is beginning to impinge on policy agenda, subsequent debate with the participants (re- as it is used by environmental groups as basis for searchers, students, civil servants and NGO arguing against certain environmental projects. members, mainly).

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- A series of symposiums by CEES members public policies in terms of: a) the quality of the on their respective specialities and concerns public decision-making process; and b) the de- - Two seminars: one by the Canadian philoso- gree of accomplishment of the environmental pher Thomas Heyd (“Ethics and Aesthetics tasks. This evaluation is being carried out from of Nature”); and another by Silvio Funtowicz, different perspectives: a) furthering democratic from the European Commission Joint Re- quality through the study of actual public par- search Centre in Italy (“Models of science & ticipation during public exposure period of the policy: from expert demonstration to exten- document and of the use of community bill initi- ded participation”) atives contained in the Spanish Constitution; b) - Conferences by non-academic exponents, determining the degree of accomplishment of for example, representatives of Greenpeace the regulatory frameworks through the study of or other NGOs, or by the Canary Director for the conflict between the ceremonial functions the Environment (maintenance of the status quo) and the instru- - Round table on environmental problems on mental ones (real solution of the problems) that the island of Tenerife are performed by those frameworks.; c) com- - A legal strategy workshop on eco-social paring the scientific and technical quality of the conflict with representatives from the main results obtained through public decision-making Spanish environmental groups (Ecologistas processes that take into account the different en Acción, Seo-Birdlife, Greenpeace, Fund- stakeholders’ interests and those in which the ación Nueva Cultura del Agua) decision-making process does not. - Public-participation forums on two important Environmental degradation, in this circum- public projects: the construction of an indus- stance, is not only a result of ignoring, or trial port and an incinerator in the south of misunderstanding, the relationship between the island. Experts from the University and economics and environment. It is also a result Public Administration were invited to express of the way decisions are made. Most of them their viewpoints and the public participated are made under authoritarian schemes: the through workgroups, questions and recom- solution comes before the public definition mendations. Co-ordination was by Laura of the problem; a single option that has been Zurita, of the Danish Board of Technology previously decided and is justified in retrospect; the weight of the evidence falls on the citizens; In regard to these initiatives, a crucial the solution is legitimised by non-independent aspect is the development of research projects experts; there is no documented public debate addressed to the community. One of these is (Aguilera 2003). Due to this situation, citizens PROTEA (Environmental Protection and the reject decisions on account of what Aguilera and Quality of Democracy). In tackling directly the Sánchez (2005) call NIMBY extended criteria: problem of democratic quality in environmental a) they say no to authoritarian solutions b) they issues, PROTEA is especially pertinent because say no because they broaden the notion of the it systematically highlights the difficulties in in- backyard to a region or a country, c) they say fluencing the policy agenda through research yes to another way of decision-making relying and social participation. The aim of the project on people and d) they say yes to a proper consists in the evaluation of local environmental definition of the problem to be solved. By ques-

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tioning the traditional expert counselling model, hardly sufficient resources) not only for ethical and political reasons but · The question of the future consolidation of also bearing in mind mere instrumental effec- CEES is subject to overcoming a series of tiveness, a new horizon of extended evaluation difficulties: in addition to the insufficiency of and responsibility is opened up. Evaluation and resources, there persists disciplinary deficit decision-making gives way to participation and given the social science background of the admission of responsibility on the part of civil majority of CEES members. There needs to society, especially by those citizens potentially be an increased link to biological and physi- affected by an action or situation. cal sciences and to engineering. There also In this context the most widespread result of exists the need to integrate more efficiently the promotion process for community-based re- the efforts of experts in different fields. The search is the start-up of a feedback mechanism institutionalisation of the CEES is incomplete where environmentally-aware groups are recei- because, although a legally recognised cen- ving specific and acceptably documented infor- tre within the university, it would have to be mation. Information which these groups had converted into a Research Institute in order been demanding and which they subsequently to carry out its tasks more effectively. Simul- use to defend the causes they consider just. taneously, the lack of participatory tradition, coupled with the distrust and even hostility Below we highlight some aspects of the CEES on the part of certain political and business constitution process which we consider impor- circles (important stakeholders) has to be tant: faced. In our opinion, this situation is similar · The convergence of NGO demands for sup- to those found in the rest of the country, with port and counselling from the University with some exceptions the existence in the university community of · Despite the difficulties, we wish emphasize environmental sensitivity and projects related that there are many past university experi- with the creation of debate platforms and ences in Tenerife which somehow involve improved communication vehicles for speci- co-operation and exchange with different alised information addressed to civil society, social groups before the creation of CEES. as well as receptivity on the part of academia This experience has generated an accumula- to social concerns. tion of know-how obtained by the university · The twofold condition of a significant number community in a series of interactions with of people as university professors and NGO social movements during at least two deca- activists (or, more generally, stakeholders). des. · The encounter between the University and society is produced principally around the Lastly, and in view of the above, a possible strong issues, regarding the development of involvement of CEES with a more extensive large infrastructures. network of centres with similar objectives and · The acceleration of infrastructure projects functions has to be considered. Living Know- has triggered off, in turn, the organisation of ledge magazine (No. 2, March 2004) already citizens’ protests, involving CEES in a spiral of featured a short article on the CEES, represen- rapid response to a multitude of issues (with ting a first step towards making it known in this

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field. However, a lot more could be done. For example, the centre could acquire further know- how from more consolidated experiences, and could become familiar with new opportunities to reinforce its functions and obtain resources. Moreover, in keeping with its possibilities, CEES can contribute towards processing and inter- changing the acquired know-how, to a greater or lesser extent, in all the centres involved in community-based research.

References:

AGUILERA-KLINK F (2003), “Gestión autoritaria versus gestión democrática del agua” Archi- piélago, nº 57, pp. 34-42. AGUILERA-KLINK F. AND SÁNCHEZ-GARCÍA J. (2005), “Environmental degradation as a result of democratic disruption: the Case of the Canary Islands”, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the European Society for Ecological Economics, Lisbon, 14-17, June 2005.

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OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS

In the parallel sessions of this track thematic examples of community based research projects are presented. Not all research themes do have the same opportunities for research co-operation. The parallel sessions intend to describe concrete examples of community based research and discuss options to improve thematic co-operations. All 5 parallel sessions in this track focus on different research themes; environmental sciences, social sciences, urban regeneration, technology, and health.

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OPPORTUNITIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Visualisation of Land-Use Changes in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany KRISCHAN OSTENRATH

Wissenschaftsladen Bonn / Bonn Science Shop, Bonn, Germany

n the previous decades, cities have shown the State of North Rhine?Westphalia. The project is Itendency to grow continuously, and general outlined in such a way that the largest number land?use patterns have tended to change ac- of citizens will have direct access to an abun- cording to people‘s needs, political changes, as dance of Information. The only prerequisite for well as economic developments. The current participation is access to the Internet. project involving the Bonn Science Shop („Wis- senschaftsladen Bonn“), the University of Bonn, The project‘s goal and additional partners vividly shows the dra- matic loss of green areas within the last thirty On the one hand, the Website will provide years, and the project suggests alternative citizens easier access to scientific findings and forms of land?use. At the end of the year 2004, satellite?mediated Information; an the other an extraordinary Website will be constructed hand, it will spark off a dialogue encouraging and working: Using satellite images and aerial alternative forms of land?use. That alternatives views, processes of change will be visualized via to current land?use policies are possible is ex- a central web Interface. In order to make com- emplified by several examples, ranging from the parison possible, land development at three unsealing of school?yard land surfaces all the distinct points in time (1975, 1984, 2001) can way to communal programs for the enhance- be put side by side. Users can get information ment of rain?water absorption & seepage. an the development of a distinct place. The This is the idea of the project: The massive Website provides information an current sealing up of the surface of the land will not be best?practice projects and scopes down to stopped only by the proclamation of a national some areas of special interest. These areas are strategy of Sustainability. Rather, this reduction typical for specific problems because of chan- can only be realized when people become ged land?use patterns. In general, these pro- conscious of the consequences that follow blems are not directly caused by urbanization from distinct forms of land?use. Only they who but by human interaction. Altogether, more comprehend how much their homeland has than ten areas have been chosen for detailed changed over the past years, who comprehend presentation. These areas are good examples of the specific consequences for human beings, land?use change and its consequences. Within animals and plants ? they who comprehend the- the next years, these areas could be starting se facts will act, so we hope, against further ex- points for testing the Website issues outside the cessive exploitation. To this end, the project will

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provide visual material and discussion?initiating participants can remain in dialogue with each material. other. Another web?based service, called „What The project is meant to initiate a broad dis- to do?“, suggests ways to engage, where to get cussion about sustainable forms of land?use, Information, and what to do in one‘s personal and it should encourage new forms of urban area. Altogether, the Website has been desig- planning. Concerned citizens, administrations, ned to motivate people to participate and to and local politicians will be provided with a inform them thoroughly to allow qualitative web?communication platform whereby dis- decision?making ? the base for successful par- cussions can be provoked and discussion ticipation.

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OPPORTUNITIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Valuing Crop Biodiversity on a Farm in Hungary BÁLINT BÁLAZS, Györgyi BELAa; György PATAKIab, Barbara BODORKÓSa

Environmental Social Science Research Group, Institute of Environmental and Landscape Management St. István University, ,Gödöllö, Hungary

his paper presents results from a qualitative, identify the important traits in seed choice and Tpolicy-oriented participatory research about to value the crop biodiversity perception of the farmers seed choice and management of crop local farmers, but also enabled us to understand biodiversity on Hungarian family farms. The how an effective conservation program for land- paper is the first attempt to reflect upon the races in the local economy could be designed. social impact as well as the scientific and demo- There are clear incentives for commercially- cratic value of the research. oriented farmers to use varieties released by the formal seed industry, but these do not fully Research findings presented in the paper serve the needs of small-scale farmers who also emerged from focus group discussions with grow crops for home consumption. Trade-offs small-scale farmers living in rural Hungary En- between profitability and public attributes em- vironmental Sensitive Areas and producing local bodied in farmers‘ seed are less visible. The crops and landraces (maize and /or beans) for seed choice of local farmers is asymmetric con- their own needs. The three study sites are buffer cerning various crops, maize and beans. As for zones of Environmental Sensitive Areas of rural maize, market oriented cultivation is dominant Hungary (Szatmár-Bereg, Dévaványa, Orség) because local varieties decreased since the in- representing micro-agroecosystems with semi- troduction of high yielding varieties. Only a few subsistence and small-scale farms and home farmers engage in experimentation with landra- gardens, containing altogether 32 landraces and ces. In case of beans, private-purpose cultivation cultivars of maize and beans. Our previous study is dominant and satisfies family consumption described the basic values farmers themselves needs. The traditional folk varieties and the lo- attach to agricultural biodiversity, and enhanced cally adapted cultivars are favoured and valued policy understanding of the role of Hungarian for its inheritance (patrimonial) value as being small farms and home gardens in agri-environ- part of the cultural heritage. mental programs. The analysis aimed at map- ping the indigenous knowledge of seed saving By identifying these motivations behind far- farmers in relation to local production traditions, mers‘ seed choice and by ranking the important work culture, consumption habits, social con- traits of landraces, this policy oriented research ditions of autonomy (seed exchange networks process will contribute to the empowerment of in the local community). The rural community local informal seed systems. settings provided appropriate frame not only to

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OPPORTUNITIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES La Formación de Competencias investi- gativas en la Educación superior de Co- lombia: Un análisis hermenéutico de la politíca de calidad estatal SERGIO TOBÓN AND ARIEL CÉSAR NÚÑEZ ROJAS

Sergio Tobón, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; Ariel César Núñez Rojas, Universidad de Manizales

Se presenta una investigación de tipo documental y de análisis del discurso sobre la formación de competencias investigativas en Colombia. Se expone como principal resultado que la formación de competencias investigativas en Colombia carece de coherencia teórica, pedagógica y epistemológica.

Introducción Metodología

La formación con base en competencias en la edu- Se ha analizado la forma cómo se emplea el cación superior de Colombia emerge a finales de concepto de competencias dentro del marco de la década del 90 dentro del marco de la reflexión la formación en investigación en los diferentes en torno a cómo evaluar los aprendizajes y mejorar documentos públicos en los cuales se establece la la calidad de la educación (Jurado, 2003), buscan- política de calidad para la educación superior de Co- do con ello superar las metodologías tradicionales lombia. La técnica ha sido el análisis del discurso, a basadas en la memorización, la acumulación y la partir del planteamiento de hipótesis orientadoras. repetición mecánica de datos, para privilegiar los procesos cognitivos, las habilidades y la resolución Resultados y discusión de problemas. Es así como la formación basada en competencias se ha venido implementando 1. La formación de competencias investigativas con un alto grado de publicidad sobre sus benefi- se está llevando a cabo en Colombia sin te- cios, pero con una escasa mirada reflexiva y crítica ner claridad frente a las condiciones históricas en torno a su coherencia epistemológica y teórica, que la determinan y la legitiman en el plano así como sobre las dinámicas sociales, políticas y académico y pedagógico: „Gran parte de la económicas que animan, facilitan y promueven comunidad educativa no se pregunta por qué su uso (Bacarat y Graziano, 2002). Acorde con aparece la palabra, ni por qué antes no era esto, el objetivo de la presente investigación ha importante, sino que cree descubrir con ella sido analizar críticamente el empleo del enfoque una falta en el pasado, incluso la explicación de formación de competencias investigativas en la de por qué ciertas fallas siempre habían educación superior de Colombia. persistido...hasta hoy, que felizmente serán

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superadas, pues ya hemos puesto a circular la ser el fundamento de la evaluación de los palabra“ (Bustamante, 2002, p. 13). De esta estudiantes, la capacitación de los docentes forma, se emplea un discurso que oculta sus y la transformación de los currículos. Tampo- condiciones históricas de producción. co hay claridad de la relación entre el actual enfoque de competencias (empleado en las 2. La formación de competencias investigativas políticas públicas de la educación superior ha llegado a la educación superior de Co- colombiana) y otras fuentes de éstas men- lombia y su uso prácticamente se ha hecho cionadas, a veces, en este ámbito, como irrenunciable, puesto que se habla todo el por ejemplo, la teoría de la inteligencia en tiempo de ellas y con ellas. Este enfoque ha psicología, la teoría crítica de Habermas o el entrado a la educación superior y se ha ligado enfoque de las competencias laborales. a una serie de discursos imperantes de gran impacto en la sociedad, tales como: moderni- Conclusión zación, desarrollo económico y competencia global. Es por ello que hablar de competen- Es necesario establecer un enfoque claro y co- cias en Colombia es hablar del texto legítimo herente en torno a qué se entiende por compe- y, por lo tanto, los proyectos pedagógicos y tencias investigativas e integrar dicho enfoque las transformaciones curriculares se están en la política de calidad de la educación supe- implementando en ausencia de análisis con- rior de Colombia, buscando un marco transdis- ceptuales y epistemológicos de éste enfoque. ciplinario que permita la construcción de una Basta mencionar la palabra competencias metateoría congruente de esta perspectiva. para captar la atención de cualquier auditorio y tener éxito en la venta de libros. Esto explica Referencias bibliográficas la notable ausencia de estudios e investigaci- ones críticas frente al ingreso de este enfoque Bacarat, M.P., y Graziano, N.A. (2002). ¿Sabe- en la educación superior del país y la manera mos de qué hablamos cuando usamos el como viene poniéndose en práctica. término competencias? En G. Bustamante et al. (Eds.), El concepto de competencia 3. En los documentos que dieron origen al II: Una mirada interdisciplinar. Bogotá: Socie- ingreso del enfoque de las competencias dad Colombiana de Pedagogía. a la educación superior se menciona que Bogoya, D. (1999). Hacia una cultura de la eva- éste partió de la lingüística (Bogoya, 1999) luación para el siglo XXI. Bogotá: Universidad teniendo como base los conceptos de com- Nacional de Colombia. petencia lingüística y competencia comuni- Bustamante, G. (2002). La moda de las com- cativa. Sin embargo, no hay una explicación petencias. En G. Bustamante et al. (Eds.), El clara, lógica, epistemológica y teórica de por concepto de competencia II: Una mirada in- qué un concepto sacado de las ciencias del terdisciplinar (pp. 11-35). Bogotá: Sociedad lenguaje se ha integrado a otras áreas dis- Colombiana de Pedagogía. ciplinares disímiles como las matemáticas, Jurado, F. (2003). El doble sentido del concepto las ciencias naturales, las ciencias sociales competencia. Magisterio, Educación y Peda- y humanas, etc. ni tampoco por qué puede gogía, 1, 14-16.

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OPPORTUNITIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES La ciencia social al servicio de la gobernan- za en la sociedad del conocimiento. BLANCA MIEDES UGARTE, DOLORES REDONDO TORONJO

Observatorio Local de Empleo, Universidad de Huelva, Huelva, Spain

as autoras apoyan las siguientes reflexiones no gubernamentales, comunidades vecinales, Len su experiencia de más de diez años en etc.). Así pues, los procesos mediante los cu- un centro de investigación (Observatorio Local ales la acción pública promueve el desarrollo de Empleo de la Universidad de Huelva) que territorial se han hecho más complejos: sobre trabaja en proyectos de investigación-acción un mismo territorio actúan diferentes niveles relacionados con diferentes aspectos del desar- de gobierno cuyas competencias y funciones a rollo sostenible en el marco de acciones territo- menudo no respetan el principio de subsidiari- riales de ámbito local, regional, nacional y, o, edad; por otro lado, aparecen nuevos actores europeo. Durante este periodo se han podido y correlaciones de fuerza produciéndose un fu- observar profundas transformaciones en la ac- erte desarrollo de redes decisionales mixtas de ción territorial promovida por los poderes públi- geometría variable entre lo público y lo privado. cos debidas a los procesos de descentralización Esta mayor complejidad remite al concepto de la acción del Estado y de trasferencia de de gobernanza, entendida ésta como el sistema competencias a regiones y comunidades loca- de reglas procesos y prácticas que determinan les, a la sectorialización de las políticas públicas cómo los poderes son ejercidos. Instituciones y al desarrollo de la gestión por proyectos con internacionales como la OCDE o la propia UE base territorial. El proceso de integración euro- han dedicado bastantes esfuerzos al análisis pea, también ha traído consigo importantes de esta cuestión durante los últimos años, cambios, especialmente en los territorios re- coincidiendo en que para satisfacer los requeri- ceptores de fondos, en los que se ha producido mientos de una sociedad democrática, logrando cierta confluencia en torno a los principios y que los ciudadanos se identifiquen con las solu- métodos de acción propuestos por la UE. Así ciones ofrecidas por los poderes públicos y que los principios de multidimensionalidad los intereses dispersos de los actores sociales (enfoque equilibrado), partenariado y participa- se conviertan en cauces de acción cooperati- ción han ido calando con mayor o menor inten- vos, la gobernanza debe cumplir los principios sidad en las prácticas sobre el terreno. de transparencia, participación, responsabilidad, Una consecuencia importante de esto es coherencia y coordinación. que el desarrollo de estos principios ha dado Uno de los principales retos a los que se una mayor entrada a agentes privados de muy enfrentan las ciencias sociales hoy día es la de diferente naturaleza en la gestión de los asuntos satisfacer la demanda social de conocimientos y públicos (empresas, sindicatos, organizaciones tecnologías aplicables que faciliten el desarrollo

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de esta gobernanza en el contexto de la actual diendo la mera yuxtaposición de visiones, Sociedad de Conocimiento. Esta necesidad ha muy poco reveladora, falta de transparencia de ser cubierta al menos en dos niveles: en y que hace ininteligible los resultados de la primer lugar, se trata de esclarecer, a partir de la investigación para los que los deben usar. experiencia de las prácticas de investigación-ac- - Concertación: la investigación ha de plani- ción ya realizadas, cómo la investigación en cien- ficarse, concebirse y diseñarse en función cias sociales y humanas contribuye a mejorar la de las necesidades territoriales previamente gobernanza de un territorio (mediante el impulso concertadas con los actores públicos y de los principios previamente discutidos) promo- privados. El análisis pluridimensional ha de viendo con ello el desarrollo territorial sostenible. ser realizado sobre una base científica, pero Pero también, en sentido inverso, se trata de pre- interpretado y reevaluado a la luz de las cisar, cómo el respeto a estos principios condici- distintas perspectivas y necesidades de los ona los procesos de investigación, los métodos, actores implicados en el desarrollo territo- la utilización de los instrumentos de análisis de rial. La producción científica social (teórica, las informaciones territoriales y comunitarias, así aplicada, técnica) directamente aplicable al como los resultados logrados. desarrollo sostenible no sólo ha de probar su En este último punto, la idea de partida pertenencia y utilidad, además ha de lograr del análisis es que para favorecer modos de generar visiones compartidas recogiendo la gobernanza que potencie la ciudadanía en una formulación de expectativas y estrategias de sociedad democrática, no es suficiente que las los actores y agentes. Esto facilita la resolu- ciencias sociales y humanas generen producci- ción de conflictos por parte de actores estra- ones teóricas que satisfagan todos los criterios tégicos relacionados, permite fijar agendas y de calidad científica, ni herramientas de impeca- fortalecer las coaliciones. El desarrollo de pro- bles cualidades técnicas. Es necesario, además, cesos de investigación-acción que impliquen que estos conocimientos y estas herramientas a partenariados más o menos amplios se se desarrollen a la medida de las necesidades y hace imprescindible desde esta perspectiva. proyectos de los actores; han de convertirse en - Cooperación: por último, pero más importan- instrumentos facilitadores de sus procesos, que te, la producción científica social y humana se integren plenamente en sus cursos de ac- que pretenda contribuir al desarrollo territorial ción, evitando que aparezcan, como es habitual, sostenible y muy especialmente las tecnolo- de forma yuxtapuesta o como constreñimientos gías desarrolladas a tal efecto tienen que si- y factores limitantes de la acción. tuar las necesidades de los ciudadanos (a los De aquí, que una investigación que preten- cuales denominamos beneficiarios, usuarios, da establecer las oportunas sinergias con los clientes, consumidores, habitantes, según los actores del desarrollo territorial sostenible ha contextos profesionales) en el centro de su de realizarse con principios equivalentes (o al actividad. Por esta razón la implicación de menos compatibles) con los preconizados para estos últimos en los procesos de diseño favorecer a estos últimos. Estos principios pue- y desarrollo resulta de crucial importancia den ser enunciados como sigue: como mecanismo de garantía de que el pro- - Pluridisciplinariedad: un enfoque equilibrado ducto resultante no sólo cumple las especifi- a la hora de abordar los problemas, transcen- caciones científicas y técnicas, sino también

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aquellas relacionadas con la accesibilidad cuya evolución depende: (costes, inteligibilidad) para los usuarios y - del contexto político-institucional y socio- aquellas que favorecen la apropiación por cultural y del tejido de actores implicados en parte de los mismos de las herramientas cada caso, desarrolladas para su uso, así como su au- - de la eficacia y de la capacidad de mo- tonomía en la utilización cotidiana y en el vilización de los métodos y herramientas desarrollo futuro. utilizados por los equipos de investigación y Los tres principios enunciados remiten a una de las competencias previas de los actores y filosofía participativa en la investigación (entre usuarios, investigadores de diferentes disciplinas, entre - del marco científico en el que se desarrolle la éstos y los actores territoriales, entre investi- investigación. gadores y usuarios finales) cuya puesta en Con respecto a este último aspecto, el desarrol- práctica plantea un desafío de gran dificultad, lo de este tipo de investigación sólo es posible a saber: la participación no viene dada, es un en la medida en que se favorezcan estructuras elemento de la investigación que se ha de de investigación integradoras más flexibles y en construir removiendo los factores limitadores contacto con el terreno. E implica, a su vez, que impiden o dificultan su desarrollo. Esto la reformulación de los criterios de validez y último condiciona todo el proceso investiga- baremos de calidad científica que ha de satis- dor (objetivos, diseño, metodología, tipo de facer la investigación en la actual sociedad del resultados obtenidos) y supone para todos conocimiento. los implicados un proceso de aprendizaje

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OPPORTUNITIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES Afirmación identitaria y Saberes indígen- das: Un Proceso en la Sierra Norte de Puebla (México) PIERRE BEAUCAGE

Groupe de recherche sur les imaginaires politiques en Amérique latine (GRIPAL) Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada

as acciones indígenas de rebelión, de pro- indentitaria implica necesariamente sustraerse Ltesta o de simple auto-afirmación, ayer a esta dependencia del Estado y producir una mismo consideradas como el canto del cisne auto-definición propia (Kearney 1996 : 143) de culturas en vías de extinción, se han multip- En este contexto, la producción y difusión de licado, durante la últimas tres décadas, Esta un saber propio se inscribe necesariamente den- tendencia, paradójica en apariencia, se fortale- tro del problema general de las relaciones con ció a la vez que se producía una notable expan- el poder, cuestión que atraviesa el pensamiento sión de la penetración de las estructuras educa- occidental moderno desde Marx y Weber hasta tivas nacionales y de los medios de comunica- Foucault. En una primera parte, propongo que ción masiva en las comunidades y los hogares atraviesa también la historia de esta disciplina indígenas. Hasta el punto en que, actualmente menor, que se situa en la frontera entre la an- forman también parte de este « movimiento tropología : la etnobiología. Después, ilustraré por la diferencia » que es uno de los aspectos estas relaciones entre el saber y el poder a partir propios a la globalización – como lo señala de mis observaciones de un proceso en el que Castells (1997) . participé en un pueblo indígena de México, los La paradoja expresa una tensión, una contra- nahuas de la región de Cuetzalan, en la Sierra dicción real y profunda entre dimensiones opues- Norte de Puebla. En particular, me interesa la tas de un proceso complejo que se observa en tensión permanente entre el saber universal y pueblos indígenas tanto en América del Norte los saberes locales, la que se manifiesta, en par- como en América latina : entre un modernis- ticular, en las relaciones entre agentes exteriores mo de corte universalista y una voluntad de (funcionarios, ONGs, antropólogos, biólogos…) mantener una identidad cultural propia. En y agentes locales (autoridades, cooperativas o relación con culturas nacionales subordinadas, simples individuos). como la quebequense, la catalana o la vasca, por ejemplo, las culturas y étnias indígenas se Saber y poder en la etnobiología : una caracterizan por la ausencia o por el carácter contienda solapada muy embrionario de un aparato político propio y por su integración correspondiente a estruc- Las relaciones de poder subyacen a toda la turas políticas ajenas. Por eso, la afirmación historia de lo que llamamos « etnociencia

130 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 131 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

».Aclaro desde un principio que no hay acuerdo lidar nuestros conocimientos de la prehistoria, entre los estudiosos sobre la definición de la una finalidad práctica o sea « sugerir nuevas etnociencia ni sobre una periodización clara de líneas de manufactura » y « nuevas maneras su desarrollo (Veanse Clément 1998, Beaucage de obtener materias primas ». (Harshberger 2000). Por mi parte, la defino como « el estudio 1896 : 146-152). Tanto la definición de Hars- de los contenidos y de la organización de los berger como toda esa línea de investigación saberes sobre la naturaleza.en las sociedades establecen una clara jerarquía entre dos tipos tradicionales ».(Beaucage 2000 : 49). Uno de de saberes, que corresponde a la jerarquía del sus campos más importantes está constituido poder entre los pueblos del mundo en un pe- por la etnobiología o sea los conocimientos riodo de apogeo del capitalismo imperial : por acerca de los seres vivos, plantas, hongos, una parte, estamos nosotros, los occidentales líquenes y animales. Dejo en suspenso por el modernos, depositarios de la Ciencia, y nues- momento el áspero y prolongado debate sobre tra tarea consiste en recoger y sistematizar los la correspondencia entre estos conocimientos pedazos de conocimientos dispersos entre los y la ciencia occidental moderna. Veremos más pueblos primitivos o atrasados y ponerlos al adelante como estos desacuerdos y debates servicio del progreso tecnoeconómico de la son particularmente relevantes para el tema humanidad. Cuestiones como el significado de que nos interesa aquí, o sea las relaciones entre estas plantas para los que las conocen y emple- saber y poder. an y de la estructura de sus saberes, importaban Podemos distinguier tres grandes etapas muy poco, salvo si eso conducía a identificar las en el desarrollo de la etnociencia y de su hija propiedades reales de un antipirético como la predilecta, la etnobiología. Las llamaré el utili- quinina o de un halucinógeno como el peyotl, tarismo-pragmatismo (1860-1954), el relativi- por ejemplo. Porque el único saber válido es la smo-cognitivismo (1954-1990) y lo que Victor Ciencia moderna, esa es una, y universal y rem- Manuel Toledo llamó la « etnoecológa » (1990 plaza definitivamente sus balbuceos anteriores, hasta ahora) (Toledo 1992). entramados en mitos y supersticiones. Estas fueron las consideraciones que presi- Utilitarismo y pragmatismo (1860-1954) dieron, durante casí un siglo, a la construcción El primer período está dominado por la reco- del primer acervo de datos sobre conocimien- lecta de plantas útiles o « económicas » por tos y prácticas tradicionales relativas a plantas parte de biólogos, agrónomos y médicos que y animales. Hasta que, en 1935, E.F Castetter trabajan en contextos campesinos e indígenas, inventó la palabra etnobiology para designar glo- tanto en Europa y en América del Norte como balmente este nuevo campo de conocimientos en Asia y en América latina. Harsberger, un (Castetter 1944 : 161). biólogo norteamericano, inventa en 1896 la palabra ethnobotany para designar el estudio Relativismo y cognitivismo systemático del conjunto de la flora conocida La antropología, por su parte, abandonó a partir por cada cultura del presente y del pasado, de principios del signo XX la perspectiva evolu- para remplazar la ya tradicionales monografías cionista y la mayoría de su producción hasta 1os de tal o tal planta (maíz, tabaco, etc.). A este años 60 fue marcada por un nuevo paradigma : estudio, le asigna como fin, además de conso- el relativismo cultural. En síntesis, todas las

132 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 133 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

culturas se equivalen, puesto que todas logran más de 2000 plantas distintas(Conklin 1954), satisfacer las necesidades de sus miembros : proponía por primera vez que las categorías cada una define de una forma específica estas linguísticas tiene una impacto directo sobre necesidades y los medios adecuados para sa- los sistemas nativos de clasificación (Conklin tisfacerlas. Así se presentaban las condiciones 1955) en la dirección de la llamada « hipótesis para una reorientación de la etnociencia. Sin de Sapir-Whorf ». Fue entonces cuando, fundán- embargo, el encuentro de la etnología con dose en este nuevo tipo de estudios, Claude este nuevo campo fue tardío. En parte, porque Lévi-Strauss, en La pensée sauvage, afirmó que muchos etnólogos carecían de la formación todos los pueblos humanos tienen sobre la na- científica necesaria para apreciar e investigar la turaleza conocimientos abundantes, y sistemati- amplitud de los conocimientos indígenas sobre camente ordenados (Lévi-Strauss 1962).Los la naturaleza. Y en parte por las posiciones ultra- desarrollos teóricos y metodológicos ulteriores relativistas de los primeros etnólogos en indagar fueron precisando el campo de la etnobiología, temas como el de las « clasificaciones primitivas como rama autónoma y la más dinámica de la » en una síntesis prematura, Durkheim y Mauss etnociencia, fruto de relaciones dialécticas entre concluyeron, que la « función clasificadora» de el análisis linguístico, la descripción etnográfica los humanos, partía de una « indiferenciación y el estudio del mundo vegetal y animal según completa » (Durkheim y Mauss [1903] 1968 : los criterios de la biología occidental moderna 165) y que los humanos solamente empezaron (p. ej. veanse Berlin, Breedlove y Raven 1974; a distinguir y clasificar los animales a medida Hunn 1977). que distinguían y clasificaban los diferentes El resultado global de esta nueva perspectiva segmentos de su sociedad. (ibid. : 169). La (que se dividió a su vez en varias escuelas y coexistencia contradictoria entre el relativismo doctrinas – Beaucage 2000) fue indudable- cultural y una concepción aún positivista de mente una revalorización de los conocimientos la ciencia, es evidente en la primera definición y de las prácticas relativas a la naturaleza entre oficial que se da de la etnociencia, la de George los pueblos nativos. Se puede decir que la et- Murdock (1965)2. nociencia, al igual que muchos otros sectores Desde los años 50, sin embargo, dentro de de la disciplina, pasó en los 60-70 de reflejar la perspectiva del relativismo cultural se pro- un punto de vista exterior (etic) a un punto de ducían, estudios que povocarían una revolución vista « desde adentro » (emic) utilizando la divi- conceptual en campo de los conocimientos y sión propuesta entonces por Kenneth Pike (Pike prácticas sobre el mundo natural. En primer 1956). Los indígenas participaron, como indivi- lugar, con el término de ecología cultural, Julian duos y groupos, a esta nueva clase de estudios. Steward, propuso la existencia de unas relacio- Simbolicamente, se difundió la costumbre de nes simbióticas, equilibradas, entre cada cultura incluir los nombre de los « colaboradores indí- y su medio ambiente (Steward 1955). Más genas dentro de los autores de las monografías impacto sobre la orientación futura de la etno- (p. ej Vázquez et al. 1985;Taller de Tradición Oral ciencia como « nueva etnografía » tuvieron los y P. Beaucage, 1987, 1990). Para mí, es bastante estudios de Harold Conklin sobre los Hanunóo obvio, en primer lugar, que esta rehabilitación de Filipinas. A parte de mostrar como un pueblo de los saberes tradicionales tenía lugar parale- de agricultores itinerantes distinguía y clasificaba lamente a la contestación del poder occidental

132 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 133 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

colonial en el Tercer Mundo, por una parte, y racterizó el periodo anterior, pero más insidioso, del indigenismo « etnocida » en las sociedades porque disfrazado bajo la « igualdad de culturas americanas, por otra parte. Reivindicar un valor »4. Propongo que esta corriente de pensamien- para sus conocimientos propios hace parte de to corresponde al nuevo imperialismo de la era la afirmación de sí necesaria para contestar al desarrollista, el cual, en vez de inferiorizar al orden social y político que atribuía a los pueblos dominado en su diferencia, elimina esta para no-occidentales una posición de atraso y sub- incorporar a los Otros en un planeta homoge- ordinación en la historia cultural mundial; por neizado y hegemonizado por la superpotencia eso se hace hincapié en saberes que revelan económica, política y científica actual, Estados relaciones más harmoniosas con la naturaleza o Unidos. De ahí que las transnacionales farma- una medicina « holistica ». ceúticas consideren muy natural apropiarse no Si bien, en apariencia, la etnobiología pare- sólo las plantas de las selvas tropicales, sino los ció, a partir de los 1970, colocarse del lado de saberes indígenas para incorporarlos al acervo las fuerzas emergentes del tercermundismo y mundial que esta bajo su custodia. del indianismo, un examen más detallado revela una situación muy diferente. Por ejemplo, los di- Saber y praxis : versos libros y artículos que constituyen la obra una nueva diferenciación (1980- ) de Brent Berlin, destacado etnobiólogo, apuntan Sin embargo, para muchos investigadores de sin duda a una revalorización del conocimiento buena fe, tanto la asimilación del conocimiento indígena. Pero lo hace asemejando los sistemas tradicional al nuestro, como su consecuencia tradicionales de clasificación de plantas y anima- práctica, la biopiratería organizada, eran posici- les a los ded la botánica y de la zoología moder- ones inaceptables. A nivel teórico, se volvieron na, tanto en su monografía sobre los tzeltales a considerar otras formas de pensamiento que de Chiapas (Berlin et al. 1974) como en la coexisten con la « función clasificatoria », por síntesis que propuso después (Berlin 1992). En una parte, y sobre todo la relación dialéctica realidad, después de acumular un número im- que existe entre las representaciones y la prácti- presionante de datos, selecciona lo que más se ca, por otra parte. Scott Atran mostró como no parece a la categorización occidental y concluye hace falta forzar los saberes tradicionales en el que es lo mismo (ver también Hunn 1977 : 48). molde de las categorías occidentales modernas Y tiene que ser lo mismo puesto que correspon- (y, menos, aludir a un Plan de la Naturaleza) de al « Plan de la Naturaleza » (Berlin 1992 : para explicar las similitudes que se observan 9). Aunque esto implique, metodologicamente, en las categorizaciones tradicionales : estas se barrer el resto en la categoria de « casos am- fundan sobre el sentido común, que sintetiza biguos » - que llegan a ocupar ¡más del 20% las percepciones sensoriales y, por lo tanto, es del conjunto de plantas tzeltales! (Berlin et al. « fuente de verdad par conocer el mundo local 1974)3. La combinación del relativismo cultural facilmente perceptible, pero es falible como fu- y del universalismo elimina completamente la ente de intuiciones sobre el universo científico. especificidad del Otro cultural; sí tiene valor » (Atran 1986 : 12). Por eso, la ciencia moderna este saber, porque es igual al nuestro. Sólo falta dejó hace tres siglos de fundarse sobre el senti- agregar : y, como tal, nos pertenece. Estamos do común para construir su mundo propio de de regreso al etnocentrismo imperialista que ca- conceptos y experiencias.

