Romani Women‟S Political Activism and Social

CEU eTD Collection

R OMANI WOMENOMANI In partial fulfillment the requirements of partial for the degree of In Department of Sociology and SocialAnthropology and Department Sociology of G ENDER Supervisors: Professor Bodnár Judit Supervisors:

SOCIALSTRUGGLES Central European University Central European

D E Budapest, Hungary Budapest, octor of Philosophy of octor ‟ THNICITYAND Angéla KóczéAngéla S POLITICAL ACTIVISM Submitted to Professor Don Kalb Don Professor

2011 By

LASS

AND

CEU eTD Collection acknowledgment is made in the form of bibliographical reference. written and/or published by another person, except where appropriate degrees in any other institutions. I hereby state that the thesis contains no materials accepted for any other Statement

The The thesis contains no materials previously i

CEU eTD Collection socialwithin sciences. as aiming of theby profile toraise research field position diminishing their marginalized anthropology, ofRomaaswell particularlyrepresentation inacademic in respect ofthetexts opted totake bridgesgaps thestudy andtheoretical empirical in o This area isunder democracy‖ the ofwomen‖. under banner ―empowering Romani ―Romani promote they which through activities and discourses as well as level, local the and transnational the at issues‖ ―women‘s observed networ closely I Roma research, my research of part various As Hungary). (Szikszó, empirical level local the the at anand centers) resource (mapping undertaken level have transnational I the mind, at my project in concerns outlined above the With andRoma non relationship complicated the describing by activism, women‘s of representation superficial the beyond go to aimed I level. and biographical discursive the through structural the from status, social and activism To political women‘s life. women‘s Romani (part contemporary local and transnational on focused in have I study, my narrow class and ethnicity gender, of manifestations analyze and explain to been has dissertation this of aim The understanding and combating ine of purposes for identity of categories other with intersects which factor social a as than rather category isolated an as treated is gender of concept The struggle. social and activism political limite only pays Roma/Gypsies on literature academic The - Roma activists, and their also activists, within Roma groups. - researched and lacks theoretical conceptualization. The approach I conceptualization.approach and theoretical Theresearched lacks have

quality. ABSTRACT

n itrain aog oos NO, other NGOs, donors, among intercations and ii

oe‘ rgt‖ n ―ua rgt and rights ―human and rights‖ women‘s

atnin o oai women‘s Romani to attention d through empirical material the the material empirical through

icularly Hungarian) Romani Romani Hungarian) icularly f sociology and s n international and ks CEU eTD Collection Ramon Grosfoguel, interacting colleagues, withandlearning from many brilliant Etienne, including Balibar, At severalIEurope and conferences thepleasure workshops and key had across America of process. Emma Roper Evans,generously who inthe helped me Feischmidt, andmany ÁgnesthankEszter Timár,László,I Viktória Daróczi, also others. conversations Trehan, Nidhi Éva with: Margit Kovács, Kovats, Timea Junghaus, Martin Crucially,Iwould like tothank all my colleague and friends their on naturemy oftheir insightsactivism. politicalAsa andsocial oftheparadoxical witnessto mention allmy interviewees research whoparticipated inthe process Icontemporary women Romani throughdiscussions. of struggle like wouldinparticular to non InBudapest,elsewhere, Brussels,Bucharest, and therewereR Strasbourg numerous invaluable. Internationalof Network. the Women my contributions Romani were to Their research with, pa the Romani andnon II tofriendsgrateful am and inthe‗Roma movement‘. alsodeeply colleagues am to indebted seminars. intellectual sparring, offered he has m supervisor offered DonKalb, thesis:My meinspiringcritical, who feedback draft onmy provided tremendousand my empathytheway.I to patience alongalso grateful am second completehas mybywork. stood She meont project from the beginningI very and surereceived made the and necessarytime funds to IFirst, my Bodnár, wouldlike tothank Judit first supervisor supportiveof whobeen this has ad study.I forget Therewill are that undoubtedly mention,andask some to people them in whocontributednumerous directly people andindirectly my institutions tocomplete or This vance forforgiveness. their -

Roma activists, experts, politicians, decision activists, politicians, Roma experts, makers insights who ofthe enriched my dissertation wouldremain incomplete propergratefulness without expressedto - rticularly the former members of OSI Romani Women Initiatives rticularly membersOSIWomen Romani of the former and also members going my struggles, life significantly has transformed. indeed been

- Charlotte BunchCharlotte Romani women from various NGOs I womenRomani fromNGOs various discussed thedraftof text this

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS , and Margo Okazawa , and Margo e his tireless support since Isupport sincee histireless attending first started his his long and journey.his long lonely PhD She has iii

sometimes verysometimes writing difficult - Rey. s Ienjoyeds ofstimulating dozens

, and thereby, and enriched

oma and

CEU eTD Collection LídiaBorbála Juhász, Balogh,Lea many Kőszeg amongst friends. other dear for and always byJános my being side: friends, whose beenpatience has whatimagined even testedbeyond they could have Finally,andI importantly, tooffer most my like and would thankstofamily loveand and fieldworkcarry inSzikszó compar outthe Instituteand ofEthnicMinorityme generous thatgave Studies supportmy conduct to would alsotoextend like myemployer, thankstomy the Hungarian Academy ofSciences, particularlyZentai toViola whogave enor me the CentralI tothe EuropeanamCenter University.Policy alsoindebted for Studies, IDuring theopportunity had researchresearch, my and toreceive write travel Jónás andJónás TóthHerta, Móni, Szűcs Erika Sólyom, iv mous encouragementI my tofinish mous PhD. ative research micro intwo

- regions.

- up grants from

–

thanks CEU eTD Collection ACTIVISM SOCIAL AND POLITICAL THROUGH IDENTITY POLITICAL COLLECTIVE FORMING THREE: CHAPTER LEGACIES POLITICAL AND SOCIAL HISTORICAL, ROMA‟: „OTHERING TWO: CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE LOCAL AND TRANSNATIONAL A FROM ACTIVISM POLITICAL WOMEN ROMANI OF STUDY A MAPPING ONE: CHAPTER Ethni Gender, Introduction: ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS FIGURES AND TABLES LISTOF Table ofContents Researching in and across multiplesites across and in Researching FIGURES TABLES 3.3 Development of women‘s rights in the Ro the in rights women‘s of Development 3.3 neo riseof The 3.2 collectiveidentity Emerging 3.1 remarks Concluding 2.4 Col 2.3 Habsburgs of the mission‘ ‗civilizing The 2.2 identity Gypsy of theconceptualization of legacy The 2.1 Review Literature 1.4 methods and design Research 1.3 field the Entering 1.2 theoretical political, Personal, 1.1 chapters of Outline 3.2.2 Donor Dependency 3.2.2 sector NGO the Romani in subalterns 3.2.1 movement withinthe hierarchies racialized Objectificationand 2.3.1 Race 2.1.3 G 2.1.2 authenticGypsy Searching trueand a for 2.1.1 Identitypolitics 1.4.5 Discourses ofDevelopment 1.4.4 Europe Eastern ofNGOs in Human the and role rights 1.4.3 Class and /Ethnicity,Race Gender 1.4.2 studies from Romani scholarship Background 1.4.1 dilemmas Issues, and bias 1.3.4 project research Feminist participatory activist 1.3.3 1.3.2 level collectionthe at transnational Data 1.3.1 onization and controversial Romani emancipation Romani controversial and onization

...... Identifying the local research site research Identifyingthe local

ypsy lifestyle, behavior and customs and ypsybehavior lifestyle, ...... - biological language biological - liberal agendas liberal

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city and Class: Romani women's political activism and social struggles social and activism political women's Romani Class: and city –– ...... ideological and structural control structural and ideological ......

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viii viii viii

48 46 44 42 40 39 38 36 35 32 30 28 27 27 26 23 22 20 17 15 15 14 12 11 10

9 7 6 6 4 3 1

CEU eTD Collection LOCAL PERSPECTIVE A FROM POSITION WOMEN‟S CHANGING SEVEN: CHAPTER ACTIVISM POLITICAL INSOCIALAND WOMEN ROMANI BY ACCOUNTS PERSONAL SKIN”: YOUR ON IT FEEL CAN “YOU SIX: CHAPTER I CLASS AND ETHNIC GENDER, OF MANIFESTATIONS DISCURSIVE AND STRUCTURAL FIVE: CHAPTER STERILIZATION FORCED BODIES: WOMEN‟S ROMANI OF APPROPRIATION FOUR: CHAPTER 4.5 Concluding remarks Concluding 4.5 challenges and contestations contradictions, women: Romani ‗Saving‘ 4.4 sterilization Forced 4.3 Ge and Health 4.2 Europe in biopolitics Eugenics: 4.1 remarks Concluding 3.4 6.7 Concluding remarks Concluding 6.7 ge and Ethnic 6.6 relations mobilization Mobility, 6.5 struggle prejudice pride and The 6.4 models concernin community Racial 6.3 women Romani of identitypolitics and Emancipation 6.2 researches Hungarian in represented are women Romani How 6.1 remarks Concluding 5.9 activities intergovernmental of Impact 5.8 inter by responses policy and Discourses 5.7 violence Gender 5.6 issues Health 5.5 facilities (accessto) childcare of Lack 5.4 market Labor 5.3 Education 5.2 and ethnicity of poverty Interaction 5.1 4.3.1 Sterilization recognized by Romani men Romani by recognized Sterilization 4.3.1 Activism of Women‘s Romani Character Dialogical 3.3.2 women‘sactivism Romani emergence oftransnational The 3.3.1 5.7.4 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe: gender issues are a security matter security a are issues gender in Europe: Cooperation and Organization Security for 5.7.4 discrimination intersectional Nations: United towards 5.7.3 ofeth domain the feminizing Council ofEurope: 5.7.2 discrimination multiple Union: addressing European 5.7.1 Acc 5.5.2 health Discrimination reproductive in 5.5.1 women ofRomani market Lack participation oflabor 5.3.1 Drop 5.2.3 Literacy rates 5.2.2 attainment educational Overall 5.2.1 ess to public healthcare public essto NEQUALITIES -

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126 124 121 116 110 103 102 100

99 97 96 95 93 91 86 86 83 83 8 82 81 77 77 76 75 75 74 73 72 70 68 66 63 61 60 59 56 52 49 2

CEU eTD Collection 1 APPENDIX Bibliography struggles social activismand political women‟s Romani Revisiting Conclusion: Perspectives Concludin 7.4 change social to generate research Participatory 7.3 Anti 7.2 fieldwork my of Context 7.1 Mentioned websites Mentioned internet the via published Materials Works General 7.3.6 Struggle 7.3.6 pathology The ofexclusion 7.3.5 credit for asks goes, ―Mother Womenpositions: key in 7.3.4 trafficking prostitutionand Framing forced 7.3.3 existence ‗ghetto‘ the Gender dimensionsof 7.3.2 difference Territorial 7.3.1 - Gypsismc versus

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gets money for us‖for moneygets ......

