LIBYA

UBARI Area-Based Assessment (ABA)

August 2021 ABA Ubari

Ubari (Awbari) is a small oasis town located in the southern Fezzan region. The municipality is activities to be equally accessible across muhallahs. Equal access per muhallah will be roughly 370 kilometres east of Ghat and 200 kilometres southwest of Sebha with a population of a determining element in easing tensions and improving tolerance and acceptance as well as roughly 35,000 people with various ethnic backgrounds, nationalities, and displacement status.1 avoiding conflict over already limited resources. Similar to the rest of the Fezzan region, Ubari is severely affected by the economic crisis Libya Introduction has been going through since 2014, where recovery is yet to happen.2,3 The local governance mechanisms in Ubari baladiya consists of both formal and traditional governance stakeholders In 2012, the Libyan Interim National Transitional Council (NTC) introduced Law No. (59) on made up of the municipal council as well as muhallah councils/mukhtars, while the traditional the structure of local administration system, which constitutes the legal framework around the governance stakeholders consist of the five social councils made up of family elders and notables decentralization of Libya6 and the emergence of institutionalised local governance.7 According to within each tribe or community.4 the legal framework, municipalities are tasked with service delivery (and thus the development and maintenance of service infrastructure) and the safety and security of its citizens.8 However, Key findings despite the legal framework, municipalities are not mandated to collect tax and service provisions 1. Provision of basic utilities such as electricity, water, sewage, and sanitation exist to a certain are still primarily delegated to decentralized offices of the centralized state agencies. As such, extent in Ubari baladiya, however, with large disparities between Ubari city centre and peripheral municipalities often lack the resources to respond to emergencies or the aftermath of crises in a muhallahs.5 Due to the stagnation of infrastructural development, areas that came into existence timely manner.9 On top of this, in 2021, Libya begins its eleventh year of protracted conflict. The or grew significantly in the last 20 years are often not officially connected to water or electricity war continues to cause infrastructure damages, security threats, and economic and political crises networks. that undermine municipalities’ opportunity to provide access to services and stable governance, and thus hinders the population’s social cohesion, safety, and access to services. An integrative 2. In the absence of infrastructure or lack of infrastructural capacity to cope with over usage, understanding of how governance and service access are interlinked and used by its population citizens have constructed ‘random’ infrastructures connecting their homes to the can facilitate integrated assistance and sustainable urban planning. electricity and sanitation network with support from private companies.This has been common especially in muhallahs with extensive population growth since the 1990s – such as Al Shareb This Area-Based Assessment (ABA) was set in Ubari baladiya, a small desert town in the (East and West) and Al Mashru. southern Fezzan region of Libya. Ubari consists of five muhallahs: Al Hattiya, Al Dissa, Ubari city centre, Al Mashru and Al Shareb (East and West). These muhallahs are made up of multiple 3. Poor quality and historical underinvestment in public services including health, education, neighbourhoods.10 A reference table of the neighbourhood names can be found in Annex 2. welfare and social services characterise the services available in Ubari. The city faces infrastructural challenges caused by years of structural underinvestment in the 4. Findings highlighted the importance of peacebuilding and reconciliation efforts to improve region, as well as the social inheritance and material damage of recent intercommunal conflict.11 inter-communal relations between population groups both in the city and within specific An area-based understanding presents an opportunity for national and international actors to neighbourhoods. The need for improving mutual understanding of cultural differences between help build the capacity of communities and municipalities to identify and address their most communities was suggested to be possible to breach through dialogues and awareness raising pressing needs in a systematic manner, and inform local governments about opportunities in sessions. Additionally, social events such as festivals and sports activities have previously shown conflict-sensitive urban planning and sustainable infrastructure development.12 Cities operate as to bridge cultural differences and bring together population groups. complex organizations and not in isolated sectors, with service infrastructure and a wide variety 5. There is a need for provision of utilities, services, livelihood opportunities, and social of governance and citizen stakeholders involved. Therefore, to develop appropriate assistance

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programmes, national and international actors should focus on urban spaces as unified systems, and identify service catchment areas accordingly17 rather than analysing needs on a sector-by-sector basis.13 2.2 Identify key stakeholders in each respective service area Objectives 3. Assess horizontal and vertical social cohesion dynamics and challenges in Ubari Building on a settlements approach,14 the ABA was designed to understand and map the ‘city as a 3.1. Services and access to governance mechanisms system’.15 Hence, it looked at the interlinkage between urban structures such as service provision 3.2. Identify traditional and bureaucratic governance stakeholders and decision-making and governance mechanisms, and how populations access these, as well as how governance mechanisms actors and citizens engage with each other. In order to do this, the ABA Ubari focused on 1) service access and provision, and 2) governance mechanisms and stakeholders, from both a 3.2.1. Identify decision-making mechanisms, from a bottom-up and top-down perspective, at the governance perspective as well as a citizen’s perspective. community and baladiya level

Primary data collection took place in Libya between February and May 2021. In total, 210 surveys 3.2.2. Identify international and national Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and Civil with individuals were conducted as well as 4 key informant interviews (KIIs) with service providers Society Organizations (CSOs) providing assistance in Ubari for electricity and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), 2 focus group discussions (FGDs) with health care providers, 1 FGDs with educational personnel, 1 FGD with social affairs workers, 11 4. Measure citizen perceptions of service provision and access, and governance KIIs with governance actors, and 20 community KIIs. mechanisms 4.1. Map service catchment areas and movement on a muhallah level based on where citizens For more information on the full research design, please refer to the Terms of Reference (ToR) access health and education services. on the REACH resource centre.16 The research objectives that guided the ABA of Ubari Baladiya were as follows: 4.2. Identify governance actors that are the most accessible to citizens and that they feel most represented by. 1. Define and profile the primary geographic areas within the municipality of Ubari 1.1. Identify and map official administrative neighbourhood boundaries, community areas Methodology 1.2. Map locations and assess geographic distribution of basic services in each neighbourhood, Population of interest focusing on schools, health services, social gathering areas, WASH systems, and access to electricity In order to understand ‘the city as a system’ approach, research must integrate perspectives of the local population, local authorities, and service providers. To do so, key service infrastructure 1.3. Identify population groups in each identified neighbourhood and governance mechanisms were explored in FGDs and KIIs with service providers, and formal (bureaucratic) and informal (traditional) authorities, while citizen perceptions of identified 2. Assess operationality and accessibility of key service infrastructure, specifically systems and mechanisms were measured in the citizen survey. As such, the relevant units of education centres, health centres, electricity and WASH, and social security mechanisms measurement applied during the ABA were at the institution level, community (muhallah) level, 2.1. Identify structural problems that restrict access to services, such as distance and operationality, and the individual level. Findings from each component were assessed against each other (i.e.

3 ABA Ubari

what services are available and how do individuals engage access and rate their quality). sampling frame please refer to Annex 1. The qualitative methods employed to map Ubari’s boundaries and muhallahs as well as key service infrastructure included KIIs and FGDs to identify Figure 1. Overview of units of measurement governance mechanisms and stakeholders in the city; and to collect information about social cohesion dynamics and vulnerabilities such as low-income and special needs or disabilities. The quantitative component was used to inform how Ubari’s citizens engage with the identified service infrastructure and governance mechanisms; applying a bottom-up lens to the ‘city as a system’. The individual survey thus not only assessed the population’s opinion about their access to services and governance mechanisms, but also their trust in it. Direct observation was used to map key education and health infrastructure in all neighbourhoods, including type (public vs. private), the facility names, and their operational status. Following the direct observation of service infrastructure, one FGD was carried out for each of the following three service categories: health care, education, and social services. FGD participants discussed the most pressing issues, challenges, and development priorities for each service category in Ubari. The respondents of the FGD were healthcare providers, teachers, and staff from the municipal Social Affairs Office. Furthermore, the service KIIs focused on basic utilities in Ubari, such as electricity, water, and sanitation with the main objective being to understand the challenges with regards to providing these services, where the primary issues are located, how the infrastructure works, and what the respective development priorities are. In total, four service KIIs were conducted, two with senior employees from the local office of the General Electricity Company of A second important component of this ABA was mapping the demographic distribution of Libya (GECOL) and two with the local office of the General Water and Waste Company (GWWC). population groups across Ubari’s muhallahs and understanding the differences per area in terms To understand social cohesion and governance, an FGD was conducted with an equal number of access to services and governance mechanisms based on geographic or social barriers. Ubari of participants from each muhallah. The FGDs focused on neighbourhood specific challenges, consists of four muhallahs, however for the ABA and the comparative analysis, the city centre social cohesion dynamics, including opportunities for improvement and existing systems in was split into two separate areas, Ubari city centre and Al Shareb (East and West), to reflect the place that facilitate social cohesion and community protection, as well as development priorities socioeconomic and cultural differences. Hence, this ABA will be referring to the following five and representativeness of governance actors. This was further triangulated with 20 community muhallahs throughout the report: Al Mashru, Al Shareb (East and West), Ubari city centre, Al KIIs and 11 governance KIIs including municipal council members, social council leaders, Dissa, and Al Hattiya. and community leaders/mukhtars. During governance KIIs, participants were inquired about Sampling Framework governance mechanisms, engagement between governance stakeholders and citizens, social protection mechanisms, needs of various population groups, and development priorities in Ubari In order to achieve the objectives described previously, eight different data collection tools were per muhallah as well as at a city-wide level. deployed combining both quantitative and qualitative tools. For a full overview of the tools and