134 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 135 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

Philippe Descola fue más allá, cuestionando sido muy claro para los organismos estatales o la dicotomía Naturaleza-Cultura, propia de la las fundaciones privadas que apoyan estas ini- sociedad occidental moderna y « candida- ciativas que sólo hay dos situaciones posibles : mente » extendida al conjunto de sociedades a) Los conocimientos que se explicitan y se no capitalistas, donde carece totalmente de sistematizan con la participación indígena no sentido5. Para entender las representaciones presentan ningún interés para el capital y se tradicionales, proponer desbordar el marco del archivarán como etnografía o folklore; b) En la « sentido común » y rehabilita, redefiniéndo- medida en que siglos de práctica con plantas y lo, el concepto de animismo6, Y plantea que animales silvestres y domesticados hayan pro- las representaciones sobre la naturaleza no ducido algunos conocimientos de valor, estos se expresan verbalmente (o en forma muy serán transferidos y almacenados por las trans- parcial), sino « contextualmente, en acciones nacionales de los sectores agro-alimenticio y e interacciones diarias, conocimiento vivo y farmacéutico para su futura utilización. En esta técnicas corporales, decisiones prácticas y segunda situación, se consideran los pueblos breves rituales. » (Descola 1996 : 86). O sea, indígenas, por su aislamiento y conservadu- en lo que llama los « esquemas de la la praxis rismo, como excelentes guardianes de una » (schèmes de la praxis). Esta perspectiva cor- biodiversidad que el funcionamiento mismo responde también con lo que Victor Manuel del capitalismo oblitera . Es obvio que esta ex- Toledo llama « etnoecología » (Toledo 1992); propiación intelectual, con o sin compensación desemboca sobre una nueva división del tra- financiera, no hace más que continuar bajo entre antropólogos e indígenas, en la que La otra posibilidad es – sería - que la re- estos últimos dejan de ser simples informantes cuperación de los conocimientos y prácticas para ser participantes del propio proceso de indígenas por los propios indígenas, les pue- producción del saber. Para ser emic de veras, da servir, material o simbólicamente, para la el discurso debe ser asumible como discurso reapropiación de sus condiciones materiales propio por los integrantes de la cultura de la de existencia, dimensión esencial del proceso que se trata; y, más que un simple discurso, actual de autonomía. debe tener sentido en sus vidas. La diferencia entre las dos posibilidades En cuanto a las relaciones entre poder y sa- reside obviamente en las relaciones de poder. ber, esta nueva perrspectiva me parece, en sí Sin una cuota de poder real, los indígenas indeterminada, tanto como el « etnodesarrollo continuan siendo simples ejecutantes en el » de la que es contemporánea y, a menudo, etnodesarrollo y en su faceta intelectual, que parte (Bonfil et al. 1982). Una posibilidad es es la etnociencia. ¿En qué condiciones el pro- que sea un simple refinamiento y una recu- ceso de apropriación moderna del saber tra- peración de la línea teórica anterior : frente dicional propio (porqué de eso se trata en la al reforzamiento de movimientos indígenas participación indígena en la etnociencia puede potencialmente peligrosos, y al surgimiento de desembocar o no sobre un « empoderamiento intelectuales indígenas, se busca incorporar a » (empowerment). Es lo que trataré de ilustrar estos a un proceso de revalorización de sus a partir de la experiencia de la Sierra Norte de culturas que antes quedaba circunscrito a los Puebla. medios académicos. Desde un principio, ha

134 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 135 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

Dialéctica de las representaciones y radero, resultó de la interrelación entre actores de la praxis en la Sierra de Puebla locales y externos (Beaucage 1992). En la Sierra (1973-2004) baja, estos formaban dos grupos : unos jóvenes agrónomos izquierdistas que trabajaban dentro En el 1972, después de realizar un estudio de del Plan Zacapoaxtla y una ONG, formada en antropología social en la Sierra Norte de Puebla San Miguel Tzinacapan, pueblo nahua de la (Beaucage 1973), inicié un estudio comparativo Sierra baja, animada por jóvenes católicos com- sobre los conocimientos botánicos en cuatro prometidos (Sánchez et al. 1983;). pueblos indígenas de dos totonacos y dos Tanto los actores externos como los campe- nahuas), en la perspectiva teórico-metodoló- sinos tenían en común una idea : el « desarrollo gica recién desarrollada por Brent Berlin y sus », lo que en el contexto local significaba : salir de colaboradores. Por varios problemas técnicos y la miseria. En cuanto a los actores externos, los financieros, se tuvo que interrumpir sin concluir. agrónomos del Plan Zacapoaxtla tenían de este La relación de poder que se establecía entonces una visión mucho más unilateral : se trataba entre el antropólogo y sus « informantes » se ca- de crear una agricultura integrada al mercado, racterizaba por el respeto … y el miedo. Despu- utilizando la técnica moderna, apoyada en los és de presentar sus credenciales a las autorida- conocimientos científicos. Sin embargo, se de- des municipales (mestizas) y a las del pueblo marcaban de la política del mismo Estado que auxiliar (indígenas), el antropólogo podía tocar los empleaba – por su rechazo del monocultivo a cualquier puerta y el jefe del hogar no tenía comercial, por la creación de una organización otra opción que responder a sus preguntas. El independiente y por su apoyo a una agricultura « espacio de resistencia » indígenas consistía en campesina mixta, eso sí « tecnificada ».8 guardarse unas informaciones « delicadas » para En cuanto a los católicos comprometidos de sí, o mentir, simplemente7. San Miguel, tenían una visión que luego sinteti- zarían como de « auto-, etno- y eco-desarrollo » Un movimiento indígena y sus organiza- (Sánchez y Almeida 1986). Su acción, a escala ciones (1973- ) comunitaria, se fundaba sobre un conocimiento A partir del 1973, nació en la Sierra un movi- del idioma y de la cultura local, desde la fiestas y miento indígena que tuvo dos princpales verti- las creencias hasta la producción de café y de ar- entes : una organización agraria revolucionaria tesanía. Se crearon varias organizaciones locales y clandestina, localizada sobre todo en la sierra en torno a la salud, a la comercialización aunque alta (la Unión Campesina Independiente - UCI) la ONG puso el acento sobre la cultura y la edu- (1973-1979) y la Unión de Pequeños Producto- cación, con la fundación de una Telesecundaria y res de la Sierra (UPPS) iniciada en 1975 y que del Taller de tradición Oral, destinado al « rescate, se transformaría a principios de los 80 en Socie- publicación y difusión de la tradición indígena » dad Cooperativa Agropecuaria Regional Tosepan (con este trabajé yo). A la organización regional Titataniske (SCARTT). Contrariamente a una ex- promovida por los agrónomos, oponían una vi- plicación corriente y fácil, estos movimientos no sión algo idealizada de la « comunidad indígena », fueron una simple « respuesta a la crisis » que la cual correspondía a la de la « teología india ». azotaba entonces a la agricultura mexicana, sino Para los campesinos, el « desarrollo », significa- que, por limitarnos al último, más amplio y du- ba tanto asegurar su abasto de productos de

136 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 137 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

primera necesidad como el maíz, (en los que Promoción Educativa para el Campo (CEPEC) esa región cafetalera ya no era autosuficiente) que se propuso, entre otros fines « afirmar y y aumentar su ingreso monetario obteniendo dinamizar la cultura nahuat. » (Vázquez et al. mejores precios por sus productos. Así que par- 1985 : 122) Esta revalorización coincidía con un ticipaban a la vez en las unidades de producción período caracterizado por la reafirmación gene- propuestas por la agencia estatal INMECAFÉ ral de las identidades indígenas en México, una (por los subsidios y el precio de garantía para sociedad que se reconoce ahora como multi- el café), a la cooperativa regional Tosepan Tita- cultural. Frente a los saberes como al conjunto taniske (para obtener insumos baratos y vender de la cultura, tenían una perspectiva relativista su pimienta) y, en San Miguel, a las asociacio- y cognitivista, cercana a la segunda escuela de nes fomentadas por la ONG. etnobiología. En cuanto a los campesinos, adotaron una Los actores frente a los saberes indígenas estrategia mixta, a la vez pragmática-utilitarista y sobre la naturaleza relativista. Por una parte, entre 1975 y 1989, se En función de sus posiciones distintas, los di- apoyaron en los agrónomos del Plan para resistir ferentes actores tuvieron actitudes divergentes a la estrategia de monocultivo del INMECAFÉ. A frente al acervo impresionante de conocimien- la vez que aceptaban los fertilizantes químicos tos de la naturaleza que poseen los indígenas en las tiierras desgastadas, siguieron con una ag- de la región : saberes agropecuarios, botánicos, ricultura mucho más diversificada que la que les medicinales. Para los técnicos del Plan, las proponían los agrónomos, combinada con una creencias erroneas o muy parciales que funda- recolección extensa de plantas silvestres para ban las prácticas rutinarias de esta economía de usos alimenticios, medicinales y artesanales,con auto-subsistencia, tenían ser remplazadas, en el la cría de animales de traspatio y algo de cacería plazo más breve, por el conocimiento y uso de y de pesca. Esta explotación tradicional, aunque insumos químicos, de variedades mejoradas sea menos productiva, cuantitativamente, que de café. Sin embargo, rescataban unas plantas la moderna, pero no requiere ningun insumo locales« útiles » es decir comercializables, como comercial pero sí, el manejo de una gran diver- la pimienta gorda (Pimenta dioica [L.]Merrill), sidad vegetal, en el monte y en las huertas, de el mamey (Pouteria sapota [Jacq] H.B. Moore sonde se obtiene leña, madera, frutas, materias & Stern) y las variedades locales de cítricos primas para la artesanía y plantas medicinales (Citrus spp.)(Aguilar Ayón 1986). Su actitud se (xiujpajmej). Este manejo requiere, a su vez, asemejaba mucho a la de la primera escuela conocimientos precisos sobre laspropiedades de etnobiólogos con la « recolecta de plantas y los ciclos vegetativos de un gran número de útiles ». plantas, así como de sus compatibilidades e Por su parte, los miembros de la ONG incompatibilidades entre sí. En eso coincidían centraron su trabajo en una comunidad indí- más con la ONG y con el antropólogo. Además, gena. Varios aprendieron el idioma nahuat y al ver extranjeros interesarse por su idioma, ela- desarrollaron una visión más matizada de la borar una forma de escribirlo9 y recopilar mitos, cultura local y de sus transformaciones posib- leyendas10 y conocimientos, los indígenas, que les. Unos mienbros de la ONG y varios jóvenes se sentían tradicionalmente despreciados por la indígenas formaron el Centro de Estudios y población mestiza de la cabecera, construyeron

136 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 137 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

una percepción mucho más positiva de sí mi- Mi estudio sirvió de base para la campaña de smo, de su « dialecto », que ya era idioma (« educación de 1985. porque se escribe ») y de su cultura, que ya no A la vez, ellos no me impedían estudiar eran « costumbres atrasadas ». La revalorización el movimiento al que yo iba participando. Al del saber fue indisociable de mejores cuotas de contrario, me proporcionaban abundantes poder. La joven generación, en particular, exigió datos : pero eso era mi estudio y el otro tenía un trato diferente de parte de los mestizos de la prioridad. El hecho de que el investigador (yo) cabecera; « Ya hay que tratar a todos parejo. » acepte que una organización indígena proponga el objeto de su investigación implicó un cambio Mi colaboración con las organizacio- radical en la relación de poder : el « informante » nes indígenas (1984- ) : investigación, indígena individual se transforma en un sponsor saber y poder colectivo. Pero eso no implica una supeditación del contenido de la investigación a este « poder Con la Tosepan Titataniske : ¿Quién define el popular ». A nivel metodológico, yo exigí definir objeto de investigación? mis instrumentos y mis fuentes de investigación En 1984, con ocasión de una sabática, regresé en función de las exigencias científicas, aunque a la Sierra, con el fin de estudiar el movimiento eso implicara hacer contactos con gente no indígena regional. Mi primera reunión con la politicamente correctas, como comerciantes directiva de la Tosepan Titataniske, confirmó mestizos y miembros de facciones disidentes; la impresión que la situación del poder había fue aceptado, aunque de mala gana. A nivel cambiado en la Sierra. Mi estudio no interesaba ético, este tipo de investigación presupone para nada a los dirigentes indígenas; pero sí un que uno está fundamentalmente de acuerdo estudio sobre comercialización de productos al- con los objetivos que persigue la organización. ternativos al café y a la pimienta. Me pedían pro- Cuando esta se alejó de lo que me parecía una ducir conocimentos que les fueran útiles a ellos. orientación deseable para los miembros, para Y creo que lo fueron. Aplicando la metodología acercarse de las autoridades políticas, yo me de la antropología económica, pude mostrar aparté también. No quise ni seguir proporcio- que la producción maicera, aún no rentable en nando datos, ni aportar el capital político de la términos monetarios, se inscribía dentro de una presencia de un « experto extranjero ». optimización de la fuerza de trabajo campesina. También pude fijar el costo de producción apro- Con el Taller de Tradición Oral : una dialéctica ximado y el rendimiento de varios productos, prolongada como las naranjas y la miel, apoyando su reivin- Mi toma de contacto con el Taller de Tradición dicación de una alza de precios. Satisfechos de Oral, grupo establecido en un pueblo ind :igena este primer estudio, me pidieron otro, sobre la de la región, fue más representativa aún del « consciencia cooperativa ». Mis observaciones y nuevo estado de cosas : en una vereda, un entrevistas me llevaron a la conclusión de que la joven indígena me saluda y luego me dice : línea economicista que prevalecía en la organi- « ¿Eres antropólogo, verdad? » Después que zación se traducía por una ignorancia general de asentí, continuó : « Pués soy del Taller de San los que era el cooperativismo y carecían de un Miguel y hemos recogido relatos que son como sentimiento de pertenencia a la organización. vivencias de la gente. No sabemos muy bien

138 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 139 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

qué hacer con ellos. ¿Nos quieres ayudar? » mantes, intérpretes…Y luego se van para sus Acepté colaborar y los resultados de una inves- tierras y escriben sus libros. Y ni nos enteramos tigación ampliada, efectuada en 1984-1985 so- de lo que dicen de nosotros. Ahora queremos bre el mismo tema fueron publicados después escribir los libros nosotros. por el INAH (Taller et al. 1994): las « vivencias» En otras palabras se negaban rotundamente se habían convertido en etnohistoria! a seguir siendo objetos de un saber definido por otros : querían se sujetos. Establecimos Las nuevas reglas del juego : coautoría e entonces, por escrito, las nuevas reglas del jue- investigación autogestionada. go. Lo más importante para ellos : un principio Esta primera experiencia llevó al establecimi- de coautoria para todas las publicaciones que ento de una relación de colaboración duradera haríamos juntos11, principio que se respetó hasta con el Taller de Tradición Oral. Cuando les sugerí la fecha. ). Acordamos que los resultados serían que hicieramos juntos un estudio sobre la flora publicados localmente, en español y nahuat, y la fauna regional, aceptaron con entusiasmo. según la costumbre del Taller, y también en Como lo declararían después : revistas mexicanas y extranjeras. (vease Taller Los jovenes nos dábamos cuenta de que, de Tradición Oral y Beaucage 1987, 1988, 1990, a la vez que habíamos mejorado nuestro nivel 1993, 1997a, 1997b, 2003). Yo me compro- de vida con la especialización en la producción metía a buscar fondos para financiar el estudio, de café, estábamos perdiendo muchos de los y el Taller proporcionaba el local, los contactos, recursos que nos proporciona la naturaleza para y sobre todo, su fuerza de trabajo contra una subsistir […] Muchas familias ya no van diario remuneración modesta. En cuanto al funciona- al monte, y compran los productos alimenticios miento interno, la investigación se hizo a medio en la cooperativa[…] Ya piensan que el quelite tiempo para que los integrantes pudieran efec- [hierba comestible] es pasto y lo único que le tuar sus labores en la agricultura y la artesanía, agregan a la olla es alguna cebolla. Lo mismo conforme al principio de « articular el trabajo pasa con las plantas medicinales, o xiujpajmej. productivo, el trabajo intelectual y la creatividad Ahora, cuando se enferma uno, o una criatura artística » (Vázquez et al. 1985 : 122) […] nos receta el médico remedios de botica Puedo decir que el período central de mi que a veces son buenos, a veces no, y suelen labour con la Tosepan Titaniske y el Taller de ser bastante caros. Mientra nuestros ancianos, Tradición Oral (1984-1991) constituyó uno de nuestras ancianas y nuestros curanderos o ta- los períodos más interesantes y provechosos de pajtiani conocen muchas yerbitas que a veces mi vida de investigador. En nuestras reuniones se dan en al misma orilla del camino y a veces del domingo al amanecer, yo aportaba elemen- curan igual, o mejor, y no cuestan nada […] (Tal- tos de teóría y de metodología antropológica ler de Tradición Oral y Beaucage 1993 17-18) que les parecían de interés, y los integrantes Sin embargo, durante nuestra primera reunión, del Taller traían del campo informaciones de una intervención de uno de los participantes apuntó una calidad y en una cantidad tal como no directamente a la situación de poder que imperaba había recogido yo en toda mi carrera anterior. en la producción del saber antropológico : La causa era muy sencilla el hecho que tanto Hasta la fecha, nos han visitado antropólo- los jóvenes indígenas como los mestizos par- gos, nos han pedido datos, hemos sido infor- ticipantes hablaran perfectamente el idioma y

138 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 139 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

tuvieran relaciones de parentesco y de amistad discretamente y a leerlos avidamente. El hecho con una amplia red de hombres y mujeres que los conocimientos indígenas tradicionales indígenas en todos los caseríos de la zona, fueran apreciados por gente de la capital y del creó una atmósfera de confianza que permitió extranjero, que trataban directamente con los in- alcanzar niveles profundos de la cultura, mu- dígenas en vez de pasar pour la intermediación cho más allá de la identificación de plantas y antes obligada de los mestizos localesayudó al animales útiles o dañinos, como la dimensión cambio de apreciación, en el que se mezclaba sobrenatural en las relaciones con el medio una buena dosis de envidia! ambiente (Taller de Tradición Oral y Beaucage 1997b, 2003). Partiendo de nuestra libro sobre Los canales reales de difusión del saber las plantas,medicinales (Taller de Tradición Oral En los pueblos indígenas, la difusión real se hizo y Beaucage 1988), un grupo de mujeres hizo por dos canales la escuela y la clínica. La ONG una encuesta complementaria que reveló una PRADE A.C., de la que formaban parte varios etiología de las enfermedades y una farmaco- pedagogos, impulsó la creación de un centro logía que unen intimamente el cuerpo humano preescolar (Inchankonemej, « la casa de los y el cosmos (Taller de Tradición Oral, Grupo niños »), de una telesecundaria (Tetsitsilin « la Youalxochit, Beaucage y Tabares 1997; Taller de piedra que canta ») y de la educación de adul- Tradición Oral y Beaucage 2005). tos; a los tres niveles se privilegió la enseñanza bilingüe, en nahuat y en español – este último Los problemas de la difusión escrita. predominando en la telesecundaria. Si bien Ahora bien, la difusión impresa no tuvo el al- los mestizos « fuereños » predominaron en la cance que se esperaba, en una sociedad donde enseñanza en los primeros años, algunos jo- todavía impera la oralidad, y eso a pesar de que venes indígenas de San Miguel seincorporaron se distribuyeran gratuirtamente o casi, dentro de poco a poco al personal docente. Los cuentos, la comunidad. Quizás la causa principal fue que, primero, y los materiales de etnobiología y en una cultura todavía esencialemente fundada de etnoecología, después, sirvieron de textos sobre la oralidad, lo escrito es algo precioso, de base (Reynoso 1988). Por ejemplo, una que se atesora más que se consulta, y esto a maestra de preescolar tomó como base de su pesar de la generalización de la alfabetización : enseñanza un texto sobre ecología y toponimia sobre la típica tabla, colgada por cuerdas a las y recorrió con sus alumnos la zona aledaña a la vigas del techo, se almacenan y se empolvan escuela, explicitando con ellos el significado de los textos escolares, los folletos de extensión los topónimos, muchos de los cuales se refieren agrícola, los cuentos nahuas y los pequeños a la flora, a la fauna, además de elementos pro- compendios de etnobiología! Más que el uso piamente topográficos (Argueta 1999). diario del contenido, sin embargo, el mero En el caso de la difusión de los conocimi- hecho que se recuperan como texto impreso, entnos etnobotánicos, pasó algo semejante. es decir en forma moderna, prestigiosa, relatos Dos mujeres, miembros del Grupo Youalxochit y conocimientos, contribuyó a modificar las que participó a la encuesta sobre plantas me- relaciones simbólicas con la sociedad mestiza dicinales, eran a la vez promotoras de salud en hispanófona, que antes lo despreciaba. La élite la clínica local Tapajtiloyan. Decidieron invitar a regional mestiza empezó a adquirir estos textos jóvenes madres para unos encuentros sobre

140 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 141 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

salud infantil. Como lo relataron después : koyomej. Es decir, el manejo del saber tradicio- [Las madres] no lo aceptaban. Decían : « nal en formas modernas, les preparó a manejar ¿Qué saben Uds, si son unas mujeres tan jóve- saberes modernos y a ocupar, como varios lo nes? » Y de allí se explicó como conocimos las hacen ahora, puestos claves, a nivel regional o plantas, por medio de estudios y sus usos para local, en la Radio indígena, en un organismo de las enfermedades. Y después se fueron animan- derechos humanos (Takamachilis), en la clínica do. Llegó un total de quince o veinte señoras de salud (Tapajtiloyan), en instituciones de en- […] y les enseñamos como hacer los tés y los señanza y en el Instituto Nacional de Educación jarabes. (Taller de Tradición Oral y Beaucage de Adultos (INEA). 1993, anexo 1) Este ejemplo muestra un reacomodo de las Balance luces y sombras relaciones de saber/poder dentro de la comuni- Saberes tradiconales y desarrollo sostenible dad indígena. El prestigio asociado a la posesión Para quien conoció la Sierra Norte de Puebla de los conocimientos se extendió internamente hace treinta y cinco años, como yo, no cabe de los ancianos a los jóvenes que realizaban el duda que la sociedad indígena ha vivido una estudio; más cuando sus nombres aparecieron tranformación profunda no sólo en sus condi- como autores de los folletos y libros. En este ciones materiales, sino también en su relación caso, fue una extensión y no una substitución con el saber. A ambos niveles, llama la atención, los ancianos (cuyos nombres también se men- en primer lugar, la apropiación selectiva, por los cionaban en las monografías) sigueron siendo indígenas, de elementos externos. Materialmen- considerados como la fuente privilegiada del te, la inmensa mayoría de los indígenas viven saber tradicional. hoy en comunidades dotadas de carreteras o La situación fue diferente en lo que se refiere brechas, de luz eléctrica, de agua entubada al liderazgo en las organizaciones y en la comu- (que no quiere decir potable) y tienen acceso a nidad. Si bien los primeros líderes de las organi- servicios básicos de salud. A nivel del saber, lo zaciones fueron ancianos dotados del prestigio primero que llama la atención es la generaliza- tradicional (tatatsitsin), la multiplicación de los ción la enseñanza primaria y secundaria aunque trámites y del papelorio que exigió su funcio- la calidad de esta deje mucho que desear en namiento exterior hizo que se elegiera progre- muchas partes. El arranque de esta transfor- sivamente a una nueva generación de líderes, mación se dió entre 1975 y 1985, cuando la más preparada a nivel escolar y que supiera combinación de mejores precios internaciona- manejar tanto el discurso tradicional indígena les para el café coincidió con la intervención como el vocabulario especializado de la buro- estatal,(creación de INMECAFÉ) y la formación cracia mexicana en muchos casos, se acudió de la Tosepan Titataniske, que por primera vez a gente de San Miguel Tzinacapan. Un efecto organizó en torno a sus intereses más de 5 indiscutible de la interacción prolongada entre 000 miembros en 50 comunidades indígenas.12 los mestizos de PRADE y muchos miembros El rescate y la difusión de los conocimientos de la comunidad (en el Taller pero tambiéen tradicionales coincidían con la revalorización en los otras organizaciones que habían nacido cultural emprendida por la ONG PRADE y con durante estos años) fue de familiarizar a esos la estrategia de diversificación agrícola apoyada con el lenguaje y los modales del mundo de los por la cooperativa. Esta camino hacia un desar-

140 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 141 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

rollo sostenible, sin embargo, se vió truncado Parece que el eterno tlacuache tenga todavía 1989 con la reducción de la intervención estatal más de un truco en su bolsa. Una anécdota pa- (cierre de INMECAFÉ) junto con el abandono ra terminar. En noviembre pasado, en Zautla, del Acuerdo Internacional de Café por Estados donde doy clases, hablaba con Florentino, un Unidos, provocando la ruina de muchos pe- estudiante mío, de su trabajo de etnobotánica y queños productores y el estancamiento y pro- de la elecciones municipales recientes. Y él me gresivo decaímiento de ese cultivo. Solamente contó como en Cuetzalan, acababan de echar gracias a la emigración masiva de los jóvenes a al PRI que dominó la política local, de forma las ciudades, primero, y, cada vez más, a EE.UU, casi ininterrumpida, durante 70 años. Gracias, y a algunas políticas asistenciales (PRONASOL, entre otras cosas a una coalición de más de diez PROGRESA, PROCAMPO…) pudieron subsistir organizaciones indígenas de base, desde la aso- las familias campesinas. En los años siguientes ciación de artesanas hasta grupos de defensa (1993- ), la Tosepan, abandonó la diversificación de derechos humanos. Después, le pregunto a y promovió una tecnificación acelerada de la mi compadre ¿Sabes quién es ese Florentino? » cafeticultura para rebajar los costos de produc- Me contestó riendo : «¿No recuerdas este niño ción : esfuerrzos anulados por una nueva baja que nos miraba con grandes ojos mientras de los precios del café (1998). Mientras tanto, entrevistábamos a su padre, cerca de Tixapan. la organización, después de que su candidato Pues, le entraron ganas de estudiar y implicarse haya ganado duramente el poder municipal y ahora es un joven líder del movimiento indí- durante un trienio (1986-1989), se reorientó gena acá…. » La relación entre apropriación del después hacia una las fuerzas políticas tradi- saber y empoderamiento indígena es, definitiva- cionales, en concreto, el PRI (Beaucage 2003). mente, una relación compleja… En este nuevo contexto donde predomina el trabajo asalariado migratorio y el monocultivo a base de fertilizantes, herbicidas y pesticidas, el interés por los saberes tradicionales pasó a un Notas segundo plano, entre los indígenas13. 1 Quiero expresar mi gratiutud a mis amigos y compadres Saberes y « empoderamiento » indígena de San Miguel Tzinacapan y Cuetzalan, gracias a los cuales Sin embargo, la posición nueva lograda por los pude participar en el proceso iniciado en la región desde los indígenas frente a los no-indígenas en el uni- años 70. Por otra parte, pude realizar esta reflexión sobre verso simbólico y político regional, se mantuvo, la etnociencia y la etnobiología de los nahuas con motivo realizando la visión de un cuento antiguo que de dos seminarios de doctorado titulados La perspectiva relata como el pequeño pero astuto tlacuache etnocientífica en historia de la ciencia, y Cuerpo, trabajo y (Didelphis virginiana) logra vencer al coyote (Ca- medio ambiente entre los nahuas de la Sierra, que impartí nis latrans) y adueñarse otra vez de su bosque en el Departament de Història de la Ciencia y Documentació (Beaucage 1994). La experiencia económica, de la Universidat de València, del 28 de enero al 10 de abril política y cultural adquirida por muchos indíge- 1999. Esta ponencia retoma y profundiza unas reflexiones nas, durante estos años y después, extendió en publicadas hace diez años sobre el tema de la investigación el campesinado indígena la percepción de su participativa (Beaucage 1994b) fuerza colectiva, a pesar de la crisis económica. 2 Por una parte, el relativismo cultural del autor le hace colocar

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a la cultura occidental junto a las culturas entonces llamadas 7 Tengo todavía en mi archivo unas – excelentes - entrevistas «primitivas». De tal suerte que el rubro « etnobotánica », por de etnobotánica con un señor « Francisco Fuertes » que ejemplo, incluye «Venenos para flechas» y «Desarrollo de la nunca existió… botánica científica» (1965 : 129). Sin embargo, Murdock no 8 Por ejemplo se estudió detalladamente un árbol de la evita por tanto una forma insidiosa de etnocentrismo, pues región, la pimienta gorda (Pimenta dioica [L.] Merrill) que jerarquiza los saberes de unos y otros en el rubro #81, lla- goza de un mercado interesante en la perfumería. Se creó mado « ciencias exactas » (exact knowledge), Murdock men- una amplia y eficiente organización de campesinos para su ciona la lógica, la filosofía, la ciencia pura y aplicada (todo recolecta y exportación. (Aguilar Ayón 1986) lo nuestro, pues) y manda al lector al #82 para ver « ideas 9 A fines de los años 1970, las lingüistas francesas Sybille Tou- no sistematizadas sobre la naturaleza y el hombre » (ibid. : mi y Duna Troianni estudiaron la variante del nahuat de San 127, cursivas mías). Además, subdivide estas « nociones es- Miguel. S. Toumi publicó un léxico del nahuat de San Miguel peculativas y populares » de la misma manera que la ciencia (Toumi 1984). occidental, simplemente agregandoles el prefijo «etno-», a 10 En 1979 se formó en San Miguel Tzinacapan, a iniciativa de pesar de que nada permite suponer, a priori, que otros siste- un maestro local, Alfonso Reynosos, el Taller de Tradición mas de conocimientos tengan la misma estructura interna Oral, para recopilar y difundir relatos y leyendas nahuas de que el nuestro. Como lo hemos comprobado en nuestras la zona (Ver Taller 1982-1991) investigaciones, las nociones nativas correspondientes a « 11 El Taller acababa de tener una experiencia muy negativa enfermedad », por ejemplo, no se dejan encerrar en alguna « con un antropólogo italiano al que reprochaban de haberse etnofisiología », sino que nos pueden remitir tanto a lo sobre- llevados datos recogidos por el Taller para publicarlos en su natural como a fenómenos del medio ambiente (Beaucage nombre. (Vease Beaucage 1992b) et al., 1997). 12 Un estudio comparativo detres comunidades en 1970 y 3 C. H. Bwown, que también propuso sístesis universales en 1980 permite ver que mientras los campesinos antes opera de la misma manera (1977, 1979). trocaban un kilo de café cereza por un kilo de maíz, llegaron 4 Se observa esta misma tendencia universalista e integra- a conseguir 5 kilos de maíz por el mismo. De la misma cionista en la definición de la etnociencia que proporciona manera, el jornal que permitía comprar a penas 5 kilos de Daniel Clément en un texto de síntesis sobre la evolución de maíz en abril 1970, llegaba a a 20 kilos diez años más tarde la disciplina. Equiparando conocimientos y ciencia, dice : « (Beaucage 1974, Beaucage y Montejo 1984) La etnobiología es el estudio de las ciencias biológicas tal 13 Como me lo decía un amigo, con un humor nahuat muy como se práctican en las varias étnias estudiadas por los característico :: « Fue bonito el estudio, compadre, escribir antropólogos. » (Clément 1998 : 8) en nahuat y todos los nombres de los animalitos, y de las 5 En otro trabajo, hemos mostrado como, entre los nahuas hierbitas. Pero mejor nos hubieras enseñado inglés. !Así de México, el lugar de la « naturaleza », en el universo sim- podríamos ir a trabajar del otro lado! » bólico, está ocupado por un conjunto muy heterogéneo de representaciones, donde se articulan lo material, lo social y lo sobrenatural, con un enfasis especial sobre las relaciones Referencias de género (Beaucage y Taller de Tradición Oral, 2003). 6 [Los pueblos estudiados] no sólo atribuyen comunmente AGUILAR AYÓN, Alvaro, 1986. La comerciali- disposiciones y comportameientos humanos a las plantas zación de la pimienta gorda a través de la y a los animales, sino que expanden el campo de los que cooperativa agropecuaria „Tosepan Titata- son para nosotros organismos vivos no humanos para incluir niske“ en la Sierra Norte de Puebla. Xalisco espíritus, monstruos, objetos […]» (Descola 1996 : 82) (Nayarit), Escuela Superior de Agricultura,

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Universidad Autonoma de Nayarit, Tesis BEAUCAGE, Pierre, 2000 : « La etnociencia su profesional. desarrollo y sus problemas actuales. » Cro- AGUILAR AYÓN, Alvaro.1987. Participación de la nos. Cuadernos Valencianos de Historia de la Cooperativa Agropecuaria regional Tosepan Medicina y de la Ciencia. 3 (1) 44-92. Titataniske en la lucha por el poder. Cuet- BEAUCAGE, Pierre, 2003 : « Espace et politique zalan, ms. à Xiliapan. Représentations et mouvements ARGUETA, Yolanda, 1999 : Los toponímicos sociaux dans une région rurale du Mexique. como estrategia de apoyo en el proceso de » in Hommage à Vincent Lemieux. La sci- adquisición de la lengua materna en tercer ence politique au Québec. (Jean Crête, dir.) grado de preescolar. Tesis de grado, Univer- Québec, Les Presses de l’Université Laval : sidad Pedagógica Nacional. 87-110. ATRAN, S., (1986). Fondements de l‘histoire BEAUCAGE, Pierre, 1992 (dir.): Voces de naturelle. Pour une anthropologie de la sci- Tzinacapan. Dimensiones de la cultura na- ence. Paris, Editions Complexe. huat de la Sierra Norte de Puebla (México). BEAUCAGE, Pierre,1974 : « Comunidades indí- Montréal, Université de Montréal, Cahiers du genas de la Sierra Norte de Puebla. » Revista Groupes de recherche sur l‘Amérique latine Mexicana de Antropología. 36 (1) : 111-146. (con I. Chávez, R. Sierra, P. Valderrama, E. BEAUCAGE, Pierre,1992a: « Crise des subsistances Zamora). ou des modèles d‘interprétation? A propos BEAUCAGE, Pierre y María Elisa MONTEJO, d‘un mouvement social indigène dans la Sierra 1984: « Rapports fonciers et rente foncière: Norte de Puebla (Mexique). » Famines et crises une étude de cas dans la Sierra Norte de de subsistance (André Lepage, dir.) Anthropo- Puebla » in Le café au Mexique et en répu- logie et sociétés, Vol 16 (2): 67-90. blique Dominicaine (P. Beaucage, A. Corten, BEAUCAGE, Pierre,1992b: « A qui appartient le M. E. Montejo et M.-B. Tahon), Montréal, patrimoine autochtone. Débat à propos d‘un Université de Montréal, Cahiers du Groupe livre au Mexique. » Recherches amérindien- de Recherches sur l‘Amérique latine: 4-30. nes au Québec 22 (1): 33-37 (article repris BEAUCAGE, P.; TABARES, E.; TALLER DE TRA- sous le tître „Ciencia y ética“ dans la revue DICION ORAL del CEPEC y GRUPO YOUAL- mexicaine Ojarasca, (6) 85-8) XOCHIT, 1997 : « Le savoir ethnopharmaco- BEAUCAGE, Pierre,1994a: « The coyote and the logique des Nahuas de la Sierra Norte de opossum: ethnic identity and ethnohistory in Puebla (Mexique) structure et variations. » the Sierra Norte de Puebla (Mexico). » The Recherches amérindiennes au Québec, 27, concept of Latin American identity. Minneap- 3-4, 19-30. olis, University of Minnesota Press (Amaryll BERLIN, B., BREEDLOVE, D.; RAVEN, P. (1974). Chanady, dir.) 149-186. Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification. An In- BEAUCAGE, Pierre,1994b « Un ethnologue et troduction to the Botanical Ethnography of a un mouvement autochtone au Mexique. Maya people of Chiapas. New York, Academic Critique d‘une coopération à long terme. » in Press. Tradition et universalisme (F.R. Ouellette et BONFIL BATALLA, G. et al.1982 : Etnocidio y C. Bariteau, dir.) Montréal, Institut québécois etnodesarrollo en América latina. San José. de recherches sur la culture 367-378. FLACSO.

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BROWN, C. H., 1977 : « Folk-Botanical Life-Forms PIKE, K. L., 1956 : « Towards a Theory of the Their Universality and Growth. » American Structure of Human behaviour. » in Estudios Anthropologist, 79 : 317-342. antropológicos publicados en homenaje al BROWN, C. H., 1979 : « Folk-Zoological Life-Forms doctor Manuel Gamio. Mexico, Universidad Their Universality and Growth.» American An- Nacional Autónoma de México : 659-671. thropologist, 81 : 791-817. REYNOSO RÁBAGO, Alfonso, 1988 : Educación, CASTELLS, Manuel, 1997 : La era de la informa- revalorización cultural y etnodesarrollo. ción. (3 vol.) Madrid, Alianza Editorial. Vol 2. Interpretación de una experiencia en tres El poder de la identidad. comuinidades indias de México. Montré- DURKHEIM, É.y M. MAUSS, ([1903]1968) : « De al, Université de Montréal, Département quelques formes de classification - contributi- d’anthropologie (mémoire de maîtrise). on à l‘étude des représentations collectives. SÁNCHEZ, María Eugenia, Blas SOTO, Eduardo » En: M. Mauss, Essais de sociologie. Paris, ALMEIDA y Luis FELIX, 1983 : « Investi- Editions de Minuit, pp. 162-230. gación participativa en el proyecto de San CASTETTER, E.F., 1944 : « The Domain of Ethno- Miguel Tzinacapan. » en La organización biology. » The American Naturalist, 78, 774, de los campesinos y los problemas de la 158-170. investigación participativa. Morelia, IMISAC CLÉMENT, Daniel, 1998 « L’ethnobiologie / Eth- L 121-156. nobiology. » Anthropologica, 40 (1) : 7-34. SÁNCHEZ, María Eugenia y Eduardo ALMEIDA, CONKLIN, H. C., 1954 : The relation of Hanunóo 1986 : « Desarrollo regional y participación. Culture to the Plant World. New Haven, Yale » Boletín Trimestral, El Colegio de Puebla, University, Ph. D. Thesis. 2(1) : 15-41. CONKLIN, H. C., 1955 : « Hanunoo Colour Cat- STEWARD, J., 1955 : A Theory of Culture egories. » Southwestern Journal of Anthropol- Change. Urbana, University of Illinois Press. ogy, 11, 339-344. TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC, DESCOLA, Ph., 1996 : « Constructing Natures. 1982-1989 : Maseualxiujpajmej / Cuentos Symbolic Ecology and Social Practice.» in indígenas de la régión de San Miguel Tzi- Nature and Society (Ph. Descola y G. Pálson, nacapan, Pue. San Miguel Tzinacapan, Taller dir.). Londres, Routledge : 82-102. de Tradición Oral (12 fsciculos). HARSHBERGER, J. W., 1896 « Purposes of ethno- TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC et al., botany.» Botanical Gazette 21 146-154. 1994 Tejuan tikintenkakiliayayaj in toueytata- HUNN, E.. 1977 : Tzeltal Folk Zoology. The Classi- juan / les oíamos contar a nuestros abuelos. fication of Discontinuities in Nature. New York, Etnohistoria de San Miguel Tzinacapan. Acdemic Press. Mexico, Instituto Nacional de Antropología KEARNEY, Michael, 1996 : Reconceptualizaing e Historia. the Peasantry. TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Pi- LÉVI-STRAUSS, C., 1962 : La pensée sauvage. erreBEAUCAGE, 1987: “Catégories pratiques Paris, Presses Universitaires de France. et taxonomie: notes sur les classifications et MURDOCK, G., 1965 : Outline of Cultural Ma- les pratiques botaniques des Nahuas (Sierra terials. New Haven, Human Relations Area Norte de Puebla (Mexique)” Recherches Files. Amérindiennes au Québec, 17 (4): 17-36.

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TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Pi- etnofarmacología. De los saberes indígenas erre BEAUCAGE, 1988: Maseualxiujpajmej - a los científicos. (Carla P. Aguirre marco, dir). plantas medicinales indígenas. (avec le Taller Valencia, Inntuto de Historia de la Ciencia y de Tradición Oral) Puebla, Mexique, DIF. de la Documentación. (en prensa). TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Pier- TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC, re BEAUCAGE, 1990 : „Le bestiaire magique: GRUPO YOUALXOCHIT, PierreBEAUCAGE catégorisation du monde animal chez les In- Y Elizabeth TABARES, 1997 « Le savoir diens maseuals (nahuats) de la Sierra Norte ethnopharmacologique des Nahuas de la de Puebla (Mexique) Recherches Amérindi- Sierra Norte de Puebla (Mexique) structure ennes au Québec, Vol XX (no 3-4): 3-18. et variation. » Recherches Amérindiennes au TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Québec, 27 (3-4) 19-30. Pierre BEAUCAGE, 1993 : Del estudio a la TOLEDO, Victor Manuel, 1992 : « What is ethn- práctica : reflexiones sobre los alcances y las oecology? Origins, scope and implications of límitaciones de una experiencia en la Sierra a rising discipline.» Ethnoecologica 1 : 5-22. Norte de Puebla (México). Ponencia pre- TOUMI, Sybille, 1984 : Vocabulario mexicano de sentada en el simposio Pueblos Ind;igenas Tzinacapan, Sierra Norte de Puebla. Paris, As- y Recursos Naturales (Coord. Biol. Arturo sociation d’ehtnolingüistique amérindienne. Argueta, INI) en el XIII Congreso Internacio- (Supplément au numéro 9 d’Amerindia) nal de Ciencias Antropológicas y Etnológicas, VÁZQUEZ, Antonio, Virginia PÉREZ, Miguel México, 31 de julio. OSORIO, Javier MORALES, Sixto MARTÍNEZ. TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Mariano LOBATO, Lilia GONZÁLEZ, Luis Pierre BEAUCAGE, 1997a «The Traditional In- FÉLIX, Ismael CHÁVEZ, Isauro CHÁVEZ, Edu- dian Coffee Orchard of Eastern Mexico» Jour- ardo ALMEIDA, Anastacio AGUILAR, 1985 : « nal of Ethnobiology. Vol. 17 (no 1) 45-68. La perspectiva de una experiencia local (La TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Pi- experiencia de participación popular en San erre BEAUCAGE, 1997 « La bonne montagne Miguel Tzinacapan) in El trabajo en la tierra et l‘eau malfaisante. Toponymie et pratiques baldía : La participación popular y la forma- environnementales chez les Nahuas de ción en la investigación y la acción social. basse montagne (Sierra Norte de Puebla México, PRADE / PRAXIS : 89-142. (Mexique) » Anthropologie et Sociétés, Vol 20 (3) 33-54. TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Pierre BEAUCAGE, 2003 : « Una mirada indígena sobre naturaleza y cultura. La mujer el oso y la serpiente en dos mitos nahuas ». Cuadernos del Sur 9 (19) : 59-74. TALLER DE TRADICIÓN ORAL DEL CEPEC y Pierre BEAUCAGE, 2005 : « Las yerbas y la llamada (tanotsalis). Etnofarmacología des nahuas de la Sierra Norte de Puebla (Mexique). » in El mestizaqe cultural en

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OPPORTUNITIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES SLoTs - Social Learning Tools: The VGAS experience TIAGO DE SOUSA PEDROSA, ÂNGELA GUIMARÃES PEREIRA

EC - Joint Research Centre/ IPSC, I-21020 Ispra (VA), http://alba.jrc.it/vgas

SLoTs is the name we gave to ICT based tools purposefully developed for learning initiatives in pu- blic settings about issues that concern society. They are not educational tools in the sense that they are not a one-way learning opportunity. They are meant to social learning, meaning that those en- gaged in a situation where they are deployed are all learners from each others walks of life. These tools are designed for discovering information, making relations, exploring challenges, questioning and eventually promote learning and empowerment. V GAS aims at making the connections bet- ween individual lifestyles and greenhouse gas emissions, gauging personal contributions to global emissions. V GAS will try to help the user to answer the question ‚how does my lifestyle relate to the global problem?‘, as well as ‚what options are there to reduce my contribution to the global problem?‘ VGAS is a game built in virtual reality. It consists of a virtual home that the player(s) has to manage in order to keep sustainability parameters in acceptable values from the point of view of emissions of 3 greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide), as well as other equity and lifestyles indicators such as home comfort and functionality and economic aspects. It can be played in multi-player mode, where equity issues can be discussed and illustrated. This game can be played during the session, the best way to illustrate its functionality.

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148 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 149 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

OPPORTUNITIES IN URBAN REGENERATION Participative Approach to the Research Experience on Local Processes Towards Sustainability MA ÀNGELS ALIÓ - SÍLVIA MATEU - LAIA PEIDRO

Grup de Geògrafs per a l‘Ecologia Social. 2GES, Department of Human Geography. University of Barcelona

ur contribution is focused on the participa- The aim of all the research was to demonst- Otive experiences and results of the re- rate the convenience, the instruments, possibi- search that was carried out by our research lities and obstacles, that the town management group between 1999 and 2004. Where by we encountered when it was faced with challenges. studied 13 towns in the metropolitan area of Of which were necessary to bring about change Barcelona. This group comprises of different through sustainable policies (including the territorial types (rural, urban, those in urban A21L). It is also noted that for this reason we transition, large, medium and small towns) in have to incorporate the citizens in the consulta- the Barcelona area. tion process, debates and decision-making. The methodology of work is based on action The presentation will consist of 3 parts:The participation. This model is characterised by a first will be based on the methodology used process of work that was proposed by the citi- and the explanations about the territorial and zens that were involved from the beginning. It the sociological studied objectives.The second had two principal objectives: will be a presentation of the more important a) The citizens involvement in the process of results of the participation process obtained. the realization of the work and their objecti- The third that will be offered is a valuation of ves. the benefits that was thought to be useful in b) The generation of self education processes, this participative methodology of the advanced through their experiences of active participa- perspective of the sustainability model and the tion which was carried out in every town implications of the local scale.

