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The 1985 Nobel Chemistry Prize to Jerome Karle and Herbert A

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The 1985 Nobel Chemistry Prize to Jerome Karle and Herbert A -...—. I EUGENE GARFIELD INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION” 3501 MARKET ST, PHILADELPHIA PA 191C4 The 1985 Nobel Chemistry Prize to Jerome Karle and Herbert A. Hauptman and the Physics Prize to Klaus von Klitzfng Contrast Delayed Versus “Instant” Recognition Number 44 November 3, 1986 In last year’s examination of the 1984 1959 Nobel laureate in medicine, Arthur Nobel laureates in physics and chemis- Kornberg. In citing Hauptman and tw, 1 I noted that Carlo Rubbia, Harvard Karle, the Royal Swedish Academy of University and the European Center for Sciences mentioned their “outstanding Nuclear Research (CERN), Geneva, achievements in the development of di- Switzerland, and Simon van der Meer, rect methods for the determination of also of CERN, received the physics prize crystal structures.”z Although these barely two years after they identified the methods were not immediately accepted W and Z subatomic particles. This is one (as our citation data will demonstrate), of the shortest intervals between discov- they are widely applied today in research ery and recognition in Nobel history. By laboratories. Crystal structures that contrast, the 1984 winner in chemistry, once took months to analyze can now be R. Bruce Merrifield, Rockefeller determined in a matter of hours using University, New York, did the bulk of the methods developed by Hauptman his prizewinning work in peptide synthe- and Karle. sis in the 1960s. Determining the structure of a mole- A similar disparity is evident in the cule is essential to understanding its 1985 physics and chemistry prizes, which chemical bonding and its reactions and we’ll be examining this week as we com- interactions with other molecules, ac- plete our discussion of last year’s Nobel cording to Wayne A. Hendrickson, De- laureates, The physics prize was award- partment of Biochemistry and Molecu- ed for work done in the early 1980s. The lar Biophysics, Columbia University Col- chemistry prize, however, honored lege of Physicians and Surgeons, New work that first appeared in the York.s In order to design new drugs and 1950s—work that found little recogni- synthesize rare natural products, it is im- tion and acceptance when it was pub- portant to have a precise, three-dimen- lished. sional picture of the arrangement of atoms within the molecule. One of the Chemfstry most accurate methods for determining structures is by analyzing X-ray diffrac- The 1985 prize in chemistry was tion data from crystals, a method known awarded to Herbert A. Hauptman, Med- as X-ray crystallography. X rays beamed ical Foundation of Buffalo, New York, through a crystal of a substance will be and Jerome Karle, US Naval Research scattered by the atoms and molecules, Laboratory, Washington, DC. Haupt- producing a diffraction pattern that ap- man, a mathematician, and Karle, a pears on photographic film as a cluster physical chemist, both graduated from of dots of varying intensity. Information City CoUege, New York, in the class of on the large-scale crystal geometry and 1937—the same class that produced the the individual crystal units can be in- 336 ferred from the intensities and phases of tern, was once thought to be irretriev- the scattered waves in the pattern,’r able. It is relatively easy to deduce the Hauptman and Karle, then working atomic structure of very simple crystals together at the US Naval Research Labo- by means of X-ray crystallography. In ratory, published their “direct methods” order to solve more complicated struc- in papers that appeared primarily be- tures, however, it is necessary to over- tween 1950 and 1956. Their statistical come the so-called “phase problem. ” As procedures permit researchers to extract Hendrickson explains, the scattering of the phase information and to compute X-ray waves by crystals is restricted to the molecular structure directly from certain discrete directions governed by the data in the diffraction pattern. Many the crystal lattice. Each of the diffracted of these papers appeared in A eta Crys- waves is made up from the scattering by tdographica. Their key publication all atoms, and in complex molecules from this period, however, was a 1953 there may be hundreds of atoms. This monograph entitled Solution of the complicated diffraction interference phase problem. 1. The centrosymmetn”c leads to a distinctive phase and magni- crystal.b This work proposed the use of tude for each allowed directions Mea- probability theory as a means of solving suring the intensity of the deflected the phase problem. The methods de- X rays presents no problems, but deter- scribed require highly complex mathe- mining the phase-that is, how much the matics. Consequently, this primordial waves in the various rays are displaced in work met with considerable resistance relation to each other—is another mat- and neglect when first published. In fact, ter. This phase information, essential in the direct methods were not accepted obtaining the molecular structure of a for more than a decade. The delayed crystal from the X-ray diffraction pat- recognition of thk paper is demon- Figure 1: Chronological distribution of citations from the SCP to Hauptman and Karle’s highly cited 1953 monograph, Solution of the phase problem. 