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25 Lastly, 200 citizen surveys were carried out to assess population perceptions of access to of work closed due to the pandemic. services, access to governance and security, and trust in existing mechanisms. The survey Security conditions addressed citizen’s engagement with services and systems in place. In order to facilitate the 26 mapping of service catchment areas, respondents were asked where they access services. The In 2014, clashes broke out between members of the Tuareg and Tebu tribes. Today, these respondents were sampled using a non-probability quota sampling with equal representation of populations co-exist in Ubari in a ‘cold peace’, following the violent conflict between the two tribes 27 gender distribution and muhallahs. that lasted from 2014 to 2016. In 2020, 12% of households reported communal violence as one of their main safety and security concerns, the highest in the Fezzan region emphasizing the Context continued need for building community trust and social cohesion.28 Geography and location Demographics Ubari (Awbari) is a small oasis town located in the southern Fezzan region. Ubari is situated Neighborhoods, roads and surroundings in the Idehan Ubari of the Sahara Desert, an erg or sand sea of approximately 58,000 square kilometres. There are multiple oasis lakes in the vicinity of Ubari.18 Ubari consists of five muhallahs: Al Hattiya, Al Dissa, Ubari city centre, Al Mashru and Al Shareb (East and West). These muhallahs are made up of multiple neighbourhoods.29 A reference table The region’s desert climate is among the harshest in the world, with short and warm winters, of the neighbourhood names can be found in Annex 2. As illustrated in map 1, the muhallahs and extremely dry and hot summers. In the hottest summer months, the temperature will often are scattered, with Al Hattiya, Al Dissa, Al Mashru, geographically disconnected from Ubari city surpass 40 degrees Celsius, while even in its wettest months the town is unlikely to witness more centre. Understanding these geographical characteristics and historical developments, as well as than 8mm of rainfall, with the largest part of the year passing by without any precipitation at all.19 how the areas relate to each other in terms of service infrastructure and governance, is essential The municipality is roughly 370 kilometres east of Ghat and 200 kilometres southwest of Sebha. to informing appropriate and conflict sensitive programme development. Along the road to Sebha, travellers pass through a long string of smaller municipalities that make Overview of each muhallah up the Wadi Al Hayaa valley.20 Operationality and accessibility of key service infrastructure, specifically education opportunities, Demography and social cohesion health centres, electricity, and WASH varies across muhallahs. Similarly, respondents’ perceptions Ubari has a population of roughly 35,000 people of various ethnic backgrounds, nationalities, of their living conditions and their access to services and these quality vary. Most notably, the and displacement status.21 The population consists of three main groups, namely Tuareg, Tebu, majority of respondents in the citizen survey, which was developed to measure perceptions and Ahali. The Ahali, also known as ‘Fezzana’, are Arabs with no tribal affiliation.22 The Tebu and of the community and understanding trust in governance, rated the living conditions (50% of Tuareg are non-Arab ethnic minorities in Libya. respondents) and health care service (79% of respondents) conditions poor in their muhallah (n = 210), with the vast majority of Al Mashru citizens rating the conditions of their muhallah Socioeconomic conditions poor (n = 42). In Al Mashru, 76% of respondents rated their living conditions poor, while 98% of Similar to the rest of the Fezzan region, Ubari is severely affected by the economic crisis Libya respondents rated their health care services conditions poor. has been going through since 2014, where recovery is yet to happen.23,24 Economic conditions have been further aggravated by COVID-19 with 58% of households in Ubari reporting their place

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Al Dissa reporting electricity cuts. Furthermore, all the community KIs highlighted very poor economic conditions in the muhallah with employment opportunities being limited to agriculture. Findings from the health and education FGDs highlighted that Al Dissa muhallah is suffering from weak general service provision – where public healthcare and education are considered The security level in the Al Dissa muhallah is reportedly higher than in the Ubari baladiya. 31% below the quality of other muhallahs such as Ubari city centre. In general, 58% of respondents in of Al Dissa respondents in the citizens survey reported that the security situation within their the citizen survey rated their living conditions poor (n = 40). General living conditions were also muhallah was good compared to only 11% of Al Dissa respondents giving the same rating for reflected by 38% of respondents rating their housing conditions to be poor. Similarly, 58% rated Ubari baladiya. All community KIs also highlighted the security situation within the muhallah as public healthcare as poor and 23% rated public schools as poor. Interviews with community KIs being good. When asked about the security situation at day and night, one community KI said supported this picture of the general service provision in Al Dissa with all community KIs reporting that “There are no problems with movement in terms of safety and security during the day, but services to be of low quality or non-existent. However, together with Al Hattiya, Al Dissa is part transport poses a problem, due to the lack of fuel.” Hence, highlighting that the main hindrances of the two muhallahs with the fewest electricity cuts, with only 8% of respondents in Al Dissa to movement during the day are not security-related but rather economic.

Map 1. Ubari baladiya and muhallahs

6 ABA Ubari Figure 2. % of citizens reporting poor conditions, by muhallah

Ubari city centre

Al Mashru

Poor Education Conditions Poor Health Conditions Al Shareb (East and West) Poor Housing Conditions Poor Living Conditions Poor Security Conditions Al Hattiya

Al Dissa

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Al Hattiya Together with Al Dissa, and Al Mashru, Al Hattiya is geographically disconnected from Ubari reported a good security situation. city centre making service provisions sparser or non-existent. This was also reflected among Al Mashru respondents of the citizen survey respondents reports of overall living conditions in their muhallah. 30% of respondents in Al Hattiya reported housing conditions to be poor, 35% of the respondents Basic service infrastructure and living conditions in Al Mashru are among the worst in Ubari rated the conditions of public healthcare facilities to be poor, and 23% reporting poor condition baladiya. 76% of respondents rated their living conditions to be poor highlighting respondents’ of the public school in their muhallah (n = 40). These issues were also echoed by the three concerns regarding the quality of their living conditions (n = 42). This coupled with 74% of interviewed community KIs. Community KIs also highlighted that there are no job opportunities respondents rating housing conditions poor, Al Mashru respondents highlighted the muhallah as in Al Hattiya and respondents must go to Ubari city centre for livelihood opportunities. 13% of having the worst conditions. All respondents surveyed rated public healthcare facilities as poor. respondents reported electricity cuts, which together with Al Dissa are the muhallahs that are the Findings from the FGDs with healthcare personnel clarified that Al Mashru public hospital is open least affected by electricity cuts. for vaccination, however, no other services are provided and citizens have to go to Ubari city centre or access public healthcare outside Ubari. 15% of respondents also reported that they 38% of respondents considered the security situation in Al Hattiya to be at a good level, making cannot access healthcare at all. 45% of respondents rated public schools’ as poor in Al Mashru, it one of the three muhallahs along with Al Mashru (44%) and Al Dissa (31%) where respondents

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yet again, highlighting the low quality of service provision according to respondents. whereas 60% do not feel safe. Thus, Al Shareb is the muhallah where the fewest respondents feel safe and one of the muhallahs with the most respondents being concerned for the security 95% of respondents in Al Mashru reported electricity cuts, of which mostly happen over the situation and ranking it as poor, together with respondents of Ubari city centre, where 66% of Summer. According to respondents, all muhallahs in Ubari have running water in their homes, respondents reported the security situation as poor (n = 41). Two of the community KIs interviewed however, Al Mashru is the only muhallah where the water is not drinkable in all locations. 57% in Al Shareb highlighted the security situation to be good. of respondents reported that the water coming from the tap in their home was not drinkable. Al Mashru is also among one of the worst affected muhallahs in terms of water outages, with 71% of Ubari City centre respondents reporting such disruptions, and 73% of these respondents reporting that the outages While respondents of other muhallahs reported having to go to Ubari city centre for public service were affecting them for more than 15 hours per week. provision such as health and education 73% of respondents rated public healthcare facilities Despite low service provision and limited economic opportunities in Al Mashru, respondents as poor. On the other hand, 24% of respondents reported the schooling as good, which is reported that they felt safe within Al Mashru during the day. 44% of Al Mashru respondents the highest among muhallahs (n = 41). Electricity cuts affect Ubari city centre frequently with considered the security situation within their muhallah to be good, the highest reported across all 83% of respondents reporting being affected. Together with Al Shareb (East and West) and Al muhallahs. However, one community KI reported that this was only the case during the day, and Mashru, Ubari city centre is among the muhallahs the worst affected by electricity cuts, with 73% that there were more risks at night. of respondents affected. Among the respondents who reported electricity cuts, 77% of affected respondents reported the power cuts to last between 2 to 5 hours per week. Al Shareb (East and West) Despite having reported better living conditions than in other muhallahs, the security situation Al Shareb (East and West) are the areas of Ubari city centre that are to the East and West of the reported by respondents was the poorest among Ubari’s muhallahs, with 66% of respondents actual city centre. The distinction was made to reflect the socioeconomic and cultural differences reporting the security situation to be poor, which constituted the highest percentage across all of the two areas. It also became apparent in the citizens survey i.e. with citizens of Al Shareb five muhallahs. (East and West) having to travel to Ubari city centre to access public healthcare and schools. 32% of respondents rated education in their muhallah as poor, however, it is worth noting that 38% of respondents did not know of public schools in their muhallah and reported children going to school in Ubari city centre instead. Al Shareb (East and West) respondents are reportedly the most affected by electricity cuts together with respondents of Al Mashru. 91% of respondents from Al Shareb (East and West) reported electricity cuts (n = 47), and also reported that electricity cuts were more prevalent over the Summer. Similar trends to the Al Mashru muhallah were observed for access to water, where all households have access to running water in their homes, however, in Al Shareb (East and West) 66% of respondents reported water outages. Among the respondents who reported water outages, 84% reported the issue to affect them during 2 to 5 hours per week. Only 5% of respondents of Al Shareb (East and West) reported feeling safe within their muhallah,