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150 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 151 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

OPPORTUNITIES IN URBAN REGENERATION A Curricular Framework for Sustainable Equitable Community Reinvestment PHILIP NYDEN, DAVID AND IRENE HALL, SAM MARULLO, TERESA ROJO, SARAH JANE KNOY AND NANCY AARDEMA

Philip Nyden, Loyola University Chicago, USA; David and Irene Hall, University of Liverpool, UK; Sam Marullo, Georgetown University, USA; Teresa Rojo, University of Seville, Spain; Sarah Jane Knoy, Organi- zation of the NorthEast (Chicago), USA; Nancy Aardema, Logan Square Neighbourhood Association (Chicago), USA

he cycle of neighbourhood regeneration, for current low-income residents to benefit from Tand its displacement of the low-income these improvements? What are the existing or families who had been living in the neighbour- potential sustainable equitable community de- hood, are common to many developed nations velopment strategies that do or could benefit around the world. While such reinvestment all sectors of the population? What equitable produces „showcase“ communities in many development models are effective in increasing cities, it does not allow low-income individuals economic independence of all individuals and to share in the benefits of better housing, better families? This is the focus of our project. stores, safer streets, and improved services The Curricular Framework for Sustainable Equi- among other tangible improvements. Regener- table Community Reinvestment builds upon the ation may help the overall quality of life or im- experience of university researchers and commu- mediate local economy of the improved com- nity activists in four cities in the U.S. and Europe: munities, but it often does little to provide op- Chicago, Washington DC, Liverpool, and Seville. portunities to low-income families. It often just Specifically, the partners in each city are: the shuffles poverty around a city or a region, but Center for Urban Research and Learning (CURL) does not really reduce the overall regional level at Loyola University Chicago; the CoRAL Network of poverty. coordinated at Georgetown University in Wash- Our international project is an effort to docu- ington, DC; the Department of Sociology, Social ment existing successful alternatives to this re- Policy and Social Work Studies at the University of investment and displacement cycle. What rein- Liverpool; and the Sociology Department of the vestment models both improve the overall eco- University of Seville. The project coordinators in nomic vitality of deteriorated neighbourhoods, each city are: Dr. Philip Nyden (Loyola University at the same time as they provide opportunities Chicago), Dr. Sam Marullo (Georgetown, Wash- ington DC), Dr. David Hall (University of Liver- This project has been funded by a grant from the European pool) and Dr. Teresa Rojo (University of Seville). Community-U.S. Cooperation Program. This project is sponsored We are developing a curriculum that can be used in part by the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Edu- either by faculty and students in the university cation (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education. classroom or by community leaders and resi-

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dents in city and suburban neighbourhoods. training, e.g. business, health care, government, In addition to drawing from experiences in education, social service, law, criminal justice, four different cities in three countries, we are environmental protection, social sciences, and drawing from the knowledge of university-based the natural sciences. research and community activists. All of the partners are actively involved in university- Elements of the project community partnerships. We are strengthening these local activities by forging an international The project formally brings together participants network that links „community-based knowl- in the growing university-community partnership edge“ with „university-based (discipline-based) movements in both the U.S. and Europe. The knowledge.“ This represents a practical applica- „Science Shop“ movement in Europe and the tion of a growing movement of university-com- „university-community partnership“ and „service munity research and teaching partnerships. learning“ movements in the U.S. are visible We are creating, and piloting in all four manifestations of these trends. These efforts universities, courses in „equitable and sustain- are demonstrating that integration of „uni- able neighbourhood reinvestment.“ Each city versity knowledge“ and practical „community partner is using different teaching approaches, knowledge“ better equips university students to but all courses include: a) hands-on training address pressing technical and social problems in community-based participatory research once they enter the work world. Closer linkages methodology; b) student involvement in an between higher education and community prac- equitable re-development project; c) a detailed titioners in knowledge production and in training system of web-based communications; and d) democratize the educational process, helping visits among faculty and community leaders in to strengthen civil society. Such cooperative the four cities. endeavours to serve an „antenna function“ for The Curricular Framework for Sustainable universities. University-based researchers can Equitable Community Investment builds upon more effectively „pick up“ on emerging needs experience gained by growing international net- and knowledge in the broader community. works that link „community-based knowledge“ University-community cooperation also provides with „university-based (discipline-based) knowl- information on ongoing and emerging training edge.“ Innovation - in both theory and practice needs that can be used in making professional - typically occurs at the boundaries between programs more responsive to community and disciplines, between institutions, and between broader society needs. cultures. Therefore, a project that crosses na- The substantive focus of the project is aimed tional boundaries, institutional boundaries, and at sustaining and preserving precious human university-community boundaries enhances and physical resources in our cities. Equitable innovative course content and innovative urban redevelopment focuses on revitalization pedagogy in higher education. This project of the quality of life and economies of our cities focuses on social science research, community while at the same time insuring that „excluded“ development, and urban planning. However, or low-income population are provided with the model and its application could reach into housing, educational, employment, and other additional areas of higher education vocational opportunities that will insure future self-suf-

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ficiency. Second, there is a need to better utilize thermore, the connections of the partners to practical knowledge and professional expertise existing or developing international networks outside our universities in the process of edu- - the European Commission-funded Interna- cating our students and completing research. tional Science Shop Network (ISSNET) and the By tapping this practical, community-based Community Based Research Network (CBR) in knowledge, curriculum inside the university is the United States - means that outcomes of the strengthened. Students are better grounded in project will be communicated and used well the challenges facing urban redevelopers, and beyond the four partner organizations. in how community members‘ knowledge can University centres and departments closely be used in creating innovative solutions to what involved in a new university-community partner- have been long-term urban problems. ship movement on both sides of the Atlantic are The cross-national character of the project being used as the primary organizational vehi- weaves together broad policy, cultural, and com- cles for this project. These programs integrate munity-based organization expertise relevant to active community initiatives into classroom solving pressing urban problems. In addition to teaching. On the U.S. side, Loyola Univer- cross-national understanding of policy approach- sity Chicago‘s involvement in the collaborative es, university pedagogical practices themselves model dates back to its leadership in creating vary in Europe and the U.S. A cross-national a multi-university, multi-community organization sharing of teaching and training approaches is network funded through the U.S. Department of valuable to faculty and students on both sides Education Urban Community Service Program of the Atlantic. Sharing substantive experiences (UCS) in the early 1990ies. Both Georgetown in equitable urban development as well as in- University and Loyola University have been in- novative teaching approaches helps all involved volved in more recent work funded by the Com- avoid „reinvention of the wheel“ in environment munity Outreach Partnership Center program of with limited resources. HUD (COPC). On the European side, faculty at the University of Liverpool are active participants The four university partners in the new European Commission-funded Inter- national Science Shop Network (ISSNET) as well The four partner university centres and pro- as INTERACTS, a project aimed at improving in- grams have a strong track record in using teraction between non-governmental organiza- integrated university-community approaches to tions and universities. The University of Seville training students in equitable urban redevelop- has helped to develop and test participatory ment strategies. The partners are: the Center for methodologies for community-based projects, Urban Research and Learning (CURL) at Loyola such as BASIS (a methodology used to transfer University Chicago; the CoRAL Network (housed technical knowledge to local communities). at the Center for Social Justice Research, Teach- European Science Shops have functioned in a ing and Service at Georgetown University) in number of European countries, formally linking Washington, DC; the Department of Sociology, university curriculum and research capacity with Social Policy and Social Work Studies at the research and training aimed at having practical University of Liverpool, UK; and the Sociology outcomes for local communities. Program at the University of Seville, Spain. Fur- In its support for networks such as ISSNET

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and INTERACTS, the European Commission has community-based organizations, city wide firmly indicated its interest in furthering the de- organizations, social service agencies, health velopment of stronger links between university care providers, and government. By fostering activities and community priorities as a way of collaborative relationships with organizations being more responsive to community needs. In outside the university, the Center recognizes Britain, funding councils for higher education the importance of working with communities are explicitly developing outreach to business and organizations in seeking new solutions to and the community as the „third leg“ of the pressing urban issues. The Center is grounded university mission. Also the Active Community in a new model of teaching and learning that fund in the UK has encouraged development of stresses knowledge exchange between the volunteering programs in universities. In Spain, university and community that builds capacity the Social and Economic Councils created inside while drawing on the strengths of both the com- the universities are committed to creating links munity and university. „Research“ at CURL is between universities and local communities; not traditional research, but rather an integrated although links to private enterprise have been process where „research“ is directly connected strong, connections to community associations to classroom and community partner learning. remain underdeveloped. In the U.S. the „service Founded in 1996, CURL has an endow- learning“ movement which has now involved ment of approximately $8 million that provides virtually every American university, has created a support for undergraduate and graduate fel- similar mandate. From the UCS and COPC pro- lowships, faculty fellowships, and community grams to service learning initiatives promoted fellowships. Currently CURL has nine faculty by national organizations such as Campus Com- and non-faculty staff members and more than pact and the American Association for Higher 50 graduate, undergraduate, and community Education, there is substantial interest among fellows. Teaching and classroom-based research U.S. universities to promote closer university- projects are based on a team-approach that community partnerships. involves students, faculty, staff, and community leaders. More than 15 projects are active at any Following are more detailed description of the one time. These include work on affordable centres and collaborative university-community housing, innovative models of early childhood networks involved in the project: education, employment training for low-in- come job seekers, culturally-sensitive domestic The Center for Urban Research and Learn- violence prevention models, maintaining stable ing (CURL) at Loyola University of Chicago: racially and ethnically diverse communities, and Through training programs and classroom-based effective micro-enterprise development in eco- research CURL (www.luc.edu/curl) is dedicated nomically diverse communities. to the development of innovative and practical CURL has received funding from many foun- approaches to community change that bring dations and government agencies including: the about perceptible improvement in the quality of U.S. Department of Education, the U.S. Depart- life of the people of Chicago‘s city and suburban ment of Housing and Urban Development, the communities. To accomplish this mission, CURL McCormick Tribune Foundation, the John D. and promotes cooperation among faculty, students, Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Fannie

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Mae Foundation, the Sara Lee Foundation, the of undergraduate and postgraduate programs Woods Fund, the Joyce Foundation, the Ford is the ability of students to choose to engage Foundation, BP, and AT&T. in community-based learning through service learning and applied social research. The Uni- University of Liverpool: The Department of versity of Liverpool has an active „volunteering Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work Studies program“ that is linked to this work. The Depart- at the University of Liverpool is one of the oldest ment is also a participant in ISSNET and INTER- of its kind in the country. Established initially in ACTS (a consortium of Science Shops in seven the early years of the 20th century as the first European countries that developed case studies social work school in Britain, it has expanded of Science Shop-community interaction). to include a range of teaching and research in theoretical and applied sociology and in social Georgetown University: The CoRAL Network policy. The Department provides undergradu- (www.coralnetwork.org), based at Georgetown ate BA programs in Sociology, Sociology and University, is a collaborative effort of DC‘s univer- Social Policy, and Criminology and Sociology, sities, community-based organizations (CBOs), together with a range of postgraduate programs and civic organizations. Participating universities in social policy, social work and social research, include American University, Catholic Univer- including the MSc in Applied Social and Com- sity, Georgetown University, George Washington munity Research. The Department has a current University, Trinity University, the University of yearly intake of 180 undergraduates in its BA the District of Columbia, and the University of programs, 60 in postgraduate programs, mostly Maryland. The CoRAL network also includes the in social work, and a cohort of approximately Perry School Community Service Center, the 30 PhD students. It is also involved in the Urban Institute, George Mason University Non- Community Based Learning Teamwork net- profit Studies Program, the Washington Council work (www.hope.ac.uk/cobalt), a multi-univer- of Agencies, and the Washington DC Office of sity consortia which has developed curricula for Partnerships and Grants Development. community-based participatory research. It is designed to meet the research and infor- The Department has a thriving and expand- mation needs of the CBOs by matching up stu- ing research culture, committed to critical and dents and university faculty to work with CBOs socially relevant research. This is undertaken for progressive social change. In the four years within two broad areas. First, The City, Com- of its existence, the CoRAL Network has under- munity and Policy is centred on the analysis taken over 30 collaborative research projects, of contemporary poverty and the associated several of them in the Columbia Heights com- rise of social stress and social exclusion, as well munity focusing on the problems surrounding as more broadly to embrace many topics con- gentrification and displacement. The CoRAL cerned with modern urban life and state welfare Network links and supports faculty and com- policies. Second, Globalisation, Regulation and munity organizations to support their projects Citizenship addresses developments in the and develop long term partnerships that build world economy and politics, their impact on na- capacity of the organizations and empower the tion states, on labour markets, and on concepts residents of disadvantaged communities. Other and practices of citizenship. A distinctive feature CoRAL-sponsored projects have evaluated the

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impact of the replacement of public housing the Department has created regular lines of with HOPE VI mixed-income housing, examined communication with non-governmental organi- the barriers to higher education among immi- zations and community leaders, as evidenced grant youths, and have tracked and analysed the by the Department‘s answering their specific quality of life indicators and challenges faced by requests for training and technical advice in re- the largely Latino immigrant population concen- cent years. trated in the community. While the CoRAL Network benefited from a Description of the local community $35,000 per year three-year start up grant from partnerships in each city the Bonner Foundation to provide training and staff support, it also depends heavily on volun- Chicago: Sustaining stable diversity in some teer faculty participants who integrate commu- of the most racially, ethnically, and economi- nity-based research into their courses. For its ad- cally diverse communities in the United States ministrative and development work, the CoRAL is the focus of this project. For more than ten Network relies on two faculty members and years, CURL has been working with community- four student assistants based in Georgetown based organizations in three community areas University‘s Center for Social Justice Research, along Chicago‘s northern lake front, containing Teaching, and Service. Dr. Marullo is directing a population of 180,000 and surround one of this project from the university side, recruiting Loyola‘s three Chicago campuses. CURL has and training students and supervising their work documented this diversity through a number in the community. He has long been involved in of projects that have involved collaborative community-based research and has pioneered teams of students, faculty, and community the development of community-based research leaders. While using a collaborative participatory within the sociology curriculum. research model, these past activities have been integrated into graduate and undergraduate University of Seville: Since 1997 the Soci- courses at Loyola University. Most prominent ology Department of the University of Seville among the outcomes of these collaborative (www.us.eu) has provided expertise on par- learning/research projects was a component of ticipatory research methodologies for different a national report published by HUD document- efforts organized by local authorities or political ing characteristics that produce stable diverse parties for the promotion of sustainable urban communities. Most recently, the State of Illinois reinvestment strategies in Seville. These have Department of Commerce and Community been done in accordance with EC policies re- Affairs supported further collaborative univer- lated to the region-policies expressed through sity-community projects to document changes the European Campaign for Sustainable Cities in availability of affordable housing in the local and its conferences; the Innovation Programme community. promotion of participatory methodologies like CURL is working with two community EASW since 1995; and the ONU Agenda 21 partners in: 1) examining the dimensions of Statement. Results have been complied in the gentrification and displacement in two Chicago book Seville 2010: A Sustainable Metropolis, community areas with population of approxi- published by the Department. Past work by mately 60,000 each, and 2) exploring effec-

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tive city wide strategies for insuring effective Washington, DC: The Columbia Heights interventions supporting equitable community Action Research Project is linking community development. The Organization of the Northeast activists with university faculty and students in (or ONE) in the Uptown neighbourhood and order to discover the impact of urban rede- the Logan Square Neighbourhood Association velopment on a low-income neighbourhood (LSNA) in the Logan Square community area in Washington, DC. It trains faculty, students, are working with CURL to share best practices and community residents to work together on: and lessons learned from their work in equita- 1) analysing census data about the neighbour- ble community develop and to develop priori- hood, 2) studying property sales transactions, ties in an equitable development curriculum. and 3) interviewing current and former resi- Founded in 1974, today ONE has over 80 dents and business owners who face the risk of diverse institutional members, including con- or have been forced out of the neighbourhood. gregations, ethnic associations, businesses, Participants in the project learn about the impact and non-profits. ONE is a United Way agency of redevelopment on low-income communities; and does not seek nor receive any governmen- find ways of maintaining neighbourhoods like tal funding. ONE‘s ongoing mission is to build- these as livable communities without displacing ing a successful multi-ethnic, mixed-economic long-time community residents; and work to community on the northeast side of Chicago, maintain the current racial, ethnic, economic, in the neighbourhoods of Uptown, Edgewater, and age diversity existing in Columbia Heights Rogers Park and Ravenswood. In 2001, ONE‘s and other similarly affected neighbourhoods in work was recognized by the Woods, Weiboldt, Washington, DC. The project particularly seeks New Prospects, and The John D. and Cath- to examine and support effective tenant and erine T. MacArthur Foundation as they named community organizing as a strategy for resist- the organization Community Organization of ing displacement and maintaining diversity. The the Year. developing curriculum will be integrated into a The Logan Square Neighbourhood Associa- multi-university course, Project DC, a commu- tion (LSNA) was founded in 1962 as nonprofit nity-based research seminar. 501c3 corporation. Its mission is to ensure that the community is an excellent place to live, Liverpool: The university is working with the work, play, raise children, run a business, and Dingle Regeneration a project focusing on an in- worship. It is an umbrella organization currently ner city area with a significant level of regenera- composed of over 40 member institutions to tion activity. This is part of Liverpool 8, but is less include schools, churches, block clubs, social ethnically-mixed than adjacent neighbourhoods. service agencies, and multi-unit apartment The community is closest to the south docks buildings. Collectively, its membership rep- which have now closed and have been turned resents thousands of families in the Logan over for redevelopment as commercial premises Square community. LSNA‘s organizational ac- and new residential areas. However, Dingle is tion plan sets forth its priorities in the areas of separated from this new development by physi- affordable housing, education, health, econom- cal barriers, and has not shared in the gentri- ic development, jobs, safety, parent leadership, fication of the part with the view of the River senior citizens, youth, and the arts. Mersey - mixture of Victorian housing and small

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new estates. The focus of this project would be artists through the concept of recovering a half- on how Dingle can share in the economic ben- empty and very deteriorated 300 year palace efits of the nearby River Mersey regeneration. for a multi-functional activity center. The General The proposed curriculum will be integrated into Plan under approval at the moment has integrat- the Applied Social and Community Research ed some of the demands of the Plataform and masters degree program. a the Housing Plan for the city has also projects for the area. Local leaders have requested sup- Seville: The present project addresses recent port for a systematic study of the issues as well demands expressed by community associations as support for communicating and relating with working on the regeneration of the old Seville other relevant actors in the process of change of neighbourhood of San Luis - San Gil - Pumarejo, the neighbourhood. by integrating the training and research activities into the undergraduate course on „Public Opin- Focus of the project ion“ as well as into the postgraduate course on „Deviation, Society and Urban Change“, offered Using the experience in 1) developing urban by the Sociology Department of the University policy curriculum; 2) conducting internships of Seville. Through these courses students gain based on a university-community partnership hands-on experience in the use of community- model; and 3) training students in community- based participatory research methodologies, based participatory research methods, we are make use of information technologies for group creating a variety of courses models in equitable work and teaching systems, engage in interna- community development. In the pilot phase of tional exchange of experiences and techniques. the project, classes at the four sites are using The neighbourhood of San Luis - San Gil web-based communications, primarily a blog, - Pumarejo is located inside the old town of to facilitate communication among faculty, stu- Seville. It is a disinvested area, very close to dents, and community partners. other old town neighbourhoods that have been The project is still in process. However out- recently revitalized through work of the Munici- comes will include development and comple- pality, private investors, and an URBAN program tion of courses that use different pedagogical funded by EC (1997-1999). The neighbourhood approaches in examining Collaborative univer- of San Luis - San Gil - Pumarejo lacks social sity-community approaches to sustainable and services and employment for residents. Social equitable neighbourhood reinvestment. Specifi- changes are taking place through recent five cally we have developed, or are developing: 1) years housing renewal for young profession- a 14-week course on equitable urban develop- als, foreign poor countries migration flows to ment; 2) integration of an international equita- remaining poor quality housing. ble development thread into an undergraduate Local community associations like „Platafor- urban studies course the includes both seminar ma Pumarejo“, „Ecologistas en Acción“, „Ateneo and team community-based research compo- Verde“, „Mujeres sururbanas“, „Foro Social de nents; 3) graduate courses; 4) multi-university Seville“, and others are working to revitalize the seminars with a service learning component; area. They have already obtained large support and 5) multi-disciplinary courses which include both from residents and Seville intellectuals and equitable development as one area of focus.

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Included in our models are the following com- Conclusions ponents: a) Hands-on training in community-based par- The urban equitable development project is ticipatory research methodology (CBPR). in the process of expanding the knowledge base CBPR is a well-developed methodology of both university faculty and community part- that integrates community expertise into ners. This represents a significant step forward in both the design of research, e.g. evaluation using Science Shops and university-community research and needs assessment, and the collaboration experience to further the quality of analysis of research data. The advantage of life in local neighbourhoods in multiple coun- CBPR is that incorporates community-based tries. At a time when „global“ is often used to knowledge into the research process, while describe a process of decision making beyond keeping up rigorous scientific standards of the reach of local communities, we are actively research. This makes it more responsive developing knowledge and a communication to community needs and more usable by system to link local activities in different cities clients, e.g. social service providers, health and different countries. Our hope is to increase care providers, government agencies, or the control of local residents, particularly lower- businesses. income residents, in the future of their commu- b) Student involvement in an equitable re-de- nities. velopment project that will be the substan- tive focus in each city c) A system of computer-based communica- tion among students, faculty, and com- munity partners at the four participating universities

A written manual will also be produced, provid- ing teaching and community-based participa- tory research case studies of the projects in each of the four cities. Critical elements of this manual will be explanations of how to:

a) enhance classroom efficacy through inte- gration of cross-national experiences and best practices models into the classroom; b) use web-based distance learning software; c) apply this model to other disciplines/ substantive areas; d) establish and maintain partnerships among universities and community-based part- ners.

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OPPORTUNITIES IN HEALTH SCIENCES Diagnosing Distraction: Society‘s Influence on Prescribing Methylphenidate DENAE FRIEDHEIM

Saint Mary‘s College, Notre Dame, IN, USA

Little is known about the long-term effects of methylphenidate (Ritalin.) Several tests on lab speci- mens, human children, and human adults have been administered to find short-term effects and predict long-term effects of the relatively new drug. The question is raised of whether the admin- istration of psychostimulants during the critical period development during childhood will lead to negative changes in adulthood (Gomez et al. 2004). The safety of methylphenidate is indeed questionable. Although many physicians see the effective- ness of stimulant drugs for treating symptoms of ADHD in children, many would prefer nonstimulant medication (Stockl et al. 2003). Still, methylphenidate remains the most prescribed medication for ADHD. There are several social factors contributing to the diagnosis of behavioral disorders resulting in this high rate of prescription. Certainly the need exists for scrutiny of physicians‘ guidelines for prescription as well as the drug methylphenidate itself. This study examined the effects of society on the prescription of methylphenidate to pre-adoles- cents, adolescents, and adults. Interviews were conducted with the professionals associated with institutions including elementary schools, high schools, and medical practices. It was found that several social factors contributed to diagnosing and prescribing including parent/patient-physician pressure, direct-to-consumer advertising, prescribing as a coping device for physicians, family back- ground and socioeconomic status, as well as the structure of education. Assessing the positions of patients, physicians, and pharmaceutical companies in the social structure is crucial for truly beneficial patient care with the use of prescription drugs.

he recent increased appearance and treat- ADHD, during the same period (Diller 1998). An Tment of behavioral/mental disorders in the analysis of cultural and societal aspects in addi- United States may seem like an epidemic. The tion to the systematics of medicine and market- sharp rise, occurring in the 1990ies, in diagnoses ing reveal that the diagnosis and treatment of of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder‘s re- ADHD is not entirely medical in nature. veals that disorder is more than an ingenious medical discovery. 900,000 children and adults Literature Review were diagnosed with ADHD in 1990, a figure that rose to nearly five million by 1998. Additionally Physicians are held in high esteem in America; there was a 700% increase in the production of their knowledge of modern science in conjunc- Ritalin, the most common drug used in treating tion with an intimate contact with people pro-

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vides them with a certain authority (Starr 1982). Factors Associated with Prescribing: Direct to As the United States developed into an industrial Consumer Advertising society, physicians became an integral part of the Historically, patent drug companies used adver- social order. Illness, childbirth, and death became tising to their advantage, speaking out against more segregated from normal events of everyday physicians (Starr 1982). Later, physicians used life. British philosopher John Stuart Mill believed the same tactics to regain their authority. Today that society urges that pain be hidden from pub- the tables are turning again. Direct-to-consumer lic view (Starr 1982). As American culture has advertising expenditures climbed from $47 mil- entered a more progressive era, the demand to lion in 1990 to $2.5 billion in 2000. Product- be well is even greater. Several factors, labelled specific broadcasts are not required by the U.S. as progressive, have affected the way medical Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to provide authorities and patients view illness and how complete risk information about prescription medical authorities prescribe treatment. Since it drugs. Instead drug companies are required to is common practice in American society to hide have a supplemental summary included with illness and pain from public view, the medical the drug containing detailed information about prescription model has reached new heights. its side effects and effectiveness (Kaphingst et Recently, people of lay status (patients) have al. 2004). Studies by Kaphingst et al. (2004) presented challenges to the authority of general show that consumers would require a college practitioners particularly in the area of demand- reading level to understand the implications of ing prescription drug treatment. Interviews con- the drugs indicated by these summaries. ducted by Weiss and Fitzpatrick (1997) reveal Regardless of consumers‘ insufficient under- that general practitioners identified expectations standing of prescription drug risks, Woloshin of their patients as a key influence on their et al. (2001) argues that direct-to-consumer prescribing: advertising has boosted patient demands for I am susceptible to patient pressure or I‘m certain prescription drugs producing a nega- certainly very willing to negotiate with patients tive effect on physician-patient relationships., about what they feel they want to do with the Stivers (2002) found that physicians receiving treatment. I think that… if you cooperate and patient/parent pressure are more likely to inap- the patient gets what they want then there‘s propriately prescribe antibiotics. certainly a lot of psychological (benefit). Patient expectations for prescription drug treat- Prescribing as a Coping Mechanism ment often create problems with general practi- Prescribing medicine today is clearly more tioners‘ desires to prescribe based on a scientific complex than simply a treatment for patient ail- model of the prescriptions effectiveness: ments. Weiss and Fitzpatrick (1997) argue that The patient‘s expectations would certainly in the medical field, „a relatively easy source of play a role and so there are occasions where cost savings is prescribing.“ Since the patient one might end up prescribing maybe even population is growing at a faster rate than the against one‘s better judgment (Weiss and Fit- physician population, prescribing has become a zpatrick 1997). coping device. In Weiss and Fitzpatrick‘s study The question is thus raised, what drives this (1997), several general practitioners were in- patient demand to be medicated? terviewed about prescribing in relation to the

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clinical environment. Numerous physicians According to Gomez et al. (2004) an agreed that scrawling a prescription and open- overproduction of synaptic connections and ing the door for the patient was sometimes the receptors followed by their natural reduction only sane way to deal with a busy clinic. Others occurs during childhood development. Many stated that prescribing was a way to reduce behavioral disorders may be attributed to this medical uncertainty. One general practitioner overproduction and elimination during pre-ado- admitted that he or she (the identities of the lescent and adolescent years. Methylphenidate interviewees were kept anonymous) usually specifically acts on presynaptic receptors, inhib- prescribed more towards the end of the day iting reuptake of dopamine which then collects than earlier as a direct result of stress rather in synaptic areas. than based directly on patient ailments. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Direct-to-consumer advertising when com- (ADAH) affects 3%-5% of all school- aged bined with stresses faced by general practi- children, according to Stock et al. (2003). More tioners clearly results in increased prescribing. referrals for the treatment of ADHD exist than Medical doctors are using prescriptions more any other behavioral/mental disorder in pre- than ever to treat patients. It can thus be adolescent and adolescents. Schenk and Izen- inferred that many of these prescriptions are wasser (2002) note that Methylphenidate is unnecessary and that patients lack the knowl- the most prescribed treatment for ADHD. Many edge of what the treatment they are receiving medical professionals feel, however, that ADHD is actually doing. is underdiagnosed. According to Jensen (2000), only 50% of American children with ADHD are ADHD: Diagnosis and Treatment with Meth- being treated with stimulant medication and of ylphenidate those, inadequate treatment is common. The The psychostimulant Methylphenidate, a The Multimodal Treatment Study of Children derivative of amphetamine, was first approved with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder by the FDA in 1955 for the treatment of mild conducted by the National Institute of Mental depression, narcolepsy, and drug-induced leth- Health (1999) provides evidence that psycho- argy. Acquiring its familiar trade name, Ritalin, stimulants are more effective than behavioral in 1960 it was marketed as a drug to improve therapy and when used together, they do not memory performance in the geriatric population prove any more effective than when patients are as well as for treating various behavioral prob- treated by the drug alone. lems in children. The use of Methylphenidate Still others believe that ADHD as a biological raises concern among many because of its disorder is not a legitimate diagnosis in all cases, close relation to amphetamine; their chemical that both biologically-based ADD and culturally- structures are very similar as are both the way based ADD exist. Edward Hallowell terms the they are metabolized and their clinical effects. latter „pseudo-ADD“, stating that the fast paced The simple fact that Ritalin is not seen as an society in which we live fosters many of the amphetamine along with its quick action and core symptoms of biologically-based ADD: high lack of major side effects leads most to believe levels of impulsivity, an ongoing search for high that treatment with the patented drug is fairly stimulation, a tendency of restless behaviour safe (Diller 1998). and impatience, and a very active, fleeting at-

162 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 163 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

tention span. Hallowell states, „We are, as the stimulant drugs for treating symptoms of ADHD in cliché has it, wired-stimulated and speeded up children, studies by Stockl et al. (2003) show that day and night, constantly sending and receiv- many would prefer nonstimulant medication. Still, ing messages…“ (DeGrandpre p. 17, 1999). methylphenidate remains the most prescribed Regardless of its origin, biological or cultural, medication for ADHD; the question here is why? people are suffering from attention deficit. Mat- Perhaps the pressures on physicians from thew Dumont suggests: adult ADD patients and/or parents of children The hyperactive child is attempting to recap- diagnosed with ADHD create demand for this ture the dynamic quality of the television screen high rate of prescription? Or perhaps a physician by rapidly changing his perceptual orientation. I treats a person with symptoms of ADHD and also wonder if it is possible that amphetamines quickly writes a prescription to relieve the stress control his behaviour by producing a subjective of an overburdened clinic? These and other so- experience comparable to the fleeting worlds of cial factors may impact a physician‘s unwritten television (DeGrandpre p. 126, 1999). guidelines for prescribing methylphenidate. This Little is known about the long-term effects of study was designed to examine the effects of methylphenidate. Several tests on lab specimens social factors rather than health needs on pre- (namely Sprague-Dawley rats) human children, scription of methylphenidate to pre-adolescents, and human adults have been administered to find adolescents, and adults. short-term effects and predict long-term effects of the relatively new drug (see Brandon et al. 2003, Theories: Marx and Engels Gomez et al.2004, Carlezon et al. 2003, Rapport and Moffitt 2002, Volkow et al. 2003, & Schenk Conflict theorists view the establishment of and Izenwasser 2003). Gomez et al. (2004) medicine as a social institution shaped by question whether the administration of psychos- the economic base of capitalism. Disparities timulants during the critical period development among class, race and gender are inherent in during childhood will lead to negative changes in the capitalist structure and unequal positions adulthood. Studies examining somatic complaints in society are reinforced by the relationships showed that children receiving methylphenidate created through the division of labour. When therapy had appetite reduction, sleep disturbance, treating patients, doctors embody the ideology headaches, stomachache, and dizziness as well as of capitalism. Therefore, as Shepard (1993) elevated heart rates and blood pressure (Rapport argues, through the capitalist power structure and Moffitt 2002). It has been suggested that doctors are able to maintain their prestige by short-term treatment with high dosages of methyl- monopolizing medical services. Because of their phenidate increases vulnerability to cocaine abuse authority in society, doctors come to be experts (Schenk and Izenwasser 2002). In a recent study, on „normalcy.“ Patients with „mental disorders“ it was reported that 16% of students reported they are, as Marx would argue, labelled deviant be- had tried methylphenidate recreationally, 12.7% of cause of their „abnormality“ preventing them which had taken it intranasally (Schenk and Izen- from ideal labour. Through their prestige and wasser 2002). expertise, doctors are then able to set stand- The safety of methylphenidate is certainly ards for society. The theories of Karl Marx and questionable. Although many physicians use Frederick Engels regarding the division of labour,

164 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 165 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

ideology and social control are aligned with the which is handed down to each generation effects of society on diagnosing mental and from its predecessor; a mass of productive behavioral illnesses and conditions. forces, capital funds and conditions, which, on the one hand, is indeed modified by the new Division of Labour generation, but also on the other prescribes In The German Ideology, Mearx and Engels for it its conditions of life and gives it a definite (1964, p.31) express that humans distinguish development, a special character (Marx and themselves and are distinguished from animals Engels, 1964, p.50)This development requires by consciousness, the awareness of personal cooperation, division of labour and social or- productivity. Through the production of their ganization in order to persist. „means of subsistence“, individuals consciously build a material life. This production, followed by Capitalism and the Division of Labour reproduction, becomes, for humans, the means In Capital, Karl Marx (1906, p.163) describes of self definition. The nature of the individual capital as the production of commodities, depends on the material conditions (what and the circulation of those commodities and the how) of his or her production. Through the life transformation of these processes into money. processes of production and reproduction, the Capitalism, the system through which these once self-defined individuality of humans loses processes operate, is defined by Marx as having meaning; material production becomes material attributes including the pressure of individuals intercourse as a result of human social interac- to accumulate capital (capitalists) and the pres- tion. To live and produce „means of subsist- sure of laborers to produce capital (workers). ence“, humans must work together in the „divi- The product does not belong to laborer but sion of labour“. Termed „herd-consciousness“ instead to the capitalist (p.641). Production and by Marx and Engels (1964, p.42), the individual accumulation along with reproduction and addi- consciousness becomes collective as persons tional accumulation serves to widen the division recognize the necessity of association with other between capitalist and laborer more with each individuals., Humans are only distinguished from transaction, a perpetual cycle which maintains animals, then, because consciousness takes the the „division of labour“: place of what is normally known as animal …under capitalism, where the social wealth instinct or, rather, because human individual becomes in an ever increasing degree the instinct is a conscious one. Consciousness, the property of those who are in a position to ap- awareness of productivity, although it still exists, propriate to themselves again and again the is no longer personal and is governed by a struc- unpaid labour of others (Marx, 1906, p.643). tured system of social interaction. Stated as empirical fact, Marx and Engels The development of production is itself a (1964, p.48) claim that individuals have „become product of history, developing from generation more and more enslaved under a power alien to generation: to them“. It is through the emergence of private But that in it (history) at each stage there property, class division and alienation that the „di- is found a material result: a sum of produc- vision of labour“ has come to be (Jary and Jary, tive forces, a historically created relationship 1991, p.226). The division of labour in the capital- of individuals to nature and to one another, ist society serves to alienate the individual from

164 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 165 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

him or herself. For as long as the individual exists when a patient is physically or mentally disabled. in a society structured by a division of labour, and Therefore, ideological structures are preserved as long as activity is remains involuntary, the ac- through doctor-patient interaction. As defined tion of the individual as a means of production is by Waitzkin (1989), health is „the capacity to no longer his or her own but, instead, serves to work productively“ (p.222). Mentioned above, control the him or her (Marx and Engels, 1964, the consciousness of the individual is based on p.44). It is through the division of labour that his or her ability to be productive. Labeling a ideologies become distinguished. person as either able or unable to work produc- , tively removes ownership of their productivity Ideology even further from them, placing it in the hands According to Marx and Engels (1964, p.62), of the hegemonic actor-the doctor. Medical societal norms are determined the ruling/upper encounters, therefore, convey ideology that is class of a society. Aligned with the division of supportive of the current social order. labour, this ideology is distorted as it disregards the needs of the subordinate „non-ruling“ classes Medical Encounters‘ Consequences on Social who are exploited by the ruling class. As the divi- Control sion of labour comes to be through a reformative Social control refers to the mechanisms by and oppressive process, so does ideology: which individuals are forced to subscribe to The ruling ideas are nothing more than the standard behaviors of a society. This term the ideal expression of the dominant material is tied closely to ideology in regards to the relationships, the dominant material relation- medical field (Waitzkin, 1989, p.225). Through ships grasped as ideas; hence of the relation- advice, diagnosis and prescription, doctors con- ships which make the once class the ruling vey ideologic messages to patients, reinforcing one, therefore, the ideas of its dominance. The social norms and controlling socially appropriate individuals composing the ruling class possess behaviors. According to Waitzkin (1989), prob- among other things consciousness, and there- lems outside of the realm of technical medicine fore think (Marx, 1964, p.60). have gradually come under medical control. This Marx and Engels suggest here that the ruling has resulted in the „medicalization“ of a wide class is not naturally superior but that ideologies range of economic, social, political and psycho- set forth by the ruling class are self-propagating. logical problems including sexuality and family Because their consciousness is legitimate, those life, work dissatisfaction and difficulties arising individuals subordinate to them are subject, from the educational system (e.g., learning dis- then, to oppression by these ideologies. abilities, maladjustment, student psychological distress) along with many other fields. It may The Division of Labour and Ideology be argued that doctors, when responding to in Medicine non-technical problems, may fail to differentiate The medical doctor, a prime example of a between problems arising from societal issues hegemonic1 center in a capitalist society, pre- serves the division of labour through his or her 1 The ideological/cultural domination of one class by another, achieved by engineering consensus through controlling the interactions with patients. Belonging to the capi- content of cultural forms and major institutions (Jary and talist class, doctors have the authority to certify Jary, 1991, p.207)

166 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 167 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

and individual troubles (Waitzkin, 1989, p.225). are likely as well to be lacking full mental health When patients consciously seek help from if their productivity does not indicate human doctors to alleviate problems affecting their potential by ideological standards. productivity, situational constraints (social fac- tors) often leave medical social control below Methods the level of consciousness. The true root of the problem is not technically medical and solution, For this study data was collected by conduct- therefore, lies beyond the capabilities of medi- ing interviews based on, but not restricted to, cal roles. Because medical practitioners are not a set of questions intended to promote discus- trained in treating problems stemming from an sion. This method was selected in order to institutional context, social change is often not analyse perceptions of individual professionals an option in treatment (Waitzkin, 1989, p. 227). involved in diagnosing and treating persons with To doctors and patients alike, non-treatment is ADHD. Qualitative assessment allows for the not an option. Therefore, the social deviation of emergence of key themes among participant the individual becomes medicalized and a con- interviews that, when combined with previous dition, regardless of its legitimacy, is diagnosed research and sociological theory, result in per- and treatment options are provided. sonal yet clear conclusions. All participants were interviewed using sur- Mental Health in Society veys approved by the Institutional Review Board Jahoda (1980) argues that the definition of at Saint Mary‘s College. The survey questions mental health varies by society and depends were used simply for the facilitation of dialogue upon „underlying value assumptions“ (Borgatta between the interviewee and interviewer. In an and Borgatta, 1992, p.1260). The definition effort to contextualize the specific effects of soci- of mental health within a society is therefore ety on prescribing, interviews with adult patients influenced by certain assumptions of the class prescribed Ritalin as youths were conducted to defining societal norms. In reference to Jahoda‘s provide a broader perspective. These interviews, explanation of mental health definition within however, are not part of the data set presented. society, Borgatta and Borgatta (1992) state: The sample consisted of twelve individuals who While there is continued debate on how have professional contact with persons diagnosed to characterize the mentally healthy person, with ADHD including: two child and adolescent researchers agree that mental health is more counselors, one former elementary school teacher, than the absence of mental illness; it represents four licensed college counselors, three board cer- the enhancement of human potential (p.1260). tified psychiatrists/psychologists, and two Mental According to Marx and Engel‘s theory of Health Technicians (employed by a Mental Health ideology, individuals in society who are not Facility). The sample was obtained by referral from part of the ruling class are subject to the scru- both interviewees (a.k.a. „snowball sample“) and tiny of those who have defined societal norms. from personal referrals. Three of the participants Because mental health depends upon the un- were parents of children with ADHD in addition to derlying value assumptions of the ruling class, their professional positions, two had spouses with any outliers are not only prone to be diagnosed ADHD, and one referred to herself as having an as mentally ill because of social deviance, they „undiagnosed case of adult ADD.“,

166 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 167 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

All interviews were tape recorded and lasted, Findings on average, between thirty minutes and one hour. Of the recorded sample, seventy five Fifty five quotes were extracted from the in- percent were female, one hundred percent terviews and categorized as biological or social were Caucasian, one hundred percent had at factors of diagnosing/prescribing. A quantitative least a college degree, about sixty percent were assessment of categorical placement in relation estimated to be between the ages of twenty to participant occupation can be found in Ap- and forty-five and about forty percent were over pendix I. forty-five. Informed consent forms were reviewed and Biological Factors signed by all participants. The option to termi- The legitimacy of diagnosing ADHD as a chemi- nate the interview at any time was presented. All cal imbalance in the brain comes into question interviews were transcribed and the data were because clinical diagnoses are based on the analysed using the Weiss and Fitzpatrick (1997) analysis of behavioral characteristics, not on the model for the analysis of qualitative research. patient‘s brain chemistry. ADHD‘s comorbidity Quotations were categorized based on the dis- with other conditions also presents questions of cussion of similar themes and subcategorized legitimate analysis of the disorder. Conversely, based on certain distinctions within the broad genetic components of the disorder provide categories. Categories were then compared to more validity for diagnosing ADHD. and integrated with one another to provide con- clusive links between different quotations. Comorbidity Institutions which support capitalist ideologies Comorbidity refers to medical conditions that preserve the established orders and the class exist concurrently with but often independently which dominates it. As they objectify and define of one another. Several of the interviewees com- ideologies in society, doctors-with inherent pres- mented on the comorbidity of ADHD and other tige-are perhaps the most sympathetic of author- conditions, particularly mental health conditions. ity figures Institutions such as schools, the mass The comment by Mental Health Technician 1 media and family reinforce medicine‘s impact on that ADHD is the „litmus test“ for admittance to ideology and its role in defining norms by sug- the mental health facility suggests possibly that gesting deviance of individuals and encouraging the symptoms of ADHD are perhaps products of those individuals to seek medical explanation for other mental illness as opposed to a true form it. Statements coming from the patient in regards of the disorder itself. This conjecture is sup- to his or her own marginalization, because of ported further by the subsequent quote from ideology, serve to objectify his or her symptoms, Clinical Psychologist 1 concerning comorbidity. that is to medicalize what may be a societal issue. You almost always find that with them that‘s The consciousness of the laborer-suppressed al- kind of the litmus test to get in (to the mental ready in daily life in a capitalist society-is further health facility); you start with ADHD and then subdued when such social symptoms are treated kind of work your way up (Mental Health Tech- as individual problems. nician 1). It‘s hard to tell sometimes because it exists with so many other mental health issues, it over-

168 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 169 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

laps with depression, it overlaps with anxiety, it that I didn‘t have it. That‘s a real interesting overlaps with bipolar disorder, so it‘s teasing out issue because that‘s a gender issue (Clinical what really is the central issue. Sometimes if its Psychologist 1). depression and you treat it, the ADHD portion disappears. Sometimes, though, it‘s the ADHD Social Factors that‘s causing the depression and anxiety so if Abuse and Addiction you treat that, those disappear (Clinical Psy- People are often wary of taking prescription chologist 2). drugs, especially psychotropics, for the fear of addiction. It is also common belief among Brain Chemistry parents that the use of prescription drugs dur- Interviews noted that a significant number of ing childhood will lead to drug abuse later in studies have been conducted involving the life. Several experiences and viewpoints were brain chemistry of persons with ADHD. Clini- expressed by the interviewees. cal Psychologists 1 & 2 and Psychiatrist 1 were Another issue was that if we treated kids with both in agreement that ADHD is in fact due to a Ritalin or Adderall or other stimulants would we chemical imbalance in the brain. lead them into substance abuse? There‘s excel- It‘s a neurologic (sic) condition. There are lent recent literature that just the opposite is differences in various areas of the brain of true; if we don‘t treat children who have ADHD people who have ADHD and in fact, there is for their ADHD, they are much more likely to a psychiatrist, Daniel Amen, who does SPECT end up utilizing marijuana, alcohol, cocaine and studies (Single Photon Emission Computerized other abusive substances so there‘s really very Tomographs,) he takes pictures of the brains of good reason to go ahead and treat their ADHD. patients with ADHD. And there are differences. There is a very high incidence of substance It is not as helpful in the individual case as it is abuse in persons with ADHD. And I think in my when you have series of patients and he actually experience the drugs of choice are marijuana differentiates different types of ADHD based on and alcohol (Psychiatrist 1). those SPECT studies (Psychiatrist 1). There has also been a rise in the selling of Also, the belief exists among many of the Ritalin and other psychostimulants as a street interviewees that the disorder is genetic: drug. Abuse, as pointed out by participants, exists It is a familial and genetically determined dis- within and outside of the ADHD population order and so there‘s (sic) often multiple mem- We‘ve got kids all the time selling their meds bers of the family that have ADHD. I suspect and not taking them (Child/Adolescent Coun- that most young people who have it have one or selor 1). the other parent who has it, probably untreated because we didn‘t recognize it when they were Authority: Direct-to-Consumer Advertising children (Psychiatrist 1). and Doctors You also do a significant family history. A lot Direct-to-consumer advertising is proven to in- of times again our female students will tell us, crease sales of prescription drugs (see Kaphingst oh my brother was diagnosed with ADHD when et al. 2004). Quotes from Psychiatrist 1 and he was in second grade. Many students today Clinical Psychologist 2 support this evidence, are also telling us, I was tested but they decided as they have personally witnessed this effect.