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198 196 194 161 161 160 157 155 151 149 146 143 140 137 134 133 127

CEU eTD Collection Figure inasettlement neighborhood located 3:Romani inPest county (GypsyFigure are Chinatown ofSzikszó and Row 2:The the map indicated). Hungary. mos 33 The 1: Figure FIGURES Table 6:The ofeducation highest level interviewees of the accordingethnicity tolocality and Table 5: Psychologicalmental healthand and incidence area according toethnicity Table 4: Table 3: Marriageby Types County Table 2 Table areassmall 1: Tablehousehold incomes of showingethnic the differences and TABLES

: Index ofdeprivation(0 : Ratio of households where ofhouseholds Ratio thereisalo

LIST OF TABLES FIGURES AND dsdatgd micro disadvantaged t - 5)

viii - ein (nldn Sisós micro Szikszó‘s (including regions ng

- term illness/disabled person illness/disabled inthefamily term

- ein in region)

CEU eTD Collection WHO VPN USAID UNHCR UNDP SZIROM SZETA SZDSZ RWI RPP RPA ROI RNC REF RCPP PER OSI OSCE ODIHR OCO NATO MSZP MSG MP MEP MIEP MDF KDNP JMM IRWN IRU INGO HRW GLS Young Democrats/Hungarian Civic Union coalition) FIDESZ ERTF ERRC ERIO EC EP ECRI CPRSI CoE CEE B AZ

European Parliament

European Commission

Member of the Parliament

Open SocietyInstitute

International Romani Union Council of Europe

GypsyLore Society Roma Participation Programme Participation Roma

Borsod Abaúj ZemplénBorsod county Abaúj Central and Eastern Europe Roma Educational Fund EducationalRoma Relations onEthnic Project

Roma PolgarjogiRoma AlapitvanyRights (Roma Civil Foundat People Against Violence (Political Party) Slovak Roma Women Initiative Women Roma Member of European Parliament

Roma Civic Initiative Civic Roma

Roma NationalRoma Congress Minority Self Magyar Demokrata Forum (Hungarian Democratic Forum) OrszagosOnkormanyzatGypsy(National Cigany Self Jobbik Magyarorszagert Mozgalom (Movement for Better a Hungary)

European CommissionEuropean against Racism Intolerance and Human RightsHuman Watch

Eur

Magyar Igazsag (HungarianElet Part es andJustice Life Party)

European Roma and Travellers Forum (consultative status CoE) with International Non World HealthWorld Orga

MagyarSzocialista Part/Hungarian Socialist Party Roma CulturalRoma Pathology Paradigm International Romani Women Network Roma RightsEuropean Center Keresztenydemokr Office and ofSecurity C United Nations DevelopmentUnited Nations Programme Contact Point forContact Roma Sintiand Issues of (part ODIHR) North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

United States Agency for InternationalUnited States Agency for Development

Szabad Demokratak Szovetsege(Alliance ofFreeDemocrats)

Szegenyeket Tamogato Alap Office DemocraticInstitutions Rights andHuman of

Fiatal Demokratak Szovetsege/MagyarPolgari Szovetseg of (Alliance United Nations High forRefugeesUnited Nations Commissioner

opean Roma Information Office Szikszói RomaSzikszói NőkEgyesülete - ACRONYMS ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Go vernment

Governmental Organisation ata Neppartata (Christian Democratic People‘s Party)

nization

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CEU eTD Collection 3 politica Roma concerning be analyzed to has concept the of validity top by applied and iswhich introduced 2 1995) (Fraser diasporic contexts. in groups other and European with mixing subsequently and tenth century the in beginning India northern in rooted groups other and nomadic, of commercial, deno to term used English an is Roma) of “Gypsy”(synonym The word paper. the in adjective asan used is mostly Romani Manush. Kale, Sinti, Rudari, Kaldreashi, Beas, Romungro, activists, politicians, used by 1 political to access have who activists by mode contentious activism transnational from thelocal scale. to a in adopted and translated Rom international key locally been have ideasrights thethat human transnationallyexposes Furthermore, imposed it by adopted been has which discourse equality rights human specific the that show will thesis This adequate and Romaincasehumanrights violation. for legalremedy ofdiscrimination on pressure and put population Roma the ofrights human respect the to states Europeannation the rights human of language the apply and the master and who (EU) (OSCE), Union Europe European in Cooperation and or Security for state Organizations the the United (UN), the byNations (CoE), Europe them of Council against the as violence such organizations and Intergovernmental discrimination citizens. rights human serious as plight rig Human neo terrain ofRomani politicalactivism. of trend discursive Europe. Eastern exported and Central This in mainly EU, the throughout initiatives and projects Romani NGOs influential argued by formulated other as (2005) Trehan to as discourse,neo of similarly rights adoption wholesale human the on a ‗movement‘, based in embedded the Romani is it of the that result is of movements, a characteristic as perhaps main part The in analysis, their in traditional ofpolitical emphasis struggles, inwhich onforms menhave a taken leading part. gender of consideration Roma the neglected about written have who historians ‗movement‘ and scientists political most recently, Until decision public and Vermeesch 2002, Klimova 2004). arena political n the international, the in at processes interests making ethnic their represent to opportunity the with people Roma presented mobilization social new This Europe. Eastern and Central in identity post of wake the In struggles social and activism political Introduction:Gender, women's Romani Class: and Ethnicity

Such as, the Georg the Soros as, Such o The conceptualization Note on terminology: This study employs the word “Roma” as a politically constructed umbrella category, category, umbrella constructed politically asa “Roma” word employsthe study This terminology: on Note - based Romani based t bsd icus cetd nw oiia lvrg fr oa o rsn their present to Roma for leverage political new a created discourse based hts 2

and their political mobilization (Vermeesch 2001, Kovats 2001b, Acton 2 Acton 2001b, Kovats 2001, (Vermeesch mobilization political their and - communist transition and over the past two decades, the emergence of of emergence the decades, two past the over and transition communist f the Roma ’movement’ has not been elaborated by scholars; it is rather a concept concept a rather is scholars; it by been elaborated not has ’movement’ Roma f the - founded Soros Foundation network in the Central and Eastern European countries. European Eastern and Central the in network Foundation Soros founded 1

politics was one of the developmenthe of onewas politics and academics to refer to a wide variety of sub varietyof wide a to refer academics to and

- down political leadership. At some point in my research project the the project research my in point some At leadership. political down

3 . This has had profound impl profound had has This .

- - ational and local level (Kovats 2001, Barany 1998, 1998, Barany 2001, (Kovats level local and ational ieaim akd h tertcl n ideological and theoretical the marked liberalism liberal rule liberal

- based approach also embraces the gender the embraces also approach based

- of - law and ‗democratization‘ principles ‗democratization‘ and law l activism. te ethnic groups formed by the dispersal the formed by groups te ethnic ts accompanying political changespolitical accompanying ts - ethnic groups including Lovari, including groups ethnic ications for the trajectory of of trajectory the for ications

ani women activists. activists. women ani

oil justice social provide anprovide

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CEU eTD Collection 20 (Vakulenko legalstudies (Yuval sociology in 2004), 2004; Fernandes (Burman, psychotherapy critical in etal.,2002), (Brewer economy in 2003), (Hawkesworth science political (Valentine geography political in interesectionality few: a To only name contexts. various academic in out carried been has intersectionality engaging years, research recent In (1993). Duclos and (1989) Crenshaw Yuval and Anthis by was used sociology approaches critical race studies, specifically race critical in intersectionality of application earliest dynamics.The representational f critical by conceptualized 4 wom Romani of analysis of level. type transnational and This local the at activism social and political women‘s Romani theorize to language conceptual appropriate an develop to possible it makes and perspective academic th is project research this of features unique the of One my activism. ownpolitical andsocial on throughreflecting examined be will level transnational and local the between mediator the opportunities, political constra as new well asresources, offers 348), 2000: (Burawoy ―forces,‖ ―imaginings‖ 1994), and Kaplan ―connections,‖ and (Grewal hegemonies‖ scattered and effect globalizations is ―grounded globalization its where site where the as but and global, the constituted to counterpoint a is as taken globalization be not that should understanding the ―matters‖ Local 1997). Appadurai also 2000; point, (Burawoy differentiated internally and situated starting my sc among connections as transnational by taken, characterized have I life. social different very a have scale global and local a on activism women‘s Romani transnational and equal gender and rights human that demonstrate will dissertation My and Romaentities, within outside society both intoplay. come political women Romani of of strategies specific creates which p the above, mentioned As politics. identityand representation class a and is there gender mobilization ethnicity, political Romani of of case manifestation the in that argue will I dissertation my In position subject difficult their and mobilization political which has been never discussed inpub their about women Romani for discursive voice a offer and mobilization through political Romani of understanding the deepen will structuralknowledge from status, social and activism political women‘s Romani Hungarian on be will focus main the analysis, my In patriarchal and non activis by named is other it in as words, discrimination, intersectional of manifestations the underpin to aim thesis I dissertation, my in reference identities, a becomes various 2006) of (Brienes fragmentation the political within analyze class, and ethnic and gender, primarily trace to attempted relations. gender which and academy, race of issues the of meaning and language the employfromwill and critical terminology theoretical frameworks class and ethnicity gender, of identities the of features intertwining the explore Inte