8 ABA Ubari Urban growth Ubari has witnessed significant urban growth since the 1990s.30 Urban growth did not progress Due to the stagnation of infrastructural development, areas that came to existence or grew from the centre to the peripheral muhallahs, but parallel and gradually in each muhallah. The significantly in the last 20 years, are often not officially connected to water or electricity networks. areas with the most considerable urban expansion over the last 30 years are Al Shareb (East In discussions on basic infrastructure of water and electricity networks, a distinction is made and West), and Al Mashru (see map 2). Areas within the city centre, such as the Al Turkiat between officially and ‘randomly’ connected areas. The latter refers to a type of connection that neighbourhood, have faced considerable population growth over the years (see map 2). has been constructed without the official approval, regulation, or planning of the supervising company (in this case the General Electricity Company, the Water and Sanitation Authorities, or Statements of KIs overlapped with analysis of satellite imagery of urban growth and basic utility the municipal Project Development Office). Random connections are generally constructed by networks, illustrate the stagnation of infrastructural development since the February revolution of residents themselves with support of private companies, using privately purchased materials, 2011. Areas that developed after this period, mostly on the urban periphery, as well as areas with often in extension of the official public network. stark population growth, are facing the consequences of either the absence of infrastructure or lack of infrastructural capacity to cope with over usage.

Map 2. Urban growth since 1990s

9 ABA Ubari Mobility: Road infrastructure, fuel, and transport Participants of the mapping focus group discussion (MFGD) identified six main roads in and fuel. Due to the commercial focus on Ubari City Centre, the geographical distance can complicate around Ubari, as highlighted in map 3. These roads are the only way to travel in or out of Ubari access to services and governance mechanisms for populations living in the periphery. with the airport being closed since 2015.31 Accordingly, the area is entirely dependent on this The Airport in Ubari remains closed, but agreements and plans are made for the reopening of the transport modality to access supplies as well as services that are not available or only limitedly airport in the near future. Ubari Airport has undergone several closures and reopenings over the available in Ubari. One health KI indicated that travel between Ubari and Sebha is complicated years, making air travel largely unreliable. Civil society has led several initiatives for maintenance due to damage to public roads, which may negatively impact the well-being of Ubari’s residents. and upkeep of the airport in preparation of the airport reopening over the years, including cleaning 33 Difficulties traveling are amplified by the barriers to accessing affordable fuel. South of Libya has campaigns and reconstruction efforts. The closure of the airport limits access to and from the been facing a fuel crisis for years, with a lack of subsidized fuel supplies and most of the fuel remote region, for essential materials and supplies to operate services in Ubari, as well as for being sold through the parallel market, significantly increasing the cost.32 Respondents across people looking to access education, health, or other types of assistance in other regions or all data components indicated the difficulties and challenges faced due to the lack of (subsidized) outside Libya. Map 3. Main roads in Ubari

10 ABA Ubari Vertical and horizontal social cohesion responsibility in negotiating and resolving inter-tribal conflicts and social disputes. Social councils reportedly also act as a link between their community or tribe and bureaucratic authorities, and Local governance mechanisms partake in political dialogue and decision-making on behalf of them. Local governance mechanisms in Ubari baladiya consist of both formal and traditional governance Civil society reportedly plays an important role in Ubari. Across data collection components, the stakeholders. Formal governance stakeholders, or bureaucratic stakeholders, include all official role of civil society organizations and local initiatives was frequently highlighted in light of service authorities and governing bodies that have legal jurisdiction and are formally responsible over provision and peacebuilding and reconciliation. aspects regarding governance of a certain region. This includes the municipal council as well as muhallah councils/mukhtars. While the social councils are the traditional governance bodies in Horizontal social cohesion Ubari, and have authority based on cultural or social history; but do not have any official legal Horizontal social cohesion can be understood as the readiness of population groups and jurisdiction. communities to cooperate with each other (intra communal social cohesion) and with other The Ubari municipal council consists of seven members, including one female seat. The communities (inter-communal social cohesion). municipal council was elected after democratically held elections in April 2019.34 Frequent public Following the inter-communal conflict that lasted from 2014 to 2018, the three main population announcements and updates that concern Ubari municipality can be found on the municipality’s groups in Ubari have reportedly co-existed in a so-called state of ‘cold peace’. This implies that public Facebook profile. The municipality holds different departments, among which are the while the situation is stable, social tensions between the population groups remain and may department of Social Affairs, the department of Women’s Affairs, the Security Office, and the possibly flare up. Accordingly, community KIs across all muhallahs highlighted the importance of Project Development office. Every muhallah (Ubari City Centre, Al Mashru, Al Dissa, andAl peacebuilding and reconciliation efforts to improve intercommunal relations between population Hattiya) has its own muhallah mukhtar, or local council, which is a bureaucratic governance groups in the city, as well as within specific neighbourhoods. Several community KIs across all stakeholder on the muhallah level. 35 They are a part of the municipal administration, however, geographic areas indicated that the consolidation of peaceful coexistence should be considered they do not have any executive authority.36 Due to its proximity to the population, the muhallah as the foundation to development and reconstruction in the area. One community KI stated that mukhtar plays a key role acting as a link between citizens and authorities, providing political the implementation of development projects in absence of peace and stability, can potentially representation and advocating for local needs and issues related to availability of services.37 lead to an increase of tensions. Therefore, the muhallah mukhtar is a primary stakeholder to help obtain and maintain access to populations, as well as to understand local needs and challenges. The muhallah mukhtar When inquired how social relations can be improved within their muhallah or in the city, the generally holds responsibility over civil and administrative matters, such as the certification of responses of community KIs illustrate the need for an intersectional and integrative approach, legal documentation. Occasionally, the mukhtar reportedly also provides support, in coordinating encompassing societal, infrastructural, economic, and political factors. operations and procedures for cash and local aid distributions, in collaboration with CSOs or First of all, community KIs reported the need for improving mutual understanding for cultural NGOs. differences between communities, suggesting this could be achieved through dialogues and Ubari also has five social councils, for Ahali, Tuareg, and Tebu. Social councils are traditional awareness raising sessions with citizens from different population groups. Community KIs authorities, made up of the family elders and notables within each tribe or community.38,39 As it is also suggested that the organizing of more social events such as festivals and sports activities common in Libya, social councils in Ubari play a key role in peace and reconciliation, and hold the could contribute to improving intercommunal ties. The weekly market in Al Dissa muhallah was one example of an event and location where people from all groups come together on a

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frequent basis. Both governance KIs and community KIs highlighted the valuable contribution Figure 3. Types of governance actors that respondents feel represented by on a local political of sports events towards social cohesion. Recent sports activities include a local marathon, an level, by muhallah equestrian competition, and regular football events where local teams competed against each other. Governance KIs and community KIs alike explained that sports events are particularly Ubari city centre valuable for improving community relations and breaking away from social and cultural divisions, The municipal council as sports activities are attended by all population groups in society, regardless of origin, tribal or political affiliation. That said, due to cultural and religious dynamics, sports events are usually not Al Mashru Notables and elders attended by women. My social council However, women attend other public social events, and only 4% of the female respondents in the Al Shareb (East and West) citizen survey (n = 101) reported that they never attended any public social events. The inclusion My mukhtar muhalla/local council of women in future events, as well as awareness raising sessions on women’s emancipation and rights, were also reported by several governance and community KIs to help improve social Al Hattiya A local Youth Association cohesion. Community KIs reported that the total number of social activities and events had gone I don’t feel represented by any down over the past year, due to COVID-19 outbreak. Other challenging factors in organizing Al Dissa governance actors activities were the lack of capacity or budget. All type of events, including dialogue and awareness raising sessions, sports activities, and cultural festivals, were reportedly mostly organized by or 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% with the support of youth associations, sports clubs, and local CSOs. Community KIs from Al Dissa highlighted the need to assure the fair geographical spread of activities overall muhallahs improved economic investments and job opportunities. instead of primarily focusing on Ubari city centre, to improve access for all population groups in the municipality. Vertical social cohesion Vertical social cohesion refers to the readiness of population groups and governance stakeholders Secondly, community KIs highlighted benefits of eliminating the competition over both economic to cooperate with each other.40 Several community KIs reported that diversifying political resources as well as over service infrastructure and development. KIs explained the importance representation could improve intercommunal ties, illustrating the close relations between vertical of improved access to services, as well as the equal distribution of infrastructural development and horizontal social cohesion. Community KIs stated that political dialogue sessions as well as projects, as lack of services and unequal distribution across muhallahs and neighbourhoods equal distribution of decision-making positions in the municipality could increase participation. could lead to increased tensions caused by competition over limited resources. It was repeatedly highlighted by community KIs that the improvement of living conditions for all population groups Vertical social cohesion in Ubari remains weak. 34% of respondents (n = 210) reported that they could ease tensions and improve tolerance and acceptance. do not feel represented by any governance body or actor at a local political level, most notably 53% of respondents in Al Shareb (East and West) (n = 47) and 43% of respondents in Al Mashru Accordingly, throughout the programme design and implementation phase, it is crucial that (n = 42). 22% of respondents reported that they feel represented by the municipal council at a planned activities are geographically distributed across all muhallahs and population groups, with local political level, followed by a local youth association (19% of respondents), and notables consideration for area-specific challenges and needs. In a similar vein, KIs reported the need for