168 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 169 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

ADHD has been largely a disorder researched in familial support. Children from higher income children and adolescents. Now, as pointed out families are more likely to be diagnosed with by Psychiatrist 1, adults are being targeted, as it ADHD because their parents are more likely to has recently been discovered that ADHD is not seek and follow through with treatment. something that can be „outgrown.“ Eli Lily has Parents tend to become weary with hyperac- begun advertising for the new non-stimulant tive kids… This young generation of parents is drug Strattera and sales are expected to rise largely concerned about their child‘s success significantly as a result. and there is this push at such a young age to Strattera is big for adults because it is a achieve highly; kids must be predisposed to go- non-stimulant and it doesn‘t interfere with adult ing to Yale (Clinical Psychologist 1). activities like alcohol consumption. Now that I noticed that kids who had specifically ADHD adults are being diagnosed more with ADD and as their diagnosis were the kids that we sent the truth is out there, Eli Lilly (the manufacturer home to parents that appeared to be from up- of Strattera) is going to educate people and per-middle class background. They were the we‘re going to see a huge rise in sales of Strat- parents who drove big SUVs, the kids went to tera for treating adult ADD (Psychiatrist 1). private school. I know the town so I know what My husband is a surgeon and he really hates neighbourhoods they were from and what the the ads. He wishes there were no ads because, neighbourhoods were like. It seems like the as he puts it, the advertising is part of the public more diagnoses the kids have, the worse fam- cultural characteristic of education and persua- ily background they come from (Mental Health sion (Clinical Psychologist 1). Technician 2). Patients instill trust in doctors based on their A clear relationship between diagnosis and prestige and esteem in society therefore tagging class status exists. This is especially apparent them as authority figures. The positive effect of with interviewees who worked with adolescent Direct-to-consumer advertising on prescription mostly from lower-middle class backgrounds. rates is related to patient pressure on author- Kids are least often sent by parents, most ity figures. To maintain their authority, as noted often by the Juvenile Justice Centres and the by Weiss and Fitzpatrick (1997), physicians are courts (Mental Health Technician 1). more likely to give in or negotiate with patient‘s The unit I work on, they are the 12-18 year desires. Thus, if a patient impacted by Direct to old boys who are also sexual offenders… at Consumer advertising they are more likely to least 80% of them have ADHD (Mental Health push for prescription drug treatment and more Technician 1). likely to receive it. In upper-middle class families there is usually I would say that [the consulting psychiatrist] high pressure for academic success. Therefore, is quick to diagnose, but he has a lot of experi- if a child of this upbringing acts out or does not ence (College Counselor 1). fit the mold of a potentially successful student, parents are more likely to take measures to Family and Socioeconomic Status remedy the deviance. These families have the A unanimous consensus among interviewees means to see doctors when behavioral and was that ADHD‘s existence and treatability is di- mental problems arise. It can be inferred that rectly correlated with individuals‘ upbringing and because most adolescents in the sex offender

170 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 171 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

wards of the Mental Health Facilities have been good about who they are based on their strengths sent by Juvenile Justice Centres by court order, instead of having to have medicine to fit into this they are, as crime statistics show, more likely to tight little space (College Counselor 1). be from lower class backgrounds. Because these It‘s a disorder in relation to the way we teach „deviants“ are sent to facilities by government in this culture. It‘s a brain condition; if you were funding they are able to receive treatment. A a pioneer woman it might be an enhancement, clear division, as pointed out by Mental Health not a disability (Clinical Psychologist 1). Technicians 1 and 2, exists between lower and Stress-specific incidents, especially in institu- lower-middle class deviants: a) those who act out tions of higher learning, cause students who are and are noticed based on intolerable behaviour overwhelmed to seek treatment. or isolated incidents and b) those who act out I probably see five to ten individuals a month, but go unnoticed because of several other fac- new cases. There are kind of hot months that peo- tors (i.e. their deviation is non-violent or they ple tend to go in, September being one because receive a lack of attention because of other more of first years trying to adjust and making that huge prominent commotions existing within their en- transition and then also seniors taking in the reality vironment.) The latter case, consequently, are of, „oh my goodness here we go, I need to make the children who go undiagnosed and untreated some major life changing decisions,“ and then because either their family cannot afford to take again towards midterms tends to be a very stress- them to the doctor, provided the problem is ful time and then also roommate within that time recognized, or their case is not severe enough frame as well (College Counselor 2). to require government aid and intervention. Often there are students who cannot or Therefore, the children of higher socioeconomic refuse to be treated with psychostimulants. status are being diagnosed as medical deviants Alternative treatments to promote functionality and children of lower socioeconomic status being as well as positive attributes to the conditions labelled as criminal or social deviants. were discussed. People with ADHD tend to be creative, good Educational System with their hands, artistic, musical, if they can A socially constructed institution, the education- move toward occupations, and hobbies and al system mimics the hierarchy and structure interests that involve using their hands and of society. Children with ADHD, diagnosed or their creative gifts, they‘re a lot better off than if undiagnosed, do not thrive in most academic they‘re stuck in a classroom trying to listen to a environments. Structural adjustments in educa- teacher about a subject that they‘re not particu- tion are rarely made to fit the needs of these larly interested in (Psychiatrist 1). students; instead students are usually either It may be suggested that the rigidity of most treated with prescription drugs or they slip educational systems in light of the fast pace of through the cracks. today‘s society (see DeGrandpre 1999) serves As far as society goes I really think the way as encouragement for the appearance of the our school system is set up is not adequate and symptoms of ADHD. kids with ADHD do not fit into it. I think that it‘s a Kids need downtime, time to be stimulated shame that we can‘t look at each person, pull out and time to sit down and process (Former El- what their strengths are and allow them to feel ementary School Teacher).

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Analysis Authority: Direct-to-Consumer Advertising and Doctors Biological Factors Direct-to-consumer advertisements tend to Studies have proven that significant differences present symptoms to the consumer that are in brain chemistry exist between people with often comorbid or that could be considered and without ADHD. However, scientific analyses everyday characteristics of „normal“ people of brain chemistry are rarely conducted on the (moodiness, lethargy, impulsivity, etc.) The everyday patient, as tests are expensive and still marketing of certain drugs taps into the emo- in preliminary stages of development. Instead, tions of consumers presenting the idea that they patient behaviors are assessed in the diagnos- are in some way flawed if they exhibit these ing process and are not usually observed first- symptoms. People as a result seek advice, if handedly by doctors in a clinical setting where not directly requesting prescription treatment, most diagnosis occurs. Most diagnoses are from medical personnel. As the theory of Mills determined by a series of somewhat ambigu- suggests, the individual in this instance has put ous questions usually answered by the patient him or herself in the position of deviance, that or parent of the patient. Additionally the high is he or she has given him or herself up to the comorbidity of ADHD indicates that what may authority of medicine. His or her „private trou- appear to be characteristics of ADHD could be bles“ have essentially become „public issues“ symptoms of a different condition. Extensive as a result of direct-to-consumer advertising. family histories often conducted by clinicians Upon witnessing and advertisement suggesting provide more legitimacy, on the other hand, in that a consumer may have ADHD they trust attempting to identify ADHD. Thus, the disparity the physician to mark them as well or unwell; between a scientific case and a behavioral case being labelled unwell the individual as unable of ADHD exists though they are considered one to work and function as a productive member in the same by the medical profession. of society. There lies the manifestation of Karl Marx‘s conflict theory, labeling these deviants as Social Factors outcasts based on their abnormality preventing Abuse and Addiction: Ritalin Kids them from ideal „mental labour.“ Only by seek- Ritalin is the hottest street drug of middle school ing proper treatment, Strattera as Eli Lily would through college-aged students. As a derivative of have it, may they function properly. amphetamine, abuse of the drug could lead to serious side-effects similar to those of cocaine. Family and Socioeconomic Status: Ideology Though Methylphenidate does not prove to be of Economic Success an addictive substance, its abuse is widespread The push for functional mental labour and suc- as are significant side-effects. The first children cess among people who are not elites but not regularly treated with Methylphenidate, labelled too poor for hope is significantly higher, as cor- by many as the first generation of „Ritalin kids“, related with Marx‘s conflict theory. To fit the ide- are now growing into adulthood. Permanent ologies set forth by society, immense pressure physiological changes as well as mental affects to achieve highly is often placed on children in should be examined to provide important long- these socioeconomic categories. The fast paced term results of the drug‘s use. society in which all persons are expected to be

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up to par is one of inequity. It is society defin- Education: An Unfair Playing Field ing the norms and any outliers are considered Participants agreed unanimously that persons deviant. Those deviants of lower socioeconomic with ADHD are often some of the brightest and status often become criminalized deviants, as is most thoughtful persons in relation to their apparent in the high number of ADHD cases peers. These people are energetic, good with (80%) in the sex-offender population of the their hands, and tend to be very creative by mental health facility. These people have gone nature. As suggested by Psychiatrist 1, if these untreated for their ADHD and thus have been people, especially those who cannot be treated ostracized from the mainstream class of pro- with psychostimulants, can go into fields where ducers. Because of inequalities of diagnosis and they can use these strengths and be active in treatment in different socioeconomic classes, it their work they are likely to be happier and can be surmised that ADHD is in fact a social more successful. The education system in the construction. Stress triggers the symp- U.S. emulates the structure of society in which toms of ADHD in institutions of higher learning; mental labour that is economically rewarding there are „hot months“ (during finals and times reflects true success. Thus there is little room of academic overwhelm) during which num- for „deviance“ in academic settings. Especially bers of diagnoses rise. Again, while an ADHD in public schools in urban settings, lower class diagnosis is based heavily on communication students with ADHD are often neglected and from patient to physician, during stressful times their strengths are not seen or properly chan- especially, almost anyone may exhibit the char- neled to allow them to be productive. Thus they acteristics of an ADHD patient. It is those people stray from education as a result of diminished who do not receive treatment that slip through self esteem and their lower class standing is the proverbial cracks. perpetuated. A study of differences in children Persons of higher socioeconomic standing with ADHD in Montessori schools versus public usually have more familial support and involve- schools would be an excellent way to assess ment in treatment. As indicated emphasized the systematics of education in relation to the by Mental Health Technician 2, these are the disorder. patients with the highest improvement, often Theories of Mills and Marx support the idea regardless of whether there is prescription that medical encounters with ADHD patients or cognitive behavioral therapy. In regards to tend to convey the ideological messages on family and socioeconomic status, it may be which society is built. The medicalization and hypothesized that treatment of ADHD with psy- criminalization of deviance in regards to ADHD chostimulants is a stress reliever for the higher serve to support the current social order. socioeconomic class. For people with difficulties Many questions are suggested from these anal- functioning mentally in a rigid societal system yses: Can equality in medical diagnoses be at- who are of lower classes, the prevalence of tained by no longer including personal troubles ADHD symptoms, often due to stressors in as contextual elements of medical analysis? their environment, is higher but significantly Moreover, can the social construction of ADHD overlooked. The problem therefore lies in the be remedied by making accommodations in hierarchical and unyielding set up of society. the educational system thereby decreasing the amount of persons being treated with psy-

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chostimulants? Studies must move beyond the Gomez, B., Benitz, M., Vazquez-Alvarez, A., Yang, current position of medicine in society and into P., Vazquez, C., Dafny, N. 2004., „Dopaminer- the facet of social problems for a truly pervasive gic Ventral Tegmental Neurons Modulated by assessment of ADHD. Methylphenidate.“, Life Sci 74:1581-1592. Jary, David and Julia Jary. 1991. The Harper Col- lins Dictionary of Sociology. New York:, Harper Perennial. Kaphingst, K., Rudd, R., DeJong, W., Daltroy, L. Forthcoming. „Literacy Demands of, Product References Information Intended to Supplement Televi- sion Direct-to-Consumer, Prescription Drug Borgatta, Edgar and Marie Borgatta. 1992. The Advertisements.“ Patient Education and Encyclopedia of Sociology. Vol. 3. New, York: Counseling. Macmillan Publishing Company. LeFever, G., Arconoa, A., Antonuccio, D. 2003. Breggin, Peter R. 1998. Talking Back to Ritalin: „ADHD Among American, Schoolchildren.“ What Doctors Aren‘t Telling You about, Stimu- The Scientific Review of Mental Health Prac- lants for Children. Maine: Common Courage tice 2: 1. Press. Macionis, John. 1995. Sociology. 5th ed. New Brewer, Anthony. 1984. A Guide to Marx‘s Capi- Jersey: Prentice Hall. tal. New York: Cambridge University, Press. Marx, Karl. 1906. Capital. New York: The Modern Carlezon, W., Mague S., Anderson S. 2003. „En- Library. during Behavioral Effects of Early, Exposure Marx, Karl and Frederick Engels. 1964. The Ger- to Methylphenidate in Rats.“ Bio Psych 54: man Ideology. Moscow: Progress, Publishers. 1330-37. Miller, Anton R., Lalonde, Christopher E., Mc- Carlson, E., Jacobvitz, D., Sroufe, L. 1995. „A Grail, Kimberlyn M., Armstrong, Robert, W. Developmental Investigation of, Inattentive- 2001. „Prescirption of Methylphenidate to ness and Hyperactivity.“ Child Development Children and Youth, 1990-1996.“, CMAJ 165: 66: 37-54. 1489-1494. Cho, H., Hong, S., Park S. 2004. „Knowledge Morris, Louis A., Brinberg, D., Klimberg, R., and Beliefs of Primary Care Physicians, Phar- Millstein, L., Rivera C. 2002. „Consumer, macists, and Parents on Antibiotic Use for Attitudes About Advertisements for Medici- the Pediatric Common Cold.“, Social Science nal Drugs.“ Social Science &, Medicine 22: & Medicine 58: 623-629 629-638. DeGrandpre, Richard. 1999. Ritalin Nation: Neuman, W. Lawrence. 1994. Social Research Rapid-Fire Culture and the Transformation, Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative, Ap- of Human Consciousness. New York: W. W. proaches. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Norton & Company. Rapport, Mark and Catherine Moffitt. 2002. „At- Diller, Lawrence H. 1998. Running on Ritalin: A tention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Physician Reflects on Children, Society, and Methylphenidate: A Review of Height/Weight, Performance in a Pill. New York: Bantam Cardiovascular, and Somatic, Complaint Side Ef- Books. fect.“ Clinical Psychology Review 22: 1107-1131.

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Schenk, S., Izenwasser, S. 2002. „Pretreatment Woloshin, S., Schwartz, L., Tremmel, J., Welch, with methylphenidate sensitizes rats to, the G. 2001. „Direct-to-consumer, advertisements reinforcing effects of cocaine.“ Phamachol, for prescription drugs: what are Americans Biochem & Behav 27:651-57. being sold?“ Lancet, 358:1141-46. Schommer, Jon C., Doucette, William R., Mehta, Bella H. 1998. „Rote Learning After, Exposure to a Direct-to-Consumer Television Advertise- ment for a Prescription, Drug.“ Clinical Thera- peutics 20: 617-632. Shepard, Jon M. 1993. Sociology. 5th ed. New York: West Publishing Company. Sleath, Betsy and Shih Ya-Chen. 2003. „So- ciological Influences on Antidepressant, Prescribing.“ Social Science & Medicine 56: 1335-1344. Starr, Paul. 1982. The Social Transformation of American Medicine. U.S.A.: Basic Book. Stivers, T. 2002. „Participating in Decisions About Treatment: Overt Parent Pressure for, Antibiotic Medication in Pediatric En- counters.“ Social Science & Medicine 54, 1111-1130. Stockl, K., Hughes, T., Jarrar, M., Secnik, K., Perwien A. 2003. „Physician Perceptions, of the Use of Medications for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.“ Journal, of Managed Care Pharmacy 9: 416-423. Waitzkin, Howard. 1989. „A Critical Theory of Medical Discourse: Ideology, Social, Control, and the Processing of Social Context in Medi- cal Encounters.“ Journal of, Health & Social Behaviour 30: 220-239. Weiss, Marjorie and Ray Fitzpatrick. 1997. „Chal- lenges to Medicine: the Case of, Prescribing.“ Sociology of Health & Illness 19: 297-327. Whalen, C., Henker, B., Collins, B., McAuliffe, S., Vaux, A. 1979. „Peer Interaction in a, Struc- tured Communication Task: Comparisons of Normal and Hyperactive Boys, and of Meth- ylphenidate (Ritalin) and Placebo Effects.“ Child Development 50, 388-401.

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OPPORTUNITIES IN HEALTH SCIENCES Community-Campus Partnerships for Health: Promoting Health Through Part- nerships Between Communities and Higher Educational Institutions JEN KAUPER-BROWN AND SARENA D. SEIFER

Community-Campus Partnerships for Health, Department of Health Services, University of Washington, Washington D.C., USA

Learning Objectives clude: building the capacity of communities and higher educational institutions to engage each Through this session, participants will be able to: other as partners; incorporating service-learning 1. Describe Community-Campus Partnerships and community-based participatory research for Health‘s history, mission, programs and into the education of all health professionals; lessons learned; recognizing and rewarding community-based 2. Explore similarities, differences and opportu- teaching, research and service; and developing nities for collaboration between CCPH and partnerships that balance power and share re- other networks around the world; and sources among partners. 3. Envision the future of community-campus As a young organization, CCPH has quickly partnerships and strategies for realizing that positioned itself as a valued and credible source vision of evidence-based information, professional development and advocacy for health-promo- Community-Campus Partnerships for Health ting community-campus partnerships. We have (CCPH) is an American nonprofit organization established a learning community among our that promotes health through partnerships members and have achieved successes in ad- between communities and higher educational vancing service-learning and community-based institutions. Founded in 1996, CCPH is a gro- participatory research. As we look ahead to the wing network of communities and campuses th- future, we believe a number of features are roughout the United States, and increasingly the likely to characterize new models of commu- world, that are collaborating to promote health nity-campus partnerships. Community-based through service-learning, community-based par- organizations will emerge as centres of lear- ticipatory research, broad-based coalitions and ning, discovery and engagement, establishing other partnership strategies. These partnerships partnerships with a wide variety of disciplines, are powerful tools for improving health pro- degree programs and departments in colleges fessions education, civic responsibility and the and universities. Community-campus partner- overall health of communities. CCPH‘s goals in- ships will be more coordinated and strategic,

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involving multiple community-based organizati- dissemination, training and technical assistance, ons and academic institutions. There will be a research and evaluation, policy development growth in intermediary organizations to facilitate and advocacy, membership development and and support community-campus partnerships, coalition building. with governance structures and financing me- chanisms that equitably distribute power and Highlights of OF CCPH programs and resources among the partners. Already a global services phenomenon, community-campus partnerships around the world and the organizations that • CCPH Consultancy Network- CCPH‘s training represent them will be more deliberate and and technical assistance network provides strategic about collaborating and sharing les- customized consultation to community- sons learned. based organizations, campuses and grantee Achieving and sustaining these new mo- networks. dels depends on a number of factors. First, • Training Institutes and Web Conferences- communities and campuses must view these CCPH offers intensive training in service- partnerships as mission-critical, not as add-ons learning, community-based participatory to their work. Documenting and disseminating research and other topics lessons learned and outcomes in diverse for- • Research and Development Initiatives- CCPH mats and venues will help to demonstrate the contributes to greater understanding of com- mission-critical nature of the partnerships to munity-campus partnerships by sponsoring both communities and higher education. Sup- research, conducting program evaluations, portive policies are needed at multiple levels. reviewing literature and collecting and dis- Key underlying issues of power, control, history seminating best practices. For example, the of town/gown struggles and institutional racism NIH Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences need to be tackled head-on. Finally, commu- Research recently commissioned CCPH to nity-based organizations and programs need prepare a report on the infrastructure needed to receive explicit support for their academic for successful community-university research roles; for example, coordinating student service- partnerships. With support from CDC, we are learning and volunteer assignments, supervising developing an evidence-based curriculum students and collecting data for research. for community-based participatory research partnerships. CCPH at a Glance • Electronic Discussion Groups- CCPH modera- tes several listservs related to current CCPH For a complete description, please visit our web- projects and topics of interest including com- site at www.ccph.info munity-based participatory research, com- CCPH is distinct among organizations in the munity-engaged scholarship and health insti- health professions in that we are interdisciplina- tutions as economic anchors in communities. ry and involve all constituents in higher educati- To subscribe to the CBPR list, go to: https: on, including students, and serve both academic //mailman.u.washington.edu/mailman/ and community-based organizations. We advan- listinfo/cbpr. To subscribe to the list about ce our mission primarily through information supporting community-engaged scholarship

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in the academic review and reward system, ship visit https://mailman1.u.washington.edu/ • Community-Engaged Scholarship for Health mailman/listinfo/comm-engagedscholarship. Collaborative- with funding from the US • Information Clearinghouse- CCPH produces Department of Education‘s Fund for the print and web-based publications and the Improvement of Postsecondary Education, biweekly e-newsletter Partnership Matters this collaborative of 10 health professional • Conference- CCPH sponsors the premier schools is working to align faculty review, training and networking event for communi- promotion and tenure systems to maximally ty-campus partnerships support community-engaged scholarship. • CCPH Annual Award- CCPH recognizes ex- traordinary community-campus partnerships CCPH Membership through an annual award • CCPH Fellows and Senior Consultants- CCPH CCPH members are a diverse group of individu- supports community-based and academic als and organizations committed to improving professionals with significant expertise in the health of communities through communi- building and sustaining community-campus ty-campus partnerships. CCPH members are partnerships to work on mission-critical pro- affiliated with colleges and universities, com- jects of national significance munity-based organizations, health care delivery • Commission on Community-Engaged systems, foundations and government, and Scholarship in the Health Professions- with represent the full scope of health professions funding from the WK Kellogg Foundation, the disciplines. CCPH members are from 48 states, Commission is taking a leadership role natio- the District of Columbia, and more than a dozen nally to advance support for service-learning, countries around the world. community-based participatory research and To be added to the CCPH Monthly E-News, email other forms of community-engaged scholar- your request to [email protected]

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OPPORTUNITIES IN HEALTH SCIENCES Involving Citizen Participation in Allergic Pollinosis Prevention DIANA CUPSA, ILIE TELCEAN, ZOLTAN ELLENES

Partners: Science Shop InterMediu, University of Oradea, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology (Romania), Clinical Hospital of Bihor County - Allergology-Immunology Laboratory, Children‘s Clinical Hospital of Bihor County - Allergology-Immunology Laboratory, Public Health Directorate Bihor

n the latest years medical doctors signaled an Iincreasing number of allergic pollinosis affec- tions due to the ragweed (Ambrosia) between the populations of the city, especially children. The persons allergised by pollen in the most of the cases become in time allergic to other fac- tors (dust, feathers, and aliments). The ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia) has its origin in Northern America and it is an invading plant in Europe, and recently reached Romania. The ragweed plant in early stage of development (right) and with flowers (left) Our city being situated next to the western border of the country is one of the first affected together with Arad and Timisoara. That‘s why the preven- tion of the Ambrosia plants spreading must be started in the western part of the country. The main request received from the Public Health Di- rectorate: How can we reduce the ragweed pollen allergy risk between the citizens from Oradea?

Main activities performed by our Science Shop

The map of Romania and the most affected counties from the · Mapping the spreading of Ambrosia plants in western part the city · Contacting the mass media to inform the mapping program and in the decontaminati- citizens on of the most affected areas of the city · Starting the decontamination actions · Policy making - elaborate a Local Council In what kind of place does that plant grow? decision project The plant lives in arid regions on sandy or gravely · The student where involved in the Ambrosia soils, for example on river dams, near the railroad,

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spapers concerning the pollen allergy risks and about the ragweed decontamination actions. TV short films with the volunteers‘ actions were presented in the news programs As a result of the mass media publicity con- cerning the decontamination actions organized by the Science Shop, many voluntary citizens participated to the ripping off the plants. The ci- tizens asked questions about the pollen allergies and the medical doctors involved in the project These are the places where the plant are founded most fre- quently answered to them. The volunteers received informative leaflets.

Students involved in the decontamination actions.

Volunteers involved in the decontamination actions.

The city map with the most affected regions with ragweed (Green areas bordered with red colour)

etc. The plants start to grow at the end of May, the bloom in June July and this is the period when the most pollen allergy complains start.

Involving the local media: The medical doctors gave details about the pollen allergies to the citizens. News articles were published in the local new-

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Involving the local authority - Offering to the volunteers pressed and desic- Elaborating a Local Council Proposal Decision cated Ambrosia plants · recommendation to the land owners and ow- - Installing 2-3 semi quantitative pollen counter ners association to eradicate the Ambrosia devices in the city and put weekly the pollen · request to the railroad company to eradicate information on the web site. the Ambrosia near the rail road crossing the - A training program was offered to the rail road city company · involving people who have to do work in the benefit of the society to tear out the plants The next steps of the allergy project: from the greens and the parks of the city · locating a quantitative pollen counter devices At the end of the year 2004 the Local Council in the city took a Decision to support the project Allergy · making a pollen catalog necessary in the during 2005. laboratory analyses of the pollen · set up the basis of a local laboratory for mo- The brief contain of the Local Council Decision: nitoring and informing about the allergenic · financially support of the project with airborne pollen 50.000.000 lei (approximate to 1.250 Euros) for informative materials Conclusions: · supporting the decontamination of the greens by involving social assisted people · The presence of the Ambrosia pollen in the until the flowering period begin air was pointed out to be a real health pro- · warning the land owners and owners associa- blem in the city of Oradea especially for the tion to eradicate the Ambrosia children · contact the railroad company to support the · As a consequence of the Science Shop ac- eradication of Ambrosia near the rail road tions the Local Council elaborated a Decision crossing the city which will contribute to the decrease of the · the City Hall web site (www.oradea.ro) will allergic pollinosis risk? host a special link named pollen info (ope- · The citizens where informed about the risk to rating from march 2005) which will contain became allergic to the pollen and they heard information about the flowering periods of about this plant (Ambrosia) which is not very the most allergenic plants widespread in the country at the moment. · The mapping of the ragweed in the city of Present and future actions Oradea was done also the decontamination · Contacting: - Social and Communitari- actions are running. an Administration of Oradea - the rail road company - land owners and owners association · Information and training activities - Multiplication and dissemination of the leaflets and posters (both in Romanian and Hungarian languages)

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182 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 183 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY INTERACTIONS PARALLEL SESSIONS

Parallel Sessions

PROCESSES, TOOLS AND INFRASTRUCTURES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY

In the parallel sessions of this track examples of tools and infrastructures for community based research are presented. The sessions intend to give an overview of good practices, do’s and don’t in organising CBR and the use of existing expertise. It might give you some concrete examples to take home. All 5 parallel sessions in this track focus on different tools and infrastructures; networking, participatory tools, infrastructures for CBR, management of CBR, and communication.

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184 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE 2005 (SEVILLE, SPAIN) 185 PARALLEL SESSIONS

NETWORKS The REVOS Project: An European Network for Voluntary Services MIGUEL PRESENCIO AND ALAIN LABATUT

Junta de Andalucia, Seville, Spain

The EUROPEAN NETWORK OF SOCIAL VOLUNTARY SERVICE (REVOS) is an EU-funded project of the Interreg IIIC South Zone Initiative. The project started in January 2005, has two years duration and involves 16 EU-organisations1 from 9 European countries.

he so-called European civil society is self as an adequate support since it implies first the Tconstituted by the sum of activities of non cooperation between administrations (regional, profit organisations, which organisation and provincial and local but also academic organiza- services are mostly on volunteering base. Work- tions and NGO) to promote the regional devel- ing in parallel with the public administrations at opment of administrative services and improve national, regional and local levels, they work for the role of the voluntary service in the social the improvement of many sectors of the Euro- action. pean contemporary society. According to the Interreg IIIC South Zone The public administrations are now strongly Programme, the following sub-objectives are implied in the development of policies and of also settled down: services to support these entities, promote their action and compensate certain lacks, due to the • To reinforce the co-operation among Euro- growth detected the last years of the voluntary pean regional administrations. service in the social action in Europe. The project • To promote the dialogue among the NGOs REVOS contributes thus to the creation of a co- and public organisations. operative network around 16 European partners • To spread the good practices and success- and to the production of methods and instru- fully projects made. ments required by the public social services. Expected results Goals The creation of a European network to rein- Aware of their respective isolation, these force the voluntary service in the social action administrations wish to use ICT to create a will stand on a Web site, facilitating the coop- durable network, by identifying and dissemi- eration and coordination between the partners. nating good practices and allowing reciprocal This portal will also be used by each of these exchanges and professional links with the local administrations to work with the other regional actors. The program Interreg IIIC was considered actors implied in the services of social interests.

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It is therefore a work tool, having news gener- • Component 5 - Communication - It refers to ated at the European level but also at local and activities of diffusion and communication of regional levels for the promotion of voluntary the REVOS project (public presentations, or- service for exchange services and the dis- ganization of seminaries, advertising and dif- semination of resources and of good practices fusion actions towards the organisms locally between the regions. interested in the social voluntary service, etc.). Exchanges of technicians linked to social voluntary services and of volunteers as well as Footnotes thematic studies will be launched to promote 1 Nº1.- Council for the Equality and Social Welfare of the Andalu- the interregional relations within the network. sian Government (Spain), Nº 2.- AICIA / Research and Industrial Activities of dissemination at the European level cooperation Association of Andalusia (Spain), Nº 3.- Granollers will allow the participation of other administra- City Council (Spain), Nº 4.- GAMAL / Great metropolitan area tive European authorities to this network. of the Algarve (Portugal), Nº 5.- Faro City Council (Portugal), Nº 6.- Cooperative School (France), Nº 7.- Unís-Cité (France), Nº The REVOS activities developed the following 5 8.- Piemonte Region (Italy), Nº 9.- Province of Venice (Italy), Nº working components: 10.- Province of Campobasso (Italy), Nº 11.- Dacorum Borough Council (UK), Nº 12.- Donegal County Council (Ireland), Nº 13.- • Component 1 - Management and Co-ordina- South East Regional Authority (Ireland), Nº 14.- Poviat of Lebork tion – A specific structure (Steering Commit- (Poland), Nº 15.- Eastern Attica Prefecture (Greece), Nº 16.- Uni- tee and Workgroups) have been created for versity of Helsinki, Palmenia Centre for Research and Continuing the management and co-ordination of the Education (Finland) project and to follow the management of all the activities related to the REVOS network.

• Component 2 – Technology – this compo- nent is mostly focusing on the conception, design and development of the network Website.

• Component 3 – Territory - It represents the application of the network in the territory of each partner and includes the study of the associative networks activities, and the in- volvement of volunteers and staff exchanges between different countries.

• Component 4 - Editorial - The editorial com- ponent consist in the production of contents for the website and the development and publication of thematic studies.

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NETWORKS Building a Constituency: A Strategy to Empower Science Shops DR. MAUREEN E. BUTTER

Science Shop Biology, Groningen University, Groningen, the Netherlands

s working for marginal groups incurs the dan- behalf of my clients, I would be more interested in Ager of being marginalized ourselves, I‘d suggest the money for environment and health research, to strengthen our position by strengthening our especially vulnerable groups such as children, political impact. The Science Shops‘ greatest which will also be part of the 7th Framework. strength is that it generates knowledge at the local Money for community-based research has to level. As such knowledge frequently addresses the come from public funds or charity foundations, implementation gap between national and interna- and there should be a good reason to channel it tional decision-making, it follows that such knowl- towards Science Shops. That means that we have edge is highly relevant at national and international to demonstrate our value, by making a stronger policy level. Yet, at the moment our results hardly impact at society. We can do that, by engaging in have any political impact beyond the local level. partnership with NGOs that use our information in Below, I will propose a strategy to achieve a their lobby at the international level. Not just any stronger political impact, benefiting both communi- NGO, but NGOs that serve the same constituency ties and our own position. the Science Shops do AND have an impact at the Having worked over 20 years as coordinator for international level. the Science Shop Biology at the Groningen Univer- sity, the frequently-encountered complaints about NGOs and the international political arena funding problems, low status and lack of support hardly surprise me. Groups without the power For the past seven years I have been involved in and the means to fund their own research needs the international lobby of NGOs, mostly at global are not exactly notorious for funding prospects. UN level but also in the regional and EU processes. Although it is good for a university‘s reputation to There is an international political agenda, following support one or more Science Shops, they will not the major UN conferences. Most comprehensive want us big, unless there is money coming along. is Agenda 21 from the 1992 Rio Conference on Now, where to find it? Current Science Shops‘ lob- sustainable development, meaning both environ- by relies heavily on the science and society part of mental and social sustainability. Processes like the the 7th Framework, but real Science Shop work is Beijing Conference on the position of women, the not about the ethics of decision-making, it is about Cairo Conference on population and develop- the real problems of real people. I expect that phi- ment, the Social Summit etcetera belong to the losophers and science & society research groups social sustainability track, the POPs convention, will benefit from the science and society part, and the Environment for Europe process, the WHO-led probably the Living Knowledge Network itself. On Health and Environment processes and the World

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Water Forum are more relevant to the environmen- initiative, based on Scientific evidence, focused on tal track. At the WSSD in Johannesburg 2002, the Children, meant to raise Awareness, improve the Rio agenda was updated and a time schedule was situation by use of Legal instruments and ensure set for evaluation and implementation. Since the a continual Evaluation of the progress made. This major UN processes follow a cycle of 10 years, with process involved four DGs: environment, public a mid-term evaluation, the CSD (Commission for health, research and economic affairs. The main Sustainable Development, the UN agency respon- result from SCALE is a research and monitoring sible for implementation of the Johannesburg sum- effort, for which no funding was available at the mit) has scheduled its annual meetings in some time of the decision. During the follow-up meet- detail for the first 5 years and more generally for ing in December 2004, member states agreed to the second 5 years. The EU agenda is scheduled reserve the necessary funding. Which means, that by the European Commission, but it often works in results will be available in 5 years time or longer. synergy with the UN agenda. When the subject is on the agenda again, which NGOs with consultative status are involved in may take 10 years or more, the by then outdated preparatory meetings and are invited to participate results will probably serve as input for the next at the main events. Near the end of the preparatory conference. process, large coalitions are formed, as NGOs are only allowed a limited opportunity for interventions. Opportunities for the Science Shops The larger NGOs nowadays are highly professional- ized organizations with either their own research Science shops have one major asset: they address facilities or excellent contacts with reputed research the local level, the place where the real problems institutions. Their strategy is to target specific cam- are, many of which are addressed in international paigns to the political agenda and to collect infor- decision making. As the political field is comparti- mation about implementation gaps and emerging mentalized, politicians and NGOs alike are com- issues by employing consultants. After the confer- partimentalized. They specialize in a certain field, ence, they drop the subject and rush on to the for example energy and scarce resources. They next topic. They have to, their funding depends on may know everything about energy and nothing the political agenda. Moreover, most NGOs cannot about health. That’s why we are stuck with energy plan ahead for long, because there is generally lit- and material efficient houses, poorly ventilated and tle time between the (annual) decision on their made from recycled materials, that are not exactly project funding and carrying out the project. conducive to good health. Similarly, the Budapest Conference stressed the need for adequate house The role of research warming in poor regions, without any reference to the type of energy preferably employed. A good The research agenda too follows the political recipe for future problems! agenda, but with considerable delay. For example, In real life, that is, at the local level, environment, at the WHO-led ministerial conference on health health, infrastructure, social rights and economic and environment (June 2004, Budapest), health of opportunities are all intertwined, as we from the children was the central topic. Parallel to and in syn- Science Shops are well aware. The implication is, ergy with the Budapest process, the EU arrived at that local level knowledge, addressing the contin- an Environment and Health Action Plan, the SCALE gencies between sectors, in so far as they are not

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yet an issue, have the best chance to yield politi- in a host of settings. Apart from the advocacy and cally relevant information. For example the intersec- capacity building activities, which are quite similar tion between gender, health and environment is to ANPED‘s, they also engage in a broad range of interesting as well as research, addressing both practical projects with local partners, like ecosanita- social rights, mechanisms and outcomes in terms tion in Rumania and Ukraine, improving local de- of health and environment. But we need NGOs to mocracy in Russia, organic agriculture in Uzbekistan bring our results to the political arena. and many others. They often take local NGOs to the political platform (for example the UN World Suitable partner NGOs Water Forum), thereby enormously empowering these NGOs. The natural partners for the international Science NGOs like WECF and ANPED can help to get Shop network are NGO networks that basically us more political support, to empower researchers serve the same constituency as we do: commu- doing relevant work by inviting them to high level nity groups. They should be interested in issues of meetings and to raise funds for specific projects. integration, thus cover a broad array of issues. They But even more important: they can have an impact should have a great number of members, involved to the research agenda, since the research agenda with the local level. And they should have influ- follows the policy agenda. So, if we think some type ence on international decision-making. I invited two of research is important, for example green tech- networks meeting this specification to the Seville nology in a variety of settings (urban, rural, Eastern Conference, ANPED and WECF. European, arctic , U.S. and EU), we can do some ANPED, the Northern Alliance for Sustainability, student projects in these areas and ask WECF and is a democratic network of over 100 local and ANPED to lobby for green technology at the CSD national NGOs, national NGO networks, and en- and the Environment for Europe agenda. That will vironment, development and consumer groups. place us in an excellent position for larger projects ANPED works to empower Northern Civil Society as soon as it is in the research programmes. in creating and protecting sustainable communities and societies world wide. It provides a platform for Developing common ground: The next its member organisations, where they can identify conference common concerns, take advantage of each others expertise and develop a common position. It helps The next conference provides an excellent op- to build capacity in a broad range of issues and portunity to build such partnerships. It should not it represents its members in processes of interna- only address the current research policy agenda, tional decision-making. but two or three other policy platforms as well. WECF, Women in Europe for a Common Fu- It should not only involve a skill share and net- ture, is a similar network of 63 organizations in 27 working between Science Shops, but also a skill countries, focusing on achieving real improvement share between NGOs, and between NGOs and in the daily life of citizens. They adopt a strong researchers. gender perspective and are very much aware, We should not only aim at a joint research that local sustainability involves a lot of integrating agenda, but also to making joint policy recommen- effort, linking up issues of health, environmental dations for the research agenda and the political degradation, poverty and economic opportunities platforms in which the NGOs are involved.

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NETWORKS Knowledge in Living Networks DR IR EELKE WIELINGA

Link Consult, Agricultural Economics Research Institute (LEI) / Wageningen University and Research (WUR), The Netherlands

Linking innovative networks of animal must be able to identify where the interaction is blo- farmers to science cked and intervene appropriately to clear the way. This approach sheds new light on the role of In an effort to stimulate sustainable innovations knowledge and knowledge transfer. Contrary to in The Netherlands, 50 networks of animal far- more common concepts of knowledge such as mers (450 entrepreneurs in total) have been the objective truth, the best way, or a valuable selected, to be supported by 30 process facili- product for sale, in this view relevant knowledge tators, in order to link farmers initiatives to sour- emerges from healthy interaction and leads to ces of knowledge. After various attempts of the the capacity of individuals or networks to respond Ministry of Agriculture to stimulate individual far- effectively to changes in their environment. mers, this experiment focuses on networks that Although it will be too early to present final are believed to be more powerful in initiating outcomes, one preliminary observation is already changes and creating new arrangements with interesting. Whereas it was expected that access knowledge institutions for acquiring appropriate to knowledge would be a major limitation to be knowledge. The experiment started in 2004 and addressed by the project, many networks appear is expected to be expanded in 2005. to struggle with other limiting conditions that The ‚Living Networks Approach‘ is being used as hampers change. For them validated knowledge a tool for analysis and for coaching of the process is needed as a weapon to improve their position facilitators. In this approach human networks are in relation to other stakeholders in the rural arena. seen as living organisms that can be healthy or sick. The author would like to share the first outcomes In a healthy network people take up leadership and of the experiment and to bring home the results do what is needed to create ‚vital space‘ where the- of reflections of the international audience on re is room for exchange, collaboration and mutual pertinent questions that arise: reflections from learning. If this does not occur sufficiently, facilitators which the ongoing project can benefit.