1. The centmsymmettic crystal. YEAR 337 TabJa 1: Papers coauthored by Karle and Hauptman most cited in the SC~ from 1955 to 1985. The papers are arranged in descending order according to number of citations. A = total number of citations. B = bibliographic information. SC’J’ research fronts for which the paper is core are gi, en in paren theses after the bibliographic information. A B ~~1 Karle J & Hauptman H. A theory of phase determination for lhe four types of non- centrosymmetric space groups IP222, 2P22, 3P[2, 3P22. Acts Cr.y~ta//ogr 9: b35-51, 1956. (73-1253, 72-0579, 71-1024, 70-0937) 363 Hauptman H & Karfe J, Solu (ion of the phase problem. / rhe cen!ro.!)mme~ric cry$to/. New York: American Crystallographic Association, 1953.87 p, 116 Karfe J & Hauptman H. Tbe phases and magnitudes of the structure factors. Acla Crysm/[ogr, 3:181-7, 1950. lCO Hauptman H & Karle J. Structure invariant and semiiariants for non-centrosymmemic space groups, AcIa Crys(a//ogr. 9:45-55, 1956. (72-0579) 97 Karle I L, Hauptman H, Kade J & Wfng A B. Crystal and molecular structure of P. p’-dimethoxybenzophenone by the direc! probability method. Ac-ta Crystallogr. I I :257-63, 1958. 75 Karfe J & Hauptman H. Application of statistical methods to the naphthalene structure. Acts CrystalloRr. 6:473-6; “1953 strated by its citation record. The graph Today, the Hauptman-Karle method- in Figure 1 shows that it received fewer ology is indispensable for determining than 10 citations per year in the first 10 the molecular structure of a variety of years or so after publication. Several useful substances, including antibiotics, successes in solving crystal structures, as catalysts, alloys, and natural products well as advances in the high-speed com- such as peptides, steroids, and alka- puter technology necessary to perform loids. 11 Although direct methods have the calculations, led to increasing accep- been applied to molecules containing up tance of the technique by the end of the to 200 atoms, they are not yet powerful 1960s.7 Our data indicate that this work enough to be used with larger proteins. has now been cited over 350 times. Both scientists, however, continue to Whether this qualifies as a classic case of work at extending the utility and power delayed recognitions is determined by of the direct methods—Hauptman in one’s reference point: the first 5 to 10 Buffalo and Karle in Washington. years after publication or the delay in recognition that is typically displayed by Hauptsmm the Nobel committees. Table 1 is a list of most-cited papers Herbert A. Hauptman was born in coauthored by Karle and Hauptman ac- New York City in 1917. He received a BS cording to the Science Citation Index@ in mathematics from City College, New (.SCP ), 1955-1985. Their most-cited York, an MA in mathematics from CO work is a 1956 paper from Acts Crysta[- lumbia University, and a PhD in mathe- lographica entitled “A theory of phase matics from the University of Maryland, determination for the four types of non- College Park. He worked as a physicist centrosymmetric space groups 1P222, and mathematician at the US Naval Re- 2P22, 3P12, 3P22.”9 This paper, cited search Laboratory from 1947 to 1970, over 400 times, expands on their 1953 before leaving to become executive vice monograph and discusses joint probabil- president and research director of the ity distributions and formulas to deter- Medical Foundation of Buffalo, where mine the phase of typical noncentrosym- he has been ever since. Since 1970 he has metric space groups. In addition to the also been a professor of biophysics at the 1953 monograph,b Table 1 includes a State University of New York, Buffalo. 1950 paper from Acts Crystaf[ographica One of Hauptman’s first papers, coau- on “The phases and magnitudes of the thored with Karle, was “The structure of structure factors. ”10 This work has been atoms from diffraction studies, ” which cited in over 100 publications. appeared in Physicaf Review in 1950.12 338 Tabte 2: Chronological list of 1955-1985 SCF over 1,300 times. It was the subject of a citations to Karle and Brmkway’s 1944 paper in the Journal of the Amen”can Chemical Society. Citation Classic@ commentary in 1977, A = year, B = number of citations, in which the authors noted that the analysis of crystal structures, facili- AB A B A B tated by the symbolic addition procedure 1975 3 and the development of computers and 1955 4 1965 4 1976 2 1956 2 1966 4 1977 4 automatic diffractometers, has had a 1957 7 1%7 8 1978 1 major impact on the progress of many sci- 1958 10 1968 8 1979 2 entific areas.
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