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and elders (9% of respondents), the social council (8% of respondents), and lastly, the muhallah in Al Mashru refrained from answering this question as they considered it too sensitive. Hence, mukhtar/local council. However, vertical cohesion is not uniform within Ubari baladiya. reflecting the strained vertical social cohesion in the muhallah, similarly, when asking about if respondents trust their municipalities to provide them with basic services, 50% of respondents do Despite the municipal council providing representation for the largest group of respondents from not want to answer the question. the citizen survey, this is not the case in Al Shareb (East and West) and Al Mashru. Instead local youth organisations play a significant role in Al Mashru (34% of respondents), Al Hattiya (25% Both female and male respondents in general reported the same governance actor or body as of respondents), and Al Shareb (East and West - 17% of respondents). While in Al Hattiya (20% representing them at a local political level. However, most notably 55% of women in Ubari city of respondents – n = 40) and Al Dissa (18% of respondents), the local mukhtar muhallah/local centre (n = 20) did not feel represented at all, while all women in Al Dissa felt represented (n council play a role in representing respondents, while not at all in the other muhallahs. Hence, = 20), reflecting that gender dynamics within Ubari can differ among muhallahs and sense of these findings present different arenas for cohesion improvements within Ubari. representation varies.

Furthermore, 26% reported that citizens can talk to their local council, social council, or municipal Beyond representation at a political level, respondents were asked about who they would go council if they have a concern about the situation in their muhallah. However, 14% of respondents to if they had a complaint about a service. In general, 68% of respondents in Ubari do not trust

Map 4. Unofficial connections to the public electricity grid

13 ABA Ubari

their municipality to provide them with basic services (n = 210). The low levels of representation The development and expansion of the electricity grid came to a standstill on several occasions and expectations from respondents to their municipality was also reflected when asked about after the February revolution in 2011, due to deteriorating security conditions and the forced where they would go to address different service issues. If there are challenges with water, evacuation of international staff working on the Ubari Power Plant.42 As such, the infrastructural sewage, waste, and/or electricity services, respondents would go to either the providers or pay capacity and electricity network has not developed along with the urban expansion and population a private contractor (50% of respondents). While addressing healthcare services related issues, growth Ubari witnessed throughout the years. To cope with the lack of infrastructural development, respondents would raise their needs with the facility manager (56%), and in order to address citizens living in peripheral areas have increasingly connected their residences to the public grid education needs respondents would go directly to the public-school administration (85%). on their own initiative with the help of private companies. Using privately purchased (or otherwise acquired) material such as wires and cables, residents tap electricity from the public power grid. Services Households in residencies and areas that are randomly connected to the electricity grid do not Electricity pay for electricity and the electricity company cannot disconnect them. According to electricity KIs, the inability to disconnect randomly constructed connections had to do with organizational Characteristics security risks related to the population’s large weapon caches. The electricity in Ubari is sourced from the Ubari Gas Turbine Power Plant, a 640-MW capacity Streetlight infrastructure gas turbine power plant operated by crude oil.41 The construction of the power plant was commissioned in 2007, but construction efforts had to be suspended on several occasions There are very few areas in Ubari with operational street lights or even existing infrastructure. related to deterioration of the security situation following the February revolution in 2011. By Electricity KIs reported that there are street lights along the main road around Al Hattiya and 2017, construction of the power plant was completed. Two out of four turbines of 160-MW each Al Dissa, but the system is old and needs general maintenance. In 2020, the United Nations were reportedly operationalized by local experts and connected to the power grid in 2018, to Development Programme (UNDP) constructed a solar powered streetlight system along the main help alleviate rolling blackouts in the region. The electricity KIs stated that the gas turbine power entrance road between the airport and the city centre. According to UNDP, this has significantly plant is currently still operating at half of its capacity, with only two out of four combustion turbines changed the quality of life of residents in this area, since they were given the opportunity to have 43 feeding into the public electricity grid. businesses remain open after dark and move around more freely during the night.

Electricity KIs indicated that Ubari has three types of power stations: one high voltage station; Challenges two medium-voltage 66/11-KV transmission stations (one in the city centre and one in Al Dissa); Like in the rest of Libya and especially Fezzan, residents of Ubari face frequent power outages. and 33 low-voltage 11/0.4-KV distribution stations, which distribute the power supplies throughout There are different causes to the power outages in Ubari. The available supply cannot meet the the city. electricity demand in the region. To manage the distribution of the electricity supplies and save the All neighbourhoods are reportedly connected to the public electricity network, but houses in network from collapse, GECOL imposes frequent rolling blackouts, also known as rotational load neighbourhoods that saw much uncontrolled urban growth are largely connected to the public grid shedding. Frequency of rolling blackouts reportedly increases during summer, as the demand for ‘randomly’, i.e. without the permission, regulation, or supervision from GECOL or the municipal electricity goes up as the temperatures rise, while supplies remain the same. Electricity services office for Project Development (as explained under ‘urban growth’). A geographical overview of KIs reported the rotational load shedding affects the whole city equally. During winter, rolling ‘randomly’ connected neighbourhoods can be found in map 4 above. blackouts occur, but not as frequently as during summer. GECOL provides daily updates on

14 ABA Ubari

total hours of rolling blackouts per region on their Facebook page, as well as contact details for has the specific responsibility to support GECOL locally, but according to the electricity KIs the residents around Libya to report outages. municipality currently has no capacity to do so. Both GECOL and the municipal council reported the lack of financial means to support the development of the electricity network locally. Electricity service KIs also indicated that failure of constructions and overloading of the network lead to additional outages: areas with random connections to the electricity grid reportedly In 2007, GECOL commissioned the Turkish company ENKA Teknik for the construction of the Ubari face more electricity outages than those with official connections. Accordingly, this causes a Gas Turbine Power Plant, in a turnkey project consisting of four 160-MW Siemens (the German geographical disparity in frequency of power outages during winter months. company) combustion generators.49 Unfortunately, after mobilization in 2010, the project was suspended on several occasions following the February revolution in 2011, due to deteriorating The impact of power outages and the absence of reliable electricity permeate every aspect of security situation. In 2017, the kidnapping of four ENKA employees led to the complete suspension life in Ubari and are the root cause of a lot of service capacity gaps, as businesses and service of the project for the third time, as all Siemens and ENKA staff were evacuated.50 facilities may face difficulties continuing operations without electricity. While generators can be purchased and used to cope with frequent electricity outages, this solution offers only limited UNDP has implemented several infrastructure maintenance and development projects in recent possibilities for relief in Ubari, due to the difficulties accessing affordable fuel.44 years, including the construction of solar powered street lights and solar panels for the General Hospital.51 Development priorities and plans Recent solar energy projects launched by UNDP, such as the construction of solar powered street lights45 and installation of solar panels in the General Hospital,46 demonstrate the benefits of alternative energy sources in Ubari and South Libya as a whole. A recent study published by the Elsevier public Health Emergency Collection showed that Libya has among the highest solar irradiations in the world, with levels reportedly sufficient to feed both Libya and Europe with solar energy.47

The Sebha ABA found that random connections complicated maintenance of the electricity grid, as well as the development of improvement plans, due to a lack of comprehensive maps of how random networks are laid out.48 Based on the similarities between the context and situation, these difficulties should also be anticipated in Ubari.

Governance stakeholders Electricity provision in Ubari and across other baladiyas in Libya falls under the responsibility of GECOL, which is under the Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energies in Tripoli. Municipal development and reconstruction plans are generally coordinated between the local GECOL office, the ministry, the project development office, and municipal council of Ubari. The municipality

15 ABA Ubari Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Other neighbourhoods are self-reliant for their water needs. Areas on the periphery of Ubari baladiya face the most difficulties in accessing water. Al Dissa and Al Hattiya are the furthest Characteristics removed from the network. In areas that are not connected to the public grid, a local network is Water network directly connected to the nearest water sources, or buildings are connected to the nearest water sources, which can be either agricultural wells or public wells. Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) services KIs reported that only the main neighbourhoods in the Ubari city centre and Al Eamarat are connected to the public water network. Generally, households in Ubari can access water from the public network, however, some households do rely on a public water network that does not meet their needs. WASH service KIs Map 5. Water and sewage network connected and unconnected areas reported that 75% of households in Ubari have access to water in their residence through the public water network, or through ‘secondary sources’. 15% of the population is often not reached by the public water network due to leaks in the network (along the lines) or because of the weak pressure. These estimates were reaffirmed by the answers from the citizen’s survey. The last 10% do not get water from the network because they are too far removed from the network or from secondary water sources. These estimates from WASH service KIs correspond with data from the Multi-Sector Needs Assessment (MSNA), where 15% of households in Ubari reported

Figure 4. % of respondents experiencing public water network disruptions, by muhallah

Ubari city centre

Al Mashru

Al Shareb (East and West)

Al Hattiya

Al Dissa

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Yes No

16 ABA Ubari Figure 5. % of respondents being connected to the sewage network, by muhallah that they rely on the public water network but either never or rarely had access in the past 7 days.52 Ubari city centre Comparing accessibility to the water network with the water being possible to drink, however, show a different picture for respondents of Al Mashru, where 57% of respondents reported the Al Mashru water coming from the public water network not being possible to drink (n = 42). While 52% of respondents reported that they experience cuts from the public water network, however, it Al Shareb (East and West) differs from muhallah to muhallah with Al Mashru respondents being the worst affected. 71% of respondents in Al Mashru reported water cuts, and 52% reported water cuts to last for more than Al Hattiya 15 hours per week.