Even though the concept of intersectionality had been used by anthropologist earlier, it became named and and became named earlier, it anthropologist by used been had of intersectionality concept the Even though rsectionality will be used as a core concept and analytic tool throughout the dissertation analyticused rsectionalitycore to as concept throughout be and atool will

- is specific where intersectional discrimination and domination by various various by domination and discrimination intersectional where specific is Romani politicalandeconomic regimes.Romani eminists to describe the various forms of inequalities through institutional and and institutional through inequalities of various forms the describe to eminists

07; Deckha 2004; Conogham 2007; Hannett 2003; Grabham 2006). 2006). Grabham 2003; Hannett 2007; Conogham 2004; Deckha 07; ints in political activism even for Romani women. Inwomen. myresearch Romani politicalactivismforeven in ints

ts, the ts, s play out (Massey 1994). The dynamic landscape of of landscape dynamic The 1994). (Massey out play s - Davis 2006), in poscolonial studies (Arondeker 2005), and in socio in 2005),and (Arondeker studies poscolonial in 2006), Davis

lic. ―double exclusion‖ ―double en‘s local and transnational activism offers a prime prime a offers activism transnational and local en‘s

Truh h eprcl aeil f this of material empirical the Through .

movements of the late twentieth century twentieth late the of movements - n borpia lvl Ti specific This level. biographical and Davis (1983) and in critical legal theory by by legaltheory critical in and (1983) Davis attered localities, which are unequally unequally are which localities, attered at my analysis is rooted in a native a in rooted is analysis my at

and domination by both Romani Romani both by domination and olitical and social participation social and olitical

race studies, which sharpenrace studies, ity discourses by local local by discourses ity

h nw un n the in turn new The

4 . The thesis The .

2007), in in 2007), - CEU eTD Collection intersectingclasses conflicting multiple, and ethnicgender and the understand and power Iand anthropological fieldwork todo the couldlowsoci where inquires from meet women Inconductingwith theI elite interviewsofmy women, Romani by wassociological pushed emotions regardingpolitical struggles their 6). (Chapter opportunitywomennarrations touse for theirexpress own Romani and activism through and biographical t andpersonal stories, evenlevel). These at the transnational semi women activewith Hungarian whoare (som were) (or Romani inpolitical activism, Itransnational level―official‖conducted andlanguages. Thus, semi To women‘son Romani issues. for inEurope, Security withaspecial and Cooperation focuslanguage and ontheir initiatives such theCouncilofEurope,as theUnitedthe Organization theEuropean Nation Union, and InIwomen. analyzed addition, also the produced demonstratesofgender, ethnicRomani which and an class overview inequalities IAt thetransnational level collectedandthe analzyed transform ontheexpectations ofdifferent concepts based soci Iactivists and experts. frequentlywomenwitnessed activists selectively how and appropriate society‖ and are ―empowerment‖ conceptualizedslightly women differently by Romani local NGOs. donors tovarious conferencesby organizations, andto meetingsintergovernmental organized literature, that followconcepts asthey politicallocalities, statements ‖travel‖ from across andIn intergovernmentalI organizationsgrowing employ. so,upona doing build body o I politics, women, thatRomani as well as lookattheresources, concepts andideas donors In studyin Researching andin across sitesmultiple ric a of contemporary women‘s Romani politicaland activism social struggles. establish understanding useful to conceptually and critical construct rights), human and offers studies, gender relationships,sociology, framework social theoretical influence privileges, My and power to meanings,and everyday shape experience. people‘s access affect which they interdependently, Functioning inequalities. patterns interlockinghave of determinants inseparable are class and gender ethnicity, that is detail, in demonstrated be will this as research, my of outcome The Roma community? the are How position? social m and translated discourse gender and and rights human transnational activism women Romani regarding level transnational ch forthcoming the following: in to answers seek shall I questions research primary My women Romani of dynamic gender internal the activism at local andtransnational level. of understanding an gain to opportunity

do this, at the transnational level, I atthetransnationallevel,do this, onthe foundcrucial togo it a beyond focus g social strugglesglobalizing politicaland activism women‘s gender Romani in How are intersections of ethnicity, gender and class manifested at the local and local the at manifested class and gender ethnicity, of intersections are How

Resources and conceptsResources and ―gender,‖ ―community like mobili

that serve as a basis for developing multiple systems of dominationof systems developing multiple for basis a serveas that

discourses o discourses

- structured interviews their demonstrate 3

f major inter available data quantitative and

he interviews an provided h, interdisciplinary (anthropology, (anthropology, interdisciplinary h, al and political settings.al andpolitical - governmental organizations odified in a concrete local local concrete a in odified - structured interviews

zation,‖ ―civil their feelings and

apters are the are apters political e ofthem

f al CEU eTD Collection st from Apart sterilization. coerced conducting to legacy academic an provided which Europe, in eugenics discourse. political Romani issu these how marriage. examine early and sterilization forced by bodies women‘s of appropriation 4 Chapter Romani of emergence the human rights, rights. particularlywomen‘s introduce I organiza international by Finally, assisted is subaltern. which activism, transnational Romani women‘s the to relation its and are which NGOs women neo a in Romani embedd of movement rights‘ ‗Roma the development conceptualize I forces. global the to connected strongly sketch I Roma. against violence g 3 Chapter includewill some self chara I rightsthe Romani civil various activism. expose taboosand will issues silent Icontemporary a of provide discussion post Then, political discourses. demonstrate this IFirst, of legacyGypsy sketch thelong term conceptualization To ofthe identity. creation dichotomy case of inthis ‗others‘, the between and Europe theRoma. (mis)representati generateand howtheseIt structuresofthinking. discourses appears that the In NGOism, h criticaland raceanthropological,critical sociologicaloncivil society, theories, perspectives interdisciplinary, theories across applied the rangegender, thus ofperspectives:on represent fields my andexplain relation personal for study this in I mythe key the of research,underpinnings context thetheorethical and layconcepts down Outline of chapters understand structural thediscursive, andautobiographical of women. Romani construction My reflect enabled selectedresearch methods They researchme diverse fields. uponmy to more developedregion.) however an re isin underdeveloped one for thereason thetwomicro that thein structuresofthe settlements Abaúj Zemplén disadvantaged non Romaniand analysisboth quantitative and qualitative thesocial of compared and labor status their intersectional and advocate inequalities forchange. consisting The social research of This research them processconstruct enabled shape to and their a I womenresearchRomani involvement ofwho thecore theworkedclosely projectwith with. Iknowledge inthe community. had afeminist theopportunity comparativeto conduct backgroundI researchwanted such todo in a at level way the local th groundedstructures, inspecific Being an localities. feministand activist a a with scholar

op o Rm, hc atvss e a a oiia rsos t rsn hsiiy rcs and racism hostility, rising to response political a as see activists which Roma, of roups Chapter 2, cterize the internal oppression mechanisms within themovement. story,Ioppressionwithin Totellthis mechanismscterize theinternal - liberal policy development. I problematize the donor dependency in the NGO sector NGO the in dependency donor the problematize I development. policy liberal

uman rights and democratization,uman rightsand transnationalpoliticalactivism. presents the formation of a collective identity and consciousness amongst diverse diverse amongst consciousness and identity collective a of formation the presents continues to expose contemporary Romani women issues, particularly the the particularly issues, women Romani contemporary expose to continues

erilization, I will analyze issues related to Romani women which receive receive which women Romani to related issues analyze will I erilization,

I explorehowhistorical,create andpolitical will discourses social Gypsies (BAZ) Countyand(Chapter 7).(Ichose Pest Countytwomicro these Chapter 1. Chapter on of Roma inhistorical, social andpoliticalon of discourses Roma tothe contributed process, Iprocess, differentand use academic historical including sources, - reflecting bycontemporary told women. Romani stories

es connect to the global women‘s movement, and how it has fired fired has it how and movement, women‘s global the to connect es

InIclarify research so, doing introduce the theresearch methods,

In doing so, I will introduce the the introduce will I so, doing In - Romani womenRomani inthe sel to the subject isinherently ofthe work thesis.My gion, while the other is located in an economicallygion, theother inan islocated while

ected twomicro ctivist languagectivist toexpose history and the theory of of theory the and history - regions areregions comparable, at it generatesat it - colonial racismcolonial - regions of tions advocating tions

which pcfcly I Specifically, - Borsod regions regions within

ed ed -

CEU eTD Collection women political activism‖. ―Romani the of future the on predictions and recommendations offer also I politics. gender in refle also and Hungary, Europe in contemporary particularly the in society addressing civil of struggle, politics gendered social the to and given activismattention inadequate political women‘s Romani the about lessons In Romani of position subject and women at the local level. power of axes different the reproduce and reconstruct 28) throu expose will the I forces. of global/local ofresult reconfiguration the the of analyze light the will in research I participatory chapter this Throughout city. Hungarian small a in women res feminist participatory 7, Chapter In political andsocial emancipatory struggles. Romani for opportunity an offer to is em chapter this of focus main The researches. Hungarian in representation women‘s Romani of account an give will I activism. political in experiences personal and stories biographical acti last 6 the Chapter in developed issues women‘s Romani on decade. initiatives and language their on focus t and Nations United inter women. Romani against chapter this inequalities. class and ethnic gender, women‘s Romani demonstrates which data analys the 5 the Chapter apply provides will which I Whiteness‘ process, of racialized relations of this dominance. Studies understand ‗Critical and to of order primitive, framework In backward, theortical men‖. as brown it from women depict brown to serving or the culture illustrating oppre Romani mostly concern, of political nature‘ generate or ‗exotic media the in coverage international

the im t h itreto o rc, edr n cas which class, and gender race, of intersection the at vism - gh personal stories how ―global forces, connections and imagination‖ (Burawoy 2000: 2000: (Burawoy imagination‖ and connections forces, ―global how stories personal gh governmental organizations such as the European Union, the Council of Europe, the the Europe, of Council the Union, European the as such organizations governmental ssive. This kind of representation and motive is similar to the colonial script of ―saving ―saving of script colonial the to similar is motive and representation of kind This ssive.