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NETWORKS EU Research Networks and Civil Society Organisations MICHAEL S. JØRGENSEN

Associate Professor and Co-ordinator, The Science Shop c/o Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Management, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark

he experience with community-based re- • To facilitate the research and to optimise Tsearch shows that universities often are two-way communication with policy-makers more interested in „big projects“ with a high and the general public amount of external funding and co-operation with business and governmental institutions The co-ordinator of the ACCENT work pack- than in small NGO-related projects. The 6th EU age on „Integration scientific activities with pol- Framework Programme (FP6) with its new re- icy-making and public awareness“ approached search concepts for so-called Integrated Projects the Living Knowledge network, at a conference (IP) and Networks of Excellence (NoE) might on Science Society interaction and invited the reinforce this strive for big projects and excel- network to become affiliated to ACCENT as a lence. It is, however, also a part of the concepts mediator to NGO’s. The Science Shop at Techni- of IP and NoE that they should develop interac- cal University of Denmark has become member tion with policy makers and the general public. of the Steering Group of this work package. The The international network of Science Shops, Liv- activities in this co-operation have so far been: ing Knowledge, is co-operating with one of • E-mail based survey of air pollution related NoE’s, ACCENT (Atmospheric Composition activities in the Living Knowledge network Change Network of Excellence). The experience • Joint planning of a workshop about the so far shows that these obligations to develop interaction of ACCENT with the policy mak- interaction with policy makers and the general ers, NGO’s and the general public: »Are we public could, depending on the members of the listening enough?« IP and NoE, lead to more co-operation between • Dialogue with NGO’s in Central and Eastern civil society organisations and researchers. European countries utilising the relations to NGO’s at the Science Shop at Technical Uni- The ACCENT network comprises 32 research versity of Denmark institutions and has as its aims: • Presentation about Science Shops and NGO • To promote a common European strategy activities at the workshop for research on atmospheric composition • Dialogue about possible activities in the change ACCENT network supporting the interaction • To develop and maintain durable means of with policy makers, NGO’s and the general communication and collaboration within the public and a work plan for next year. European scientific community

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ACCENT has its primary focus monitoring air The co-operation between the ACCENT pollution and to some extent also air pollution network and the Living Knowledge network and related policy. The air pollution related activities NGO’s can be seen as an „easy“ and obvious among Science Shops and NGO’s vary but co-operation, since ACCENT deals with envi- include also a focus on the health impact of ronmental issues. It might be more critical and air pollution, the sources of air pollution and difficult for the Science Shops and NGO’s to de- preventive strategies towards air pollution like velop co-operation with IP’s and NoE’s that deal reducing the pollution from the energy sector with so-called high technology, which might not and the transport sector. This implies that Sci- have the support of NGO’s. This scepticism ence Shops and NGO’s could contribute to the is based on the fact that these technologies broadening of the future activities of ACCENT. often are launched as necessary for economic One of the future activities to be explored is and sometimes also social and environmental co-operation between one of the ACCENT re- achievements and at the same time researchers search institutions and the network of Science and businesses are not willing to engage in real Shops about Science Shop and NGO activities dialogue. However, some researchers and busi- and needs related to air pollution. The dialogue ness leaders know that broad societal legitimacy so far shows that there is something to build the is crucial to market development for products future co-operation upon, since based on these technologies and are willing • Some ACCENT researchers apply participa- to engage in dialogue. Some general issues to tory methods in data sampling consider for Science Shops and NGO’s, when • Some ACCENT researchers already have analysing whether to approach an IP or a NoE or relations with NGO’s whether to accept an invitation from them are: • Some NGO’s already co-operate directly with • What stakeholders and topics are included air pollution researchers and excluded from the research and the co- operation? Some of the possible future activities in the co- • How is the balance between the legitimacy operation between the ACCENT network and the research seems to get from the interac- the network of Science shops are tion with NGO’s and Science Shops and the • Dialogue about the implications of the influence of the NGO’s and Science Shops ACCENT research (health impact; policy on the research? needs) • Is the interaction primarily based on com- • Dialogue about future research needs related munication of research results to NGO’s or to air pollution: societal driving forces behind is dialogue and co-operation also part of the the air pollution, pressures on the environ- interaction? ment from different air polluting sources, • What resources are available for community- monitoring of the state of the environment based research done by Science Shops and and the impact on health, and the policy NGOs? needs • Research co-operation within some of the A Danish so-called green technology fore- above mentioned topics sight about nano, bio and ICT aims at identify- ing environmental potentials and risks related

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to these three technology areas. In the project group we are aware that such a project might be legitimating these technology areas and have therefore developed a methodology based on stakeholder involvement, since we believe in policy making as a discursive and not a bureau- cratic process solely building on experts’ views. The scope of the environmental assessments is discussed through stakeholder involvement, since none of these technologies are inherently „green“. Different solutions to environmental problems are compared so that more simple solutions are not forgotten. This comparison goes beyond a simple comparison of chemicals and resources and includes the possible impact on our understanding of nature. For example, the development of small and cheap sensors might be used for an environmental policy based solely on measurements and neglecting the need to prevent environmental problems at the source. For those environmental potentials that go beyond „green hype“, we analyse strate- gies for the implementation of the potentials through governance of research, development and application of the technologies.

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NETWORKS Unraveling the Web: How to improve the International Network of Science Shops ELISE KAMPHUIS AND CORSTIAAN J. KUIJVENHOVEN

Science Shop of Economics, Management & Organization, University of Groningen, the Netherlands

he international network of Science Shops is Theory Tvulnerable, because only a small group of Science Shops is active to very active in the Motives to participate in networks vary: partici- network: These Science Shops have numerous pants can gain legitimacy and status, improve ties to other Science Shops. The loss of one of their economic performance, and learn new these highly linked Science Shops would disrupt skills or acquire knowledge2. Hence, organiza- connections and harm the network’s continuity. tions whose employees are members of a This conclusion was reached in a study carried network learn more efficiently than organiza- out by the Science Shop of Economics, Busi- tions whose employees are not members of a ness and Organizations of the University of network; the quality of the information is higher Groningen in the Netherlands. The research was among network members. Theories on network carried out at the request of the Improving Sci- structures demonstrate that actors with well- ence Shop Networking project (ISSNET). ISSNET structured networks perform better than others3. aims to create an active network to exchange Such networks are structured to maximize any experiences and expertise between Science information benefits derived from a network. Shops. This resulted in the following research The information benefits of a large, diverse question: how can one improve the effective- network are larger than the information benefits ness of cooperation within the international of a small, homogeneous network. However, network of Science Shops? increasing network size, without considering Literature concerning networks was studied diversity can have negative side effects. to gain insight into the features of networks. Networks are particularly well suited in an Next, a questionnaire was held among Science environment with a highly skilled labour force, Shops and similar organizations. The data ob- where participants possess knowledge that is tained by the questionnaire were analysed visu- not limited to a specific task but applicable to a ally and statistically. The visual analysis provides wide range of activities. Therefore, networks are an overview of the actual network and the sta- most likely to arise and grow in fields in which tistical analysis identifies the main actors in the knowledge and/or skills do not lend themselves network. Based on the conclusions of the visual to either monopoly control or confiscation by and statistical analyses an alternative network the highest bidder. Network relations are based structure for ISSNET will be suggested on trust, and are therefore particularly suitable

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when there is a need for reliable information. Visual analysis The type of exchange likely to occur in networks The respondents were asked to indicate the Sci- is the exchange of distinctive competencies, ence Shops with which they have contacts. The such as knowledge or skills4. Exchanging these results are shown in figure 1, which provides an kinds of intangible goods typifies the contact impression of the actual international network between Science Shops. Therefore, a network of Science Shops. Each actor in the figure has structure seems to fit the characteristics of ex- an identification code, with letters referring to change between Science Shops. the country of origin6. The number(s) in the codes are used to distinguish different actors in Actual network structure a country. The layout of the figure is such that groups of nodes that are in contact with and To analyse the actual network structure of Sci- positioned close to one another, and the nodes ence Shops a questionnaire was distributed with relatively the most contacts between the among 66 Science Shops and 200 members different groups are placed at the center of the of an ISSNET mailing list. The response rates figure. Finally, each country is labelled (with) a of these target groups were 89% and 10%, different colour. The actors positioned in the respectively. The analysed network consists of upper left-hand corner of the figure are the 85 actors: all 66 Science Shop (seven of which ‘isolated’ actors; they do not have contacts with did not fill in the questionnaire) and 19 subscrib- other Science Shops. ers to the mailing list. Of the actors 11 were In addition, the respondents were asked to involved in the SCIPAS project5 – the so-called indicate the type of contact – information ex- partners – and another 11 were isolated for vari- change, social, advice, mutual research projects, ous reasons. The data obtained by the question- and meetings – and the frequency of the con- naire were analysed visually and statistically. tact. A visual analysis of the responses to these

Figure 1 Overview of the actual network

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questions demonstrated as follows: NL11 (26 contacts) and NL8 (23 contacts) are • Science shops use the network mainly for the most prestigious actors. Six out of 11 part- information exchange. ners are among the top-ten of highest scores. • Information exchange occurs mainly between Betweenness centrality measure views an actor national clusters of Science Shops in The in a favoured position depending on the extent Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Austria, the actor falls on the geodesic – or the shortest Ireland, and Romania and within four sub- possible – paths between other pairs of actors clusters of Science Shops in The Netherlands. in the network. Consequently, the more people Finally, the actors with the largest amount of depend on an actor to make connections with ties in the network are the SCIPAS partners. other people, the more influence this actor will • Most participant contacts take place at the have. The actors that consequently control most national level. Of the respondents, 86% information and are the most influential are NL8 indicated that they have national contacts, and NL11. Furthermore, the calculation shows and about half of the respondents indicated that 11 actors control most of the information that they have international contacts. The in the network. most mentioned reasons for the absence Finally, the flow betweenness centrality of foreign contacts were: ‘regional task is measure is a more refined version of the be- more important’, ‘no priority’ and ‘no time’. tweenness centrality measure; It measures the The ‘partners’ are the Science Shops that proportion of the entire flow of information maintain the most foreign contacts. between two actors (that is, through all the • The two principal actors are the Science Shop pathways connecting them). Thus, this meas- of chemistry in Groningen (NL8) and the Sci- ure indicates how involved that actor is in all of ence Shop of biology, Utrecht (NL11). Both are the flows between all other pairs of actors. For partners; both are located in the Netherlands. each actor then, the flow measure adds up how involved that actor is in all of the flows between Statistical analysis all other pairs of actors. According to the flow The statistical analysis aims to point out which measure of betweenness centrality, actors NL8 actors are important in the network with the and NL11 are again the most important media- help of four measures. Out-degree is a measure tors. The calculation also shows that about 13 of how influential the actor may be. Influential actors control most of the information in the actors act as communicators and facilitators in network. Furthermore, actor AT1, who seemed the network, they are able to exchange with unimportant when we considered exclusively many others, or make many others aware of geodesic distances, gains in importance when their views. Actors NL8 (45 contacts) and NL11 we consider all pathways. (28 contacts) have the highest out-degrees by far, and might be regarded as the most influential Network tasks actors in the network. Eight partners are within the top-ten of highest scores for the out-degree. One purpose of the questionnaire was to ana- In-degree measures the prestige of an actor. If lyse the actual network. Another purpose was an actor receives many ties it is said to be to identify opinions of Science Shops related to prominent, or to have high prestige. The actors the benefits and costs of maintaining a network.

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It turned out that almost three quarters of the benefits and is probably not willing to invest in respondents felt that some sort of central coor- the network and becomes less and less active. dinating organ is needed to guarantee the con- These counter working processes could also en- tinuity of the international network of Science danger the network’s continuity. To stop these Shops. The respondents were also asked to rate processes ISSNET should involve the less active the importance of 12 activities an international Science Shops more in the network. network should offer. This resulted in the follow- As a start, ISSNET can increase the coopera- ing top three activities: creating a database for tion between Science Shops by communicating Science Shops (indicated by 92% as important the advantages of the network to the participants to very important), lobbying (indicated by 76%) – as pointed out in the literature – and by en- and building a knowledge database (indicated hancing solidarity and mutuality. Solidarity can by 70%). According to the respondents, the be enhanced by adopting a communication pro- most important advantages of an international gram that highlights the achievements of Science network are the increased visibility and acces- Shops that are related to the network. Mutuality sibility of Science Shops (indicated by 70%), can be enhance by stressing that benefits have learning among Science Shops (indicated by to be derived from an ongoing relationship, rather 70%), and lobbying, fund raising, and public re- than from each individual transaction. lations (indicated by 68%). If the international If a new contact of a Science Shop provides network were to carry out the assigned tasks the same information benefits as the old con- and realize the advantages mentioned, almost tacts, this contact is called redundant. Maintain- 80% of the respondents would become a ing contacts takes time and energy. To save member of such an international network. One- costs and increase efficiency ISSNET should fifth of the respondents are prepared to pay an minimize redundant contacts of Science Shops. annual membership fee of between €100 and This can be accomplished by transforming ISS- €200, 17% would pay more than €300, and NET’s actual centralized organizational structure the majority would be willing to pay a fee of into a decentralized organizational structure. between € 0 and € 100. Since a network is a spontaneous organizational form, which develops in a natural way the al- Proposed improved network structure teration has to be based on the actual network structure of Science Shops. The analysis shows that only a small group of First, ISSNET should distinguish primary actors is active to very active in the network: contacts from secondary contacts. A primary These actors have numerous ties to other Sci- contact is defined a Science Shop that receives ence Shops. The loss of one of these highly and sends information to all Science Shops linked actors would disrupt connections and – the secondary contacts – in its national clus- harm the network’s continuity. While the net- ter. To select the primary contacts ISSNET, can work benefits fall to the most active actors, apply criteria that define actors in control of a they have incentives to keep active or become substantial number of information flows through even more active. The reverse process applies the network. These actors are able to filter and to the large group of less active actors. This select useful information, subsequently distrib- group doesn’t take advantage of the network uting it among other Science Shops within the

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cluster. The betweenness and flow between- 3. How should the contacts and liaisons of ness measurements can serve as such criteria. primary actors be enhanced and facilitated? The actors well suited to be primary contacts have high betweenness and flow betweenness Footnotes scores. Figure 2 shows the primary contacts 1 in the proposed efficient international network This paper is based on a master thesis of C.J. Kuijvenhoven. 2005. Unraveling the web: How to improve the International structure for ISSNET based on these criteria. Network of Science Shops, Science Shop of Economics, Next, the primary contact should be connected Management & Organization, University of Groningen, The to all other primary contacts, so that each primary Netherlands. It can be ordered by sending an email to: [email protected]. contact can function as a liaison between foreign 2 Podolny & Page, Podolny, J. & Page, K. 1998. Network forms Science Shops and Science Shop within its nation- of organization. Annual Review of Sociology, 24: 57-76. 3 al cluster. Therefore, each primary contact should Burt, R. 1992. Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Burt, inform the Science Shops within its cluster of the R. 2000. ‘Structural holes versus network closure as social importance of passing certain types of information capital’. In N. Kin & K. Cook & R. Burt (Eds.), Social Capital: to him or her: namely, information that might in- Theory and Research, Aldine de Gruyter. Uzzi, B. 1997. ‘Social structure and competition in interfirm networks: The terest either the other Science Shops within the paradox of embeddedness’. Administrative Science Quar- cluster, or all Science Shops in the network. Finally, terly, 42: 35-67. 4 to increase the effectiveness of the network, the Powell, W. 1990. ‘Neither market nor hierarchy: network forms of organization’. In Staw, B. & Cummings, L. (Eds.), number of clusters should be increased. This Research in organizational behaviour 12. Greenwich, Conn: leaves ISSNET with three questions to resolve: 295-336. 5 SCIPAS is the precursor of the ISSNET project. 1. How should the primary contacts be se- 6 The country codes are in accordance with the country iden- lected? tification of the International Organization for Standardization 2. Which tasks should be assigned to which (ISO). primary contact?

Figure 2 Basic structure with identified primary contacts

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PARTICIPATORY TOOLS Tratamiento de los Contenidos del Mó- dulo de Gestión del Agua, Desertización y Basuras y su Adecuación didáctica en Entornos cerrados M. T. OCAÑA MORAL, R. R. QUIJANO LÓPEZ, M. PÉREZ FERRA Y L. C. VIDA SAGRISTA.

Universidad de Jaén, Jaén, Spain

a educación y concienciación medioambi- estas actitudes y contenidos. Uno de los ma- Lental constituye, hoy en día, una parte im- yores retos que enfrentan estos museos es el portante de la realidad social y, por lo tanto, ha de presentar actividades asequibles a un de verse reflejada en los currículos de la en- público heterogéneo, tanto en edad, como en señanza obligatoria de nuestros niños. Así conocimientos; ya que es realmente difícil comprobamos como, además, las distintas ad- preparar un material didáctico adecuado a ministraciones presentan una clara preocupa- diferentes edades, niveles y condiciones de ción por el medioambiente, que se ve reflejada aprendizaje; teniendo en cuenta, además, en la presencia, cada vez más importante, de que es esta adecuación didáctica la que va a experiencias extraescolares relacionadas con conseguir despertar en los visitantes el grado este tema, como ocurre, por ejemplo, en los de atención necesario para que los conteni- Parques y Museos de las Ciencias. Partiendo de dos reflejados en cada actividad sean adecu- la base de que los centros escolares son el adamente interiorizados. Es bajo esta pers- centro neurálgico que permite poner a disposi- pectiva que consideramos a los Museos de ción de los futuros ciudadanos los conocimien- Ciencias como algo más que un cúmulo de tos necesarios para adquirir y consolidar cam- objetos y experiencias dispuestos de manera bios de actitudes que se traduzcan en el más o menos llamativa; al contrario, pensa- desarrollo de acciones y de comportamientos mos que ofrecen una gran posibilidad para relacionados con la conservación y mejora del realizar aprendizajes significativos de conteni- entorno natural, es obvio que este aprendizaje dos, actitudes y valores y que su metodología no sigue una única vía y que, cualquier otro es específica, debiendo ser especialmente procedimiento que permita a los alumnos afi- cuidadosa en el diseño de los mismos. El anzar y ampliar los conocimientos, actitudes y presente trabajo es una propuesta en la que valores conseguidos debe ser también utiliza- se intenta poner en contacto a los alumnos do. Es, en este punto, donde adquieren gran de las diferentes etapas de la Enseñanza Ob- importancia los museos de ciencias, ya que de ligatoria con el problema de la desertización, una forma lúdica y amena pueden llegar a ser la generación y el tratamiento de residuos y ámbitos influyentes, con un importante papel basuras, y la gestión del agua, como medio en la divulgación, ampliación y enseñanza de de preservar nuestro entorno.

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Tratamiento de los contenidos de de otras se asientan en la educación que aqu- «Desertización, Basuras y Gestión del éllos proporcionan.» … Y que «En la educación Agua» en el currículo educativo se transmiten y ejercitan los valores que hacen posible la vida en sociedad, …», por lo que, La L.O.G.S.E, Ley Orgánica 1/1990 de Orde- visto que la problemática de la desertización y nación General del Sistema Educativo, en su de la gestión de los residuos y del agua es una preámbulo expone que «Los sistemas educati- realidad que preocupa gravemente a los miem- vos desempeñan funciones esenciales para la bros de la sociedad, ha de verse reflejada en vida de los individuos y de las sociedades. Las el currículo educativo. Es por esto, que en este posibilidades de desarrollo armónico de unos y apartado del presente trabajo se ha realizado

Tabla 1: Contenidos del Área de Ciencias, Geografía e Historia en E. Primaria

ÁREA DE CIENCIAS, GEOGRAFÍA E HISTORIA

Objetivos de Área

2. Recoger, seleccionar y procesar información básica sobre el entorno natural, social y cultural, a par- tir de fuentes diversas y las aportaciones de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación. 4. Conocer y valorar la aportación e importancia de la ciencia y la investigación para mejorar la calidad de vida y bienestar de los seres humanos. 5. Conocer el patrimonio natural, histórico y cultural, respetando su diversidad y desarrollando la sen- sibilidad artística y el interés por el medio ambiente y la naturaleza Contenidos

6. El agua. Composición, características e importancia para los seres vivos. El ciclo del agua: aguas superficiales y subterráneas. Primer ciclo 9. La conservación del medio ambiente. Los riesgos de la contaminación del agua, de la tierra y del aire.

8. El clima y su repercusión en el paisaje. Segundo ciclo 9. La actividad humana y el paisaje. 1. Funcionamiento y cuidado de nuestro cuerpo. Principales enfermedades que afectan a los aparatos y sistemas del organismo humano. Hábitos saludables y prevención de los trastornos alimentarios. Avances de la ciencia que me- joran la salud y la alimentación: medicamentos y antibióticos; potabilización del agua; la higiene; fertilizantes; aditivos, química del frío y salud animal. 3. Las relaciones entre los seres vivos. Cadenas alimenticias. Asociaciones in- Tercer ciclo traespecíficas e interespecíficas. Poblaciones, comunidades y ecosistemas. 6. Las capas de la tierra. Atmósfera, hidrosfera, corteza, manto y núcleo. Mine- rales y rocas. Los componentes del suelo. Catástrofes naturales: volcanes, terremotos e inundaciones. 11. Concepto de energía. Fuentes de energía y materias primas. Energías reno- vables y no renovables. Desarrollo sostenible.

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un estudio de los contenidos relacionados con m) Conocer y valorar la naturaleza y el en- la desertización, residuos y gestión del agua, torno, y observar modos de comporta- que podemos encontrar en los currículos de miento que favorezcan su cuidado. las distintas etapas de la Educación Obligatoria. Estos objetivos se ven reflejados en los siguien- El REAL DECRETO 830/2003, de 27 de junio, tes contenidos (Tabla 1). por el que se establecen las enseñanzas comu- nes de la Educación Primaria, en su artículo 3, Asimismo, en artículo 5 del REAL DECRETO establece que la Educación Primaria contribuirá 831/2003, de 27 de junio, por el que se esta- a desarrollar en los alumnos las siguientes ca- blece la ordenación general y las enseñanzas pacidades: comunes de la Educación Secundaria Obliga- g) Conocer los aspectos fundamentales de toria, se establece que los alumnos deberán las Ciencias de la Naturaleza, la Geografía, alcanzar a lo largo de la Educación Secundaria la Historia y la Cultura. Obligatoria las siguientes capacidades:

Tabla 2: Contenidos del Área de Biología y Geología en E. Secundaria

ÁREA DE BIOLOGÍA Y GEOLOGÍA Objetivos de Área 3. Interpretar científicamente los principales fenómenos naturales, así como sus posibles aplicacio- nes tecnológicas, utilizando las leyes y conceptos de las Ciencias de la Naturaleza.

7. Aplicar los conocimientos adquiridos en las Ciencias de la Naturaleza para disfrutar del medio natural, valorándolo y participando en su conservación y mejora.

8. Reconocer y valorar las aportaciones de la ciencia para la mejora de las condiciones de existen- cia de los seres humanos y apreciar la importancia de la formación científica. Contenidos

I. La dinámica de la tierra. 1. El modelado del relieve terrestre. Concepto de relieve. Agentes y procesos externos: meteorización, erosión, transporte y sedimentación. Factores exter- nos del modelado del relieve: Litológicos, estructurales, dinámicos, climáticos y antrópicos. El modelado litoral. El modelado kárstico. Los sistemas morfo- climáticos. Clasificación. Los sistemas morfoclimáticos de zonas templadas y de zonas desérticas

Cuarto curso III. Ecología y medio ambiente. 7. Los seres vivos y el medio ambiente. El medio ambiente y sus tipos. Conceptos de especie, poblaciones y comunidades. Las adaptaciones a los diferentes medios. Ecosistemas terrestres y acuáticos. 8. Dinámica de ecosistemas. El flujo de la energía en un ecosistema. El ciclo de la materia. Principales ciclos biogeoquimicos. Cambios naturales en los ecosistemas. Cambios producidos por el hombre. Impactos ambientales. Su prevención.

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Tabla 3: Contenidos del Área de Ciencias de la Naturaleza en E. Secundaria

ÁREA DE CIENCIAS DE LA NATURALEZA

Objetivos de Área

1. Iniciarse en la observación de los fenómenos naturales. 3. Interpretar científicamente los principales fenómenos naturales, así como sus posibles aplica- ciones tecnológicas, utilizando las leyes y conceptos de las Ciencias de la Naturaleza. 6. Aplicar los conocimientos adquiridos en las Ciencias de la Naturaleza para disfrutar del medio natural, valorándolo y participando en su conservación y mejora. 7. Reconocer y valorar las aportaciones de la ciencia para la mejora de las condiciones de exis- tencia de los seres humanos y apreciar la importancia de la formación científica.

Contenidos

I. La tierra en el universo. 1. El Universo, la Vía Láctea y el Sistema Solar. La observación del Uni- verso: planetas, estrellas y galaxias. Evolución histórica del conoci- miento del Universo. La Vía Láctea y el Sistema Solar. Características físicas de la Tierra y de los otros componentes del Sistema Solar. Los movimientos de la Tierra: las estaciones, el día y la noche, los eclipses y las fases de la Luna. Las capas de la Tierra: Núcleo, Manto, Corteza, Hidrosfera, Atmósfera y Biosfera. Primer curso II. Materiales terrestres. 4. La hidrosfera terrestre. El origen del agua en la Tierra. El agua en otros planetas. La molécula de agua: abundancia, propiedades e importan- cia. El agua del mar como disolución. Sodio, potasio y cloro: abundan- cia y propiedades. El agua en los continentes. El vapor de agua en la atmósfera. El ciclo del agua. La contaminación del agua, su depura- ción. El agua y la salud.

II. Tránsito de energía en la tierra. 4. La energía externa del planeta. Origen de la energía solar. La atmósfera como filtro de la energía solar: su estructura. La energía reflejada: efecto invernadero; últimas directrices internacionales. La Hidrosfera como regulador térmico. Corrientes, mareas, olas. Distribución de la energía solar que llega a la superficie del planeta: origen de los agentes geológicos externos. 5. Agentes geológicos externos. Agentes atmosféricos. La meteorización. Segundo curso Formación de suelos. El viento. Acción geológica. Energía eólica. Aguas salvajes y torrentes. Acción geológica. Los ríos. Acción geológica. Ener- gía hidráulica. Los glaciares. Acción geológica. Las aguas subterráneas. Acción geológica. Aprovechamiento. El mar. Acción geológica. Energía mareomotriz. La formación de rocas sedimentarias. Carbón y petróleo. 8. Conceptos de Biosfera, Ecosfera y Ecosistema. Productores, consumido- res y descomponedores. Cadenas y redes tróficas. La biomasa como fuente de energía.

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f) Concebir el conocimiento científico como están ampliamente recogidos en el currículo de un saber integrado, que se estructura en la Educación Obligatoria, tanto desde las distin- distintas disciplinas, matemáticas y cientí- tas áreas curriculares, como desde los Temas ficas, y conocer y aplicar los métodos para Transversales. Son precisamente estos últimos, identificar los problemas en los diversos al estar concebidos como “aspectos de especial campos del conocimiento y de la expe- relevancia para el desarrollo de la sociedad en riencia, para su resolución y para la toma relación con el consumo, la igualdad, la paz, el de decisiones. Estos objetivos se ven refle- medio ambiente, la salud, el ocio, etc.” (D.C.B.) jados en los siguientes contenidos (Tabla los que imprimen el carácter de extraescolar 2, Tabla 3). que permite insistir en ellos desde lugares externos a las aulas, como son Los Parques Por otro lado, hemos de tener en cuenta los y Museos de Las Ciencias, como refuerzo a Temas Transversales, siendo especialmente im- los contenidos escolares impartidos. De esta portantes en este caso la Educación Ambiental manera, ponemos en práctica una enseñanza y la Educación para el Consumidor. La impor- globalizadora y contextualizada de lo que es la tancia de los Temas Transversales se deriva de educación ambiental (desertización, basuras y su característica más singular, esto es, de su gestión del agua, entre otros) para que los alu- posición en la estructura del currículo educativo mnos puedan percibir la realidad que les rodea o impregnación, que implica que han de estar y así aproximarse a su conocimiento. Visto esto, presentes en toda la práctica educativa y estar vamos a realizar un estudio de los contenidos presentes en las diferentes áreas curriculares encontrados en el módulo de «desertización, desde la Educación Infantil hasta la Educación basuras y gestión del agua», de un museo de Secundaria. El hecho de ser contemplados las ciencias y de su estructura y presentación, desde un punto de vista «transversal», no im- al objeto de analizar su identidad y adecuación plica que solamente deban impregnar la vida didáctica. Observamos que el tratamiento que del aula, sino que debe de producirse una reciben estos temas en el parque se mantiene implicación de toda la comunidad educativa, en la línea de la concepción de temas abiertos, de forma que su tratamiento educativo llegue introduciendo algunas novedades y temas de a toda la vida del centro y su mismo entorno relación. social. Por lo tanto, estos contenidos educativos, aun teniendo como punto nuclear de desarrollo Descripción del módulo el ambiente escolar poseen un claro rasgo de extraescolaridad. El módulo se presenta con un gran panel, en cuya zona central se destacan en letras gran- Estudio comparativo de los conteni- des los tres temas que nos ocupan: • Gestión dos de de «Desertización, Basuras y del agua • Desertización • Residuos sólidos A Gestión del Agua» en el currículo edu- ambos lados, podemos ver grandes fotografías cativo y este módulo en museos relacionadas con cada tema, y a la izquierda del panel, destacando sobre fondo blanco, una bre- Como hemos visto en el apartado anterior, los ve descripción del tema tratado, a saber: contenidos sobre los que estamos trabajando,

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La gestión ambiental debe considerar todos los aspectos ligados al impacto del desarrollo humano sobre el medio. Algunos de los problemas más importantes son: • La desertización es un proceso que comienza con la erosión y desemboca en la pérdida de suelo fértil. Esto implica la imposibilidad de sustentar vida animal o vegetal. Es un problema grave en España, sobretodo en el sureste y en el sur. La única defensa es la conservación de los animales y la reforestación. • En España producimos, en promedio, 1 kilo de basura por habitante y día. Multiplica esto por el número de habitantes de tu ciudad y por el número de días que tiene el año. ¡La basura amenaza ya con sepultarnos sino tomamos medidas! … • En nuestro país llueve mucho en el norte, pero bastante poco en el resto. Sin embargo, consu- mimos cada vez más agua, tanto en casa, como en la industria y la agricultura. Curiosamente, el agua en España es la más barata de Europa. ¡El país más seco tiene el agua más barata!

Cuadro 1: Texto del panel del módulo de desertización, basuras y gestión del agua

Análisis del módulo en el papel que los hombres han desempeñado (y desempeñan) en este proceso. De hecho, el Se ha podido observar que la secuenciación panel informativo habla del impacto del desar- de los tres temas fundamentales tratados en el rollo humano sobre el medio; pero pensamos módulo es coherente, siendo muy interesante que debería haberse mencionado de forma más la introducción de actividades interactivas que específica que, junto a las causas naturales, el implican directamente la intervención del niño. ser humano, a través de su actividad económica Los sistemas que se emplean para provocar la (sobre todo agrícola) puede contribuir enorme- actuación del niño son adecuados para alum- mente a acelerar el proceso. En la consola que nos de Educación Primaria pues el manejo del acompaña al panel, se propone una actividad ordenador que están en exposición es sencillo y tanto el lenguaje utilizado como las actividades didácticas propuestas están en el nivel de com- prensión propio de estas edades.

Desertización

El módulo se inicia con una sencilla explicación del proceso en sí, de los problemas que oca- siona, así como de su importancia en España, para acabar con dos sencillas pautas que per- mitan atajarlo. El tratamiento de este tema nos parece acertado tanto por la sencillez como por Fotografía 1: Imagen del panel de módulo la forma concisa en la que se expone, aunque de desertización, basuras y gestión del agua (Parque de las Ciencias de Granada) creemos que debería hacerse mayor hincapié

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encaminada a conocer los diferentes desiertos los platos. Ambas situaciones pertenecen a la existentes en la Tierra junto con sus caracterís- vida cotidiana del niño y además es algo que ticas; Creemos que sería adecuado proponer, en muchas ocasiones se hace sin pensar en la además, actividades que hicieran al niño plan- cantidad de agua que se gasta, por lo que la tearse una reflexión sobre la desertización, por elección de estas cuestiones nos parece muy ejemplo, relacionar fotografías en las que se acertada, ya que permite al niño realizar una observen las acciones atribuibles directamente reflexión sobre el despilfarro de agua que él a la acción humana con los efectos que pro- mismo realiza en su quehacer diario. Ciñéndo- vocan en relación con este tema; y, por otro nos a los alumnos de Educación Primaria, nos lado, las que no son debidas a la acción de los parece aún más acertada la tercera pregunta hombres. “¿Dónde se gasta más agua: en la cocina, en el inodoro o limpiando cristales?”, ya que la respu- Gestión del agua esta correcta está asociada a la única actividad de entre las tres que con toda seguridad los Esta parte del módulo se inicia en el panel alumnos realizan, que es utilizar el inodoro. Con donde, concisamente, se indica que España es ello, se asegura que el proceso de enseñanza- un país que posee zonas claramente diferencia- aprendizaje (interactividad didáctica) se realiza, das en cuanto a la cantidad de agua de lluvia ya que el alumno entiende inmediatamente que reciben; destacándose el hecho de que un que uno de los actos más cotidianos para él (ir país pobre en recursos hídricos como el nuestro, al baño) constituye el de mayor gasto de agua posea niveles cada vez mayores de consumo de en su casa, consiguiéndose así que recapacite agua. En la consola que hay delante del panel, se sobre el grado de responsabilidad que tienen plantea una actividad interactiva para los niños, en sus actuaciones individuales. 3.2.3.- Basuras consistente en cinco preguntas con tres respues- Al analizar esta sección del módulo vemos que tas posibles cada una de ellas, de las cuales sólo los enunciados que se exponen no implican de- una es verdadera. La primera de estas preguntas, masiado la intervención del niño aunque, quizás no implica directamente al visitante, pues sólo si la actividad se realiza con otros compañeros, pone de manifiesto el conocimiento de un dato provoque comentarios sobre la acción real que científico (el porcentaje de agua dulce del total ellos tienen en su vida diaria en relación a este terrestre). Sin embargo, al hacer reflexionar al tema, en concreto en el tema de la separación niño sobre la pequeña cantidad que representa de basuras. El objetivo de esta actividad no es el agua dulce respecto al total del recurso en tanto poner a prueba los conocimientos de los el planeta Tierra, consigue que éste tome con- niños sobre separación o reciclado de materia- ciencia de que el agua es en realidad un bien les, como el de provocar comentarios entre el- escaso. Las otras cuatro preguntas sí implican di- los para saber si están actuando correctamente rectamente al visitante, ya que hacen referencia en su casa, en el colegio, en la calle, … cuando al uso doméstico del agua. están realizando el acto de “tirar un material a Dos de ellas se refieren concretamente al la basura”. La interiorización de estos conceptos despilfarro inútil ocasionado por un grifo que debe llegar a provocar un cambio de actitud del gotea o que se deja abierto mientras nos niño, que incluso puede llegar a cambiar los lavamos los dientes, afeitamos o fregamos hábitos familiares. Pasamos a comentar cada

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uno de los enunciados que se presentan en to al papel, por lo que éstas deben tirarse al esta parte del módulo temático: cubo de basura orgánica. En definitiva, estas • La primera afirmación informa al visitante so- dos afirmaciones sólo sirven para facilitar al bre la incineración, presentándola como una visitante el juego posterior de la consola, que técnica de tratamiento de residuos contami- consistirá en depositar distintos residuos en nantes y, por lo tanto, poco aconsejable de- sus correspondientes contenedores, y entre sde el punto de vista ambiental y sanitario. esos residuos aparecen periódicos y cáscaras • En la segunda, se incide en la existencia de de huevo. o La última frase persigue la mis- una recogida selectiva, indicando que no es ma finalidad que las dos anteriores, pues en necesario separar las latas (no se especifica el juego aparecerán botellas de colores que el material) porque, al ser ferromagnéticas, deberán ser depositadas en el contenedor de son separadas en las plantas de tratamiento vidrio. Aquí se da una solución al problema mediante campos magnéticos. Aquí ob- de las basuras: el del reciclaje como alter- servamos una falta en el complemento de nativa a la acumulación de éstas. Creemos, los contenidos, ya que no todas las latas que el verdadero problema no es tanto la presentan ferromagnetismo y por tanto no recogida selectiva de basuras y su posterior todas se pueden separar en el tipo de planta reciclado, como la reducción de producción mencionada, aunque en la siguiente afirma- de basuras y la reutilización, por lo que este ción se indica que las latas de acero sí son otro objetivo también debería plantearse. ferromagnéticas y las de aluminio no. Ocurre con estas dos afirmaciones, que la primera Contenidos LOGSE vs contenidos pre- no se cumple en su totalidad, luego no sentes en el museo debería considerarse como una afirmación y la segunda debería de ir en primer lugar Los contenidos curriculares presentes en este para no llevar a un niño a equívocos sobre módulo no se ciñen estrictamente a los explici- el proceso de separación de este tipo de tados por la legislación vigente. No obstante, no basuras. Probablemente se pretende una ac- vemos e ello un problema, ya que no es este el ción reflexiva en la que se llegue finalmente objetivo de los museos de ciencias, sino el de a la conclusión de que es importantísima la poner al alcance de la sociedad unos conoci- recogida de basura selectiva, pero eso no es mientos que esta demanda. Nuestro análisis se comprobable (esa es una dimensión que no basa en la idea de que ya que esta fuente de in- podemos alcanzar). formación existe, lo ideal sería que se adecuara • Las siguientes tres afirmaciones se refieren lo más posible a las necesidades formativas de específicamente al proceso de reciclaje del los niños en las edades indicadas. Pero para papel y el vidrio. o En lo referente al papel, ello, es necesario el esfuerzo conjunto, no sólo se indica que el papel fotocopiado no es más 13 de los museos, sino de los profesores que difícil de reciclar que el normal. De aquí la han de encargarse de preparar el material de única conclusión que se puede sacar es que apoyo necesario para que sus alumnos realicen este papel debe depositarse también en el con éxito esta experiencia educativa. contenedor correspondiente. La otra dice que las cáscaras de huevo no se reciclan jun-

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CONTENIDOS LOGSE CONTENIDOS MUSEOS

6. El agua. Composición, características e impor- tancia para los seres vivos. El ciclo del agua: • El agua. Importancia para aguas superficiales y subterráneas. los seres vivos. Primer ciclo 9. La conservación del medio ambiente. Los ries- • La conservación del me- gos de la contaminación del agua, de la tierra dio ambiente. y del aire.

8. El clima y su repercusión en el paisaje. • El clima y su repercusión Segundo ciclo 9. La actividad humana y el paisaje. en el paisaje.

1. Funcionamiento y cuidado de nuestro cuerpo. Principales enfermedades que afectan a los aparatos y sistemas del organismo humano. Hábitos saludables y prevención de los tras- tornos alimentarios. Avances de la ciencia que mejoran la salud y la alimentación: medica- mentos y antibióticos; potabilización del agua; la higiene; fertilizantes; aditivos, química del frío y salud animal. 3. Las relaciones entre los seres vivos. Cadenas • Potabilización del agua. Tercer ciclo alimenticias. Asociaciones intraespecíficas e • Desarrollo sostenible. interespecíficas. Poblaciones, comunidades y ecosistemas. 6. Las capas de la tierra. Atmósfera, hidrosfera, corteza, manto y núcleo. Minerales y rocas. Los componentes del suelo. Catástrofes natu- rales: volcanes, terremotos e inundaciones. 11. Concepto de energía. Fuentes de energía y materias primas. Energías renovables y no re- novables. Desarrollo sostenible.

Conclusiones Ciñéndonos específicamente a la parte de desertización: Teniendo en cuenta la diversidad de edades • Creemos que es bastante adecuada para de los visitantes a los Museos y Parques de la los alumnos de Educación Primaria, ya que Ciencia, es comprensible que algunas de las el proceso de desertización se explica con actividades propuestas no se adecuen perfec- sencillez y con un vocabulario comprensible tamente a los niveles educativos deseados. No para los niños. obstante, creemos que, en general, el Módulo • Por otro lado, destacar que, a pesar de la de Desertización, Basuras y Gestión del Agua importancia del papel del Hombre en el posee unos contenidos y unas actividades proceso de desertización, no se menciona la acordes con la edad de los niños a la que va incidencia de éste sobre el medio. destinada: Educación Primaria. • Indicar también, que no se proponen activi-

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dades que hagan reflexionar a los niños sobre Referencias Bibliográficas el tema de la desertización, aunque las que están presentes sí son adecuadas para niños de Educación Primaria. ALLEN, S. (1997). Using Scientific Inquiry Activi- En cuanto al apartado de gestión del agua: ties in Exhibit Explanatios. Science Education. • Hemos observado como todas las activida- Phoenix. Vol. 81, nº 6. pp.: 715-733. des planteadas, a excepción de una, implican BENAYAS, J. y MARCÉN, C. (1995). La Edu- o están relacionadas con la vida cotidiana del cación Ambiental como desencadenante del niño, lo que nos parece muy acertado por- cambio de actitudes ambientales. I Jornadas que de esta manera, conseguimos una im- sobre actitudes y educación ambiental. Edit. plicación personal del niño que, al interiorizar Perales, F. J.; Gutiérrez, J. y Álvarez, P. Univ. los conceptos expuestos, permite el cambio de Granada. pp.: 132-156. de actitud de éste frente al consumo excesi- BROUARD, M. A. y POL MÉNDEZ, E. (1998). La vo e irracional de agua. comprensión de los contenidos del museo. Y, por último, en cuanto a la parte de basuras: Didáctica de las Ciencias Sociales, Geografía • Nos parece bastante posible que el cam- e Historia. Nº 15. pp.: 15-30. bio en la estructura de las actividades (de CONSEJERÍA DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA DE individual a grupal), pueda provocar un LA JUNTA DE ANDALUCÍA. (1992). «Decreto desconcierto inicial a los niños, pero esto 105/1992, de 9 de junio, por el que se esta- podría solventarse con unas indicaciones blecen las Enseñanzas correspondientes a la adecuadas por parte del monitor-profesor. De Educación Primaria en Andalucía». (BOJA nº manera que si las actividades se realizan con 56 de 20 de junio de 1992). grupos y no de forma individual, si que se DEL VAL, A. (1997). El libro del reciclaje: ma- podría conseguir el objetivo propuesto, que nual para la recuperación y aprovechamien- no es otro que un cambio de actitud en su to de las basuras. Ed. Integral. comportamiento diario cuando va a depositar DELEAGE, JEAN PAUL y SOUCHON, CHRIS- distintos tipos de basuras. TIAN. (1996) Modulo educativo sobre la de- • Por otro lado, hemos observado que el tema sertización. CYAN. Proyectos y producciones de la reducción de producción de basuras y editoriales, S.L. su reutilización no se trata, ni en forma de EMBID IRUJO, ANTONIO. (1997) Gestión del contenidos ni de actividades. agua y medio ambiente. Ediciones, S.L. EL- • Obviando esto, creemos que las propuestas VIRA, C. y son acertadas ya que se ataca de lleno el FERNÁNDEZ DOMÍNGUEZ, M. A. (1992). Basu- tema del consumo excesivo y la reutilización ra en la nave espacial Tierra. Cuadernos de de productos, que son aspectos fácilmente Pedagogía. Barcelona. Vol. 208. pp.: 60-63. comprensibles por niños de esta edad. FERNÁNDEZ I CERVANTES, M. (1998). Didác- tica de las Ciencias Sociales, Geografía e Historia. Nº 15. pp.: 51-56. FISHER, M. S. (1997). The effect of humor on learning in a Planetarium. Science Education. Phoenix. Vol. 81, nº 6. pp.: 703-713.

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FOPP, M. A. (1997). Los museos del aire y del espacio alcanzan la mayoría de edad. Mu- seum Internacional. París. UNESCO. Nº 195, vol. 49, nº. 3. pp.: 4-7. 15 GARCIA, ERNEST. (2004). Medio ambiente y sociedad: la civilización industrial y los lími- tes del planeta de ALIANZA EDITORIAL, S.A. GRUPO GAIA. (1990). Consumo y residuos sólidos urbanos. Cuadernos de Pedagogía. Barcelona. Vol. 186. pp.: 58-62. LACIAR, MIRTA ELIZABETH. (2003). Medio ambiente y desarrollo sustentable. Ciudad Argentina. MYERS, N. (1992). El futuro de la Tierra. Solu- ciones a la crisis medioambiental en una era de cambio. Celeste Ediciones. PÉREZ, C.; DÍAZ, Mº. P.; ECHEVARRÍA, I.; MO- RENTIN, M. y CUESTA, M. (1998). Centros de Ciencia. Espacios interactivos para el aprendizaje. País Vasco. Servicio de la edito- rial de la Universidad del P. Vasco. SOTELO, JOSE ANTONIO. (2003). Desarrollo y medio ambiente en España Fundación INFODAL TERRY, C. J. (1997). Los museos de tecnología del Canadá se ponen en línea. Museum In- ternacional. París. UNESCO. Nº 195, vol. 49, nº. 3. pp.: 26-27. VV.AA. (2003). La directiva marco del agua: realidades y futuros (III congreso ibérico so- bre gestión y planificación del agua) VV.AA. (2001). Problemática de la gestión del agua en regiones semiáridas. INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS ALMERIENSES VV.AA. (1997).La basura a la basura de EDICIO- NES GAVIOTA, S.L. VVAA (1996). Envases y sus residuos. (Mono- gráfico). Ecosistemas. Nov. pp 7-53.

http://www.esi.unav.es/asignaturas/ecologia/ Hipertexto/00General/IndiceGr al.html

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PARTICIPATORY TOOLS Community Based Sustainability Plan- nung and Rural Development in the South-Borsod Region, Hungary BARBARA BODORKÓS, BÁLINT BALÁZS, GYÖRGYI BELA AND GYÖRGY PATAKI

Environmental Social Science Research Group, Institute of Environmental and Landscape Management St. István University, Gödöllö, Hungary

In this paper, we present a complex participatory rural development project in a socioeconomically disadvantageous floodplain area of Hungary derived from a framework and common ground of ecological economics. We discuss the difficulties encountered during the fieldwork and reflections of the research team on the research processes. This still ongoing research project directed to- wards the issues of bottom-up sustainability planning can be conceptualised as a mutual learning between local and scientific perspectives with a strong commitment to a participatory approach. Its community-based appreciative research framework anchored in a hermeneutic and constructivist epistemology puts special emphasis on the systematic testing of ecological economics’ theorietical bases in live-action contexts and development of deliberative institutional arrangements in order to offer valuable methodological tools and insights for ecological economics.