Sewage and sanitation Al Dissa Only about half of the municipality is connected to the sewage network; the city centre and 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% peripheral neighbourhoods. The only neighbourhoods covered are the Al Eamarat, the Turkish neighbourhood, the city centre, a small part of the municipal district (baladiya), and some parts of Yes No Al Dissa. Areas that are not connected include: Al Mashru, majority of Al Dissa, Zawiya, Al Shareb (East and West). 80% of respondents reported not being connected to the sewage system (n poor materials and equipment that have aged and gotten damaged. The network is approximately = 210). Areas that are not connected rely on black wells.53 However, only 54% of respondents 40 years old and is not working properly anymore. Additionally, there is not enough budget to reported having a private black well. There is no operational treatment facility in Ubari, but black maintain the system and purchase materials with higher longevity. well water is disposed of in a sewage dump behind the Al Shareb neighbourhood. WASH KIs Uncontrolled urban growth in Ubari city centre and the periphery have put increased pressure reported that there is only one municipal vacuum truck and one operated by a private company, on the system. Especially in densely populated areas, the infrastructure cannot keep up with hence presenting a large challenge for meeting respondents’ daily sewage and sanitation needs. the population growth, thus resulting in damages to the network. Hence, when flooding occurs, The sewage drainage network consists of two lines – an old and a new pipeline. The old line the impact in densely populated areas is aggravated. The Al Eamarat neighbourhood has a big covers the city centre and few neighbourhoods in the periphery up to the sewage dump in Al population, and consequently the network has gotten damaged. Shareb (East and West). The new line only covers residential buildings and is connected to the Development priorities and plans first line, however, they are constructed on different levels. Development priorities and plans for Ubari should be to expand the formal connection of the water Challenges network and build upon the sewage system, such that more respondents would have access to The operational failure and lack of functioning sewage networks was reportedly one of the major the public system and respondents WASH needs can be better met. Short-term development infrastructural challenges that required attention according to KIs across all data collection priorities particularly for sewage systems would be investments in additional vacuum trucks components. WASH KIs indicated that the water and sewage network is weak, due to the use of for black wells to ensure respondents’ sanitation needs are met, while medium to long-term development priorities ought to be development of the sewage network such that more of Ubari’s

17 ABA Ubari

respondents would be connected to the public sewage network, and that the network would be disconnect of vertical social cohesion for respondents to be heard when encountering problems updated with higher quality materials with longer longevity. with public utilities such as water, sewage, and/or waste.

Governance stakeholders Health

According to WASH KIs, GWWC together with the city’s infrastructure office is in close contact Characteristics to discuss solutions for challenges respondents face, however, this is only at a preliminary The health sector in Ubari is under a lot of strain and needs urgent improvement and support. scoping stage and discussions are happening without any implementation plan for any potential Health KIs and data collection through direct observation showed that there are currently five projects. The project implementation apparatus lies with the executive office, which hires private public health facilities in Ubari, one of which is the General Hospital located in Ubari city centre, companies for any construction work. Despite such standstill in expanding the network, 50% of as illustrated in map 6. FGD participants reported that while some facilities need maintenance respondents would contact the public company or a service provider to fix any challenges with or construction work, public health clinics are generally in good condition. However, facilities are water, sewage, and/or waste (n = 210). However, 67% of respondents in Al Mashru reported that only partially or non-operational due to a lack of medical staff or equipment. According to FGD there is nowhere to go with these types of complaints (n = 42). Hence, it seems that there is a participants, the General Hospital is the only public facility currently providing health services. Map 6. Health and education facilities

18 ABA Ubari

The General Hospital in Ubari was recently renovated by UNDP, providing the hospital with solar There are currently no COVID-19 isolation facilities in Ubari, nor is there any testing capacity. panels to mitigate the consequences of frequent electricity outages.54 The nearest isolation centres can be found in Al Grefa and Bintt Baya municipality, at respectively about 30 and 60 kilometres from Ubari. For COVID-19 testing, samples can be taken in Ubari, but Based on operational updates from the health sector from January 2021, Al Dissa healthcare these have to be transported to Al Grefa, Bint Bayya, or Sebha for results. Transport of samples is partially functioning, and Al Mashru public hospital is open for vaccination, while Al Hattiya and personnel are complicated, due to barriers to accessing affordable fuel and transportation. public hospital and Ubari Polyclinic are closed. However, health FGD participants as well as community KIs reported that public health services in Al Mashru, Al Dissa, and Al Hattiya are Challenges either insufficient or non-existent. The most pressing issue in the public health sector in Ubari is the lack of resources, including In terms of access requirements, FGD participants reported that everyone in Ubari can access medical and administrative staff, medical supplies and equipment, as well as medicine. Ubari public healthcare and that patients are not obliged to provide legal documents, except in case General Hospital is currently the only location that has medical staff, albeit not sufficient to of childbirth in order to prove paternity. FGD participants highlighted that the same requirements meet the needs of the population. FGD participants reported that the following services are apply to IDPs and migrants. currently unavailable or insufficiently available in Ubari: gynaecology and obstetrics; optometry

Map 7. Routes and price estimates

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and ophthalmology; orthopedics; cardiology; oncology; and radiology. Furthermore, the blood muhallah, and 11% repot not being able to access a doctor at all (n = 210). bank in Ubari is currently non-operational. While the blood bank reportedly has sufficient beds and refrigerators, it is reportedly in need of trained medical staff and supplies, as well as donors. Figure 6. Access to healthcare facilities 1% Lack of staff 3% 1% I get public healthcare 11% outside of Ubari municipality The lack of doctors and the subsequent lack of services was among the most frequently Ubari city centre reported challenges within the public health sector in Ubari. FGD participants indicated that the mismanagement of human resources in the public sector laid at the source of the problem. FGD Own muhallah participants explained that the same doctors that are employed in public health facilities, also 11% perform services in private health facilities. Consequently, doctors reportedly fail to attend their 51% I can't access any public shifts in the public health facilities. Additionally, medical staff as well as administrative staff face healthcare difficulties reaching facilities, due to security and transportation difficulties. The difficulty to attract Private healthcare and maintain medical professionals has led to the lack of many services being available locally. FGD participants indicated that due to the lack of specialists, it is currently also unassessed which Al Mashru equipment is needed for specialist services to be provided adequately. 22% Al Dissa Due to the lack of public medical services, Ubari residents often seek medical attention in either private clinics or outside of Ubari. There are several private clinics in Ubari, but FGD participants reported that these clinics often lack the necessary equipment, and one participant indicated Development priorities and plans that safety standards are below par. For those seeking medical services outside Ubari, the most Poor quality and lack of health services were highlighted by respondents across all data collection frequently reported destinations were Al Ghrayfa, Sebha, Misrata, and Tripoli. Health and social components, and improvement of the health sector was among the most frequently reported protection FGD participants, both indicated that health services for people with special needs, development priorities for Ubari as a whole. such as physiotherapy, could not be accessed in Ubari and were only available in Al Ghrayfa. Health FGD participants also reported that in the past, respondents of Ubari travelled abroad for Health FGD participants and community KIs indicated that expansion of the health sector needs healthcare, for instance to Tunisia. However, this had become increasingly difficult as it became immediate attention. The suggestion is that non-operational public health facilities in Al Hattiya, significantly more expensive since the devaluation of the LYD.55 Al Dissa, Al Mashru and Ubari city centre should be operationalized to increase population access to public health services as well as take off the pressure from the Ubari General Hospital. Generally, seeking medical assistance in private clinics or outside Ubari is difficult, due to the closure of the airport, transportation costs, and lack of fuel. Therefore, low-income households Health FGD participants highlighted that in order to attract and retain more healthcare workers may face difficulties receiving medical help for services that are not available in public services and medical staff, improvements of HR regulations were paramount, including better benefits and within the municipality. 50% of respondents reported that they have to go outside Ubari to see higher salaries. a doctor, while 22% would go to Ubari city centre to be able to access a doctor outside their

20 ABA Ubari Governance stakeholders Education

Health FGD participants indicated that there is no clear coordination structure within the health Characteristics sector in Ubari. Health FGD participants reported that the municipal council in Ubari has not yet reinstated a municipal health department since the end of the war in 2018. Through consolidation There are four primary schools in Ubari in respective Al Mashru, Al Hattiya, Al Dissa, and one private of governance KIs and health FGD participants, the primary health actors in Ubari that were primary school in Al Shareb (East and West), while there are four secondary schools with one in identified include the Ubari Health Services Centre, which is currently located in Al Ghrayfa, Al Mashru, two in Ubari city centre, and one in Al Dissa. FGD participants unanimously reported the director of the Ubari General Hospital, and the general managers of public and private that for children to be able to attend primary and public school in Ubari legal documentation is health facilities. Furthermore, two health FGD participants also mentioned UNDP and Repsol required. 35% of households in Ubari are missing some form of legal documentation, therefore 57 as primary health actors in Ubari potentially due to UNDP renovation of the General Hospital in some children in Ubari will be excluded from accessing primary and secondary education. Ubari, providing the hospital with solar panels to mitigate the consequences of frequent electricity Costs associated with attending public education in Ubari include school supplies, uniforms, as 56 outages. well as transportation. Two FGD participants highlighted particularly that high fuel prices have