Conclusion Conclusion

exposes the structural position of Romani women through available quantitative available through women Romani of position structural the exposes xlrs o ―oai oa‖ mre i te icrie ils f political of fields discursive the in emerges woman‖ ―Romani how explores gives an account of th of account an gives

I will present my research findings based on participant observations, observations, participant on based findings research my present will I Imain thehypothesis andthe revisit he Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, with a special a with Europe, in Cooperation and Security for Organization he earch and my work experience of more than two years with Romani Romani with years two than more of experience work my and earch

he second part of this chapter reviews the discourses of major major of discourses the reviews chapter this of part second he

e structural inequalities of institutional racism and sexism sexism and racism institutional of inequalities structural e cting upon the potential of Romani women‘s activism women‘s Romani of potential the upon cting

women to speak about and reflect on their own their on reflect and about speak to women 5

arguments ofthe some drawing study,

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- CEU eTD Collection 6 2006) and recognized become 5 regime, rights human the of part a forming issues, gender and which politica discourse, a created equality gender the is resources international remarkable most the of One international the use environment their to advantage to learned have groups active politically other many as process, well democratizationas actors, this With 2009:3). Trehan and (Sigona corner‖ opposite the in neglected went communities policy Romani of conditions (material) the economic and that stress social the while reforms, law‘ of ‗rule and legislative discourse via agenda enhancement rights political based rights American an on ―focusing were donors the and politicians, of the critiques at rights However, political and the civil in on emphasis evolved e putting have well discourses as political movement political new Romani Furthermore, 2001) Trehan 2003; Pogany socio deteriorating and the discourses a Roma to opportunity response equal a on as later emerged and regimes rights minority rights, human 1989, After partic states (Ladányi countries, European the in citizens Romani by visible of segregationterrritorial and discrimination racial most pauperization, exclusion, social increasing the of one 2 that Trehan and recognized (Sigona Europe. enlarged the in policies of neoliberal consolidation and affirmation an brought has restructuration period. political this and economic defining new crisis and inequalities economic growing and countries socialist (North NATO of enlargement the 1990s, the in Yugoslavia of disintegration the Europe, Eastern as well as sat its and Union Soviet the of collapse the following transformations social and political economic, remarkable experienced have societies European contemporary decades two last the During Entering1.2 the field the intersectional and structural discriminati Romani the to in responses appropriate more political create and theorize becometo opportunity an offered which activism women lamentations personal these All another. one from ethnici race, of discourses isolate cannot we where identities, of complexities various constitute categories political these Moreover, stand. we where and are we who of sense the to on so and language religion, and class, social and economic gender, ethni race, as such categories formative and division political a create power of systems These women. Romani of choices life the shape to continue which Europe in legacy political contr other institutional and exploitation class sexism, racism, that hypothesis the on based is then, study, My

pne f cnmc n sca rgt( ááy 01 Pgn 20;erec 2006). 2004;Veermesch Pogány 2001; Bárány rights( social and economic of xpense For similar examples internationally, see (Merry 2006) 2006) see (Merry examples internationally, similar For Read more about the social exclusion and territorial segregation of Roma in ( in Roma of segregation territorial exclusion and social the moreabout Read

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- Szelényi 2006 Szelényi tatc ray raiain ad h Erpa Uin o includ to Union European the and Organization) Treaty Atlantic l opportunity for Romani women to make their claims heard. Women rights Women heard. claims their make to women Romani for opportunity l ol are interrelated sites of domination and struggle that have a long socio long a have that struggle and domination of sites interrelated are ol

- Gypysism, and to address the situation.( Guy 2001; Kovats 2003; Kovats 2001; Guy situation.( the address to and Gypysism,

5 ). 6 .

on/oppressions women that Romani face. - 7 products of this phenomenon have been the the been have phenomenon this of products

lry n eta ad atr European Eastern and Central in ularly - led ‗democratization‘ and a civil an civil a and ‗democratization‘ led - WWII welfare systems in Western, in systems welfare WWII - cnmc tts f ilos of millions of status economic ty, class, gender, or sexuality or gender, class, ty, Ladányi János and Szelényi Iván Iván Szelényi Jánosand Ladányi 009:1) Many researchers researchers Many 009:1)

oai political Romani - making elite, elite, making e former former e

This city, d - CEU eTD Collection 81e5048fe380d3f55b http://cps.ceu.hu/romapolicyfellowship_resources.php?cmssessid=Tf1b587168444c140a50c9af5adda001d5cf Europe in Women 7 self minority and NGO Hungarian the in anomalies existing the Despite lives. their structure class and gender ethnicity, how specifically, more experience, daily women‘s Romani local understand to was concerns my of One oppression. economic pervasive encountered I unc where deprivation, communities Romani local various in manager project and trainer, facilitator, community a as work to started I Hungary, to return my After experiences political their a expose confidence for political activism. to have group stories marginalized from these women Nevertheless, the young for inspiring on be will it psychologically. that hope workI also and relations ethnic to and as gender in significance years many well me as took It intellectually activism. political Romani the in hierarchy invisible and visible produce that relations gender and racial existing the expose to in stories my t integrate shall I movement. Romani centered male the of operation sexist the and sector donor and NGO the of dynamics sexist the and racist the observe and waswitness directly I advocate. rights human disenchanted a o director as funding Brussels left I were when activism, 2004 women‘s in Romani planted regarding level transnational and local the at manifested project, particular this of idea The emerged newly the Thereby, manner. diverse produce entry research a unique point. a in to combined affairs gender scales Romani marginal the and activism political Romani transnational different on issues women contestatio or negotiation transformation, expose and one local the to the level transnational connect to me become encouraged statement This have them.‖ amongst who fieldwork your out group, carry and elite small a the are with detached they want you activists, do ―What women professors: Romani my of transnational one from heard often I community. local attempt few very Hungary in particularly women, Romani of participation transnational active the Despite Roma/Gypsies ofEurope. of theCouncil of herinternational reportIn1999, level. influence c Roma the to related concerns the and issues gender articulate to first instance, the via for was community, the of members level leading the of one national Bitu, inter Nicoleta OSI). EU, and and CoE, network international advocacy rights the human on international even visibility gain to started women Romani 2000 of (Silverman beginning the by level transnational activities‖ the on active become autonomous in leaders are but 1996 politics, macro and state the of in invisible sphere are ―paradoxically women Romani context, Bulgarian a in it put Silverman re the and discourse gender International countries. CEE in organizations donor and NGOs by accepted

he dissertation under a pseudonym. My encounter with racism and sexism have the potential the have sexism and racism with encounter My pseudonym. a under dissertation he Nicoleta Bitu’ Nicoleta :12). I would add that as a consequence of that in the late 90s several Romani women Romani several 90s late the in that of consequence a as that add would I :12).

from their communities. You have to go back to the particular Roma community Roma particular the to back go to have You communities. their from inl mrig ii scey nacd ral Rmn wmn ciim as activism; women Romani greatly enhanced society civil emerging gional d o rnmt esgs eadn gne ise fo te lbl ee t their to level global the from issues gender regarding messages transmit to ed s report was the first policy document on Romani Women Romani on document policy first the was s report ” (Bitu 2003) (Accessed on 2006.10.24) 2006.10.24) on (Accessed ” 2003) (Bitu rany n hrsi i diy ie copne b nraie o gender of narratives by accompanied life daily in hardship and ertainty 6da30b13a5 f the Brussels the f

- based NGO for two years where I had the ―opportunity‖ to to ―opportunity‖ the had I where years two for NGO based

that is, how intersections of ethnicity, gender and class are class and gender ethnicity, of intersections how is, that 7

was supported and adopted by the Specialist Group andwas on by theSpecialist adopted supported

- government system, a number of Romani Romani of number a system, government - oenetl raiain (UN, organizations governmental “ The Situation of Roma/Gypsy Roma/Gypsy of Situation The . This can be a source of of source a be can This . ommunities at an at ommunities e experiences se

n of of n the the CEU eTD Collection local level. Romani transnational of effect the about conclusions specific draw will I where chapter, last the in findings empirical my to contrasted be will hypotheses These aga violence and discrimination involvement inlocal andtransnational activismonclass. based treatment, Unfair 3. supposedly class belonging capacities and onthe of depends translation activists. principles equality gender of translation and rights human of can conceptualization local political The 2. discourse a as equality used be gender as well the as commodity by political parties and in women, Moreover, Romani of activists. participation political women the strengthen Romani by level local and level transnational the at generated is which movement Roma emerging the in discourse equality) (gender new marginalized a is There 1. namely: Iwhich several thecourse have had hypothesesthe testedin research been process, of gender equality of kind rights human for What fight to activists, activism? be to woman political Romani determine trajectories and personal rights to access their affect women Romani amongst in level transnationallocaland at the manifested class ofand genderintersections ethnicity, are How Iformulatedfollowing the research questions: democracy‖ the women‖. of under banners ―empowering Romani ―R and promote discourses they those which as well through as activities, level, local the and transnational the at issues‖ ―Women‘s observed closelyI research, my of part As level. centers) resource international lev and networks transnational the and Hungary) (Szikszó, level at local project researchthe empirical an undertook I mind, my in concerns outlined above the With 1.3 transnational activi to areconnected Hungary,few in very women by Romani led NGOs of number a thereis that fact the notwithstanding issues gender with deal to qualified be could it women, Romani by NGOs Roma Amongst scale. global and local the between agents ‗double‘ as act who activists women Romani through observed be can crossroad global and local specific The 21). up‘(2001: arena local from and down arena critical a ‗play who activists, women Romani these as such intermediaries, of work the on observation an made specifically, Merry Engle Sally Anthropologist, communities. specific in contextualization equality gender and rights human level. local the at ‗negotiators‘ as recognized and communities their in leaders become have women The growing literature on the anthropology of human rights forms a v a forms rights human of anthropology the on literature growing The

Research design and methods

epc o Rmn wmn ciim n sca psto? o d cas differences class do How position? social and activism women Romani of respect

sm or have language adoptedgendersm orofhuman the rights and discourse. ternational organizations.