Introduction Theoretical background

In this article we first explore the theoretical Ecological economics as a heterodox, non- underpinnings of our complex participatory rural coherent school of economics (Gowdy, 2005) development project in a socio-economically started only recently to consciously seek the alter- disadvantageous floodplain area of Hungary natives of neoclassical economics. Its disciplinary and its direct implications for the research de- self-definitions centred around the boundaries, sign and implementation. We then proceed to limits and common grounds of this field of study the detailed presentation of our fieldwork, an (Røpke, 2005; Gowdy–Erickson, 2005; Müller, action research process, that aimed at putting 2003; Ramos-Martin, 2003; Costanza, 2001; theories into practice and the concrete participa- Costanza, 1989; Norgaard, 1989; Proops, 1989) tory methodologies used for different problems. following the notion that methodological pluralism All these were allowing for real problem-orienta- proposed by Norgaard (1989) should not mean tion and effective participation, enabling people that “anything goes” (Söderbaum, 2000). How- in the research area to identify and express their ever, there seems to be an agreement on certain important issues and needs, to stimulate discus- tenets of ecological economics (Gowdy, 2005; sion and analysis, and to take actions. Finally, we Røpke, 2005; Söderbaum, 2000; Norgaard, 1989; summarise our initial findings concerning both Proops, 1989), which forms a theoretical basis of our theoretical questions and methodology. our empirical research as well.

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Ecological economists as problem- and policy- icz–Ravetz, 1994) in the research process and in oriented researchers aim to influence decisionmak- the production of scientific knowledge as well, are ers in public policy debates on human-nature issues considered to be the most important elements of to the achievement of sustainability (Chiu, 2003; post-normal science (Müller, 2003; Tacconi, 1998; Söderbaum, 2000; Tacconi, 1998; Proops, 1989). Funtowicz–Ravetz, 1994). As a science of sustainability, ecological economics Ecological economics in its ideal for a sustain- is to deal with problems and topics of interest to able society is committed to the political model of lay audiences, where economy is considered to be deliberative democracy (Prugh et al., 2000; Söder- embedded in natural and socio-cultural systems, baum, 2000; Costanza et al., 1997; Gowdy, 1994). and its growth and scale has biophysical as well as Many authors offered new epistemological stand- social limits. Ecological economics as a transdisci- point for ecological economics (Tacconi, 1998; plinary field of study (Söderbaum, 1999; Norgaard, Norgaard, 1994; Funtowitz–Ravetz, 1993). O’ Hara 1989) attracts scholars even beyond the disciplines (1996) has introduced the idea of discourses and of economics and ecology to join together in their discursive ethics to the field of ecological econom- theoretical and empirical enquiries so as to better ics and environmental evaluation, while Meppem identify, understand and solve interrelated econom- similarly, has brought communicative approaches ic, social and ecological problems. Again, recent to ecological economics (Meppem–Bourke, 1999; discussions claim that transdisciplinarity should not Meppem–Gill, 1998). Aldred and Jacobs (2000) justify anything identified as ecological economics have offered Citizens’ Jury, another constructive (Røpke, 2005). methodological proposal for ecological econom- Ecological economics as a co-evolutionary ics. In contrast to neoclassical environmental framework of thought focuses upon the historically evaluation processes (particularly contingent valu- situated, long term interactions between complex ation method), citizens’ juries are derived from the ecological and human systems, the interrelations ideals of deliberative democracy. Although ecologi- between economic activity and ecosystems (Nor- cal economics favours empirical enquiries based gaard, 1994; Proops, 1989). This study field also upon extended peer community, including people implies an awareness of historical specifications, affected by a particular issue, it certainly has paid context-dependency (space and time scale as well) much less attention to power relations, reproduc- and temporalities involved in conducting research. tion of social inequalities, participation and social Ecological economics as a post-normal sci- interaction (Radcliffe, 2004; DeFilippis, 2002; ence is not striving to deliver truth or objective Kapoor, 2002; Söderbaum, 1999). reality anymore (Funtowicz–Ravetz, 1993), From the perspective of the common ground much rather to seriously reflect upon the social of ecological economics presented above, one and ethical consequences as well as values and has to face the rather disturbing state of affairs that ideologies of its works (Söderbaum, 1999). only a few empirical studies reflect clearly these Democratization of knowledge, openness, self-re- theoretical underpinnings, “core beliefs” of eco- flectivity, awareness of one’s assumptions, values logical economics (Røpke, 2005, p.6.) and state and explicit statements, plurality of perspectives, explicitly values and ideology (Söderbaum, 2000), continuous process of reflection, the presence of motives, assumptions, in their problem definition, an extended peer-community who take part in in their scientific, pragmatic and political goals and the quality assessment of information (Funtow- ways of conducting empirical research.

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Constructive participatory methodology in a community and how to do more of what works. Instead of problem-oriented methods that The task of understanding how complex eco- are searching for external help and entrenching a systems and socio-economic activities interrelate sense of dependency in that community, achieve- required a transdisciplinary research approach. The ments, existing strengths and local capabilities research combined the existing disciplinary tools were assessed in an attempt to “create our sense and concepts through forming of interdisciplinary of reality” by the power of language and discourse cooperation between ecologists, economists, (Braun, 2002). sociologists, anthropologists, aiming to build a The emergent research design with a con- platform of shared theoretical and methodological tinuously evolving and developing conceptual knowledge. framework through the fieldwork was used to be The research team used a hermeneutic-con- able to become “receptive to local idiosyncrasies” structive approach which aims to facilitate better (Miles–Huberman, 1994). Qualitative research understanding of the social, economic and ecologi- methods – including in-depth interviewing, appre- cal phenomena within the researched community ciative enquiry, direct observation and participatory (Tacconi, 1998). This paradigm also implies that transact walk – were applied in order to explore, local perceptions, reality constructs, belief systems, understand and be engaged with the subject mat- mental models not only created through people’s ter of the research. Data analysis proceeded in an mind, but through reflective actions of their com- inductive fashion, avoiding forcing a priori theories munities (Braun, 2002; Reason, 1994). It offers a to fit in this specific context. Finally, the application Participatory Action Research (PAR) methodology of participatory methods enabled the research with several traditions of participatory research ap- team to negotiate the outcomes of the research proaches, theories and practice that empowers lo- with local people whom the data were derived cal people and facilitates social learning. In the case (Tacconi, 1998). of PAR, theory emerges inductively from practice and reflects on what works and what not (Cham- The promise of deliberative democracy bers, 1994). Its twofold objective is to produce use- ful knowledge and action through research, adult The road to global sustainability is leading through education and socio-political action, on the one the political activity of local communities. A sustain- hand; and to empower people through the proc- able society requires strong democracy, wherein ess of constructing and using their own knowledge, the different social, governmental aims and the on the other hand (Reason, 1994). necessary processes for reaching these aims are Throughout the appreciative research proc- generated in community-based discussions involv- ess, rather than directing or controlling the re- ing the largest possible amount of people with an search process, the role of researchers is that of equal standing with experts (Prugh et al., 2000). facilitators, offering participants an opportunity to Deliberative democracy promises that the de- think about the future of their communities (Balázs mocratization of procedures, planning and develop- et al., 2005). The Appreciative Enquiry approach ment will lead to the common good, as in the de- entering community-development from the busi- liberation process participants are more likely to go ness and management research (Ludema et al., beyond their individual interests (Wilson–Howarth, 2001) is directed towards identifying what works 2002) or perhaps change their attitude and values

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through collective actions. Building strongly on the is a tool for action, too, not an end in itself. For fairness of processes, communicative rationality, knowledge generation, participatory processes the open discourse of equal parties, deliberative are required to involve and evolve stakeholders democracy enhances understanding between perceptions and values through learning. various parties on various issues and the articula- Learning here is understood as the “accumula- tion of different values, interests and perceptions. tion of insights into system cause and effect by all The procedural norm of discursive ethics accepts those interests in a decision or an issue,” wherein and creates space for free and open debates, with learning is a never-ending process. (Meppem–Gill, well-informed mutually recognized, and accepted 1998). In the learning process, guaranteeing the participants (O’Hara, 1995).1 quality of the process of decision-making, the real The community forum in Mez_csát aimed to participatory nature of the process is what counts create a ground for a “deliberative arena” (Renn more than the concrete outcome of the proc- et al., 1995; Barber, 1984) being structured and ess (Ramos-Martin, 2003; Meppem–Gill, 1998; assisted by the researchers as facilitators. Based on O’Hara, 1995). Learning as active listening to each the principles of discursive ethics (O’Hara, 1996), other is about how we learn, by whom and for representatives of key stakeholder groups could whom. Learning should be taking place putting start to discuss and share their ideas about the people’s priorities first (Chambers, 2000), inclusive possible visions of their micro-region. of all stakeholder interests, values and percep- tions with particular attention to those who are Social learning in a marginal position, in our case roma ethnicity, poor villagers and women. Still, this wide range of The application of PAR methods implies that stakeholders should be allowed for “being affected the research is conceptualised as a process of by not privileging some knowledge” (Meppem, mutual learning. This co-construction means the 2000). Social learning must be amplified with em- recognition of self-referentiality, that is the critical powerment of communities; communities should awareness of being part of the researched system be made responsible for making decisions about (Norgaard, 1994) and a commitment to local their life (Shrivastava, 1995) especially in an area, knowledge instead of scientific/expert knowledge. where “upward-looking”, seeking external help is an The ideals of endogenous development and giving integral part of everyday survival. voice to traditional communities (O’Hara, 1995) as In the light of the pluralism and multiple well as traditional ecological knowledge, therefore, paradigms behind Ecological Economics we do were taken seriously throughout the research. not claim that an Ecological Economics empirical Effective actions for change are the products analysis could only follow one research methodol- of knowledge, experience and practice (Chiu, ogy, nor we want to prove that we have got our 2003). Participatory approaches emphasise the participatory research process fully right. In the fol- importance of experiential knowing. The aim of lowing, we turn to practical examples of research PAR methodologies is that, beyond an increase methodologies, structures, approaches, processes in understanding, a learning-approach of different derived from the framework of Ecological Econom- knowledge types is generated at a social level ics that might support and ensure effective com- leading to concrete and constructive action. In this munity participation and problem-orientation. sense, the research component of action research

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South-Borsod Floodlands – the study area According to the official classification of regions, the Borsodi Mez_ség region is located on the areas The current rural policy in Hungary is a central- of the Borsod floodlands small region and the Bor- ised, sectoral and top-down approach leading to sod flatlands (Borsod richlands) small region. Our the exclusion of local resources, initiatives and lo- research focuses on the southeastern part of the cal participation from development processes in region, along the river on the area of Borsod-Ártér general. As a consequence of the EU rhetoric on (Borsod-floodlands) in the following villages: Né- sustainability and participation, domestic policies gyes, Tiszavalk, Tiszabábolna, Tiszadorogma, Árokt will hopefully give more attention and support for The villages are located in the floodplain of a participatory rural development approach. the Tisza River where the main characteristics of Since the fall of 2003, a participatory rural de- the landscape have been formed by water. Over velopment project have been being implemented centuries, local people settled along the river have in the South-Borsod Floodplain by researchers developed tools and practices adapted to take from 6 Hungarian universities.2 The key element advantage of the pulsing patterns of flood and has been to engage local communities in the de- drought. Along the river, people could harness the velopment and implementation of a shared vision energy of floods by developing a special economy and strategy in a manner that reflects the needs, and culture in the floodplain. However, the logic concerns and aspirations of the community.3 The of modern, industrial agriculture has conquered study site is situated in the Borsodi Mez_ség traditional polyculture and converted the diverse Environmentally Sensitive Area, which is an ideal agriculture of a floodplain economy to the mo- landscape for studying human-social-ecological nocultures of wheat fields. A dike defence system systems interactions. This natural setting of the was constructed as well as all natural water flow research helped to understand local realities and resources have been drained from the area. By interactions among nature, economy and society eliminating the most important natural landscape in their own context. The historical relationship forming force, all the ecological services which between nature, society and economy has gone formed the basis of the economic activities of local through considerable changes in this particular people were also eliminated. landscape for the past couple of decades. From The region, along with inevitable decline of a the interviews and a focus group discussion on collectivized industrial agriculture after the regime the relationship of local people with water, it has change in Hungary, has been spiraling downward become clear that these formerly interdependent into inescapable social and economic depression three systems have got separated from each other, in the 1990ies. Unfavourable demographic condi- and seemed to have needed reconnections, re- tions, ageing and shrinking population are due to linking. Disconnectedness of local nature, society the change in the availability of jobs. Death/birth and economy was identified as a general problem ratio is the worst in this region, as compared to of ruralities and the main focus of our research. the same data for the whole county, Borsod- However, the specific problem perceptions, pos- Abaúj- Zemplén. The villages of the South-Borsod sible solutions and visions were to be identified by Floodplain are officially designated as a most dis- the local people using or tailor-making various par- advantageous area of Hungary in economic and ticipatory methodologies depending on the char- social terms with a significant Roma ethnicity in 3 acteristics of the problems (Balázs et al., 2005). villages. Furthermore, the minority-majority linkages

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Figure 1 - Study Area (Source: GIS Studio at SIU-IELM)

are full of conflicts: in Árokt_, a significant amount tion scenario, flood waters will not be drained off of people of majority blamed the Roma population quickly but will be spread over land and remain for the village not being successful to becoming a there as long as they are useful for ecosystems and rural tourist destination. The general stereotype of for extensive agricultural practice. Railway Road local people on the Roma people is that of too lazy Dirt-road Water-stream Still water Agricultural es- to work and living on the benefits of the Hungarian tablishment Administrative boundary Inner village social security system. Forest Legend In 2002 the Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) scheme was introduced offering new con- The research process tract-based incentives for the application of envi- ronment-friendly agricultural methods for a period PAR projects go through two main phases. One of at least 5 years. is the participatory appraisal and action plan- In 1998, 1999, and 2000 there were cata- ning phase, and the other is the participatory strophic floods on the Tisza River in Hungary. The implementation of action, monitoring and evalu- last wave of floods threatened the entire Hungarian ation phase. Action was considered an equally Great Plain with direct inundation. The recent seri- important phase of the project as the exploratory ous flooding events experienced in previous years research component itself. However, we did not have demonstrated that new ways of water and consider actions as a one-time event, but we wetland management is needed in order to move have tried to design the action process as an on- towards sustainability. Officially, two competing going process (Balázs et al., 2005). The following future scenarios exist for decreasing the risks of parts illustrate how a complex participatory rural flooding. A technical water engineering one which development research project has been man- would construct reservoirs along the Tisza River, or aged so far, and look ahead to the future activi- a wetland restoration one which prefers supporting ties. The “core beliefs” of ecological economics an traditional extensive agriculture. According to and participatory methodologies are illustrated the first scenario, reservoirs will prevent inundation with practical experience to provide feedback to from high water levels, in the event of a high peak theories and to identify what works and how in flood wave. By contrast, with the wetlands restora- practice and what not.

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Appraisal and action planning also provided flexibility to the interviewers to allow new topics to emerge. The initial step in the research process was a Next, a more structured interviewing phase preparation for working in an interdisciplinary was designed so as to check whether and how team of researchers through various self-organised actions can be carried out and support can be built workshops in order to help the diverse members of for the proposed actions among local community the research team to grasp each other disciplinary members. framework and build a platform of shared theoreti- Altogether 126 interviews were conducted cal and methodological knowledge. between December 2003 and February 2004 The second step was an extensive appreciative in the five villages. The length of the interviews enquiry interviewing so as to create an empower- was varying between half an hour to 3 hours, the ing discursive situation between the researchers average length of the interviews was around one and members of local communities. A major and a half hour. Almost all of them were recorded objective of this stage of semi-structured inter- to tape4, then a detailed interview summary was viewing was to uncover visions, the patterns and compiled for each. differences in local attitudes, problems, knowledge, Appreciative Enquiry (AE) type of questions had perceptions, and values attributed to living in this quite an added value to the research. AE questions particular landscape of Hungary. Positive stories encouraged interviewees to have positive reflec- and capabilities of the community were gathered tions on their local traditions, such as basket weav- from local people: local residents, including young ing, matting, fishing, etc. and on their natural re- people, old people, new inhabitants, women, men, sources (Tisza river, local riparian forests, floodplain etc., local farmers, teachers, micro-region manag- orchards, etc.). They could feel proud of their local ers, local government officials, local entrepreneurs. values, such as clean streets, cultivated land, rare Key-informants were interviewed as well such as local plant and animals species, local celebrations. National Park or Water Management Authority Local choirs, local NGOs, local books, folk dance officials, who had much access to information on groups, drama groups, local school and its teachers most of the research issues based on their spe- were valued highly. Interviewees could feel proud cific knowledge, experience, social status. Snowball of their capabilities/skills – such as knowledge technique was employed together with referrals on traditional fishing practices, carpentry skills, or and peer recommendations from local resource- agricultural skills. AE questions encouraged local users for identifying interviewees. The interviews people to appreciate already existing local initia- – based on a flexible guideline – were conducted tives, such as the organising of a local trainband, or by pairs of researchers, whom were of different the cleaning up of a local lake; local heroes were disciplinary background and generally of different named. In some cases, AE proved to be a power- gender to ensure diverse insights into the complex ful tool to make the interviewees think about their issues of the research area. The interview guideline future, vision and dream. Important elements of focused on interviewees’ individual perceptions ex- these visions were the establishment and strength- ploring the natural environment, economic settings ening of local undertakings (“a new packaging fac- and societal relations of the particular community. tory”, “a free beach resort area”, “a new sewery”, The interview protocol ensured that the same in- “thermal bath”, “new accommodation places for formation was gathered from all interviewees and tourists”, “organising of transact walks for tourists

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by local people”, “more active participation in the knowledge of local people was no longer valued agroenvironmental programs”, and “establishment since size of local wetland areas has radically of local NGOs”). shrank. Before the installation of the dike defence The answers to AE questions have shown that system, people could bath in the Tisza river; the quite strong and diverse emotions are attached to banks of the river had been important community the Tisza River. This river can still be considered as places, while afterwards, due to the high rise in the a place of high importance for local communities, level of the water at many of the villages, this is with quite a significant place attachment. However, not possible anymore. This way the villages have according to some of the interviewees, this place lost some community gathering places as well. attachment seems to be somewhat lower now The disappearance of water from the floodland than some decades back and many people are areas resulted in the disappearance of ancient only attached to their villages because of their fam- professions as they have lost their basic material ily: they will more easily move away if there are no inputs, such as sallow. Many local people were more relatives nearby. It seems that “outsiders” or expecting the “uplifting” of the villages from the weekenders tend to appreciate the value of nature second dam construction project in the 70ies. much better than local people. The power of AE However, these hopes were not fulfilled. Most questions in initiating change and encouraging of the interviewees considered the changes of concrete actions was also visible in many interview the landscape, due to the second round of dam situations: “If there were nature protection actions, construction, as a big loss. The policy of the local and if I had the time, I would be glad to join you”; water management authority gives place for some “It would be worthwhile to learn how to mat”. In conflicts. The former areas of floodlands with fruit these interview situations, some elements of a orchards now belonging to this authority are not new future could be constructed. In summary, taken care of and completely getting bewildered many of these examples reveal that AE set the and destroyed (“not even wild boars are able to stage for finding stories that are empowering for cross”). However, the need for the regeneration of local residents. floodplain orchards is still alive: some local people Though AE questions were not targeted to un- have the opinion that the cleaning up of floodplain cover problem areas, in many interview situations, orchards could be a good employment opportunity local people raised unsolved, depressing issues. for many unemployed. One important story of this type was the damage The relationship between the National Park done by industrial agriculture (by breaking the co- and the local people is not without problems evolutionary path of the landscape). The introduc- either. Most of the local people view the NP, on tion of modern industrial agriculture (large-scale the one hand, as an authority which constraints crop cultivation) required a dike defence system their activity and the development of tourism in order to divert all natural water flows from the and agriculture. On the other hand, many inter- area. Dam buildings in the 30ies and 70ies has viewees expressed their positive concerns about resulted in aridity and secondary salinity in a major living in a nature protection area. Not surprising- part of landscape. Through damming and flood ly, the two most important reference points for protection embankments, the Tisza River lost its “good old times” are the times before the instal- natural characteristics and huge areas of flood lation of the dike defence system (“there had plains dried out. Therefore, traditional ecological been so lovely maize and cabbage grown and

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fish caught here”) and the “agricultural collec- home villages, losing connections with them. tives”-times. The former is associated with the This was one of the main reasons for organis- older people, whom were children in that time, ing “Nature Preservation Day” for local children the latter is by the middleage or older middle- together with local teachers and experts of the age people, whom learnt agriculture practices two nearby National Parks. during the socialist era. The agricultural practices and knowledge of these two generations greatly Implementation phase differ: one is the agriculture of taking advantage of the pulsing patterns of flood and drought, and A group of researchers together with local teach- which is now only to be found in the memories ers and experts of the two nearby national parks and world views of elders (“…the wise peasant organised a “Day of Nature Preservation” for local is missing, this group has become extinct”), children. Another group of researchers organised while the other is more of an industrial agricul- a community forum in order to bring local people ture. The first knowledge system developed over together to share their visions and discuss pos- generations of experiences and observations sible actions within the micro-region. with nature and naturally occurring resources In the following, the community forum will within the very specific setting of the floodplain. be presented in detail as the first concrete ac- Regeneration, discovery and acknowledgement tion of the project. By January 2004 the five of traditional ecological knowledge could be the villages in the research area with four other basis of developing alternatives to recent natural settlements have established the Mez_csát resource management practices. Microregion.5 Based on the decision of local Many criticisms have been formulated by mayors, the town of Mez_csát was appointed as the interviewees concerning the everyday life of the leader of the micro-region, and the mayor of their villages (“even people’s morality is getting Mez_csát was nominated as the head of the mi- lower”), but still, passive and envy behaviour is cro-region. During the interviews, it has become reigning. Majority of local people accept their evident that there have been numerous reasons “destiny”, that their villages are not able to go – such as the prospects of higher government one step ahead to stop spiralling downward to regional development funding due to its disad- even bigger depression. The ability of local peo- vantageous economic and social situation – for ple to act is completely missing, blame is put this bottom-up initiative, but it has been clear as on each other and on the local governments. well that these settlements needed to prepare Enthusiasm towards local celebrations is de- some kind of strategy for their common future. creasing as well. Public participation in decision Therefore, our aim was to help to launch this making is at a very low level. process. Following the principles of discursive The disconnectedness of nature, society ethics (O’Hara, 1996), our proposal was that and economy was especially visible in case of representatives of key stakeholder groups could local children: although they live in a rural area, start to discuss and share their ideas about the “they do not have a close relationship with lo- possible visions of their micro-region. Based on cal animals, plants at all.” Furthermore, due to the idea of deliberative democracy, a commu- the closure of some of the local schools, many nity forum was planned to strengthen local de- children spend their school days outside of their cisions and empower local lay knowledge. The

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community forum as a participatory method is (Clark, 2003, p.4.). VAF has three overarching able create a ground for a “deliberative arena” goals: to strengthen community vitality, to build (Bobbio, 2003; Renn et al., 1995; Barber, 1984) civic engagement and local leadership and to being structured and assisted by the research- promote sustainable development. The most ers as facilitators. The presence of “outsider” important outcomes of VAF are concrete “com- facilitators and the participation rules laid down munity projects” imagined by the community at the beginning of the forum were the tools and published in a “Vision to Action Forum Re- used for governing participation and group inter- port” distributed to all participants. actions. Kapoor (2002) misses “systematic rules The original VAF approach had to be modi- or legitimating force” governing participation in fied and tailor-made to fit the local conditions PAR processes. He questions for example that and needs. VAF is broadly inclusive and the most the facilitator could be enough for a “free and different groups of the community are present, equal deliberation” (Kapoor, 2002, p.106.) as while our idea was first to get key local decision the facilitator is then granted a broad power makers and community leaders acquainted with and is considered as a “superior expertise”, the idea of participatory planning and community which is against real deliberation. In this sense, development and present in a half-day forum the facilitators can intervene in discussions and most important methods and techniques of this prefer certain participants to others. However, in approach to them. “Real” VAFs will be conducted our case the “non-decision-maker” participants in all villages of the micro-region only in a further did not feel intimidated by the formal authori- step of the research. ties present. During the VAF, four working groups were as- The aim of the forum was that local people signed to do one part of a SWOT analysis which holding politically and socially significant posi- presented a remarkably thorough analysis on their tions – including mayors, local government rep- region in a relatively short time. Participants also resentatives and the key personalities of certain identified visions which could be implemented micro-region initiatives – attend the forum and with the fewest resources and voted on all visions. grasp the idea, as well as some technique of The preferred vision empowered local community community-based, participatory development. It to have local use of local lands, keeping most of was also of primary importance to involve the the profit at local people. Many votes have been representatives of those local or regional author- received by visions in connection with nature ities, whose operations have a huge impact on protection and the use of ecosystem functions the landscape and community viability, including in balance with nature, such as rural tourism, lo- particularly the two national parks. cal food-manufacturing, regeneration of floodplain The agenda of the forum followed the partici- orchards, etc. patory model of “Vision to Action Forum” (VAF)6 The 20-page summary report with the results bringing together a broad range of members of of the forum was distributed to the participants the community to “assess their community’s and the local governments of the micro-region. strength and opportunities and to identify prob- In the local government offices’s, the report was lem areas, to share ideas and hopes for their made available to other local people as well, community’s future, and to shape and launch who did not attend forum. The report contains an action plan to achieve their specific goals” all background information on the forum, in-

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cluding the programme and the outcome of the the research team’s aim for the near future is to exercises of the forum, pictures, the address of help these communities in organising these fora. the participants, etc. The participants were very active all along the Conclusions forum and despite of the high level of pessimism in the microregion, plenty of good examples and The research project has already gained valuable memories of a healthy community were expressed experience in the way that is good for examining by them. For many of the participants, this was the the interactions between ecological and human first time to be publicly heard, and the first real op- systems and for creating a vision for a sustainable portunity to listen to the colleagues in the nearby future of the community. Our initial results suggests villages. The forum helped to make the participants that participatory and democratic aspirations behind see themselves as a stronger community, which is action research are much harder to achieve in prac- able to make changes and helped them to realise tice than in theory. We have been able to make their strengths and opportunities, which were some interesting methodological observations thought to be hidden or non-existing. The forum concerning participation, which can help to prepare was an ideal tool to mobilize socio-cultural and participatory action research plans in the future. economic networks; networks of communication, co-operation and co-ordination. Such networks can Participation and direct democracy in practice represent enabling opportunities and help to have Research design. local control over local resources, initiate social The main concern of participatory processes is who learning, contributing to sustainable development initiates the process, who would be responsible for of the region. the definition of the research question/research The research team is now in another phase problem and for the design of the research. In of self-reflection not only to analyse data and our case, the research process was initiated by experience gathered and gained so far, but to the interdisciplinary research team, implemented reflect upon the roles they have taken during the together with local people without giving them any research. Further exploration is needed whether role in determining research methods and research the transcript/report of the forum as a collective design. Still, the concrete actions truly reflected the product turned out to be a useful tool in support- problems identified by local people. ing further reflections about the future of the micro region and/or the villages or facilitating any further Handling over the stick to locals. actions (Balázs et al., 2005). Strong value commitments towards nature conser- As a next step, a capability assessment would vation and sustainable development made it es- help to identify all local resources and skills through pecially hard for ecologists to stay back in the role which the common vision comes to reality and on of a “facilitator” (Chambers, 2000), not dominating which the concrete actions and projects can be neither the research process nor local people. Our built. Capability assessment is a tool to map the tra- task of being facilitators was to establish adequate ditionally ignored “gifts”, that is skills and non-eco- conditions for a learning environment, where the nomic abilities of residents, which may contribute future development and planning concerns are to development. Some villages already requested generated through a community level discourse very similar type of fora on a village level. One of process. The facilitators can neither determine nor

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influence the outcomes of this process, even if higher by local people than the knowledge of local the results of this process and decisions are not in people. Researchers needed to be aware of this line with their values, expectations, scientific back- inequality and at the same time were trying to ground or strong commitment to sustainability, etc. underplay there role as members of academia. Social learning must be amplified with empower- Indigenous ecological knowledge of elder peo- ment of communities made responsible for making ple is not anymore culturally embedded in the decisions about their life (Shrivastava, 1995). Expe- local knowledge systems; it is appearing less riencing the consequences, the institutionalised and less in a collective form of community-level social learning process can provide opportunities to (shared) knowledge. The transfer of indigenous adjust development plans or planning concerns in knowledge to future generations is not assured, so case values or preferences changed through open possible future actions might be oriented towards debates. Therefore, the discursive process has to this issue. ensure and include reflexivity, the handling of un- expected consequences/impacts and anticipation Local capabilities. of possible impacts on a community level. Still, the It has become clear that local people are very results of the interviews and the community forum much able to analyse their own situation, to clearly suggest that the vision of a local community to reflect on their lives, to understand their own prob- have local use of local lands, keeping most of the lems and opportunities. Those opposing or being profit at local people was popular. skeptical about participatory processes in Hungary often claim that it is difficult to address and involve Rapport building. the different groups of local people in participatory Interview situations were new to rural residents, processes, adding that Hungarian society and lo- therefore successful rapport building with the local cal communities are not yet ready and prepared people was crucial for a good interview and for the enough for democratic processes, like the one whole research process. Local people did not con- presented in this article. The community learning sider our presence as a “one time shot”, and with environment of the forum empowered people to their active participation in the forum they have do much of their own analysis and community expressed their trust towards the research team. planning, and cooperate in an unexpected situation and in a new environment. Nevertheless, the dis- Combining local and expert knowledge. cursive processes and direct democratic institutions The universities brought theoretical and techni- or mechanisms of deliberative democracy, such as cal knowledge and research expertise into the a community forum, can only be strengthened and research process, which was then successfully learnt when continuously practised. combined with the knowledge and the other as- Diversity and working together. Diversity of val- sets of the local people: local people started to get ues, perceptions, exceptions is a main principle of engaged in a social learning process through the PAR. A lesson learnt during the community forum is community forum organized by the researchers, that it is difficult to retain and recognise a sense of while researchers gained precious insights into community diversity meanwhile there is a need for local ecological knowledge. However, researchers working together and producing a summary report were sometimes “given” or “charged with” the sta- for action. The exercise of seeking consensus risks tus of experts, as their knowledge was esteemed simplifying diversity (Kapoor, 2002), “silencing”

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or “excluding some community voices” (Kapoor, in decision-making processes” (Schafft– Brown, 2002, p.109.). 2003; DeFilippis, 2002). One of the difficulties Expectations and responsibility. Local people are of power issues lies “in the systematic checking brought into a process in which expectations might of arbitrariness and power inequalities” (Kapoor, be raised and then frustration might arise if there 2002, p.110.). The self-critical epistemological are no actions or follow up results. To avoid these, awareness (Chambers, 2000) embodied in do- researchers needed to be transparent about their ing participatory research should be extended to intentions and be aware of their social responsibility power relations both within the local communities toward the community. Due to temporary lack of in question and between researchers represent- financial resources, the research had to be stopped ing academic institutes and local lay people. The for quite a long time, which was hindering further research group should find time for itself to reflect common action. The damages will be seen only more not only on the working of PAR techniques, when research continues. but as suggested by Kapoor (2002) also on dis- cussing the theoretical assumptions behind them, Time-intensity. and broader issues, such as localism and the role Participatory approaches take a lot of time and ef- of power in PAR projects. forts; the mutual learning process is time-consum- ing. Researchers have to spend great deal of time Methodological conclusions on listening to the local people and understanding their priorities, problems, visions. This can assure Design of the research process and research flexibility being always in response to local ideas team. and allowing local people to gradually become A lot depends on how the research process is or- more and more involved in the social learning ganised in an interdisciplinary research team, and process. Even in a strong rural community many how the research team itself is organised; how it is conflicts might arise: ethnic, social class, etc. able to work as a team with researchers of differ- ent disciplines. One of the biggest conflicts in the Power relations. research team have arisen apparently between the Each of the several social groups within a territo- natural and the social scientists. The former have rial community is likely to see its own situation not been familiar and been used to “emerging” from its own perspective, and power relations research design and were expecting a much more between them need to be explored. Lack of time tighter and pre-structured research process. This might result in a failure to reveal power relations, conflict forced both disciplines to face its roots. the different perceptions of reality, local dynam- Disciplinary conflicts such as this need to be ics, and hierarchies. Issues of entrenched power brought up to the surface as suggested by Söder- and power structures, such as local government’s, baum (1999) and handled constructively. Enough water management authority’s, National Park’s, time and occasion should be left for getting insights Roma population’s should not be dismissed, into each other’s disciplines. However, a great deal structural inequalities and power dynamics within of diverse information was generated this way and the community must be managed in a careful the different disciplines could sort them out, under- manner. “Meaningful community change involves stand, and interpret them quite effectively. In this redistribution of power, authority and influence way, the disciplinary biases when each professional

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might seek for information from his/her point of la who provided us with professional assistance to view could be better eliminated. carry out a Vision to Action Forum at our site. The financial support provided by the Civic Education Mixed methods PAR and AE. Project Central-Europe Foundation, as well as the The methods used need to be assessed in 03/H/000 LIFE project of the European Union relation to the objectives of the project and the are kindly acknowledged. Last but not least, we context in which they were applied (Røpke, 2005; thank post-graduate and graduate students of Ramos- Martin, 2003). When the research focus ELTE, PPKE, BKÁE, SZIE, ME in particular: Zsolt is complex and broad just as in our case, qualita- Er_s, Ágnes Édl, Gábor Gondos, Julianna Honti, tive research techniques can be used together in Eszter Illyés, Orsolya Juhász, Ágnes Mér_, Ákos mixed-methods studies to provide more informa- Molnár, Szilvia Pungor, Gergely Soós, Rebeka tion than could be obtained by using either one Szabó, Mária Tarnai, Flóra Tinya, András Tukacs, alone. The adoption of PAR has proved to be a Viola Újvári, Kornél Varsányi, who were involved dynamic, non-standardised and flexible method- in the field work and did a respectable job. All ology, which helped the researchers to adopt to errors and omissions are the sole responsibility real-life situation as the research was unfolding. of the four authors. Admittedly, the use of AE has been difficult during the interviews: AE questions received a bunch of Footnotes complaints as answers. However, AE questions certainly have helped a lot to bring up many posi- 1 When used in ecosystem evaluation, the role of a discursive process is to help the community to learn about and articu- tive feelings, ideas, visions to the surface. We can late values and preferences for certain ecosystems goods only hope that even by simply asking AE type of and services (Wilson-Howarth, 2002) questions we have managed to achieve a little 2 The interdiciplinary undertaking comprised of the Institute of Environmental and Landscape Management, St. István change. Certainly, AE worked much better during University, Gödöllö together with the Faculty of Law, Pázmány the community forum, where it has evolved to a Péter Catholic University; the Water Engineering College, more participatory and people centred approach Baja; Department of Plant Taxonomy and Ecology, ELTE University; College for Social Theory, Budapest University of than in personal interviews. Economic Sciences and Public Administration; Department of Anthropology, University of Miskolc. Part of the research Acknowledgements team was already familiar with this area due to a research conducted there in summer of 2002 on the economic evaluation of natural capital of environmentally sensitive ar- The authors of this article are a member of the eas, on the relationship of local people and wetlands, and on interdisciplinary research team consisting of 25 the impacts of the Hungarian agro-environmental payment scheme. senior and young researchers from 6 Hungarian 3 The micro region in question is not totally unfamiliar with bot- universities. The research design and the imple- tom-up initiatives since in the mid-90ies it has established a mentation of the research is a result of a long, civil association for rural development and initiated a planning process involving local opinion leaders. However, failing to continuous teamwork, credit is due to all members raise sufficient amount of financial resources, this initiative lost of the research team for their hard work. In par- its credibility among people, and could not go beyond a kind ticular we wish to thank Barbara Mihók, Benedek of wishful thinking. The failure was partly due to insufficient mobilising of local resources and capabilities and too much Jávor, László Gálhidy who were our main partners waiting and hoping for external financing. Therefore, this time in facilitating the interdisciplinary teamwork. Special an emphasis was put on local capabilities and a community thanks to Jessica Brown, Delia Clark and Ervin Sper- based, participatory planning process has been initiated.