Map 8. Health and education facilities

21 ABA Ubari

a large impact on the prices for transportation and can similarly cause large fluctuations in the concerns for lack of universities and specializations available for students causing students to costs of sending children to school. Data from the JMMI from March 2021 found that the median move to Tripoli or Misrata for further education. price for 1L gasoline is 1.75 LYD, making fuel prices in Ubari the 3rd highest in the country, thus forcing potential vulnerable households residing far from education facilities to spend a Development priorities and plans 58 significant proportion of their income on transportation. Poor quality of education facilities was highlighted by all FGD participants with the need for Ubari has two universities, The Ubari College of Education and the Sharia Law University, the improvement of the education sector prioritizing maintenance of buildings and sanitation both located in Ubari City Centre.59,60 Access to higher education is limited to individuals with infrastructure. Two FGD participants also highlighted that to improve education service provision, documentation of a Libyan birth certificate and family booklet, while only documented migrants teachers need to be paid a living wage in order to attract and retain teachers, ensuring the quality and refugees that have a residency certificate will be able to enrol at the universities. and number of classes being provided to children.

Challenges Governance stakeholders The Fezzan region, including Ubari, has historically been neglected by political and economic Governance KIs unanimously identified that the main education governance stakeholder in Ubari actors resulting in relatively weak public services.61,62 Overall, public primary and secondary is the Ubari Municipal Education Supervision Office. The Ubari Municipal Education Supervision education facilities in Ubari suffer from lack of resources and investment in education facilities, Office employs about 30-40 people and has the responsibility for the curriculum for primary and which in turn have resulted in lack of maintenance of damaged buildings, limited number of secondary schools. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education and follows central control in 64 classes, lack of education materials as well as sanitation infrastructure problems such as Al Jufra. A minority of governance KIs also informed that the Municipal Council through the water outages and clogging. In addition to structural education challenges, the majority of FGD Office of Programs is the governance stakeholder responsible for the development apparatus participants highlighted the economic situation of households and the challenges faced when it including maintenance and renovation operations. Furthermore, United Nations Children’s Fund comes to ability to pay for the transportation of children to school. Majority of FGD participants (UNICEF), through its local implementing partner Al Safwa, are the only international and national highlighted issues of sanitation infrastructure, while all FGD participants highlighted concerns for NGOs active in Ubari. However, none of the Education FGD participants had knowledge of these lack of resources and investment in education in Ubari. As a result, households that can afford activities. private education facilities transfer their children to private schools in Ubari. Furthermore, two governance KIs mentioned Sebha University as a main education governance Furthermore, a minority of FGD participants raised concerns for children’s safety on their way stakeholder in Ubari. Sebha University is the higher education institution behind the Ubari College 65 to school including harassment and kidnappings. Extreme protection concerns were mentioned of Education. Hence, indicating a strong influence on the tertiary education programs available such as risks of kidnapping of children on their way to school. Concerns of kidnapping of in Ubari baladiya as one of the only two universities. children in Ubari were mentioned by a minority of households in the 2020 Multi-Sector Needs Social affairs Assessment. 11% of households reported concerns for boys being kidnapped, while 8% of households reported concerns of kidnapping of girls in Ubari.63 Characteristics Welfare and social services are organized by the municipal Social Affairs Office and executed The Ubari College of Education and the Sharia Law University are the only two options for students to obtain a higher education in Ubari. Hence, a minority of FGD participants raised

22 ABA Ubari

by departments of the Social Solidarity Fund Ubari Branch, and the Social Security Fund Ubari from the Social Affairs FGD, the primary target population for the social solidarity branch in Ubari Branch. Despite social services being organized by the municipality, it is worth noting that among are adults and children with special needs and/or physical disabilities. Accordingly, in order to the 40% of respondents that reported having needed social services (n = 84), only 7% had receive support from the social solidarity fund, people are required to provide a recent medical accessed such social services (n = 14). support form from a health specialist, documents from the civil registry, birth certificate and/or an identity card, a letter from the Ministry of Finance stating that there is no income or commercial Social Security Fund license, and pass photos. One FGD participant also stated that the presence of a medical As in the rest of Libya, the Social Security Fund is in charge of pensions and retirements. Social committee might be required upon registration, in order to assess the severity of the disability. security pensions are based on contributions paid by individuals or their public sector employer The Social Solidarity Fund can provide basic pensions to unemployed people with special and disbursed after retirement or death, or when the individual is left unable to perform their work needs or disabilities. One FGD participant reported that families with children with special needs and earn an income. If the individual is employed in the public sector, their employer will pay their receive an additional pension of 450 LYD. There are no services in Ubari municipality for adults monthly contributions from a percentage of the salary. If the individual is employed in the private or children with special needs or physical disabilities, but FGD participants stated that there are sector or self-employed, he or she is themselves responsible for paying the monthly contributions several education centres and a rehabilitation centre available in Al Ghrayfa, set up by the Social to the fund in order to receive a pension upon retirement. As explained by FGD participants, Solidarity Fund. Additionally, while orphans whose parents paid contribution to the Social Security privately employed or self-employed individuals will need to submit legal documents including Fund will receive their pension, orphans whose parents did not pay contribution or whose parents identity papers, documentation from the civil registry and mukhtar muhallah, proof of business remain unidentified will be provided for by the Social Solidarity Fund. FGD participants indicated ownership (if applicable) and a set of pass photos to the social security service office. For the that the Ubari branch of the Social Solidarity Fund has also provided ad-hoc financial and in-kind pension to be turned out upon retirement, the individual will have to provide the social security support to IDPs. service office with proof of business ownership or employment, as well as proof and overview of paid monthly contributions. The Social security service centre is located in the city centre of Ubari. Challenges FGD participants indicated that in case of the death of the rightful receiver, the pension will be There are three primary structural challenges with regard to welfare and social services provision turned over to his or her spouse and/or direct descendants. Orphans whose parents had the in Ubari. Firstly, there are not enough services for vulnerable population groups due to the right to a pension from the social security fund will also receive the pension. Social Affairs FGD municipality’s budget deficit. Secondly, the Social Solidarity Fund’s office is located in Al Ghrayfa participants indicated that sons are entitled to receiving the pension up until the age of 18 or until making it either expensive or inaccessible for some groups in Ubari to register for the services. they find employment, and daughters are entitled to receiving the pension until they get married, Third, and lastly, families must provide a recent medical support form from a health specialist find employment, or pass away. to access the Social Solidarity Fund’s services, which can prove difficult with lack of medical specialists in Ubari. Social Solidarity Fund A challenge that cuts across service provision for most vulnerable households is the cost of The Social Solidarity Fund, or the Zakat Fund, supports vulnerable Libyan population groups. transportation to reach a particular service, and access to services such as support for people This can include service provision and support for people with special needs, as well as providing with special needs and pensions not covered by the Social Security Fund can only be accessed a basic pension for people who are not covered by the Social Security Fund. Based on findings through registration at the Social Solidarity Fund’s office in Al Ghrayfa. Data from the JMMI from