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transformed, negotiated and contested at the at contested and negotiated transformed, role in translating ideas from the global the from ideas translating in role nt oai oe determine women Romani inst el (mapping the various Roma Roma various the (mapping el

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CEU eTD Collection countries. which made them involvement mainly upontheir depends languagecapacityeither inEnglishorRomanes, and involvement inthe transnational Romani movement. Also,their transnational betweenand 35 undereducated and low rural theinterviewees areas. of generation Sincewere most first with intellectuals my interviewees wa local civic governments organizationsHungary. in orRoma Animportant factorinchoosing ofassume(d) political and these parties, women Romani roles state institutions leading in them intheirand officeand ha home participated in―deep hanging withmy outs‖(Clifford by 1997:188) interviewees, visiting Inplaces, 1). homes( asAppendix these addition aswell intheir to I interviews, also for analysis) of onat actors least these different three andI public life.a ofsemi series conducted (or theinternational at in least participate)politicalarena both and political inthe national countries),I focusedassume wholiveinHungaryand specifically women on Romani the circleWithin of women transnationalRomani activists (from various European self of 2001;Helms 2003). remainedspace(Markovitz thesame) over and time representations and self/identifications strategies, women Romani transnational the how see to as well as resources,conceptual and materials people, of flow the explore to enabledme researchprocess coverage.This media related other as well as narratives, personal materials, these collected I 2001). (Warketin forums discussion Internet on and emails via confrontations activities, alliancebuilding discussions, in participated often follow tomaterials, their women, them, Romani mobile highly these with strategies networking established also I discourses. related Roma gender and themselves strategically in localand position dynamics how observed also I struggles. e international these used organizational women Romani their and experiences roles, gendered their decision politic with interactions women‘s Romani witnessed I instances, several On organizations. these by delivered statements and reports documents, analyzed I Network. Women Romani International meetings and Program informal Network In Women Institute, and Europe. formal in in Cooperation participated and I Security addition, for the Organization Europe, the of comprehensive Council and the Commission the Nations, European United and the by organized work forums international archives related by complemented als I materials. other and reports documents, of was analysis qualitative This institutions. e these of issues specific women Romani a to responses policy with and discourses institutions the and participation European women‘s of operation the Europe and analyzedwomen I Europe. across sites to visits brief and countries, European various from colleagues and friends with relationshipsthro activism women Romani close to ofrelated yearsevents transnational five the over of mainly monitoring collected was level transnational the at study this for Data level thetransnational at collection 1.3.1 Data - makers and academics in academic settings, where women revealed their views on views their revealed women where settings, academic in academics and makers

50, they could offer50, theyrichonthe Romaniwomen emancipation reflections of capable of communicating with their fellows ofcommunicating Roma variouscapable from European with s that theyvarious agegroupsfrom urbans that comeand both should from and ocps n ttmns Wdl 01 Apdri19)Mroe, I Moreover, 1996) Appadurai 2001; (Wedel statements and concepts - skilled parents, oftheagebefore born skilled thus 1970making them d several informal conversations with themincafés.d several conversationswith All informal - vents as an opportunity to negotiate within global within negotiate to opportunity an as vents wide formal and informal networks of Romani Romani of networks informal and formal wide - structured interviews with twentystructured interviews eleven (used 10

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CEU eTD Collection expectations. community with 8 the discuss will I characteristicsfeminist participatory of researches. Below methods. ethnographic some using project research collaborative participatoryfeminist a as it term Ishall rather ethnography,but as dubbed be cannot Szikszó res the commitment, political and involvement personal my and limitations re I project, research the in researcher the of participation active an involvement. of Havinadvantages and and 1986) importance the Fisher recognized experiences and Marcus personal 1986; Marcus my and Clifford on 1999; Verdery reflect and (Burawoy and project research the not in was myself which trajectory research the off me appr took also and project research attitude my my transformed towards it because moment enlightening this for grateful very am I fact, In by example for made was that one M the like ethnography classical a do geographical not specific could this I in context that recognized I when point turning the was This researcher. activist, Romani committed a am I people as Second, ‗real‘ community. to local open her the not enter was to level of me local allowingand transnational role the between mediator the a as imitate acted who person to wanted I history, s and notes field writing interviews, activist conducting observation, participatory elegant strong an doing just very is who ethnographer a have I that mysel detach totally to wanted I because transnational articulated very partly failed Pecs the in attempt first My group. just contlocal marginalized most the also but not elite, Roma local with meet the to into opportunity an translated provides fieldwork is equality gender and rights human international of language the how and community the in women Romani of activism their affectsrights inhowtheclasswas political theaccess dimension particularly interested and to and women Romani inst educational and of authorities local as such participation institutions, local specific the to relations studying in interested was and community the where self institutions minority governm and and NGO Roma the forms in as social such tangible, specific more are are inequalities of there intersections level local the at that assumed women‘s Romani activis study political and to social site research the as Szikszo, town, Hungarian the of choice The site research thelocal 1.3.2 Identifying their interactions transnationaland a in local range of contexts. activiti women‘s Romani selected the follow to to possible it opportunity made the had I occasions several on mylong Also, them. with interact professionally andpersonally addition, In findings. research my on hand on and participants, women Romani mentioned above the of members family and the colleagues, friends onmywith based hand interactions one the therefore,on study is, This

Pécs failed for various reasons, but one of the lessons I have learned is that my expectations have to meet meet haveto expectations my is that learned have lessons I the of one but various reasons, for Pécs failed ichaely Steward inHungaryPalomaGay (1996)Blasco (1999) or inSpain. pit t m activist my to opriate a ttly ifrn epcain fo m ta a non a than me from expectations different totally had ent. I wanted to examine the established formal and informal hierarchy in the Roma Roma the in hierarchy informal and formal established the examine to wanted I ent. -

designed my original research. I believe that due to the various various the to due that believe I research. original my designed o on, but it did not work out in my case for various reasons. First, the First, reasons. various for mycase in out work not did it but on, o m emerged after half a year of unsuccessful field work in Pecs in work field unsuccessful of year a half after emerged m -

coa prpcie I ok h avc o m poesr o place to professor my of advice the took I perspective. scholar

f from the whole research project. Despite the fact the Despite project. research whole the from f

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itutions. I itutions. the other the 8 . I . g CEU eTD Collection 2006) activism and advocacy, anthropology, 11 Structur EU the by supported been has which Szikszo at projects related Roma various generated I Rights. Civil Roma for Foundation and Consultancy 10 cPage=/public/hirek/hir.php&id=16844 http://www.mancs.hu/index.php?gcPage=/public/hirek/hir.php&id=16844http://www.mancs.hu/index.php?g 9 places inquirer the research feminist best the in that claim (1987) Smith Dorothy and (1987) the the in When them researchers. with feminist many by critical appreciated engages and subjects other the herselfand between distancenarrowthe to researcherattempts on and recognized Relying are issues experience. Similar personal my t role(s) my to several pertaining issues alongside raises project research the data, into immersion my research, my feminist and anthropologist of source primary wr experiences, narratives, Personal project research participatory activist 1.3.3 Feminist the of analysis the also and experience fieldwork my All interviews inchapter willbepresented six. school. wome local Romani the five at assistance, assistants my with Also SZIROM. women‘s called Romani a NGO, established we addition, In situation. social their address to authorities local with negotiate or funding for apply they when position structural their describe to tool local used been have research this non of results with The regions. compared micro two women in Romani women Roma of status social project the on research women collaborative Romani a local out the carried with we community, the in presence my of product groups. social subaltern or marginal observed of the of situation the kind improve which process any in researchers of involvement explicit the supports which anthropology, my of part a as proj engagement researchactivist explicit an with there went I as facilitator a community also but researcher a just not and was I complex. lives more became consequently their role my structure process, class and ethnicity gender, how politica and social their in manifests explore to was focus to main Szikszo My to men. Romani trip as well as women, first Romani these with conversations my and interviews structured Rom hence core and this with women relationship these a among establish research my my do prompted This to people. threatening decision of group this of eyes the into looked simply action, similarly and, community Roma the mobilized who women, Romani courageous few a by organized was group resistance Roma a that out turned it However, etc. shopkeepers, priest, teachers, as people local such and notabilities supported including was group paramilitary This population. Roma local the extreme an Guard], Narancs weekl Hungarian the in article an read I when 2008 August in Szikszódecided was of choice The level. local and transnational between mediator a is interviewees the of one where community specific a for looked I aborted, be to had Pécs in project my Since

This article call my attention to choose Szikszó: Szikszó: choose to attention my call This article

From hr ae eea eclet sas n nae atrplg it h bo of book the int anthropology engaged on essays excellent several are There

December 2008 I also integrated in my project a role of consultant with the consortium of KAI KAI of consortium the with consultant of role a project my in integrated also I 2008 December 9

where Szilvia Varro reported the march of the the of march the reported Varro Szilvia where ect 10

Tee s well a is There . process, Helen Roberts (1981) calls this ―reflexivity‖. Sandra Harding Harding Sandra ―reflexivity‖. this calls (1981) Roberts Helen process, - right paramilitary group with strong racist views, demonstrating against against demonstrating views, racist strong with group paramilitary right

hrough the whole research process, which deserve reflection. deserve which process, research whole the hrough / edited by Victoria Sanford and Asale Angel Asale and Sanford Victoria by edited / al Fund. Fund. al