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4 Except for the cases where the interviewee did not feel com- fortable with tape-recording. In these cases the interviews Clark, D., 2003. Community Vision to Action were recorded by taking extensive notes Forums: An Organizer’s Guide to Participa- 5 Microregion is the smallest level of regional development policy and funding in Hungary, a „NUTS 4-level“ according to tory Planning. the terms of the European Union regional policy. Costanza, R., 1989. What is ecological econom- 6 VAF is developed by the Vital Communities and Antioch New ics? Ecol. Econ., 1:1-7. Costanza, R., 2001. England Institute drawing on models developed by the Cooper- ative Extension Services of the Universities of Vermont and New Visions, values, valuation and the need for Hampshire. The forum process has proved to be successful in an ecological economics. BioScience, 51: many communities in the United States and Central Europe. 459-468. Costanza, R., Cumberland, J., Daly, H., Good- References land, R. and Norgaard, R, 1997. An Intro- duction to Ecological Economics. St. Lucie Aldred, J. and Jacobs, M., 2000. Citizens and Press, Boca Raton, Florida. wetlands: evaluating the Ely citizen’s jury. DeFilippis, J., 2002. The myth of social capital Ecol. Econ., 34:217-232. in community development. Housing Policy Balázs, B., Bela, Gy., Bodorkós, B., Milánkovics, Debate, 12:781-806. K. and Pataki, Gy., 2005. Preserving Bio- and Funtowicz, S.O. and Ravetz, J., 1993. Science Socio-diversity through Participatory Action for a post-normal age. Futures, 25:739- Research. Living Knowledge: Int. J. of Com- 755. munity Based Research, 5:11-13. Funtowicz, S.O. and Ravetz, J., 1994. The Barber, B., 1984. Strong Democracy. Participa- worth of a songbird: ecological economics tory Politics for a New Age. University of as a post-normal science. Ecol. Econ., 10: California Press, Berkeley. 197-207. Bobbio, L., 2003. Building social capital through Gowdy, J.M., 1994. Coevolutionary Economics: democratic deliberation: the rise of delib- The Economy, Society and the Environ- erative arenas. Social Epistemology, 17: ment. Kluwer, Boston. 343-357. Gowdy, J.M. and Erickson, J.D., 2005. The ap- Braun, A., 2002. Beyond the problem-solving proach of ecological economics. Cambridge approach to sustainable rural development. J. of Econ., 29:207-222. Draft, Paideia Resources. Jenkins, T.N., 2000. Putting postmodernity into Chambers, R., 1994. The origins and practice of practice: endogenous development and the participatory rural appraisal. World Develop- role of traditional cultures in the rural de- ment, 22:953-969. velopment of marginal regions. Ecol. Econ., Chambers, R., 2000. Us and them: finding a 34:301- 314. new paradigm for professionals in sustain- Kapoor, I., 2002. The devil’s in the theory: a able development. In: D. Warburton (Editor), critical assessment of Robert Chamber’s Community and Sustainable Development, work on participatory development. Third Participation in the Future. Earthscan Publi- World Quarterly, 23:101-117. cations, London, pp. 116–147. Ludema, J., Cooperrider, D.L. and Barrett, F., Chiu, L.F., 2003. Transformational potential of 2001. Appreciative inquiry: the power of focus group practice in participatory action the unconditional positive question. In P. research. Action Research, 1:165–183. Reason and H. Bradbury (Editors), Hand-

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book of Action Research. Sage. London, pp. development, civil society and inequality 189-199. – social capital is (almost) dead? Progress in Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M., 1994. Qualita- Human Geography, 28:517-527. tive Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. Reason, P. and Bradbury, H. (Editors), 2001. Sage, London. Handbook of Action Research. Participatory Meppem, T., 2000. The discursive community: Inquiry & Practice. Sage, London. Reason, evolving institutional structures for planning P., 1994. sustainability. Ecol. Econ., 34:47-61 Three Approaches to Participative Enquiry. In: Meppem, T. and Bourke, S., 1999. Different N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Editors), Hand- ways of knowing: a communicative turn to- book of Qualitative Research. Sage, London, ward sustainability. Ecol. Econ., 30:389-404. pp. 324–339. Meppem, T. and Gill, R., 1998. Planning for Renn, O., Webler, T. and Wiedemann, P. (Edi- sustainability as a learning concept. Ecol. tors), 1995. Fairness and Competence in Econ., 26:121-137. Citizen Participation. Evaluating Models for Müller, A., 2003. A flower in full blossom? Eco- Environmental Discourse. Kluwer, Dordrecht. logical economics at the crossroads between Røpke, I., 2005. Trends in the development of normal and post-normal science. Ecol. Econ., ecological economics from the late 1980s to 45:19-27. the early 2000s. Ecol. Econ., (forthcoming) Norgaard, R.B., 1989. The case for methodologi- Schafft, K.A. and Brown, D.L., 2003. Social capi- cal pluralism. Ecol. Econ., 1:37-57. tal, social networks, and social power. Social Norgaard, R.B., 1994 Development Betrayed: Epistemology, 17:329-342. The End of Progress and a Coevolution- Shrivastava, P., 1995. Democratic control of ary Revisioning of the Future. Routledge, technological risks in developing countries, London. Ecol. Econ., 14:195-208. O’ Hara, S.U., 1995. Valuing socio-diversity. Int. J. Söderbaum, P., 1999. Values, ideology and of Social Econ., 22:31-49. politics in ecological economics. Ecol. Econ., O’ Hara, S.U., 1996. Discursive ethics in eco- 28:161-170. systems valuation and environmental policy. Söderbaum, P., 2000. Ecological Economics. Ecol. Econ., 16:95-107. Earthscan, London. Proops, J.L.R., 1989. Ecological economics: Tacconi, L., 1998. Scientific methodology for ec- rationale and problem areas. Ecol. Econ., 1: ological economics. Ecol. Econ., 27:91-105. 59- 76. Wilson, M.A. and Howarth, R.B., 2002. Dis- Prugh, T., Costanza, R. and Daly, H., 2000. course-based valuation of ecosystem servic- The Local Politics of Global Sustainability. es: establishing fair outcomes through group Island Press, Washington, D.C. and Covelo, deliberation. Ecol. Econ., 41:431-443. California. Ramos-Martin, J., 2004. Empiricism in ecological economics: a perspective from complex sys- tems theory. Ecol. Econ., 46:387-398. Radcliffe, S., 2004. Geography of development:

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PARTICIPATORY TOOLS DIALOG : Quebec Network on Native Questions. A New and Innovative Alli- ance Between Universities and Aborigi- nal Communities CAROLE LÉVESQUE, MARIE-FRANCE LABRECQUE AND CARMEN LAMBERT

Carole LÉVESQUE, professor, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (Université du Québec), Québec, Canada; Marie-France LABRECQUE, professor, Département d‘Anthropologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada; Carmen LAMBERT, professor, Department of Anthropology, McGill University, Québec, Canada

IALOG - Le réseau québécois d‘échange sur of intellectual and analytical challenges. By the Dles questions autochtones brings together same token, it also offers researchers unique researchers, students, practitioners, community opportunities to increase the social relevance of actors and analysts from the academic milieu, their work and to participate in the transforma- practice settings, governmental agencies and tion of knowledge and society: Aboriginal organizations. These diverse actors share the goal of deepening, diversifying, dis- • As a field of scholarly endeavour, Indigenous seminating and renewing research on Aboriginal peoples studies now cuts across all the so- peoples. DIALOG currently has more than sev- cial sciences and humanities. For decades, enty members, including researchers affiliated anthropologists were almost exclusively re- with eighteen universities, eight of which are in sponsible for the bulk of the scholarship on Québec, five in Canada, three in South America Indigenous peoples. Today, researchers in a and Mexico, and two in Europe. They encompass variety of other disciplines including law, po- thirteen academic disciplines, and are active in litical science, history, geography, sociology, the Americas, Europe, Asia and Oceania. Dialog, linguistics, education, environmental studies, launched in 2001, was officially recognized in management and literature also contribute 2003 as a Strategic Cluster, when it received a to the field in significant ways. 4-year grant from the Fonds Québécois de Re- • Indigenous peoples studies are an integral cherche sur la Société et la Culture (FQRSC). part of the history and transformation of humanity. In a time of accelerated change Indigenous peoples studies as a field and multifaceted globalisation, Indigenous of scholarship peoples studies provide an intellectual space within which issues such as the relationship In Québec and in Canada, the study of Indig- between peoples and states, cultural diver- enous peoples now encompasses a wide range sity, identity politics, and the sociopolitical

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coexistence of different forms of knowledge peoples is carried out. These changes must can be better formulated and understood. include: • In the wake of the Royal Commission on • A serious evaluation of ongoing practices Aboriginal Peoples in the 1990ies and recent of interaction between researchers and developments in the quest of First Nations Indigenous peoples as well as an in-depth and the Inuit for self-government, Indig- reflection on the conditions of participation enous peoples studies have become a field of Indigenous peoples in the research proc- of research both of increasing popularity, at- ess. tracting widening cohorts of Indigenous and • A reformulation of existing conceptual frame- non-Indigenous students, and of intensifying works, of current research practices and of diversity as research topics and themes keep the ways in which research results are ap- expanding. plied. • The creation of some form of interface that From a structural perspective, these different can link the social sciences and the natural aspects are engendering four main challenges: sciences with a view to developing a broader to build bridges between various disciplines and more accurate understanding of the re- whose tradition of research in the field of Indige- alities experienced by Indigenous peoples. nous peoples studies is still fairly recent (except • A greater recognition of the contribution of in the case of anthropology), and to work in so Indigenous peoples studies to the advance- doing toward the elaboration of a truly transdis- ment of knowledge both in the social sci- ciplinary project; to bring together dispersed and ences and the natural sciences. isolated bodies of knowledge and data sets; to disseminate all the relevant scientific production DIALOG as a scientific and social re- on a larger scale and reach out to all who can sponse make profitable use of existing information; and, to renew the intellectual foundations of the field Such a situation reinforces the need to develop of Indigenous peoples studies and consolidate new tools for research and dissemination tar- its presence in university curricula. geted to Aboriginal organizations and communi- In addition to these key challenges, there is ties, to expand links between the various actors another one, which, in some respects, is even involved in research, and to set up new spaces more fundamental. As Indigenous peoples have for discussion, exchange and collaboration, the come to take their rightful place in the produc- scope of which must be at once national, inter- tion of knowledge over the past decade-as continental and international. In other words, we knowing subjects rather than as mere objects of now need to collectively reflect on the theoreti- knowledge-Indigenous communities and their cal, epistemological, methodological and ethical representative organizations have been insisting issues inherent in this field of study. on monitoring, or on being active participants Inherent in the very structure of a network is in, many of the research projects that concern a creative, dynamic and essentially stimulating them. This situation represents in and of itself impetus towards the enhancement of knowl- a significant challenge that requires a number edge, professional relations and interpersonal of changes in the way research on Indigenous ties. A network is both a meeting place and a

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platform. Its richness and strength in fact lie in Indigenous peoples in a different light. New, its individual members and in the knowledge multidisciplinary teaching approaches, increased and capacities that each person brings to the student participation in research and discussion network. In the field of Indigenous peoples activities, and training programs and interactive studies, this approach to sharing, pooling and seminars held in Indigenous communities are interrelating has proven especially effective in but some of the avenues that are currently helping to bring societies and cultures closer. being explored and that are likely to stimulate The network operates in a transversal fashion. learning, the exchange of information and the Through its very structure, it encourages open- development of skills. ness; it is outward facing. DIALOG calls upon personal capacities that are vastly strengthened A way to revive and refocus the public image by the fact that they are part of a collective un- of research dertaking. Consequently, DIALOG provides to its Research is often disregarded or considered members and partners : with suspicion within Indigenous communities. It is essential that new and original forms of re- A crossroads for interaction and capacity search partnerships with Indigenous peoples be building developed and implemented. As governments Across Québec, Canada, the Americas, Europe seem more prepared to address the concerns and the Pacific, DIALOG provides a forum of Indigenous peoples and international organi- whose primary function is to encourage the zations are more sensitive to their demands (as gathering of everyone involved in research on, evidenced by the setting up of international about and with Indigenous peoples, regardless conventions and global working groups), it is of their approach. DIALOG is thus designed as crucial that the growing and significant need for a rallying point, both virtual and real, for all of good, efficient, targeted and relevant research its members whatever their background. It is in- be satisfied. tended to serve as a liaison between individuals and organizations, to stimulate the exchange of An opportunity to contribute to the renewal information and to help to coordinate activities. of research DIALOG is emerging as an innovative space A number of challenges are presently facing for a new kind of professional and institutional Indigenous peoples: the quest for identity and engagement that focuses on strengthening self-government, the renewal of internal govern- collaborative initiatives and encourages the de- ance, the establishment of a new dialogue be- velopment of new forms of solidarity between tween the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, academic and Indigenous communities. land claims, the erosion of ancestral knowledge, and the marginalization of Indigenous women A stimulating environment for training and and youth within the political, social and eco- knowledge sharing nomic spheres of their communities. All these Given the growing numbers of students and the challenges raise a number of multifaceted and multiplicity of research interests and disciplinary complex interrogations. Sharing the concerns practices, we now need to look at training underscoring these interrogations, exploring researchers in focusing on issues related to new research paths in response and forging

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new ties between actors involved in the field collective action and intercontinental alliances, provide fascinating opportunities to renew and Indigenous governance and the social impact of further advance knowledge. modernity. They are remarkably well positioned A means of creating suitable conditions for to foster Indigenous peoples studies as a field maintaining a constructive and innovative of scholarship. However, their work still remains dialogue little known within the Canadian scientific com- Suitable conditions for a lasting dialogue will munity and outside Canada. By joining together only emerge through concerted action and within a network, they can better promote their the impression shared by all that they are in- work and forge ties with other researchers volved in the process as respected and equal outside Québec, and enhance the exposure of participants. To last, innovative dialogue must their efforts at intellectual rapprochement with also be nurtured through the unwavering will of Indigenous peoples. concerned parties to engage constructively and enduringly with the other.

A mode of access to new services The network facilitates access to new tools for researchers and Indigenous organizations. For example, by showcasing its members‘ work, DIALOG acts as an information gateway to on- going, Québec-based research on issues related to Indigenous peoples. This information gate- way, which includes the scientific production of Québec researchers as well as that of Canadian and foreign researchers on Indigenous realities in Québec, can be a very useful reference tool for all interested in scholarship on Indigenous peoples, whether they are active in universities, in government or within Indigenous communi- ties.

A showcase for the world The growing political salience of Indigenous peoples-state relations in Québec in recent years has mobilized an ever-increasing cohort of researchers who have developed a keen interest in broadening an understanding of issues related to Indigenous peoples. As a result, Québec re- searchers have developed a solid expertise and an original outlook on a variety of topics includ- ing Indigenous knowledge, history, transnational

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INFRASTRUCTURES Centre for Knowledge Transfer: A Digital Look at the Centre for Knowledge Trans- fer at Tilburg University IRIS SLIEDRECHT-VAN LAVIEREN

Science Shop, Tilburg University, Tilburg, the Netherlands

Introduction tions deriving from small and medium-sized enterprises, including the preconditions for such In this workshop, we would like to show how mediation, we have developed instruments that the Tilburg Centre for Knowledge Transfer aim to guarantee a constant and high-level helps the Science Shop and the Small and service quality. Medium-sized Enterprises (SME) Office to In this workshop, we will be presenting our perform their mediation tasks in a high-quality vision of quality policy with reference to the fashion. The Centre for Knowledge Transfer was work of the Science Shop and the SME Office. established in 2002 with two departments: the We will also outline the instruments we have Science Shop for social knowledge transfer to developed to sustain such quality policy with the not-for-profit sector and the SME Office for regard to knowledge transfer in both social and knowledge transfer from the university to small commercial fields. and medium-sized businesses. The main task of both the Science Shop and the SME Office is Vision of quality policy to mediate in research projects between soci- ety and small and medium-sized enterprises, The quality policy of the Centre for Knowledge respectively, and the university. Having matched Transfer at Tilburg University centralizes four a researcher and a client, the Science Shop adjectives: focuses on supervising the research process 1 client-oriented; and on publishing its results. The SME Office, 2 transparent; besides matching researchers and clients, focu- 3 systematic; ses on acquisition of research assignments and 4 proactive. on matching demand in cooperation with the These four concepts are guiding principles university‘s student societies. in our work and a framework for designing our In recent years, we have devoted a lot of processes and choosing between alternatives. energy to improving our services, partly by Below, we will highlight these four concepts. developing a large number of instruments such as guides, scenarios, manuals, procedures and Client-oriented software. For each aspect of mediation, ranging It may seem like stating the obvious to say from social research questions to research ques- that a Centre for Knowledge Transfer should

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be client-oriented, but even so the concept is Office. However, it is also important to be lucid in need of some clarification. Client-orientation, about how you proceed and to show what the firstly, does not just refer to our clients who Science Shop and the SME Office do and stand commission research assignments but to all for. This is the significance of transparency: cli- people and organizations the Science Shop ents and others know what to expect from the and the SME Office are dealing with: student Science Shop and the SME Office and are not researchers, supervisors, etc., may also be left guessing about such matters. considered clients of the Science Shop and There are various ways of working transpa- the SME Office. Secondly, being client-oriented rently. On the one hand, it is an attitude you goes way beyond the centre‘s readiness to adopt as a mediator. On the other, the Centre mediate research projects for social organiza- for Knowledge Transfer undertakes to be trans- tions and small and medium-sized enterprises. parent, for example, by producing clear brochu- In one‘s entire performance as a mediator and res for clients, prospective clients, and student at every stage of research project mediation, researchers, or by using well-considered and you need to be aware of the necessity of transparent mediation procedures. client-oriented action. You should not only be receptive to signals coming from clients, Systematic student researchers, dissertation coordinators, It is not only important to us that our clients etc., but you should also put yourself in the and others know what the Science Shop and positions of these people and their needs at the SME Office can offer to them, but also that any point in the mediation process. Telling a they can rely on us. Like honouring agreements client about the progress of a research project and punctuality, it matters to us that clients when they phone up is far less client-oriented should know that the Science Shop and the than producing regular interim progress reports SME Office are meticulous in their method for clients at your own initiative. of working. One way of accomplishing such meticulousness is to use fixed procedures in Transparent performing certain duties. To this purpose, the Our clients often have a fuzzy idea of the Science Shop and the SME Office have develo- university. They do not know exactly what is ped scenarios, procedures, and manuals. Using being done there nor how. Students and their these in our mediation tasks does not mean supervisors, on the other hand, are often un- we operate in robot-like fashion; rather, they aware of how the Science Shop and the SME help to support our work as mediators. Over Office operate or what it means to be carrying and above that, we need sufficient creative- out a research assignment for a social organi- ness to be able to do our jobs as mediators. It zation or an entrepreneur. The Science Shop is like preparing a tasty meal: the recipe helps and the SME Office have to try and commu- you to prepare the meal, but the cook‘s quali- nicate as openly and clearly as possible with ties make or break its culinary success. all parties involved. This can be done, first of all, by providing information on what is being Proactive done at Tilburg University and on the method The fourth quality we value as mediators at the of working of the Science Shop and the SME Science Shop and the SME Office is a proactive

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attitude: in mediating a research project, we do about the history, aims, design, and method not wait and see but anticipate the next steps. of working of the Science Shop. The course When a student researcher indicates he or she also provides hands-on training, for example, is in a particularly tough stage of the research in intake interviews, group conversations, and project, we get in touch after a week to inquire handling our mediation database. how things are going, rather than be told after The mediation course primarily aims to two months that he or she has not been making introduce new student mediators into the much progress for weeks on end. We expect method of working the Science Shop pursues. our mediators to take initiatives where necessa- However, the course has been designed to ry and prefer them to do too much rather than meet our own requirements. The course book too little. has been arranged so systematically that is can be used as a mediation manual. The course Instruments has also been evolving over the years, incorpo- rating participants‘ experiences to improve its The survey below indicates which elements of match with our mediators‘ wishes. the mediation process and which instruments we will be dealing with in the workshop. Website Our website has developed into an important PRECONDITIONS medium of communication, presenting lots of MEDIATION COURSE information besides general information on WEBSITE the Science Shop and the SME Office and RESEARCH ROJECT their work. It contains summaries and full-text Before Targeted acquisition, Mediation versions of all public reports of the Science conditions Shop, Science Shop news, including news and During Mediation guide, Mediation data- pictures of conferences and symposiums we base, Commitment researchers organized, SME Office network meetings, and After Research project evaluation, Organi- all instruments mentioned in this workshop. zing symposiums, conferences, etc. Our website is a prime medium for us to INK-AUDIT pursue transparency, which also means cli- COMPLAINT HANDLING PROCEDURE ents and other people can see how we train our mediators, how we perform our tasks as Below, we will give a brief description of Science Shops and SME Office, and how we each component mentioned in the diagram evaluate our mediation projects. and a discussion in terms of the key concepts articulated in our vision. Naturally, we will be Targeted acquisition discussing these matters in greater detail in In our targeted acquisition policy, the Science the workshop. Shop and the SME Office acquire new research projects in a targeted way. At the departments, Mediation course the Science Shop surveys what themes are In the three-day mediation course that was interesting from a social point of view, what are developed by us, new student mediators learn possible research questions inherent in them,

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and whether there are sufficient supervisors This guide has been designed to be very and students researchers available. These the- systematic and transparent. In addition, it has mes are then brought to the notice of social been designed not only with a view to promo- organizations that might be interested in such ting client-oriented thinking in our mediators, themes. By way of such targeted acquisition, but also to help them anticipate the next steps moreover, we also anticipate social questions that need to be taken in the mediation process from potential clients. and the expectations clients, student resear- The SME Office liaises with knowledge chers, and supervisors will have. transfer networks, the Chamber of Commerce, SME societies, university student societies, and Mediation database faculty student supervisors to make a match Our mediation database is a tailor-made Mi- between supply and demand. crosoft Access application closely dovetailing This represents an acquisition modus that is with our mediation practice. The database not highly client-oriented because targeted acqui- only facilitates the registration of client, student sition starts from the potential demand from researcher, and supervisor data, but also tracks clients and the potential supply of researchers research project progress in so-called logbooks. and supervisors . This database can also generate management information by literally just pressing a button. Mediation conditions Moreover, the database is quick and easy to The mediation conditions do not just describe access for anyone at the Centre for Knowledge what clients can expect from the Science Shop Transfer. and the SME Office but also what we, the Sci- The database greatly improves the transpa- ence Shop and the SME Office, expect from rent and systematic method of working at the clients, student researchers, and supervisors. Centre for Knowledge Transfer. In a new versi- The mediation conditions particularly aim on of the database that will shortly be brought to accomplish maximum transparency in me- into use, new functions like reminders and diation. Our experiences with these mediation filing documents such as interview reports and conditions have also taught us that clients appointment memos will also help to increase consider them as highly client-oriented and proactive use of the database and to improve proactive because they tend to pre-empt many the arrangements of mediation materials. possible questions. Ties with student researchers Mediation guide We publish a special newsletter for student re- The mediation guide, which is also used in our searchers to improve their ties with the Science mediation course, deals with all the ins and Shop. This newsletter deals with prospective, outs of mediation. It has a theoretical part on current, and new research projects and gives the history of mediation at the Science Shop practical tips. In addition to ties with our stu- and the SME Office and general starting-points dents researchers, this newsletter also aims to in mediation, but also an elaborate and practi- present an image of the Science Shop that is cal step-by-step plan detailing various stages in line with the key concepts. The SME Office that can be distinguished in mediation. also publishes a newsletter, which is distributed

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at the university and means to inform students Complaint handling procedure and supervisors about SME Office activities. If anything should not go according to plan in a research project, we have a procedure for cli- Evaluation of research project mediation ents, student researchers, supervisors and other After each research project has been concluded, to lodge a complaint about the Science Shop or the client, student researcher, supervisor, and the SME Office. The complaints committee at mediator are invited to review the project by the Centre for Knowledge Transfer will formulate way of a written evaluation form. This form has a response to the complaint and will attempt been designed to be easy to process and allow to deal settle matters to the complainant‘s comparison across time. satisfaction. Should the complainant feel that In addition to practical matters, the question- this settlement falls short of their expectation, naire also includes questions on Science Shop the complaint can be submitted to the Science and SME Office staff performance on the four Shop management, who will take a decision key concepts from the vision. that is binding for the Science Shop, the SME Office, and the client. Organizing symposiums, conferences, etc. Our complaints handling procedure is in line After completion of each research project, the with the key values of the Centre for Knowledge Science Shop seeks to do something with its Transfer. results beyond their publication in a research re- port. We stimulate clients, often in conjunction with us, to create an opportunity for centralizing the research results, such as a formal presen- tation to a mayor or minister, a symposium, or a workshop. This allows us to make clear what the results of the project are to people other than the client, but it also enables us to show what the Science Shop does and can do for prospective clients.

INK audit Over the last few years, we have regularly performed an INK self-evaluation to review our services. Points for improvements are for- mulated on the basis of the results of these self-evaluations. The INK model is dovetailed to the method of working we envisage. These self-evaluations not only give us an idea of the quality of our services but also shows us how we can continue to improve this quality.

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SCIENCE COMMUNICATION The Science Communication Escalator DRS. ANN VAN DER AUWERAERT,

Department of science communication, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium

Science communication is like happiness : no-one is against it, but everyone has a different notion of it. The concept of science communication certainly needs to be refined. At present, there is no perfect blueprint for the communication between scientists and society. Maybe the search for such a model equals the search for the holy grail, but at the same time it gives us some food for thought about the possibilities.

The risk management escalator e.g. water boils at 100° C. under atmos- For instance: Is the organisation of science com- pheric pressure of … munication related to the nature of the scientific e.g. gravity knowledge? This question was inspired by the e.g. the sun evolves around the earth presentation of the ‘Risk Management Escalator’ by Ortwin Renn, on the ESOF 2004 at Stock- “Complexity refers to the difficulty of iden- holm (Ortwin Renn). tifying and quantifying causal links between a multitude of potential candidates and specific “Risk management is confronted with three adverse effects.” major challenges: complexity, uncertainty, and ambiguity (Renn and Klinke 2001; Klinke and In a situation where scientific knowledge is Renn, 2002).” context dependent, it is called complex know- ledge. This can be the case when for instance Starting point for Ortwin Renn is that there external environmental factors influence the re- are four types of knowledge / science : simple, sults. These results can therefore vary according complex, uncertain and ambiguous knowledge. to the factors. The conflicts that arise are solely of a cognitive nature. Straightforward or simple knowledge are facts that don’t involve any discussion or uncer- e.g. lab results can produce entirely unex- tainty, or simple relationships between variables. pected effects in field experiments It is usually what we mean by ‘basic science’ e.g. Western agricultural knowledge cannot and what is being taught at schools. This know- always be implemented in the Third ledge is the result of scientific investigation that World reflects a positivist view on truth. This form of e.g. scientific knowledge is not interpreted knowledge tends to be generally accepted and or used in the same way by everyone there are no conflicts about it.

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“Uncertainty is different from complexity. It If different interpretations of one set of data, comprises different and distinct components methods or instruments of measurement are such as statistical variation, measurement possible, and if there can be discussion about errors, ignorance, and indeterminacy (WBGU what these mean for mankind and the environ- 2000, pp. 52ff.), which all have one feature in ment, then this knowledge is ambiguous. The common. Uncertainty reduces the strength of conflicts that arise also concern values and are confidence in the estimated cause-and-effect therefore strongly prescriptive. chain” In the case of uncertain knowledge, empha- e.g. greenhouse gasses : is the earth war- sis is on ignorance, determinability, deviations ming up or are we on the verge of an in measurements, statistical variations. Conflicts ice-age ? arise both on a cognitive level as on the level of valuation / reflection. Science provides for the For each type of knowledge needed for the knowledge, but it is insufficient. More research calculation of risks, a different type of risk com- does not necessarily result in more knowledge, munication is involved. certainly not in the long run. Trust is an impor- tant parameter of this kind of knowledge. Orwin Renn’s model of risk communications is based on the hypothesis that each kind of e.g. nutritional applications of biotechnology knowledge about risk, requires its own kind of risk communication. Characteristically, the diver- “ambiguity or ambivalence. This term denotes sity of the group of communicators involved, the variability of (legitimate) interpretations increases with the uncertainty and ambivalence based on identical observations or data as- of the risk knowledge. sessments” Is this hypothesis also feasible for science communication ? In other words : do we need to implement another kind of communication for each different type of scientific knowledge ? In the following pages, we will construct a model resulting in the presentation of a science communication escalator.

The science communication escalator

In the science communication escalator, four di- mensions of science communication are being presented. Each dimension comes with its spe- cific characteristics and is related to the kind of knowledge that it communicates. Vice versa, we can say that each type of knowledge needs its specific way of communicating.

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Originally, science communication is the As mentioned before in this paper, know- dissemination of scientific results to a generally ledge can also be uncertain. More research passive and monolithic public, usually through does not necessarily result in more knowledge. the formal education system, or through the When communication in this area has to be mass media. In this diffusion model the com- initiated, and especially if decision making on munication process goes in one direction, from a management level is involved, science pro- a sender to a passive receiver. (Logan Robert A., vides the source of data and knowledge used 2001) The aim of communication is the ‘under- to give substance to standpoints. Moreover, standing of science’ by citizens, in the hope that representatives of the general public take part there will be a greater support for science, and in the communication process. For instance, especially for the great amount of money that this is the case in citizen juries or panels. These goes to science. (Lewenstein B.V., 1992) A lot activities can be ranged as Public Engagement of effort aim to increase the scientific literacy of of Science, PES. The aim is to consult the public the public. This results in the creation of several for decision-making. It is still supply driven and ‘public understanding of science’ programmes a two-sided communication process between (PUS), based on the concept of this ‘deficit experts and non-experts. model’. See for example: (Paisley William J., At last, we need to mention ambiguous 1998; Laugksch Rudiger C., 2000; Wynne Brian, knowledge. It is characterised by a large com- 1991) Simple or straintforward knowledge is plexity, a lot of uncertainties, different interpreta- communicated most efficiently through Public tions of data and disputes about the right choice Understanding of Science. of methodologies and instruments of measure- Where complex knowledge is concerned, ment. When communication about this kind of the sender is still the agent trying to pass knowledge is concerned, a dialogue involving all on knowledge to the receiver, but precisely interested parties, becomes necessary. Where because the knowledge is complex, the sen- scientific knowledge does not have all the ans- der has to pay special attention to the target wers, complementary types of knowledge from group, and whether this group has received other fields of intellect and other sources such the knowledge, has interpreted it correctly and as experience and practical knowledge can be whether the group is receptive to the know- available. This form of communication (PPS) is ledge. The greater attention for the pubic also not common practice in Flanders, but certain involves a greater creativity in the ‘packaging’ of experiments are being implemented. In the the message. A variety of events arise with the past few years for example, we have seen sta- audience in mind. The ‘public awareness of sci- keholder dialogues, citizens’ discussion groups ence’ (PAS) is the main aim, not only the pu- and focus groups – meeting and sharing vision, bic understanding of science. See for example: values and interpretations. The communication (Stocklmayer Susan, Gore Michael, & Bryant that arises is not only of a cognitive (as with PUS Chris, 2001; Wynne Brian, 1991;Laugksch Ru- and PAS), but also of a reflective and prescrip- diger C., 2000; Clark Fiona & Illman Deborah L., tive kind. Thus, communication becomes hard 2001) As the public understanding of science is and time-consuming, since this process requires supply driven, the pubic awareness of science more time, energy and openness from all par- is more demand-driven. ticipants.

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Taking the science communication esca- Tendencies in science communication lator as a model, it is paramount to adjust the methods of communication according These dimensions and the science communication to the nature of the knowledge, which can escalator show us that the tendencies noticeable in be straightforward, complex, uncertain or communication in view of an increasing complexity ambiguous. and uncertainty of the scientific knowledge are :

PPS Public participation of Science PES Public engagement of Science PAS Actors : Public Awareness of scientific experts Science Actors : + specific target PUS scientific experts groups Public Understanding Actors : + specific target +representatives of of Science scientific experts groups the public + specific target groups +representatives of +external experts Actors : the public scientific experts

Sender-predominance Receiver-oriented Expert / layman Partners

• dialogue • inform • open participa- • context • consulting • one-way tion • target group • both ways • monologue • mutual • needs, wishes • closed partici- • top-down • bottom-up • feedback loops pation • mass-media • local knowledge

Conflicts : Conflicts : cognitive and reflec- cognitive (incomplete Conflicten: tive /evaluative + No conflicts or incorrect compre- cognitief prescriptive (dif- hension) + evaluative/reflective ferent norms and values)

Simple Complex Uncertain Ambiguous

Scheme: the science communication escalator

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- from large, anonymous groups to small con- GIBSON IAN (2000). Scientists are citizens too. versation groups Fabian Review, 112, 11. - from little interaction to intensive interaction KING SUZANNE (2002). Understanding your - from mass-media communication to interac- audience. In South-Africa: Conference Public tive communication communication of science and technology 7. - from knowledge-driven to problem solving LAUGKSCH RUDIGER C. (2000). Scientific – driven literacy: a conceptual overview. Science - from applicability to serviceability Education, 84, 71-94. - from supply-driven to demand-driven LEWENSTEIN BV (1992). The meaning of „pu- - from transmission to transaction blic understanding of science“ in the United - from closed to open States after World War II. Public Understan- - from product to process communication ding of science, 1, 46-68. - from objective knowledge to socially LOGAN ROBERT A. (2001). Science mass constructed knowledge (positivist to commmunication, its conceptual history. Sci- constructionist) ence Communication, 23 nr 2, 136-163. - from ignorant public to competent public PAISLEY WILLIAM J. (1998). Scientific literacy - from short-term to long-term interaction and the competition for public attention and understanding. Science Communication, 20 A lot of head work is still necessary, and I would nr 1, 70-80. like to appeal to anyone who can come up with STOCKLMAYER SUSAN, GORE MICHAEL, & BRY- new insights or ideas. ANT CHRIS (2001). Science communication in theory and practice. Kluwer Academic Publishers. THE WELLCOME TRUST (2001). Science and the public: a review of science communi- Reference List cation and public attitudes toward science in Britain. Public Understanding of science, BARBAGALLO FIONA (2002). Should we con- 10, 315-330. tinue to pursue dialogue? In South-Africa: WYNNE BRIAN (1991). Knowledges in context. Conference Public communication of sci- Science, Technology and Human Values, 16, ence and technology 7. 111-121. BUCCHI MASSIMIANO (1998). Science and the media , alternative routes in scientific communication. Routledge London and New York. CLARK FIONA AND ILLMAN DEBORAH L. (2001). Dimensions of civic science. Science Communication, 23, 5-27. GIBBONS MICHAEL (1996). The new produc- tion of science and research in contempora- ry societies. London Sage.

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SCIENCE COMMUNICATION Law Education through Mass Media: Learning and Teaching from the Reality MELISA GUEVARA PAREDES

Legal Diffusion Area, Proyección Social de Derecho, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú

t is a pleasure for me to have the opportunity writing, negotiation, time handling and other Ito explain the methodology developed in Pon- ones. The education‘s model practised on the tificia Universidad Católica del Perú Law‘s Faculty Diffusion Area of PROSODE, as well as the rest on the course named Proyección Social de De- of the areas, is a methodology based on the recho, PROSODE, (Social Outreach of Law), an development of legal‘s skill. The market‘s labour optional course of studies that has more than 14 for lawyers today requires not only academic years on Law‘s programme and involves activi- professionals, also requires professionals who ties on three areas: Legal Advisory, Legal Educa- have the capacity of work with people formed tion and Legal Diffusion. The last one of them on other areas. By the nature of legal‘s work, going to be the theme of this article. the lawyer needs the development of abilities The Law education at University Level consti- like experience‘s learning, catching information tutes a challenge and an enormous responsibili- quicklier than the generation before them, ana- ty. Training futures lawyers involves an education lysing the cases from differents points of view, that goes beyond the theoretical knowledge and developing communicative capacities and to de- dissimilar concepts respect the society, its reality velop personal qualities like self administration, and potential on positive and negative aspects. handling of time, ability to work with no need For 14 years, the course named PROSODE, have of supervision, initiative, work in equipment, been offering an integral education to the futu- solution of problems, risk/cost/benefice analy- res lawyers through the carried out learning by sis, among others abilities that PROSODE teach means of the transmission of legal knowledge th- through the reality. rough mass media (radio). On the Area of Legal‘s Diffusion, the students identify the most critical Methodology applied in the Legal Dif- areas and obstacles for make true the citizen‘s fusion Area rights and then they prepare legal theme‘s radial programmes. On this way, the students obtain The traditional Peruvian education for Law‘s new knowledge‘s, new abilities and understand students present difficulties because doesn‘t their real‘s role as future lawyers. mix the theory with the practice, necessary for One of the main deficiencies detected on an optimal performance. The methodology that the lawyer‘s developed are difficulties for work we used is centred on the student and looking as a team. That problem motivates a change of for the development potentialities on the follo- mind on the different areas that include com- wing areas: legal reasoning by means of the oral munication in general, relations with the staff, analysis of cases, felt of professional ethics, sen-

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sitivity, common sense and good judgement, to the students with the purpose of show them skill to work with other schemes of collabora- the colloquial language and how to analyse the tion, interpersonal abilities like knowing how to legal aspects. From those cases the students listen and, finally, ability to work on team. must develop their ability to include/understand In order to develop these abilities, the the sense of the question, to clarify it and to give handling of the class turns on something fun- an answer to the listener in a short time during damental. The classes are developed on theo- the radio program. For example thus, the case retical-practice‘s sessions. The theoretical class of a listener‘s question called: needs three hours weekly, and the practice class „Doctor, my husband left the house and he around 4 hours for preparation the radial pro- doesn‘t send anything for my children, what grams on extra curricular schedules (by group can I do?“. before the emission). On the first hour a the- oretical class is developed and the Professor‘s Evidently this simple question will deserve an Assistant initiates the debate treating the main analysis of its legal contents through the identifi- points about the subject of the day for reflec- cation of the central problem of the question. The tion, the selected themes to debate during the students identify the main problem that in this cycle around the social Peruvian‘s problems like case is not the absence of the husband; the real a public administration, access to the justice and problem is the economic situation respect to the the familiar relationship; the students will be children. Once identified the way of the question, able to propose subjects of additional reflection the students must learn to cross-information the and approach the debate with texts that they listener to obtain the data necessary to acquit its read previously. This debate contributes to form on three questions by maximum, for example: the logical and creative student‘s analysis and - Mistress, are you civil married? improve their talents of oral expression. - How long your husband left the house? - Are their children recognised legally? How old are they?

This practical exercise develops in the stu- dents the ability to thinks in order and at the same time of consultation and choose the most suitable alternative for the client previous cost/ benefice analyse; thus, the students will have to indicate to the listener the best one alternative Working with the student‘s team. for solving their problem and/or indicating the institutions that can help them. On the second hour of practical sessions, the students are grouped and the work is focused On this way the talent of the student is develo- on the development of their legal abilities th- ped on three areas: rough the solution of real cases, in order to sol- 1. Problem‘s identification. ve the problem on integral way. Questions done 2. Problem‘s diagnostic. by the listeners in past radial programs are given 3. Choose the best solution alternative.

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The cross-information them allow the stu- The first step for the students must be re- dent to obtain the data to give one‘s answer spect the schedule that establishes a minimum to the problem. The students on an average of term of two (2) weeks of anticipation to the three (3) minutes acquit the consultation being emission of the radial program for the delivery following the right way and what kind of instituti- of pre report that contains: the subject chosen on can help them. It is part of the formation that for the program, the justification of its selection, we offered our students who acquire empathy that includes the social importance and the dis- with the real situation of the listeners, reason tribution of the work between the members of by whom the answers initially are oriented to a the equipment. human approach of the conflict, always looking The minimum number of members on for the consensual exit and explaining clearly the each student‘s team is 3: two of them will be audience that a judicial process is always the alternated with the locution and the other one last alternative by the high emotional and mate- will be on charge of the coordination with the rial costs (in terms of time and money). cabin operator and filter the calls (attention to The cases that need more analysis or inevi- the listeners). Delivery anticipated of pre Report tably require the beginning of a judicial process permits to detect on time initial problems in de- are sending to the system of decentralised legal velopment of subject, like for example approach lawyer‘s offices that PROSODE has in our city; that can to give to subjects controversial as ab- thus „to the air“ our students recommend to ort or corruption, always we remember that the the audience and the public in general to put program hasn‘t only like purpose offering legal themselves in contact with the members of the advisory also make them reflections on different Legal Advisory Area. subjects from legal contents. In the second week, the group‘s members The radial program must present/display a report that contempla- tes: subject, motivation, objective of the radial The Legal Diffusion Area emits 2 radial programs program, scheme, distribution of the students weekly, a program produced and lead by the and the legal investigation. students in R-700 Radio, named „El Derecho A script is recommendable for guide the a tu Alcance“ (The Law near to you), which is students and permits them to adapt their vo- listened by an average of 10,000 people on the cabulary to the audience, nevertheless, at the principal Peruvian cities and, another one called time of leaving „to the air“ is not allowed to take „Tiempos de Conversar y de Actuar“ (Speaking this script to them, only a summary in a page to and acting times), which is transmitted through avoid lost the way of conversation for follow a a Canto Grande Radio, located on a poorest script. The emission of a radial program must be area from Lima City. Additionally, the University natural and spontaneous and the speakers must are developing a pilot project from signal emis- be in continuous visual contact to be able to sion of the university radio named Zona PUCP, complement themselves in their explanation. that realise its transmissions from the College‘s Usually, in the first time „on the air“ the stu- campus and whose radial programs are trans- dents are nervous, most to them never have mitted on Real Player by Internet. had an approach in radio programs, reason for which is fundamental the development of a

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climate of confidence between the members develop a designed scheme us for maintain of the group and the Professor‘s Assistant that during one hour the attention of a no expert collaborates with them in the elaboration of public (and sometimes little interested) in legal the program but is not the one on charge of themes. its development, the program is produced and lead by the students and the Professor‘s Assis- I PART 11:00 Beginning (introduction music) tant acts as support during the radial‘s emission Greetings between speakers Greetings to and its intervention will be auxiliary in cases of audience difficult cases or when detected mistakes in the 11:03 Introduction to theme - commentaries development of the program. with practical cases During this stage the students and the TIP I: Theme of the day Presentation of the Professor‘s Assistant adapt the technical langua- speakers - personal references of each one ge to colloquial one than permits the fast appre- Greetings of the speakers Commentaries hension by the audience; the use of examples about the week news and resources is very useful for these effects. 11:07 WHAT ARE WE GOING TO LEARN? We called „resources“ to all those elements that TIP II: Knowing about theme Knowing how collaborate in the emission of the program, such to detect a legal problem Knowing what to as interviews, vox populis, publicities, stadistics, do and where going to go for solving legal testimonies, etc. problemsI INVITATION TO CALLING (to give the telephone numbers of the Radio) 11:10 RESOURCE I (máx. 4‘) (Statistics, re- cordings, vox populi) 11:14 Commentaries to the resource linking to themeCommon and legal definitions How the theme appears in the daily life - how to recognise it Modalities/Causes - Examples Attention of calls Governmental institution that can help the audience The author of the article working with her students. PUBLICITY II PART11:33 Remembering the principal Outside of the cabin, the remaining mem- points of the first part bers of the group monitored the development TIP III: INVITATION TO CALL of the program and, of being necessary, they 11:35 Procedural subjects of the practical make telephone calls to the radio in order to cases. Advisory to audience‘s questions indicate how the program is understood. 11:54 Conclusions 11:57 Goodbye - Speaking about the next Scheme of the radial program Radio program. Closing

The Scheme of Radial Program are made by That scheme of a radial program has given professors of the Sciences and Arts of the us good results and it allows us to have a sui- Communication‘s Faculty that has allowed to table spending times. All radio programs require

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at least 3 of the named „tips“ of hearing that fundamental because that indicates how to de- mean moments of increase the attention of the velop the theme one and polishing its exhibition audience. through the precision of legal terms, explanation The first part of the radial program introduces through cases, etc. the listeners to the subject, is recommendable Those cases that cannot be acquitted by that after the presentation of the speakers the- their complexity „to the air“ are derived, as se make a commentary on the news or some we commented, to the Advisory Area, offering event before the development of the day‘s to audience an integral support in the solution theme and cause an interest of the audience of their problems. We had experiences in which on its opinions. It begun to develop the sub- the listeners comment out heated on subjects ject through an description of the objectives at of national policy, have narrated complicated which we want to arrive on authentic „why you situations of its personal life as adultery and must listen us?“ and „what are we going to learn some of them tell us crying their experiences, today?“, thus for example, if we developed as situations that require a very delicate treatment subject of the day about Divorce will begin the and which motivate that students thanks to the conversation commenting a reality that indicates audience for the entrust to them. The handling that the marriages can‘t get to consolidate on of these situations already constitutes part of the time and that often in order to avoid sequels the previous work in class before the emissi- in the couple and children a consensual solution on of the radial programs and contribute to is preferable, for this reason is important to re- change the Law‘ perception that sometimes the cognise when a marriage has problems, which classrooms forget, that after a conflict, exist a are the possibilities that the couple have for sol- human face. ve its, the possibilities and interest of the law to Finally, 10 minutes before the ending of the preserve the family and finally, how to initiate a program, the students concluding to answer the process divorce that allows the couple to reach first question „what learned today?“, emphasi- a consensual solution. sing that exist people and organizations speci- For example, during the first part of the pro- alised in helping them like the system created gram, we will speak about the legal concept of by PROSODE. Divorce, their causes and consequences to the The experience to participate on PROSODE couple and children. The second part of the changed my perspective about professional Law program is centred in procedural aspects. After work and, like me; lots of students finished the publicity, the students have to reintroduce to the course fascinated with the experience to help listener on the theme and analyse procedural with our knowledge to people who need aid. questions like terms, costs and others. On this First, was I student, after Professor‘s Assistant second stage, listener‘s calls to the radio and and now my professional development I had explain their problems motivated through real oriented to the development of cooperation, cases narrated by the speakers respect to which and is wonderful for me to see my ex students describes solution alternatives. Here the securi- became Professor‘s Assistants too. But indepen- ty on the answers that the students transmit is dently of the vocational discovery, exists some important and the work of the Professor‘s As- „before“ and „after“ on the life experience in sistant, who monitored behind the program, is PROSODE.

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SCIENCE COMMUNICATION Science meets Society KARIN REE

Karin Ree, Chemistry Shop; Maria Hermsen, Science Shop of Medicine, Groningen, The Netherlands

ogether with the local newspaper the Sci- Have the Dutch taxpayers the right to know the Tence Shops in Groningen organized five research output? lunch meetings where researchers and mana- gers of different Faculties discussed with a de- Participants discussed these and other ques- legation of people from society. The discussions tions during the lunches. Each lunch had the were about the relevance of the Faculty re- same structure, but with different people who search for society. Fellow organizer was the lo- discussed different research fields. The local cal newspaper. Aim of the meetings was to get newspaper had an important roll in the discus- clear what is the social roll off science from the sion and in bringing out the discussion outco- University of Groningen. mes. Besides that, the Science Shops published Are researchers promoting their research a one-time magazine about the results of these enough outside the research world? lunches and with lessons for the future. Is the social output of researchers well measured? In an oral presentation, I will tell the audience Are rich founders too powerful? more of the goals; the whereabouts and the Are researchers obliged to a public promotion of results from these lunches and some other acti- their research results? vities form the Science Shops in Groningen.