23 ABA Ubari

March 2021 found that the median price for 1L gasoline is 1.75 LYD, making fuel prices in Ubari at the centre were mentioned in the social protection FGD. Similarly, WFP work through local the 3rd highest in the country, thus forcing potential vulnerable households not residing in Al implementation partner Al Taher Al Zawy/Zaawi with food distributions were mentioned among Ghrayfa to spend a significant proportion of their income on transportation.66 governance KIs. This finding was echoed by three of community KIs when asked to highlight the three main assistance programmes in their community. One governance KI also mentioned IOM’s Development priorities and plans peacebuilding and migration activities. These activities were also mentioned by a community KIs There are two main service development priorities for the social service sector in Ubari. Firstly, when asked to highlight the three main assistance programmes in their community, particularly social protection FGD participants highlighted that priorities include the development of an online the aid provided to the Tebu community by Abwab Al Salam Charity organization with the support database for the Social Security Fund which would integrate modern technologies into the Fund’s of the IOM. Red Cross and Red Crescent activities were also highlighted by five community work and ensure more efficient database management and provide a solid basis for needs analysis. KIs when asked to highlight the three main assistance programmes in their community, where Such needs analysis will make the Social Security Fund better equipped for understanding the COVID-19 awareness campaign was mentioned. needs of the respondents of Ubari through and provide better targeted services for respondents, Governance KIs also reported on the activities of local NGOs and CSOs in Ubari. These include thus ensuring efficient use of their limited resources. Secondly, development priorities and plans Ubari Youth League/Association and Al Hattiya Youth Association, Azjer, Al Shafei Al Ansari include horizontal expansion of offices to increase the accessibility of social services to ensure Human Rights Association, South Organization for Peace and Electoral Awareness, Hama that the most vulnerable households needing the services the most will be able to access them, Al-Diyar Society for Development and Electoral Awareness and Al Taher Al Zawy/Zaawi. Four and reducing the barriers related to transportation. governance KIs mentioned the Ubari Youth League having a prominent role in the city with both Governance stakeholders providing workshops to reduce tribal post-war tensions and providing services and help such as cleaning, restoration, maintenance assistance, and similar tasks related to infrastructure activities. The primary governance stakeholders in Ubari are the municipal Social Affairs Office, and executed by the Social Security and the Social Solidarity Fund providing respectively pensions Six community KIs when asked about the main assistance programmes in their community and retirements, and provision and support for people with special needs. In addition to national highlighted their activities. Thus, highlighting how their activities are recognised across different governance stakeholders, both INGOs and local CSOs are active in Ubari. actors in Ubari. Two governance KIs reported Azjer as being an active CSO in Ubari with educational workshops on community rights for women and violence against women in the community as well Governance KIs reported knowledge of a number of INGOs being active in Ubari including as providing peacebuilding in the city among communities on working on youth capacity building. UNDP, World Food Programme (WFP), International Organization for Migration (IOM), USAID, These activities were also mentioned by four community KIs when asked to highlight the three ACTED, UNICEF, Peaceful Change Initiative, and Red Cross and Red Crescent. Majority of main assistance programmes in their community. South Organization for Peace and Electoral governance KIs mention UNDP and their activities within infrastructure in Ubari, highlighting their Awareness, Hamat Al-Diyar Society for Development and Electoral Awareness were mentioned visible presence in the mantika. This finding was echoed by seven community KIs when asked to by one governance KI for their work on electoral processes in the municipality and peacebuilding highlight the three main assistance programmes in their community reaffirming UNDP presence activities. Furthermore, Houmat Al Diyar Charity organization were mentioned by five community in Ubari, however, the community KIs also highlight that these improvements are limited to Ubari KIs when asked about the main assistance programmes in their community highlighting their city centre. Furthermore, UNDP’s currently ongoing maintenance work on the Social Studies activities on cultural events and societal change within the municipality. Centre in Ubari and the planned activities on training of specialists to work in social services

24 ABA Ubari Conclusion communities. This ABA was developed to understand the interlinkages between urban structures such Social cohesion as service provision and governance mechanisms in Ubari and promote the development of The structural challenges in Ubari have resulted in the most vulnerable populations being in evidence-based conflict-sensitive interventions. To better understand local needs, international peripheral muhallahs, where service delivery is less than par to central Ubari. Thus, the need for actors have to understand cities as a system, rather than analysing needs on a sector-by-sector the provision of services equally across muhallahs will be a determining factor in easing tensions basis because municipalities have considerable administrative authority and responsibility for and improving intercommunal tolerance and acceptance. Service provision and social cohesion core service provision. Furthermore, Libya is a diverse country, where community dynamics vary were found to be linked with the importance of peacebuilding and reconciliation efforts to improve from city to city, which emphasize the need for an area-based approach to ensure a tailored intercommunal relations between populations groups across Ubari. Dialogues and awareness engagement. Thus,the assessment focused on vertical and horizontal social cohesion dynamics, raising sessions were suggested as a way forward to improve mutual understanding for cultural service provision, and governance stakeholders’ dynamics. differences between communities. Additionally, social events such as festivals and sports activities Structural challenges have previously shown to bridge cultural differences and bring together population groups. The findings of the assessment indicate that service infrastructure and provision exist to a certain Development priorities and opportunities extent but are weak and significant differences are apparent between muhallahs. Particularly, The difference between service provision and quality highlighted in structural challenges areas with significant urban expansion over the last 30 years and areas that developed after the indicate the gap between urban planning and urban growth and the stagnation of infrastructural 2011 revolution, mostly on the urban periphery, have suffered from the absence of infrastructure or development since the revolution of February 2011. Thus, there is both short- and long-term lack of infrastructural capacity to cope with the over usage of the utility networks. These muhallahs opportunities for development projects in Ubari: include Al Shareb (East and West) and Al Mashru with the Al Mashru neighbourhood having faced a particularly stark unregulated growth since the 1990s. To overcome the infrastructural • Ubari’s geographical location provides a great potential for renewable energy options that development stagnation in the urban periphery and meet households’ needs, respondents have could relieve the electricity grid with additional supply of energy to meet the demand. resorted to connecting their homes to the water and electricity networks with help from private • While short-term development priorities particularly for sewage systems would be companies. investments in additional vacuum trucks for black wells to ensure respondents’ needs, There is a clear need for urban planning efforts across Ubari baladiya. The ad-hoc development medium- to long-term development priorities ought to be development of the sewage network of ‘randomly’ connected areas to the public electricity grid challenge both the maintenance of the such that more of Ubari’s respondents would be connected to the public sewage network. electricity grid and the development of improvement plans due to both the lack of comprehensive • Both for health and education services one core development priority mentioned was to maps of how random network are laid out and organizational security risks from disconnecting ensure a living wage and proper compensation of workers to avoid further brain drain to ‘randomly’ connected areas that are related to the widespread weaponization of the population. outside of Ubari. Supporting muhallahs in the urban periphery with increased access to consistent electricity, • Findings also clearly highlighted the need for immediate expansion of the health sector. The drinkable water from the public water network, connections to a functional sewage network, suggestion is that non-operational public health facilities in Al Hattiya, Al Dissa, Al Mashru, health and education services may be a conflict-sensitive avenue to decrease disparity between

25 ABA Ubari

and Ubari city centre should be operationalized to increase population access to public health services as well as take off the pressure from the Ubari General Hospital.

• Lastly, the findings of the assessment clearly suggested that access to social protection could be expanded with an online database for the Social Security Fund. Integrating modern technologies into the Fund’s work and ensuring more efficient database management would provide a solid base for needs analysis. Such needs analysis will make the Social Security Fund better equipped for understanding the needs of the respondents of Ubari and provide better targeted services, thus ensuring efficient use of their limited resources.

In order for the above mentioned development priorities and opportunities to be addressed by the international humanitarian, development, and peacebuilding actors present in Ubari baladiya, vertical and horizontal cohesion should be considered to ensure communities feel represented in the decision-making, and international actors engage with relevant local stakeholders in order to put together a sustainable stabilization plan for Ubari.

In conclusion, the findings illustrate the need for urban planning and the expansion of service provision including utilities. Both short- and long-term needs exist in Ubari with the need for ensuring drinkable water across all muhallahs, while ensuring development plans and priorities are developed to expand service and utility provision and quality in also peripheral muhallahs. Strengthened social cohesion through equal geographical development projects as well as peacebuilding and reconciliation activities are necessary to improve intercommunal relations between populations groups across Ubari. Hence, international organizations seeking to effectively operate in Ubari ought to consider both equal access to essential services across muhallahs and intercommunal ties. Equal access to essential services across all muhallahs would be one way to ensure improved intercommunal social cohesion, while improvements of vertical social cohesion would be another way to ensure improved horizontal social cohesion as i.e. diversification of political representation could improve intercommunal ties.

26 Annexes ABA Ubari Annex 1: Overview of tools and sampling frame LABEL METHOD OBJECTIVE STRUCTURE NUMBER OF SURVEYS INFORMANT TYPE SAMPLING

Scoping City/Institu- Understand municipal development priorities and information municipal Semi-structured 1 Municipal council members Purposive tion level gaps to inform research objectives FGD

Delineate neighbourhood boundaries and identify smallest Semi-structured: Participato- MFGD MFGD 1 Ubari residents Purposive geographic units within the municipality and muhallahs ry Mapping and FGD tool

Direct Direct obser- Map location of key infrastructure in each neighbourhood observa- Structured 10 (TBC) Ubari residents Purposive vation and operational status tion

City/insti- Service Assess health services, identify challenges regarding provi- Health administrators and Purposive & tution level Semi-structured 1 FGD sion and access, document priorities and development plans service providers snowballing FGD

City/insti- Assess education services, identify challenges regarding Service Education administrators Purposive & tution level provision and access, document priorities and development Semi-structured 1 FGD service providers snowballing FGD57 plans

City/insti- Assess protection and social services, identify challenges Service Social workers and admin- Purposive & tution level regarding provision and access, document priorities and Semi-structured 1 FGD istrators snowballing FGD development plans

27 Annexes ABA Ubari

Map electricity access, identify challenges regarding pro- Semi-structured: Participato- Purposive & snow- balling City/institu- vision and access, document priorities and development plans ry mapping, KII tool Electricity service pro- Service tion level, 2 viders, public company KIIs Mapping KII employees

Purposive & snow- balling City/institu- Identify challenges with water and sanitation in Ubari, Service Semi-structured: Participato- Water service providers, tion level, regarding water supply and sewage management, document 2 KIIs ry mapping, KII tool public company employees Mapping KII priorities and development plans

Identify interlinkage between formal and traditional gov- Municipal council mem- Gover- City/institu- ernance mechanisms on a city and neighbourhood level, as bers, social council mem- Purposive & snow- nance Semi-structured 11 tion level well as development priorities according to governance bers, community leaders balling KIIs stakeholders (mukhtars)

Neighbourhood represen- Community/ tatives, community lead- Purposive & snow- Commu- Discuss neighbourhood level social cohesion dynamics, com- muhallah Semi-structured 20 ers, influential persons, balling; disaggregat- nity KIIs munity decision-making, and community protection mechanisms -level KIIs service administrators, ed by neighbourhood etc.