(Accessed on July 1 July on (Accessed l activities. Since I truly positioned myself in the researchthe in myself Itruly positioned Sinceactivities. l - itings, stories from NGOs and NGO members are the the are members NGO and NGOs from stories itings, salse scal ad oiial eggd rn of brand engaged politically and socially established

n wmn ru. cnutd utpe semi multiple conducted I group. women ani 12

2, 2010)2, to the Gandhi mode of peaceful, passive passive peaceful, of mode Gandhi the to

ayr Gárda Magyar by various local actors actors local various by - Ajani (Angel Ajani n became teacher‘s teacher‘s became n Engaged observer : : observer Engaged

y called Magyar Magyar called y te Hungarian [the - Ajani, Sanford Sanford Ajani, 11

As a b a As ly as a a as ly y - - - CEU eTD Collection ( Feminism”. and Research Action and Participatory „ (2007:303) comm in and school in research action and participatory inform concientization and decoding, posing, problem including practices, pedagogical class and racialized, gendered, ex for about, consciousness raises that develop praxis to sought have which Freirian perspective the on based research participatory Thefeminist Freire. Paulo leader political activist, and educator, Brazilian 13 1991) (Haraway Perspective PriviligePartial of the and Feminism in Question Science Knowledges:The „Situated 12 strengthen should and can assessment, this on it Based structures. power transform help should it where level social wider where o conditions level, living the local improve and organizations the activists‘ on second, consciousness; Maguire critical to and According confidence develops it where level individual an inequalities. on change social prompt to has it existing First, challengeon change social progressive to produce to has research tool participatory (1987:241), research, a the from provide benefit should should women particularly which subjects, the that way a in research condu should we that researchers, social feminist other many like believe, I research. local connecting my of byproduct a was projectresearch my in women Romani involvementof the Szikszó, In activist by radical methodology most the collaboration tosocial change projects. feminist of one of exemplifies project elements research participatory The to project. Moreover, alternatives academy. offers the ―problem a on outside build fieldwork mylocal characterize mainly research and activist researches within feminist both feminist participatory methods that science social states conventional (1996:9) Gottfried Heidi necessitates inevitably knowledgethe involvemen situated local a produce to that mind in that with project research the in women Romani local the with engagement mutual in research and experience the for well open as become can women it Romani that local way a in location‘ of ‗politics my construct to attempted I Iof which of. am part story a produce only subject, research my immersed of depiction objective acc have an give I cannot I we dimension. researcher subjective contrary, a the imply always on will which position, production ‗objective‘ knowledge distant, no is there production, t ‗in always are knowledge we of conceptualization this that to According says 1991:188). monster‘(Haraway the which of belly Haraway, by used phrase famous a is There 2010). (Lykke world analyzed the of middle the in always is researcher the that stressing positivism feminis other with objective produce and ‗good the Haraway position to According knowledge.detached completely a take to able be to appear he/she and ―obje of belief scientific the to refers 1991:191 (Haraway epistemology positivist of trick‘ 1991:183 all Studies, Feminist of field ‗situated‘or located as understood is the knowledge of production Within (Harding:1987:9). interests‖ and desires specific concrete, with individual historical real, a as but authority, of voice anonymous invisible, an no us to appears researcher the ―[t]hus subjects, her as plane critical same the on herself

The most explicit political forms of participatory and action r action and participatory forms of political explicit The most wasfirst the Haraway Donna

- 201) 12 t of local woment oflocalactivists. . The ‗situated‘ knowledge builds on the critique of what she calls the ‗good the calls she what of critique the on builds knowledge ‗situated‘ The . t scholars who argue for a ‗politics of location‘ and with their critiques of of critiques their with and location‘ of ‗politics a for argue who scholars t

– feminist scholar who articulated the ’situated’ knowledge in widly read article; read widly in knowledge ’situated’ the articulated who feministscholar based dimensions in the educational system.” Specifically, the Freirian Freirian the Specifically, system.” educational the in dimensions based unity

. I wanted to make the intimate connection between theory, theory, between connection intimate the make to wanted I . -

or organization or 13

(Brydon ctivity‖ whereas the researcher is contextless, bodyless contextless, is researcher the whereas ctivity‖

- - - based educational setting.” Lykes and Coquillon Coquillon and Lykes setting.” educational based 13 ilr Maguir Miller, trick‘ is an illusion. I agree with Haraway and Haraway with agree I illusion. an is trick‘

esearch are situated within the legacy of the the of legacy the within situated are esearch - 196). With the term of ‗good of term the With 196). Nagy Hesse Nagy

cmuiys atcpto and participation community‘s a - posing‖, ―consciousness‖ raising ―consciousness‖ posing‖, , n MItr 20) which 2004), McIntyre and e, te ujcs n tid o the on third, and subjects the f in a specific context (Haraway context specific a in - Biber 2007) Biber

ept that as a a as that ept ample, the the ample, three levels. three - trick‘, she she trick‘, t as as t he he ct - CEU eTD Collection (Kóczé 2010) income and market labor munkaerő nők fehéren: Roma feketén sorsú asszonyok “Nehéz Kóczé. was Angéla leader team the and manager research The Kóczé. Angéla Havas, Éva BeaDávid, Albert, Fruzsina of consisted team The 2010. research May in 14 responsibility andavoidunequal abusingour research them relationship. toprotect my is it feel I name, real their use to permission me granted subjects my of some that fact the na real author‘s the using interviewee the by produced materials published cite I when instances are there because uncomfortable, really feel I point, this At materials. available publicly to referring when or arenas public in refer when names real use and do stories I However,life issues. their sensitive aboutvery use talk I to whom choose with I interviewees those organizations, of and case place the in the pseudonyms of name the preserved have I while data, my much activists. women of offered circles various within approaches and concepts of meaning meetings socio public thematic various with Such and language women status, Romani level. discussions between national interactions the debates, and about information European in both participating at conferences, workshops various attending by me allowed which experiences, own my on heavilyrely to needed I level, transnational and local the at activism their and status social women Romani about written much not is there Since dilemmas and bias 1.3.4 Issues, identify andraise problems specific their sel enabled research situation, racialized and gendered their participatory about knowledge commonsense their validate to The them society. local the and unequal community their to in problems opportunities personal their relating of ways race conscious and gender thaught were and acquire issues their to of trained conscious became were they and SZIROM skills from research women Romani the project the During level. local i various of manifestations the on focuses which research the of segmentpresent one policy only will I dissertation local this In with women. Romani with another interviews and men Romani with structured 20 additional an decision as well as men, Romani deep 20 conducted We to County Zemplen aiming households 248 to questionnaires distributed We analysis. qualitative and quantitative and Abauj Borsod the Z Abaúj non and women Romani of status labor and social the compared Szikszó from activists women Romani of group core the par feminist The the furtherchapter. in detailed be will which community local the in change social some produced fieldwork my

This research was supported by the Ministry of Social and Labor Affairs. The research repor TheAffairs. research Labor and Social of Ministry the by supported was This research include all members in the given households, which altogether resulted in 1250 responses. 1250 in resulted altogether which households, given the in members all include

to gather rich data and also use anthropological methods, such as participant observation participant as such methods, anthropological use also and data rich gather to - emplén (BAZ) County and Pest County. Szikszo was integrated in this research as research this in integrated was Szikszo County. Pest and County (BAZ) emplén - makers. Moreover, in both counties we conducted 2 focus group discussions, one one discussions, group focus 2 conducted we counties both in Moreover, makers. piaci és megélhetési lehetősége megélhetési és piaci

- ticipatory comparative research project I conducted with the involvement of involvement the with conducted I project research comparative ticipatory kls n rlgos eif. hs wr rc sts o xlr te shifting the explore to sites rich were These beliefs. religious and skills

- earning opportunities of Roma women in two micro two in women Roma of opportunities earning

- structured interviews with Romani women, non women, Romani with interviews structured - Romani women in the selected two micro two selected the in women Romani

i két kistérségben” (Women with a tough fate in black and white: and black in fate tough a with (Women kistérségben” i két me, and later refer to them under pseudonym. Despite Despite pseudonym. under them to refer later and me, 14 f - 14

esteem and ability to speak out. andability out. esteem tospeak eteet Te eerh osse o both of consisted research The settlement.

ring to individuals appearing individuals to ring -

regions) in Kutatasi Beszamolo, Beszamolo, Kutatasi in regions) itiuin f oe and power of distribution - - Romani women and women Romani

ein o Borsod of regions nequalities at the atnequalities

t wast In writing up writing In -

published published economic -

a nd nd -

CEU eTD Collection Asiancultures Southeast US Latinos. and 15 and few historians very Although, 2010). are Kóczé 2008; there (Kóczé literature Furthermore, academic in studies. organizations academic in soc the even to references but discourses social and b have women Romani recently, Until studies Romani from scholarship 1.4.1 Background Iwhich thefollowing shallpresentin sub scholarship, Identity‖, of ―Politics and of Europe‖ Eastern in NGOs the of Role and fields Rights ―Human Class‖, and of Gender /Ethnicity, ―Race namely number categories, three under structured be a will research my dynamic present and I unbalanced level. an theoretical study. ofmy circumscribing points main starting the local at and activism political transnational and globalized social women Romani regarding race/ethniA key theintersectionsof understand is to aspectstudy ofthis Literature1.4 Review in influential be also acknowledges subjectivity, emotion, andthe analysis inevitablynaturesocial narrative of may work my middle and white male, contribution, theoretical my male of model the reformulating beside that hope I of world the to simultaneously belong to have engaged scholarship ―We out: pointed she As (1993:671). text our in represent we those with relations‖ of ―quality the on be should focus the that argument from am I native how that myself from asked I accordance, In native1993:671). ( abroad?‖ a from one is is foreign native How anthropologist? ―How asking, when 672) 1993: (Narayan paradigm ―insider/outsider‖ of with agree truly with I relation However, interviewees. intimate my an create I to able process. was I research when the position privileged in this had creatively particularly knowledge this use should and consciousness positi double differently of hi of aware be should researcher the that believe I group essentialized. be a not should researchers these of position the studying that think I however true, is this respect many are In who researchers Harding1991). (Abu those individuals 1998; to (Hartsock opposed research. as advantage my an have they that claim for often to belong they which disadvantage group a studying Researchers and advantage an both cou analysis, resulting the of part a be always will I woman, Romani a as that fact The project my tointegrate connections for relations thesubject how own into and matter. Dori gathered. I Abu data Lila as the such anthropologists, ―halfie‖ and or ―native‖ interpretation several are access, There my affected position subject own my since in participation My