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SCIENCE COMMUNICATION The Living Knowledge Magazine: Experiences and future opportunities NORBERT STEINHAUS

Bonn Science Shop - Wissenschaftsladen Bonn, Bonn, Germany

he dialogue between society and science organisations and scientists interested in com- Tneeds to be a two-way street where everybo- munity based research. In addition, LK supplies dy listens as much as he talks. The dialogue intermediaries and the media with general in- between the public on the one side and resear- formation about the international Science Shop chers and experts on the other side will be more network, and the process and results of com- promising and productive, when the public is munity based research. This structural activity able to discuss „science/society“ issues in full for the expanding network is complemented by knowledge and understanding of scientific „facts“, a bi-monthly electronically newsletter. of the results of the research, of scientific action The objective of this workshop was to give and of the way in which research operates in a short status report on the evolution and the practical terms. Sharing the expertise of Science experiences of editorial work for „Living Know- Shops advances citizens‘ ability to participate in ledge - Journal of Community Based Research“. the dialogue between science and society. But also future opportunities for this communi- The magazine „Living Knowledge - Journal cation tool were presented and discussed: of Community Based Research“ informs every • Options for electronically issues of the maga- four months about issues relating to the various zine were reflected. facets of Science Shop work. It is one of the • The need for Science Shop staffs‘ scientific infrastructure tools for communication within publication in a peer reviewed research sup- the Living Knowledge network. It publishes a plement to the magazine was verified. combination of news, reviews and discussion • Future income strategies to guarantee publi- of Science Shop research methods, results and cation and dissemination should have been impacts. It is targeted to Science Shops and discussed in the workshop. Science Shop staff, as well as similar working

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250 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE (SEVILLE 2005) 251 PROCESSES, TOOLS AND INFRASTRUCTURES APPENDIX

2nd International Conference `Living Knowledge´ “ADVANCING SCIENCE & SOCIETY INTERACTIONS” Seville, Spain, 3 - 5 February 2005

Program Overview

Planning of Sessions Opening Session Welcome Remarks Introductory Presentations Plenary Session: Experiences in science & society interactions. Parallel Sessions: Experiences in science & society interactions I.1. I.2. I.3. I.4 I.5. Administrations NGO’s Universities Science shops or CBRs Videos on experi- ences Plenary Session: Opportunities in science & society interactions Parallel Sessions: Opportunities in science & society interactions II.1. II.2. II.3. II.4 II.5 Environmental Social Sciences Tech.Developm. Urban regeneration Health Sciences Sciences Plenary Session : Processes, tools & infrastructures for science & society interactions. Parallel Sessions: Processes, tools & infrastructures for science & society interactions III.1. III.2. III.3 III.4. III.5. Networks P a r t i c i p . Infrastructures CBRs Management Science Communi- Tools cation Plenary Session: Conclusions Poster Session & Visit exhibition

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Opening Session of ICT advancement in Ukraine and CEE countries. WELCOME REMARKS Angel Casas. Dept. Economía. Instituto. Tecnológico de Monter- rey (México). El capital social como base ciudadana del Francisco Garrido. National Congressman Green Party (Socialist desarrollo socioeconómico en los procesos de integracion Party Group) (Spain) latinoamericanos Francisco Solís Cabrera. Ministry of Innovation, Science and Enter- Kelly Hradsky. Saint Mary’s College (USA) Exploring the relation- prise. Andalucian Region. ship between special education law and the effect of its Doña Paula Garvin. Councellor on Citizens´ Participation. Munici- implementation in American Society. pality of Seville Amelia Lopez Izquierdo. Oficina de Plan Estrategico. Ayuntami- Jose Mª Bueno Lidón. Presidente de El Monte de Piedad y Caja ento de Seville. (Spain). Ciudadania e innovación en el Plan de Ahorros de Huelva y Seville. Estratégico de Seville. Alejandro Hernández Toro. Asociación Europea Estudiantes Inge- Ana M. Gonzalez Ramos. Modelo Computacional del sistema de niería (ESTIEM). ciencia, tecnologia e innovación de las Islas Canarias Pedro Nuñez Abades. Vicerrector de Estudiantes / Vice-rector of Francisco Rubiales. EUROMEDIA. La gestión comunicativa de Students. Universidad de Seville / University of Seville. foros sociales de debate para la innovación tecnológica en Seville. INTRODUCTORY PRESENTATIONS Parallel session I.2. Cases NGOs Henk Mulder, Science Shop de Química en Univ. Groningen Chair: Alejandro Hernández Toro. Asociación ESTIEM. Paises Bajos / Science Shop of Chemistry Univ. Groningen. The Netherlands: Science shops as infrastructures for science Ricardo Martínez y Paula Martínez. Questao de Equilibrio. (Por- & society mediation. tugal). La Escola de la Foresta para la integración de niños Caspar de Bok, Coordinator of “Living Knowledge” Network and difíciles en colaboración con la Universidades de Lisboa y la of ISSNET Project “Improving Science Shop Networking: Esc. Sup. De Educación de Setúbal.. Presentation of the Science Shop Network “Living knowledge” Tom Thomas and Karuna Sridharan. Institute for participatory prac- and the ISSNET Project, as well as the conference objectives tices, New Delhi, (India). Participatory Assessment of Delivery and program of Public Services. Rosario Rodriguez Diaz. Dpto. Sociología. Universidad de Seville Welcome remarks. (Spain). El asociacionismo de los pequeños empresarios en Federico Paris Carballo. Director of the School of Engineers of the Andalucía. University of Seville (Spain). Daniel Pérez. Ingenieros Sin Fronteras (Spain). Tecnologías para el desarrollo / Technologies for development. Plenary Session: Joseph Caron. CINBIOSE. Univ. Quebec à Montréal. (Canada). INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY Building on communitybased knowledge to bring together INTERACTIONS citizens and science. Chair: Michael Straehle. Science Shop Vienna, (Austria) Francisco Vilches. Ecologistas en Acción (Spain). La experiencia de investigación sobre el riesgo medioambiental. Gerry McCormac. Pro Vice Chancellor for Community & Com- Miguel Martinez-López. Facultade de Socioloxia. Universidade da munications. Queen’s University Belfast (UK). Meeting uni- Coruña.(Spain) El asociacionismo de investigación y trayecto- versities obligations to communities to share, listen and learn ria profesional. Una carrera de obstáculos. from their experiences Kirsten Kossen, Programmes Officer of the Northern Alliance for Parallel Session I.3. Cases Universities & Research Centres Sustainability ANPED. An NGO’s experiences on linking sci- Chair: Jose Antonio Borrero. Dir. OTRI. Vic.Investigación. Universi- ence and society dad de Seville. La experiencia de la Oficina de Transferencia Alba González Jácome. Universidad Iberoamericana de México. de Tecnología de la Universidad de Seville. (Mexico). Impact of the gubermental support on the rural population in Mexico. Manon Vaal. Utrecht University. (Netherlands). Developing prac- Khan Rahi. Coordinator of the North American CRN / Lessons tices at the Science Shop for biology learned from the role of the Community Research Network Noemí Sanz Merino, Angel Camacho Alvarez, Juan Carlos (CRN) in US & Canada. Gonzalez Galbarte, Inés Gutierrez González, Mariano Martín Gordillo y Andres Sampedro Nuño. Observatorio de Cultura Parallel Sessions: Científica (Universidad de Oviedo. (Spain). Un Proyecto INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY de educación CTS en la difusión participativa de cultura INTERACTIONS científica Parallel Session I.1.: Cases Public Administrations. Sang-Dong Lee. Daejeon Science Shop Inititative (Korea). CPPR, Chair: Arturo Garcia Arroyo. Fundación Nacional de Ciencia y Centre for People Participatory Research. Tecnología. National Science and Technology Foundation. Sophie Van Den Bossche. Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Belgium). (Spain) Centrally organised university Science Shop: the benefits. José Mora Galiana. Director General de Servicios Sociales e Inclu- Rocio Quijano López, Miguel Perez.Ferra, Luis C.Vida Sagrista sión. Junta de Andalucía. Promoción de la relación ciencia y y Mª Teresa Ocaña Moral. Universidad de Jaén (Spain). sociedad desde la Administración Regional Andaluza. Aprovechamiento didáctico de algunos fenómenos físicos Oleksandr Svyetlov. The role of government and business in facili- expuestos, como actividades en espacios sociales interactivos tation of Internet usage: science – citizen interface. Problems dedicados a la difusión científica.

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Jeffry V. Mallow. Physics Dpt. Loyola Univ. Chicago (USA). Gender George Barjoveanu. InterMediiu. Univ. Techn. Iasi. Romanian per- and Science Anxiety: research and action. spective on partnershhips in sustainble water management N.Invenizzi & A.Kuenzu. Univ. Paraná Cuitibar. (Brasil). Educación and land use. científico-tecnológica, trabajo y ciudadania Chistine Feurt. Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve. Uni- David Hall, Irene Hall & Sharon Lockley. Interchange, Liverpool versity. New England (USA). A model for collaborative com- (UK). Civil renewal and social capital: aspects of Science munity conservation Shops for social science Krischan Ostenrath & Anke Valentin. Science Shop Bonn (Ger- many) From information to participation: Visualisation of land Parallel session I.4. Cases Science shops or CBR´s. use change in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Chair: Santiago Idalburo. Coord. Secret. Conf. Consejos Sociales. Balint Balazs. Institute of Environmental and Landscape Manage- Secretario Consejo Social de la Universidad de Navarra ment. St. Istvan Univ. Godollo. (Hungary). Pvaluing Crop (Spain). biodiversity on farm in Hungary.

Jose Manuel de Cózar-Escalante y Juan Sánchez-Garcia. Centro Parallel session II.2. Opportunities in Social Sciences de Estudios Ecosociales. Universidad de la Laguna. Islas Ca- Chair: Juan Maestre. Catedratico de Sociologia. Univ. Seville. narias (Spain). Environmental protection and democracy: the Eco-social Sudies Centre in University of La Laguna (Canary Sergio Tobón( Universidad Complutense de Madrid) (Spain) Islands). y Ariel-César Nuñez-Rojas (Universidad de Manizales). La Catalina Buliubasich. CEPIHA.Fac. Humanidades de Salta (Argen- formacion de competencias investigativas en la Educación tina). La educación intercultural bilingüe en Salta,Argentina: Superior de Colombia: un análisis hermenéutico de la política acciones desde la Universidad. de calidad estatal. Frits Van den Berg. Science Shop for Physiscs. Univ. Groningen Blanca Miedes y Dolores Redondo. Observatorio Local de Empleo. (Netherlands). Citizen’s participation in Research and Tech- Fac. Ciencias Empresariales. Universidad de Huelva. (Spain) nology. La ciencia social al servicio de la gobernanza en la sociedad Camelia Draghici. InterMediu University of Transilvania, Brasov del conocimiento. (Romania). Social demand for technological and health ap- Antonio-Luis. Hidalgo-Capitan et alter. Depto. Economía General proach . y Estadística. Universidad de Huelva. Autorregulación de la Noelia Alvarez Garcia. Univ. Oviedo (Spain). Una reflexión sobre la economía mundial. función emancipadora de las Science Shops. Andrés Sampedro, Jose Antonio López, Luis Blanco y Mencía Inés Gutierrez, Jose Antonio López, Andrés Sampedro y Noemí Muro. Universidad de Oviedo (Spain). La difusión de cultura Sanz. Universidad de. Oviedo (Spain). Una experiencia de científica como actividad de transferencia universitaria. proyección social del conocimiento: el Observatorio de Cul- Jose G. Birlanga Trigueros. Universidad SEK, UNED, Segovia tura Científica de la Universidad de Oviedo. (Spain) Saupere Aude: Pensamiento Científico, versus divul- Edith Donders, Sofie Van Den Bossche et Jean-Pierre De Greve. gación social. Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Belgium). Bottlenecks in Science Christine C. George, Chiara Sabina & Aparna Sharma. Centre Shop activities. for Urban Research & Learning. Chicago Loyola Unniversity. (USA). South Asian Inmigrant Women and domestic violence Plenary Session: in the USA. Findings from university community research. OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY INTERACTIONS Pierre Beaucage. University Montreal, Québec. (Canada). Afirma- (PROJECTS, PROGRAMS, RESEARCH) ción identitaria y difusión de saberes indígenas. Chair: Claudia Neubauer, Fondation Science Citoyenne (France) Ramon Garcia Dils. Sociólogo. (Spain). La experiencia de las Escuelas Populares en el desarrollo de una educación hori- Monica Menapace. Project Coordinator. Unit Education and Sci- zontal en Cataluña. ence, Dir. Science and Society, (European Commission). Tiago de Sousa Brilhante Pedrosa. Social learning tools (SloTs): Science and Society in the 7th Framework Programme of the the VGAS experience. European Union. Roger O’Sullivan: Director Rural Community Network (United Parallel session II.3. Opportunities on urban regeneration (TEM- Kingdom). From sitting on the veranda to valueing the enrich- PUS /FIPSE Workshop) ment of engagement. A view from the field. Chair: Phil Nyden. Centre for Urban Research & Learning. Loyola Saeed Asefzadeh: Bridging Gaps: Empowerment of the Commu- University. Chicago. USA. nity in Health Questions Rob Hagendijk. Dean ISHSS, University of Amsterdam (Nether- Francisco Oñate (DG. Educación Medioambiental. Consejería Medio lands). Science Shops and Civic Sciences after ‘Lisbon’. Ambiente, Junta Andalucía), Luis Hornillo (Plataforma del Pu- Michael S. Joergensen. Science Shop. Technical University Dae- marejo & Ateneo Verde) y Teresa Rojo (Univ. Seville) (Spain). nemark (Denmark). Improving interaction between NGO’s, La educación ambiental como instrumento de dinamización Science Shops and Universities. participativa del barrio urbano: la Plaza de Pumarejo de Seville. Barbara Hadenfeldt. Institute of Urban and Regional Development. Parallel sessions: University of California, Berkeley (USA). The University in the OPPORTUNITIES IN SCIENCE & SOCIETY INTERACTIONS Community: managing collaboration. Parallel session II.1. Opportunities in Environmental Sciences Luis Andrés-Zambrana / Fco. José Torres Gutierrez (Universidad y (ISSNET WP4 Workshop) Compromiso Social) & Juan José Jiménez Palacios (Polígono Chair: Carmen Teodosiu, InterMediu, Technical University Iasi, Sur). Enseñanzas colaborativas para la regeneración urbana (Romania) en Seville

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Jacques Pain. Univ. Paris, Nanterre. (France) & Ricardo Martinez. Diana Cupsa, Ilie Telcean, Zoltan Ellenees. InterMediu. Univ. Of Univ. Setúbal (Portugal). Developing techniques for urban Oradea. Dpt. Biology. Fac. Sciences (Romania). Involving citi- youth integration. zen participation in allergic pollinosis prevention. Jill Roberts. Saint Mary´s College, Notre Dame, IN, USA. Collabora- Selen Yegenoglu, Aylin Acar, Hacettepe University School of Phar- tive research on juvenile delinquency in the US. macy (Turkey) Patients` rights in health care sector in Turkey. Mª Angels Alió. Dpto. de Geografía. Universidad de Barcelona Laura Rossi, Ramos Jesús, Ghiselli Andrea, Manzi Pamela, Ma- (Spain). Oportunidades de investigación colaborativa del ter- strobuono Tiziana, Giampietro Mario. National Institute for ritorio desde la Universidad de Barcelona. Research on Food and Nutrition (INRAN) Rome (Italy). Learn- Sam Marullo (Georgetown University, USA), Phil Nyden (Loyola ing how to make better choices about our food, our life, our Univ. Chicago), David Hall (Univ of Liverpool, UK), T. Rojo future. Interfacing scientific knowledge traditional wisdom, (Universidad de Seville), Sarah Jane Know, Organization of daily problems and cultural values. the NorthEast (Chicago, USA); and Nancy Aardema, Logan . Square Neighbourhood Association, (Chicago, USA): Cur- Plenary session: ricular Framework for Sustainable Equitable Community PROCESSES, TOOLS & INFRASTRUCTURES IN SCIENCE & Reinvestment SOCIETY. Chair: Jose-Maria Flusa. Presidente de la Conferencia de Consejos Parallel session II.4. Opportunities in technical developments Sociales de las Universidades Españolas (Spain) Chair: Emilio Fontela. Decano de la Facultad de Económicas. Uni- versidad de Nebrija (Spain). Peter Nijkamp: Chair of Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (Netherlands). Advancing societies’ influence on Ana Vilas Boas et alt. Federal Rural University. Rio de Janeiro. research agendas. Brasil. Facing Digital Exclusion Shigeru Miyake. Research Institute of Science and Technology for Tali Tal. Technion Israel Institute of Technology (Israel). An Ecologi- Society (Japan). Promoting risk communication in Japanese cal Garden as a Learning Environment that Supports Environ- Chemical Industry. (Japan) mental Awareness. Eurig Scandrett. Co-ordinator Friends of the Earth – Scotland Eduardo Morales-Ramos. Instituto Tecnológico de Monterrey. (United Kingdom). Increasing NGO participation in research (México). El papel de la ciencia y la tecnología en el sector and the policy agenda. agrícola mexicano. Marina Lobo, Joana Soares, Joao Serpa, Antonio Cámara, Ed- Rick Worthington. Pomona College & Loka Institute (USA). Com- mundo Nobre, Luis Cerqueira e Nuno Banza. Fac. Ciencias e munity participation in US nanotechnology R&D policy. Tecnologia Univ. Nova de Lisboa, YDREAMS e Cámara Mu- Manuel Lopez Peña. (Spain) Infraestructuras y procedimientos nicipal do Barreiro (Portugal). Geo-virtual reality and participa- para la mediación ciencia y sociedad. Experiencia del centro tory planning: new technolgies for public participation (small de tecnologías del reciclaje. audiences) in Barreiro Mª José Asensio, Manuela de Paz, (Univ. Huelva), M.I.Franco- Jeffrey Will & CH.E. Owens. University of North Florida. (USA). A Ligenfert (Fundación Valdocco). El Plan Integral de Distrito V decade of creating Community-University partnerships de Huelva. Stefan Deegener. Institute of Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Parallel sessions: Management. Hamburg University of Technology (Germany). PROCESSES, TOOLS & INFRASTRUCTURES IN SCIENCE & Ecological Sanitation. SOCIETY. Marta I. Gonzalez y Betty Estevez. Dpt. Ciencia, Tecnología y Parallel session III.1. Networks. Sociedad. Instituto Filosofía CSIC (Spain). Comunicación, Chair: Anabel Carrillo Lafuente. Presidenta del Consejo Social de la argumentación y negociación en conflictos ambientales: el Universidad de Córdoba. (Spain). caso de la energía eólica de Cádiz. Kirsten Von der Heiden. Communication Scientist & Land Parallel session II.5. Opportunities in Health Sciences Cooperation. Use Researcher, Berlin (Germany) Improving social and Chair: Miguel García Guerrero. Director del Centro de Investigacio- environmentl contributions towards sustainable agricul- nes Científicas Isla de la Cartuja. Seville (Spain) ture: GRANO Research Pogram (BMBF) on Agricultural Extensión”. Denae Friedheim. Saint Mary’s College. Notre Dame. (USA). Miguel Presencio & Alain Labatut. Consejería de Bienestar Social. Diagnosing Distraction: society’ effects on prescribing meth- Junta de Andalucía. Seville. (Spain) El proyecto REVOS: Red lyphenidate. Europea del Voluntariado Social / The REVOS project: Euro- Karen Hye-cheon Kim. Univ. North Carolina- Chapel Hill (USA). pean Network for Voluntary Services. Lessons learnt in collaborating with African American Church- Maureen Butter. Science Shop for Biology. Univ. Groningen. es to improve health (Netherlands) & Margriet Samwel (Germany). Internationali- Kovacs Burns. Univ. Alberta. Fac. Nursing. (Canada). A canadian zation and internacional NGO networks: ANPED the Northern partnership of patient and citizen groups engaged in national Alliance for Sustainability & WECF Women in Europe for a health initiatives and policy discussions common future. Jennifer Kauper-Brown & Sarena D.Séller. North Carolina & Wash- Herminio Irizarry, Inst. Tecn,. Monterrey (Mexico) & Felix M.Cortes, ington Universities (USA). University Community-campus Iniv. Pontificia (Puerto Rico). A global perspective of business partnership for health. cluster and network developments Lynn Langille. Atlantic Health Promotion Research Centre Eelke Wielinga. LINK Consult / Agricultural Economics Research (Canada). Partnerships for health research: strategies for Institute. Wageningen University and Research (Netherlands). collaboration. Knowledge in living networks.

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Michael S. Joergensen. Technical University of Danemark. (Dane- Parallel session III.5. Science Communication mark) European Union Research Networks. Chair: Jose Manuel Gomez y Méndez. Dpto. Periodismo. Facultad Elise Kamphuis. Science shop of Economics, Management & Or- de Comunicación. Universidad de Seville. ganization. University Groningen (Netherlands) What should ISSNET implement to improve its Science Shop networking? Armando Menéndez-Viso. Universidad Nacional de Educación a . Distancia. Madrid (Spain). Los artefactos como instrumentos Parallel session III.2. Participatory tools de divulgación tecnocientífica. Chair: Francisco Fernández. Política Mediterranea / Mediterranean Ann Van de Auweraert. Univ. Antwerp. (Belgium). Science Policy. (Comisión Europea). EASW, an European Methodology communication escalator: How to manage science commu- for technology policy options. nication. Jose Manuel Gomez y Méndez y Sandra Méndez Muro. Dpto. Pe- Lars Karlson. Dpt. Education. Lund Universityu (Sweden). Partici- riodismo Univ. Seville. (Spain). Periodismo útil y sociedad civil patory Worklife Research through Research Circles. Antonio Cascales. Facultad de Comunicación. Univ. Seville. Mª Teresa Ocaña-Moral, Rocío.Quijano, Miguel Pérez-Ferra, Luis (Spain). La construcción mediática del fracaso en las Olim- Carlos Vida-Sagrista. Universidad de Jaén. (Spain). Tratami- piadas de Atenas. ento de los contenidos del módulo de desertización, basuras Melisa Guevara Paredes. Facultad de Derecho de la Pontificia Uni- y gestión del agua y su adecuación didáctica en entornos versidad Católica del Perú (Peru). La enseñanza del derecho cerrados. a través de medios de comunicación masiva Barbara Bodorkos, Balint Balazs, Gyorgyi Bela, Gyorgy Pataki. Insti- Karin Ree, Maria Hermsen & Annette Scheepstra. Science Shop tute of Environmental and Landscape Management. St. Istvan Groningen (Netherlands). Science meets Society. Univ. Godollo. (Hungary). Participatory community develop- Jordi Mas Catalan Foundation for Research and Innovation. Sci- ment in the south Borsod Region ence weeks as tools for public awareness of science. Spainr Ricardo Mateus. Escola de Samba “Batucatu”. La música como in- Norbert Steinhaus. Science Shop Bonn (Germany). The Living strumento de relación e integración social en las sociedades Knowledge Magazine – Experiences and future opportunities. del conocimiento. Carole Levesque, University of Quebec (Canada). DIALOG net- Plenary Session: work. On native questions. A new and innovative alliance CONCLUSIONS between universities and aboriginal communities. (Canada) Chair: Peter Levesque. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Gregorio-Jesús Fernández-García. Prof. Formación Ocupacional, Council of Canada Sindicato Comisiones Obreras, Seville (Spain). Las técnicas participativas para la animación socio-cultural. Carmen Teodosiu, InterMediu, Technical University Iasi, (Romania) Cristina Gouveia, Alexandra Fonseca. Instituto Geografico Por- Phil Nyden. Centre for Urban Research & Learning. Loyola Univer- tugues, Lisboa, Portugal. Senses@watch. (Portugal) sity. Chicago. USA. . Caspar de Bok, Coordinator of “Living Knowledge” Network and of Parallel session III.3. Infrastructures ISSNET Project “Improving Science Shop Networking Chair: Enrique Román Corzo. Presidente de Consejo Social de la Universidad de Jaén. (Spain). Farewell: Juan Maestre. Catedratico de Sociologia. Univ. Seville.

Luis Carlos Vida-Sagrista, Rocío Quijano, M.Pérez-Ferra, MªTeresa POSTER SESSION Ocaña-Moral. Universidad de Jaén. (Spain). La ruta del agua: Chair: Patricia Rojo. Pax Mediterranea. (Spain) los Museos de la ciencias como herramienta didáctica para jóvenes. Poster 1: Diana Cupsa. University of Oradea (Romania). Some Shabtay Dover The Belmonte Science Laboratories Center Author- ways of preventing giardia and other parasitosis transmisión ity for the Community and Youth. The Hebrew University of to the human host. Jerusalem, (Israel). The Wonder of Science. Poster 2: Mª Jose Miranda. Dpto. Ciencia, Tecnología y Sociedad. Saskia Visser. Science Shop Language & Communication. Univ. Inst. Filosofia CSIC.(Spain) Las diversas clonaciones en los Groningen, (Netherlands.) Research helpdesk for pupils. medios de comunicación españoles.. Benedykt Puczkowski. Fac. Law and Administration. University of Poster 3: Kirsten Von der Heiden & Wolfgang Endler. ‘Kubus’ Sci- Warmia and Masuria.in Olsztyn (Poland). Intercultural com- ence Shop. Technical University of Berlin (Germany). Prelimi- munication and Building the global society nary study on expectations and cooperativeness of german Marta Soler (Univ. Barcelona) y Lourdes Rue (CREA, PCB. (Spain) experts on transnational networking in the field of water Abrir el parque científico al barrio. Opening the Science Park management. A preliminary ISSNET study.. to the neighbourhood.. Poster 4: M. Alexandra.Abreu Lima. Estac. Agron. EAN INIAP. (Por- Iris Sliedrecht - Van Lavieren. Tilburg University (Netherlands). tugal). One Step further: from Portuguese Young student’s Centre for knowledge transfer: a digital view on a way of perceptions about plant biotechnology and their ethical rea- working with knowledge transfer soning about S&T to adult visions about these issues. Poster 5: Kirsten Von der Heiden & Wolfgang Endler. ‘Kubus’ Sci- Parallel Session III.4. CBR’s Management Workshop ence Shop. Technical University of Berlin (Germany). Science Organiza /Organiser: Jennifer Kauper-Brown. (Community Cam- Shops bridging the gap between research and society. pus Partneships for Health), Diane Calleson (Univ. North Carolina-Chapel Hill) & Sarena D.Séller (Health Serv. Dpt. Univ. Washington). Building and maintaining effective com- munity-institutional partnership. An interactive session.

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Speakers List

AARDEMA, NANCY, LOGAN SQUARE CUPSA, DIANA, UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA NEIGHBORHOOD ASSOCIATION, USA, - SCIENCE SHOP InterMEDIU, ROMANIA, [email protected] [email protected] ALIO TORRES, MA ANGELS, UNIVERSIDAD DE BARCELONA, SPAIN, [email protected] DE BOK, CASPAR, SCIENCE SHOP FOR BIOLO- ALVAREZ GARCIA, NOELIA, UNIVERSIDAD DE GY. UTRECHT UNIVERSITY, THE NETHER- OVIEDO, SPAIN, [email protected] LANDS, [email protected] ANDRES ZAMBRANA, LUIS, UNIVERSIDAD Y DE COZAR ESCALANTE, JOSE MANUEL, CEN- COMPROMISO SOCIAL.FACULTAD CCEE, TRO DE ESTUDIOS ECOSOCIALES DE LA SPAIN, [email protected] UNIVERSIDAD DE LA LAGUNA, ESPAÑA, ASEFZADEH, SAEED, DIRECTOR OF RE- SPAIN, [email protected] SEARCH, QAZVIN UNIVERSITY OF DE GREVE, JEAN-PIERRE, VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT MEDICAL SCIENCES, QAZVIN, IRAN, BRUSSEL, BELGIUM, [email protected] sa34_ [email protected] DE PAZ BAÑEZ, MANUELA D., UNIVERSIDAD ASENSIO COTO, Mª JOSÉ, UNIVERSIDAD DE DE HUELVA, SPAIN, [email protected] HUELVA, SPAIN, [email protected] DE SOUSA BRILHANTE PEDROSA, TIAGO, IPSC- DG JRL-EC, ITALY, [email protected] BALAZS, BALINT, SZENT ISTVÁN UNIVERSITY, EN- DONDERS, EDITH, VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT BRUS- VIRONMENTAL AND LANDSCAPE MANAGE- SEL, BELGIUM, [email protected] MENT, HUNGARY, [email protected] DOVER, SHABTAY, AUTHORITY FOR THE BARJOVEANU, GEORGE, INTERMEDIU-INFOR- COMMUNITRY AND YOUTH, THE HEBREW MATION, TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF IASI, UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM, JERUSALEM, ROMANIA, ROMANIA, [email protected] [email protected] BEAUCAGE, PIERRE, UNIVERSITÉ DE MONT- DRAGHICI, CAMELIA-LUCIA, INTERMEDIU- RÉAL, CANADA, pierre.beaucage@umontr NET ROMANIA ASSOCIATION, ROMANIA, eal.ca [email protected] BODORKOS, BARBARA, INSTITUTE OF ENVI- RONMENT AND LANDSCAPE MANAGE- ESTEVEZ CEDEÑO, BETTY, INSTITUTO DE FILO- MENT, ST ISTVAN UNIVERSITY, HUNGARY, SOFIA - CSIC, SPAIN, [email protected] [email protected] BUTTER, MAUREEN, SCIENCE SHOP FOR BI- FERNANDEZ GARCIA, GREGORIO JESUS, SIN- OLOGY GRONINGEN, THE NETHERLANDS, DICATO COMISIONES OBRERAS, SPAIN, [email protected] [email protected] FEURT, CHRISTINE, WELLS NATIONAL ESTU- CARON, JOSEPH, UNIVERSITE DU ARINE RESEARCH RESERVE, USA, Christi- QUEBEC A MONTREAL, CANADA, [email protected] [email protected] FRANCO LIGENFERT, Mª ISABEL, FUNDACION CASCALES, ANTONIO, UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVIL- VALDOCCO, SPAIN, [email protected] LA, SPAIN, [email protected] FRIEDHEIM, DENAE, SAINT MARY´S

256 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE (SEVILLE 2005) 257 SPEAKERS LIST APPENDIX

COLLEGE, NOTRE DAME, IN, USA, HERMSEN, MARIA, Centrale Wetenschaps- [email protected] winkels Groningen, THE NETHERLANDS, GARCIA DILS, RAMON, SPAIN, [email protected] [email protected] HERNANDEZ DE TORO, ALEJANDRO, ESTIEM, GARCIA GARCIA, Mª LUISA, CONSEJO SO- SPAIN, [email protected] CIAL, UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA, SPAIN, HIDALGO CAPITAN, ANTONIO LUIS, UNIVERSI- [email protected] DAD DE HUELVA, SPAIN, [email protected] GARCIA GUERRERO, MIGUEL, CENTRO DE IN- HRADSKY, KELLY, SAINT MARY´S COL- VESTIGACIONES CIENTÍFICAS „ ISLA DE LA LEGE, NOTRE DAME, INDIANA, USA, CARTUJA „, SPAIN, [email protected] [email protected] GARRIDO PEÑA, FRANCISCO, CONGRESO DE LOS DIPUTADOS, SPAIN, verdes@diputado. JORGENSEN, MICHAEL SOGAARD, Manuf- congreso.es acturing Engineering and Management. GEORGE, CHRISTINE, LOYOLA UNIVERSITY Technical University of Denmark, DENMARK, CHICAGO CENTER FOR URBAN RESEARCH [email protected] AND LEARNING, USA, [email protected] GNAIGER, ANDREA, INSTITUT FBI, AUSTRIA, KAMPHUIS, ELISE, SCIENCE SHOP FOR ECO- [email protected] NOMICS AND MANAGEMENT. UNIVERSITY GOMEZ Y MENDEZ, JOSE MANUEL, OF GRONINGEN, THE NETHERLANDS, FAC.COMUNICACION - DPTO PERIODISMO, [email protected] SPAIN, [email protected] KARLSSON, LARS, LUND UNIVERSITY, SWEDEN, GONZALEZ JACOME, ALBA, UNIVERSI- [email protected] DAD IBEROAMERICANA, MEXICO, KAUPER-BROWN, JEN, COMMUNITY-CAM- [email protected] PUS PARTNERSHIPS FOR HEALTH, USA, GONZALEZ RAMOS, ANA M., UNIVERSIDAD DE [email protected] LA LAGUNA, SPAIN, [email protected] KIM, KAREN HYE-CHEON, UNIVERSITY OF GUEVARA PAREDES, MELISA, PONTIFICIA NORTH CAROLINA AT CHAPEL HILL, USA, UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA DEL PERU, PERU, [email protected] [email protected] KNOY / KNOW?, SARAH, ORGANIZATION OF GUTIERREZ GONZÁLEZ, INES, UNIVERSIDAD THE NORTH EAST, USA, [email protected] DE OVIEDO, SPAIN, [email protected] KOSSEN, KIRSTEN, ANPED, NORTHERN ALLI- ANCE FOR SUSTAINABILITY, THE NETHER- HADENFELDT, BARBARA, INSTITUTE OF URBEN LANDS, [email protected] & REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, USA, [email protected] LABATUT, ALAIN, PLATAFORMA CIVICA HAGENDIJK, ROB, UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM, SALVEMOS EL GUADAIRA, SPAIN, al_ THE NETHERLANDS, [email protected] [email protected] HALL, DAVID, UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL - IN- LANGILLE, LYNN, ATLANTIC HEALTH PROMO- TERCHANGE, UK, [email protected] TION RESEARCH CENTRE DALHOUSE UNI- HALL, IRENE, UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL, UK, VERSITY, CANADA, [email protected] [email protected] LEE, SANG-DONG, CPPR, Center for People‘s

256 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE (SEVILLE 2005) 257 SPEAKERS LIST APPENDIX

Participatory Research, SOUTH KOREA, MOREU DE LEON, PEDRO, ESCUELA SUPERIOR [email protected] DE INGENIEROS, SPAIN, [email protected] LEVESQUE, PETER, CANADIAN SCIENCE MULDER, HENK A.J., CHEMISTRY SHOP, UNI- AND SOCIETY ASSOCIATION, CANADA, VERSITY OF GRONINGEN, THE NETHER- [email protected] LANDS, [email protected] LEVESQUE, CAROLE, INSTITUT NATIONAL DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE, CANADA, NEUBAUER, CLAUDIA, FONDATION SCIENCES [email protected] CITOYENNES, FRANCE, claudia.neubaure@s LOCKLEY, SHARON, UNIVERSITY OF LIVER- ciencescitoyennes.org POOL, UK, [email protected] NIJKAMP, PETER, NWO, THE NETHERLANDS, LOPEZ IZQUIERDO, AMELIA, UNIVERSIDAD [email protected] PABLO DE OLAVIDE, SPAIN, amelialopez@ NYDEN, PHILIP, LOYOLA UNIVERSITY OF CHI- supercable.es CAGO, USA, [email protected]

MALLOW, JEFFRY V., LOYOLA UNIVERSITY CHI- O´SULLIVAN, ROGER, RURAL COMMUNITY CAGO, USA, [email protected] NETWORK NI, NORTHERN IRELAND, MARTIN, EILEEN, SCIENCE SHOP,QUEEN´S [email protected] UNIVERSITY BELFAST, NORTHERN IRELAND, OCAÑA MORAL, Mª TERESA, UNIVERSIDAD DE [email protected] JAEN, SPAIN, [email protected] MARULLO, SAM, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, OSTENRATH, KRISCHAN, WISSENSCHAFTSLA- USA, [email protected] DEN BONN, GERMANY, krischan.ostenrath MAS, JORDI, FUNDACIÓ CATALANA PER A LA @wilabonn.de RECERCA, SPAIN, [email protected] McCORMAC, GERRY, QUEEN´S UNIVER- PAIN, JACQUES, FRANCE, SITY BELFAST, NORTHERN IRELAND, [email protected] [email protected] PEREZ CARRASCO, DANIEL, INGENIERIA SIN MCKENNA, EMMA, SCIENCE SHOP,QUEEN´S FRONTERAS, SPAIN, [email protected] UNIVERSITY BELFAST, NORTHERN IRELAND, PÉREZ FERRA, MIGUEL, UNIVERSIDAD DE [email protected] JAEN, SPAIN, [email protected] MENAPACE, MONICA, EUROPEAN COMMISSION, PRESENCIO, MIGUEL, CONSEJERÍA IGUALDAD BELGIUM, [email protected] Y BIENESTAR SOCIAL - SERVICIO DEL VO- MÉNDEZ MURO(S)?, SANDRA, FACULTAD DE LUNTARIADO SOCIAL, SPAIN, miguel.presen COMUNICACIÓN DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DE [email protected] SEVILLA, SPAIN, [email protected] PUCZKOWSKI, BENEDYKT, UNIVERSITY OF MENÉNDEZ VISO, ARMANDO, CSIC, SPAIN, WARMIA & MASURIA IN OLSZTYN, POLAND, [email protected],[email protected] [email protected] MIEDES UGARTE, BLANCA, UNIVERSIDAD DE HUELVA, SPAIN, [email protected] QUIJANO LOPEZ, ROCIO, UNIVERSIDAD DE MIYAKE, SHIGERU, RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF JAEN, SPAIN, [email protected] SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY FOR SOCIETY, JAPAN, [email protected]

258 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE (SEVILLE 2005) 259 SPEAKERS LIST APPENDIX

RAHI, KHAN, CANADIAN COMMUNITY - DEN BONN - BONN SCIENCE SHOP, GER- BASED RESEARCH NETWORK, CANADA, MANY, [email protected] [email protected] STRAEHLE, MICHAEL, Science Shop vienna, REDONDO TORONJO, DOLORES, UNIVERSI- AUSTRIA, [email protected] DAD DE HUELVA, SPAIN, [email protected] SVYETLOV, OLEKSANDR, COMPANION JOUR- REE, KARIN, CHEMISTRY SHOP-UNIVERSITY NAL, UKRAINE, UKRANIE, [email protected] OF GRONINGEN, THE NETHERLANDS, [email protected] TAL, REVITAL ( TALI ), TECHNION RESEARCH & ROBERTS, JILL, SAINT MARY´S COLLEGE, NOTRE DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION LTD, ISRAEL, DAME, IN, USA, [email protected] [email protected] RODRÍGUEZ DIAZ, Mª DEL ROSARIO, UNIVER- TELCEAN, ILIE, UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA SIDAD DE SEVILLA-FACULTAD DE CC.DE LA - SCIENCE SHOP InterMEDIU, ROMANIA, EDUCACIÓN, SPAIN, [email protected] [email protected] ROJO, TERESA, UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA, TEODOSIU, CARMEN, INTERMEDIU-INFOR- SPAIN, [email protected] MATION, TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF IASI, ROMANIA, ROMANIA, [email protected] SAMPEDRO NUÑO, ANDRES, UNIVERSIDAD DE THOMAS, TOM, PRAXIS-INSTITUTE FOR OVIEDO, SPAIN, [email protected] PARTICIPATORY PRACTICES, INDIA, SANCHEZ GARCIA, JUAN, CENTRO DE ES- [email protected] TUDIOS ECOSOCIALES DE LA UNIVER- TOBON TOBON, SERGIO DE JESUS, COR- SIDAD DE LA LAGUNA, ESPAÑA, SPAIN, PORACION CONTACTO VITAL, SPAIN, [email protected] [email protected] SANZ MERINO, NOEMI, UNIVERSIDAD DE OVIEDO, SPAIN, [email protected] URBAN, CHRISTINE, SCIENCE SHOP VIENNA, SCANDRETT, EURIG, FRIENDS OF THE AUSTRIA, [email protected] EARTH SCOTLAND, UK, escandrett@foe- scotland.org.uk VAAL, MANON, SCIENCE SHOP FOR BIOLOGY, SCHEEPSTRA, ANNETTE, SCIENCE SHOP LAN- UTRECHT UNIVERSITY, THE NETHERLANDS, GUAGE &COMMUNICATION, THE NETHER- [email protected] LANDS, [email protected] VAN DEN BERG, FRITS, SCIENCE SHOP FOR SCHOFFENEGGER, GABRIELA, INSTITUT FBI, PHYSICS,UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN, AUSTRIA, [email protected] THE NETHERLANDS, g.p.van.den.berg@ph SOARES BANZA, NUNO MIGUEL, CAMARA ys.rug.nl MUNICIPAL DO BARREIRO, PORTUGAL, VAN DEN BOSSCHE, SOFIE, VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT [email protected] BRUSSEL, BELGIUM, [email protected] SOLER, MARTA, CREA, PARC CIENTIFIC DE BAR- VAN DER AUWERAERT, ANN, UNIVERSITY OF CELONA, SPAIN, [email protected] ANTWERP, BELGIUM, Ann.VanderAuweraer SOLIS CABRERA, FRANCISCO, CONSEJERIA DE [email protected] INNOVACION, CIENCIA Y EMPRESA, SPAIN, VAN LAVIEREN, IRIS SLIEDRECHT, TIL- [email protected] BURG UNIVERSITY, THE NETHERLANDS, STEINHAUS, NORBERT, WISSENSCHAFTSLA- [email protected]

258 PROCEEDINGS 2nd LIVING KNOWLEDGE CONFERENCE (SEVILLE 2005) 259 SPEAKERS LIST

VIDA SAGRISTA, LUIS, UNIVERSIDAD DE JAEN, SPAIN, [email protected] VILAS BOAS, ANA ALICE, FEDERAL RURAL UNIVERSITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO, BRASIL, [email protected] VISSER, SASKIA, SCIENCE SHOP LANGUAGES, UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN, THE NETHER- LANDS, [email protected] VON DER HEIDEN, KIRSTEN, SCIENCE SHOP „ KUBUS „ - CENTRE FOR COOPERATION, GERMANY, [email protected]

WIELINGA, EELKE, LINK CONSULT, THE NE- THERLANDS, [email protected] WILL, JEFFRY A., UNIVERSITY OF NORTH FLORI- DA, USA, [email protected] WORTHINGTON, RICHARD, POMONA COLLE- GE, USA, [email protected]

YEGENOGLU, SELEN, HACETTEPE UNIVER- SITY SCHOOL OF PHARMACY, TURKEY, [email protected]

260 PROCEEDINGS SPEAKERS LIST

260 PROCEEDINGS t the beginning of February 2005 around 250 people from 30 countries Aall over the world participated in a three days international conference in Seville, Spain, which focused on ‚Advancing Science and Society Interac- tions‘. This 2nd ‚Living Knowledge‘ Conference, organised by the Interna- tional Science Shop Network and financially supported by the European Commission, offered a unique opportunity to scientists, policy-makers and practitioners in community based research to share experiences and build networks for approaching citizens participation in science. With over 100 presentations - not only from an European context but also from North-, Central- and South-America, Africa, Middle East and Far East - the 2nd ‚Living Knowledge‘ Conference offered of a the huge palette of dif- ferent experiences and interesting examples of community-based research and science and society relations. This publication shows the presentations of the plenary sessions and adds information to the presentations of the plenary sessions. All speak- ers‘ abstracts and their submitted additional material can be found on the enclosed CD.

ISBN 3-935907-03-6