Citizen Individual Identify perceptions of access and trust in decision-making Structured 210 City residents Purposive, disaggre- survey level mechanisms over services and security, and assess access to (approximately 40 per gated by geographic services muhallah with equal area and gender distribution of men and woman)

28 Annexes ABA Ubari Annex 2: Overview of neighbourhoods and tribes TRIBAL COMPOSITION BIOLOGY NUMBERS RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOODS MUNICIPALITY/ MUHALLAH 70% Tuareg N1 Al Shareb (West) 30% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation Al Shareb 50% Tuareg N13 + N14 Al Shareb (East) 50% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation 70% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N5 Al Eamarat 20% Tuareg 10% Tebu

90% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N4 Al Turkiat Ubari city 80% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N2 Al Rihana 90% Tebu N7 Al Namaar Ubari city centre 70% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N6 Al Zeweya 20% Tuareg 10% Tebu 40% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N8 Al Badiaa 60% Tebu 70% Tuareg N12 Al Mashru (North) 30% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation 90% Tuareg N11 Al Mashru (Centre) 60% Tuareg N10 Al Cambou Al Mashru Al Mashru 40% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation 95% Tuareg N3 Talakey 60% Tuareg - Al mashru/Al Mashtall 40% Tebu

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90% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N15 Al Dissa (Centre) 50% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N18 Al Dissa (East) 50% Tebu Al Dissa Al Dissa 80% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N17 Al Dissa – Al Shbiyaat 90% Tebu N21 Angiko 90% Tebu N16 Al Seneyaa 50% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N19 Al Hatiyaa (East) 50% Tuareg Al Hatiyaa Al Hatiyaa 50% Ahali/’Fezzana’/Arabs with no tribal affiliation N20 Al Shbiyat 50% Tuareg

Annex 3: Terms and references

Please refer to the full terms of reference here

30 Endnotes ABA Ubari

1 United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), “Population Data,” 2020 population as well as policy-makers, authorities, and service providers.

2 World Bank, “Country Profile Libya,” accessed May 20, 2021 16 REACH, “Research Terms of Reference Area-Based Assessment (ABA) for Ubari LBY2007 Libya,” 2021. 3 Inga Kristina Trauthig and Nate Wilson, “Understanding Libya’s South Eight Years After Qaddafi,” 2019i 17 A service catchment area is a geographic area defined and served by a specific service plan or service provider. 4 Ahali are officially not a tribe. 18 Pandotrip, “Cinematic Dunes and Lakes in Ubari, Libya | Places To See In Your Lifetime,” 5 Mantikas represent the second administrative level in Libya (admin level 2), followed by accessed April 20, 2021. baladiyas (admin level 3) and muhallahs (admin level 4). 19 meteoblue, “Climate Ubari,” accessed April 20, 2021. 6 Libyan Security Sector Legislation, “Law No. 59 of 2012,” accessed May 25, 2012 20 OCHA, “Libya: Reference Map, Mantiqua: Ubari (as of 31 May 2017),” accessed April 10, 7 Fransje Molenaar et al., “The Status Quo Defied: The Legitimacy of Traditional Authorities 2017. in Areas of Limited Statehood in Mali, Niger, and Libya,” 2019. 21 United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), “Population Data,” 2020 8 Libyan Security Sector Legislation, “Law No. 59 of 2012,” accessed May 25, 2012 22 Valerie Stocker, “Inside Libya’s Wild West,” 2014 9 Molenaar et al., “The Status Quo Defied: The Legitimacy of Traditional Authorities in Areas of Limited Statehood in Mali, Niger, and Libya,” 2019 23 World Bank, “Country Profile Libya,” accessed May 20, 2021.

10 For the purpose of data collection and geographically disaggregated comparative analysis, 24 Inga Kristina Trauthig and Nate Wilson, “Understanding Libya’s South Eight Years After Ubari City Centre was grouped into two separate areas based on neighbourhood characteristics. Qaddafi,” United States Institute of Peace (USIP), October 23, 2019.

11 Tom Westcott, “Feuding Tribes Unite as New Civil War Looms in Libya’s South,” Middle 25 REACH Initiative, “Multi-Sector Needs Assessment (MSNA) Results Tables (Libyan East Eye, February 10, 2019. Population),” 2020.

12 Elizabeth Parker and Victoria Maynard, “Humanitarian Response to Urban Crises: A 26 United Kingdom Home Office, “Country Information and Guidance Libya: Ethnic Minority Review of Area-Based Approaches,” International Institute for Environment and Development Groups,” 2016. (IIED) Working Paper, 2015. 27 Nate Wilson and Abigail Corey, “Libyan City, Primed for War, Answers Mother’s Plea with 13 IMPACT Initiatives and United Cities and Local Governments, “Urban Consultations: Peace Pact,” United States Institute of Peace (USIP), November 13, 2019. Perspectives from Cities in Crisis,” 2016. 28 REACH Initiative, “Multi-Sector Needs Assessment (MSNA) Dashboard (Libyan 14 The Urban Settlements Working Group and The Global Shelter Cluster, “Settlements Population),” accessed May 11, 2021. Approach Guidance Note: Where Boundaries and Action Merge,” 2020 29 For the purpose of data collection and geographically disaggregated comparative analysis, 15 To understand and map a city as a system is to integrate perspectives of both the Ubari city centre was grouped into two separate areas based on neighbourhood characteristics;

31 Endnotes ABA Ubari

Ubari city centre and Al Shareb (East and West). 45 UNDP Libya, “Solar Powered Street Lights in Ubari.”, December 15, 2020.

30 Map 2 shows the expansion of buildings in Ubari from 1990 to 2020. For specific years, 46 UNDP Libya, “Solar Power System Helping Medical Staff Provide Better Services in Ubari satellite images of Ubari were used to identify new structures built each year and delineate the Hospital (EN),” December 18, 2020. extent of the city’s development. The resulting images were then layered over each other to produce a representation of urban expansion. 47 Mohamed Almaktar, A. M. Elbreki, and Mohamed Shaaban, “Revitalizing Operational Reliability of the Electrical Energy System in Libya: Feasibility Analysis of Solar Generation in 31 Rebecca Murray, “Southern Libya Destabilized: The Case of Ubari,” Small Arms Survey, Local Communities,” Journal of Cleaner Production 279, no. 123647 (January 10, 2021) 2017. 48 REACH Initiative, “Sebha Area-Based Assessment (ABA),” 2021. 32 REACH Initiative, “Libya Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JMMI) Libya,” March 2021 49 ENKA, “ENKA AWBARI 640 MW Gas Turbine Power Plant,” accessed May 20, 2021. 33 218NEWS, “218NEWS | Facebook,” accessed April 21, 2021. 50 The Libya Observer, “Foreign Workers Abducted in Ubari, South Libya,” November 3, 34 The Libya Observer, “The Libya Observer | Facebook,” accessed April 21, 2021. 2017.

35 Libyan Security Sector Legislation, “Law No. 59 of 2012,” accessed May 25, 2012 51 UNDP Libya, “Solar Power System Helping Medical Staff Provide Better Services in Ubari Hospital,” December 18, 2020. 36 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), “Rapid Diagnostic on the Situation of Local Governance and Local Development in Libya,” 2015. 52 REACH Initiative, “Multi-Sector Needs Assessment (MSNA) Dashboard (Libyan Population),” accessed June 10, 2021. 37 Governance KIIs 53 The assessment team together with Field Managers defines black wells as septic tanks for 38 Ahali are officially not a tribe, but a group of mixed tribal and ethnic origins who identify sewage as Arabs 54 UNDP Libya, “Solar Power System Helping Medical Staff Provide Better Services in Ubari 39 Tim Eaton et al., “The Development of Libyan Armed Groups Since 2014: Community Hospital (EN),” December 18, 2020. Dynamics and Economic Interests,” Chatham House, 2020. 55 REACH Initiative, “Libya Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JMMI) Libya,” March 2021. 40 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), “Strengthening Social Cohesion: Conceptual Framing and Programming Implications,” 2020. 56 UNDP Libya, “Solar Power System Helping Medical Staff Provide Better Services in Ubari Hospital (EN),” December 18, 2020. 41 ENKA, “AWBARI 640 MW Gas Turbine Power Plant,” accessed May 20, 2021. 57 REACH Initiative, “2020 Multi-Sector Needs Assessment Libya,” 2021. 42 Ibidem. 58 REACH Initiative, “Libya Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JMMI) Libya,” March 2021. 43 UNDP Libya, “Solar Powered Street Lights in Ubari,” December 15, 2020. 59 The Ubari College of Education, “The Ubari College of Education Home,” accessed April 44 REACH Initiative, “Libya Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JMMI) Libya,” March 2021. 28, 2021.

32 Endnotes ABA Ubari

60 Sharia Law University, “Sharia Law University Home,” accessed April 28, 2021.

61 Sherine El Taraboulsi-McCarthy et al., “Protection of Displaced Libyans: Risks, Responses and Border Dynamics,” 2019.

62 REACH Initiative, “2020 Multi-Sector Needs Assessment Libya,” 2021.

63 Ibidem.

64 REACH Initiative Field Manager, May 10, 2021.

65 The Ubari College of Education, “The Ubari College of Education Home,” accessed May 20, 2021.

66 REACH Initiative, “Libya Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JMMI) Libya,” March 2021

33