One of mostinfluentialOne of the anthropologists’native’ Renatois Rosaldo nne Kondo (1986) whose approaches and genre of writing offered models for my own own my for models offered writing of genre and approaches whose (1986) Kondo nne - Lughod 1998; Altorki 1988; Baca Zinn 1979; Kondo 1986; Kumar 1992;). Kumar 1986; Kondo 1979; Zinn Baca 1988; Altorki 1998; Lughod

and the worldand ofeveryday (1993:671) life‖ h rsac poes etil ad aual qetos y positioning, my questions naturally and certainly process research the io

- - cnmc set o Rmn wmn n ter edrhp n civic in leadership their and women Romani of aspects economic class ide class

- al and God and al centered white social science based on a detached, objective objective detached, a on based science social white centered uaet n zkz? are hrfr wt Narayan‘s with therefore agree I Szikszó? in Budapest fghtyhgyjyt -

chapters. - like observer and replacing it with a model that that model a with it replacing and observer like 15 Kirin Narayan who critiques the whole notion notion whole the critiques who Narayan Kirin

e agl niil o ol n political in only not invisible largely een

The theoretical discussions of of discussions theoretical The

s/her special standpoint or or standpoint special s/her city, genderandcity, class who has writtenwho onhas - Lughod (1991) and and (1991) Lughod

ld be be ld oned 15 .

CEU eTD Collection Their Journey and 17 Xenophobia, internationalorganizations, as such EuropeanCenterthe Monitoring onRacism and 16 difference, bodily and practice sexual morality, sexual Blasco, y Guy to According life. daily her, to according which desire, sexual of management the cultural alternative proletarianization, with do to have practices and an discourses Gitano what explained (1999) Blasco y Guy Paloma 1997:204 (sub) preserving (Stewart sexuality their and bodies ―sh of their women, as the of respect on in importance partly, chapter which specific problems symbolic a dedicates He the such Roma. by and ‗weltanschauung‘ with roles issue gender transmission, takes and R HungaryVlach of life the covers time, that at perspective s anthropological to communities relating 1982) specific Williams 1995, in or countries some in lives women‘s Romani Stewart affect particularly that customs studies and traditions 2002, anthropological certain Lemon in references 1997, some (Okely are There 2002). Lemon di 1997; practices Okley of persistence the to pointing from Roma ―outsiders‖, as status very their to identity group Roma of sense strong the attributed anthropologists of number a scholarship, to attention specific gives always who ge scholar a is 2000) 1996b, 1996a, (1981, Silverman on effects force ofschool andlabor knock the and colle reproduction including women, data young of problems Gypsy the on primarily representative focused analyzing reproduction by Roma 2005) examined also (Jánky Jánky behavior Béla altered, reproduction had changes their political the in after half factors a and decade key first the in women the Romani of chances life the are how question the raised Having positions the economic on and social influence instead communities; Roma their marginalized ethnic of children of an number the in is role a play not there does communities. whether Roma marginalized marginalized in was children of bear question to behaviors willingness research reproductive of main formation Her the groups. studied (2001) Durst Judit on, ethnographic an produce to attempted a that scholar first the was Neményi Maria literature, scientific social Hungarian In women. Romani against discrimination racial the of dimension r very Only neglectedsocio of kind inthis Kemény socio Roma on research for built who sociologists of case the in true also is which 1998), Tong 2001; Guy Barany2001; 2000; (Acton representation political in women of role the on light shed issues process. Moreov political in traditional thereof, lack limitedor women, a very of participation families, the to extended given in been their has attention and women domains social Romani in roles gender of certain described place exam the for to community, attention given have anthropologists ccount on what Romani women experience in the healthcare system (Neményi 1999). Later 1999). (Neményi system healthcare the in experience women Romani what on ccount

See for Such genderSuch related studies havebeen conducted primarily local by NGO nder issues. As a result of the dominant trend of culturalist perspective in Romani Romani in perspective culturalist of trend dominant the of result a As issues. nder

er, none of the anthropological and sociological studies dealing with Roma political Roma with dealing studies sociological and anthropological the of none er, instance Isabella Fonseca ‘ s book which is rather a journalistic work. journalistic a rather is which sbook ‘ Fonseca Isabella instance - Jánky Gadje Gadje cnl hs oiy retd oil research social oriented policy has ecently (EUMC , (Fonseca 1995) (Fonseca , - Lengyel 2004). The particular conditions of Romani women tend to be be to tend women Romani of conditions particular The 2004). Lengyel (non

2003 17

l fo sxa rpeettos o arlnaiy sm o them of some matrilinearity, to representations sexual from ple - Fr ntne Seats ok a ey e ad refreshing and new very a book, Stewart‘s instance, For . 1983; (Okley policies state to response in and history through Roma) )

- cnmc nqaiis Krei 05 Ladányi 2005; (Kertesi inequalities economic economic as well. literature - market integration. 16

occupy a prominent role in Gitano Gitano in role prominent a occupy 16

eu t epoe h gender the explore to begun

Bury Me Standing, The Gypsies The Standing, Me Bury

h age ta ethnicity that argued She m udrscaim in socialism under oma td n 03 Jánky 2003. in cted ame of the body‖, body‖, the of ame - s and s - zlni 2004; Szelényi pecific issues, issues, pecific a strong base base strong a stinguishing behavior. - 232). -

CEU eTD Collection 19 several Statemen Public are There discourses. academic 18 and legal political, by constructed they were how andacts racialized such there are why of question the to lead and idiom racial a up make racial as such a Roma, segregation racial prejudice, racial discrimination, to attached concepts and expressions of family whole a now is There racism today. AsstatedBalibar: byEtienne ph this to answer an provide to In order adoption? tactical motivated politically a it is or policies, and movements racist of upsurge historical new a witnessing we are raised: be therefore should question The similar. of countri different in to form in reason differ may Roma against acts the sole reduce to the attempt racist for a threat‖sociala in asseen is growthwhose Roma, of number sterilized killed be to and continue women wounded Romani undocumented. attacked, are of number that The kills. it Roma past, the with As marginalization. and discrimination of source the ―Anti that ―Anti stated Office of Information Roma European notion the example the For au pushing national and international relevant been by addressed and have recognized be to organizations Gypsism‖ rights human Several most Europe‘s remains unwanted. which group ―Antia discrimination, as and hatred term of activists target a which became Roma difference 1989, after ethnic feeling ‗racialized‘ expressed This overtly 2004). an became Sleeper, and (Rekosh discourses academic and from distinguished are other Roma why to pertaining questions at look will I hierarchy. political and economic social, a in means ethnicity Romani what conceptualize to worth is it women, unders to order In Class Genderand /Ethnicity, 1.4.2 Race participatory inthefield local Roma and work community. andtransnational movements. justice Roma the their of struggle the in particularly narrative,anthropological grand the in of particularly women, class Romani resource and important an of represent could victories and gender perspective contradictions conflicts, insights, stories, missing ethnicity, the of that of intersection spite the ‗movement‘in problematize to other the on and women Romani of involvement political the specifically address and theorize to hand (1999:2 group a as Gitanos the of status and identity the to also and identity personal the to central is Even gender r gender Even

See more elaboration on this phenomenon “Is there a ‘Neo therea “Is phenomenon this on elaboration See more My statement was made in the European Parliament in December 2003. ”Europe’s most unwanted” (2003), unwanted” most 2003.”Europe’s December in Parliament European the in made statementwas My mixing, of forms all from identity color, religious practices) ‗our‘ or w own‘ and invasion) ‗one‘s to or preserve interbreeding need (the to segregation body, or social prophylaxis the of purify phantasm the of elaborations intellectual many so di in exploitation), and humiliation intolerance, contempt, Racism

tnc rusi Erp n o oaise eae‗ailzd n oiia, legal political, in ‗racialized‘ became issues Roma how and Europe in groups ethnic - 30). -

tu ‗oa sca phenomenon‘ social ‗total true a t by the European Roma Information Office Information Roma European the by t elated Romani studies and ethnographies, human rights reports, fail on the one the on fail reports, rights human ethnographies, and studies Romani elated

tand the ―gendered‖ dynamic of the political participation of Romani Romani of participation political the of dynamic ―gendered‖ the tand In my own dissertation research, I propose to fill this gap with extensive extensive with gap this fill to propose I research, dissertation own my In

( Balibar 1991:( 74).

enomenon, I have traced back the theoretical dimension of of dimension theoretical the back traced have I enomenon, ih r atcltd rud tgaa f tens (ae skin (name, otherness of stigmata around articulated are hich

–

ncie isl i patcs frs f violence, of (forms practices in itself inscribes

- nd racism, which terms used together can together used terms which racism, nd Racism’?” (Balibar 1991) (Balibar Racism’?” scourses and representations which are which representations and scourses 18 . The current racist discourses anddiscourses current racist The . es, but their substantial content is content substantial their but es, women of color in social social in color of women - Gypsism is not only not is Gypsism

en Rm, is Roma, being

- Gypsi thorities. sm‖. sm‖. - CEU eTD Collection the in discourse racist reinforcing the race of illustration asan Two Chapter in this work discuss society.I American in co 21 anthropologist Yuval ethnograph the in appearance and (Anthias 20 form‖ phenomenal or but representational being, of point its the as race) is, (that else something at requires therefore and becoming, of process never the in always is consciousness, race is unlike class presumably which consciousness, in modality the class is in ‗race Yuval and that Anthias important al.1978). et lived‘(Hall phrase as powerful and is famous race the by that captured (1980) view Hall‘s Stuart formation of development a be can as position His seen class. and race between links the of reformulation challenging a offers furth goes class and ethnicity of correlation the 2002), UNDP 2003; al. at Ringold 2005; (Kertesi Europe Eastern and Central in data empirical by supported widely vic been has Roma of disadvantage economic the blame they that is school Ladányi Steward 2001b; 1990; Steward (Aponte scholars 2001a, leftist by criticized widely been have theories Underclass a of notion the by encapsulated poverty are issues these of Many employment. steady on so and education, of devaluation criminality,the the involving f structural of criteria reproduction cultural demarcating a as behavior used theories underclass of wave first The (1978;1987). Myrdal Wilson (1963) and Julius Anglo János Ladányi The poverty. rooted deep and ethnicity between correlation high the demonstrate to attempts it since intersectionality, of elements some has ground most w was Roma segregationof the of one Hungary In class the Usually, ―upper the to adhering living, of standards of income stresses conceptualization 1987) Wilson second (see A approach Weber‘s living. to closer of class levels demarcates and determines strongly class contr relative one‘s simply,more or, production of means the to relation one‘s by determined is ―class‖ discourse, Marxist In population. the of groupings Yuval and (Anthias class Nira the forthcomingchapters. in issues Roma ‗racialized‘ discourse scientific how expose to attempt will I Therefore, par political of dynamic racial the of light in analyzed be to need which race,and ethnicityof meaning deconstructthe Yuval and Anthias academic in references sociological

Charles Murray is a conservative political scientist political conservative is a Charles Murray prominent first madeits poverty") of "culture to shortened (later poverty" of "subculture The term - authored with the late late the with authored Yuval - ao udrls tere, atclry h wrs f sa Lws 16) Gunnar (1961), Lewis Oscar of works the particularly theories, underclass Saxon 20 ,

which has and structuralization, as class is in race structuralization, which can be best best be can which structuralization, race in is class as structuralization, and - ai ad ly Atiss ok drsig h cneto between connection the addressing work Anthias‘s Floya and Davis OscarLewis - centered debate takes, as a starting a as takes, debate centered - Davis 1992; Gilroy 1987; Wacquant 2002,) attempting to define and and define to attempting 2002,) Wacquant 1987; Gilroy 1992; Davis been animatedbeen by Charles Murray er than mere manifestations of empirical data, as Paul Gilroy (1987) (1987) Gilroy Paul as data, empirical of manifestations mere than er

Richard Herrnstein Richard .

ticipation of Romani women at the local and transnational level. level. transnational and local the at women Romani of ticipation - y Davis 1992). Davis Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty of the Culture in Studies Case Mexican Families: Five ritten by Ladányiby ritten

academia. - zlni 01, eas oe f h main the of one because 2001), Szelényi eatures of poverty and dependency dependency and poverty of eatures is o ter w pvry Ee tog te structural the though Even poverty. own their for tims

literature (Banton 1998; Cornell and Hartmann 1998; 1998; Hartmann and Cornell 1998; (Banton literature in 1994(Herrn in - breaking studies on social exclusion and territorial territorial and exclusion social on studies breaking Class

- Davis interpretation of Hall‘s phrase is tha is phrase Hall‘s of interpretation Davis - He is best known for his co for known best He is class,‖ class,‖ – 18 , in broad terms refers to the various economic various the to refers terms broad in , Szelényi (LadányiSzelényi

stein, Murray 1994), which discusses the role of role of the discusses which 1994), stein, Murray — ― lower -

point, the economic position of Roma. Roma. of position economic the point, 21 over and above the relative absence of of absence relative the above and over

among others. - class,‖ ―middle class,‖ ol over societal resources, henceresources, societal over ol – Szelényi Iván study builds on on builds study Iván Szelényi – - ntroversial book book ntroversial Szelényi 2006). This study study This 2006). Szelényi biological discourse which which discourse biological - Davis Davis - earning capacities and and capacities earning —

single motherhood, motherhood, single -

class‖ typology. typology. class‖

(1959) by by (1959) 927) The 1992:71) theses The Bell Curve utr of culture

race and and race t ―class ―class t of this this of IQ ,

CEU eTD Collection Ther discourses. inequality and of reproduction practices institutional the through interrogating process interconnected fluid a as activism social and political the of understanding our complicating further for tools provides categor ethnic the through of exclusively category perceived central analysis a their as gender viewed not have activism political of scholars and activists Romani most since timely, is activism political Romani in intersectionality of application the mono the challenge to attempt an as 80s, late the in started intersectionality of development The intersectionality. race/ethnic encapsulating theoriesthe postcolonial and feminism race critical of context the in addition, In women contribution writings ofcolor,a to offer unique women. about Romani anthr from theories have and who Concepts patriarchy. internal color, their and movement of gender white the women with conflict aboutin been references historical as used are discourses and theories c the with resonate feminists post and women world third women, black women, indigenous of experiences The challengeessentialist viewoppressed that theallwomenareway. inthesame r to a access plays factor in class role thethe how significant investigate to theorize opportunity excellent an will offered level local Ia at dissertation women this out carried work Field does. elite the than way different Romani a in of oppression gender contextualize among ‗double chapter empirical relations of the hierarchical narrative in the experiences, invoke women science, 51 1991. (Mohanty social feminism Western of ethos progressive the within political the contrast to principally colonization‘: working feminists how shows 1991), (Mohanty Mohanty Talpade 274). 1992: (Suleri patriarchies foreign and native excellence par victims as women world‘ ‗third postulates theory a Such conditions. imperial under women the of colonization‘ (Spiv ‗double the elides inevitably theorists politics racial with on focus dogmatic postcolonial a that arguing feminist similarities from contribution have theoretical interesting could an which activism political embraces my local Furthermore, work level. the women, especiallypredicament at ofRomani women‘s indigenous rural based on literature anthropological using also am I 1997). Wing (ed. activism rights human on theories diverse and thick provide which color, of women by written book edited feminist c women these by developed theories, and concepts The academia. Western by subordinated been and have oppressed who women indigenous color, of women by written are they because interesting us are that theories and social concepts the includes It class. and gender race, between intersection the in examines that theory sub the factor is Feminism Race Critical important women. indigenous and an world third is in Femin class Race too, and Critical gender is gender, race/ethnicity, discussions theoretical incorporated that that theories arguing the of step One structuralization. logical next the took atten the invited interrelated, are class and race that theory The oftheorization injustice and structuralof thepolitics difference. the class tothe developmentof contributed and conceptualization between race relation of the t, edr n cas tee s nwy mrig eiit prah called approach feminist emerging newly a is there class, and gender ity, – an be applied or developed further in my thesis. There is a critical race race critical a is There thesis. my in further developed or applied be an

and the forgotten casualties of both imper both of casualties forgotten the and opological literature about/by indigenous, African indigenous, about/by literature opological - focal identity politics in the black movement (Crenshaw 1989). He 1989). (Crenshaw movement black the in politics identity focal ed by women of color. In my research these studies are particularly particularly are studies these research my In color. of women by ed oncerns and problems articulated by Romani women. These These women. Romani by articulated problems and oncerns gt ad oil n pltcl ciim aig t osbe to possible it making activism political and social and ights ae oe al atmt o te plcto of application the of attempts early some are e 19 ism taking issue with the struggles of black, black, of struggles the with issue taking ism

immaturity of third of immaturity from lower classes and the way they they way the and classes lower from - 81). Moreover, based on Romani Romani on based Moreover, 81). ial conditions and ideology, and and ideology, and conditions ial tion of feminist scholars, who who scholars, feminist of tion y. However, intersectionality However, y. - - world woman with the with woman world American women and and women American

- field of critical race race critical of field

k 1987), ak - colonial nce, nce, - -

CEU eTD Collection 2002 attacks for responsible those of prosecution officials, other and policemen abusive or corrupt proceedings against criminal and dismissals led to has Their determination Hungary. Slo in Rights Human Peace and for Union the Republic, Czech the in Tolerance Movement and Citizen’sSolidarity the Bulgaria, in Rights Project 22 on up taken be should justice of inter larger the issues serve to Roma of that behalf and sector, civil dynamic a by filled be could Roma‘s of right human establish to role key a played and Europe Eastern Central in movements 'democratisation' early in tirelessly participated had and regimes by characterized is 2000s, anti Many for early paradigm. and potential 1990s its the and era, dominant society most civil The strong a of virtues the 'democratising' (Forbrig, theregion Demes and2007). Shepherd extolled transition the of days Liber (3) socialviolation; from andeconomic late inclusion. 2000s: 1970s (1) focuses: dominant three on based society civil Roma emerging the of phases three distinguish shall I activism. politi Romani international the of moment founding century the as 20th considered is London early in 1971 the to back traced be can ( activism NGO political Roma of roots The dependant political,andphilosophical oncultural, orientations. thi that is society civil For of people. understanding located one differently instance, to things different means society‖ ―civil of concept the that evident become has it However, 1997). (Fowler members byits determined as purpose public non formed, voluntarily private,of set a as understood be may society Civil space. and time across identity ethnic and gender rights, Edwardsa ‗non on discussion theoretical the to attached closely of these ofthestruggles rights implementation parts world. The invarious which in way the analyzing (2003) Rajagopal institutio and conceptsrights human and (2001) Wilson anthropological by current out some carried is There research level. local and transnational the at local equality gender adaptation and my the adaptation Through expose 2001). further of Wilson shall I and process research, Dembour the (Cowan, rights to human given universal of attention application anthropological been has There an rights 1.4.3 Human shall provide areference and frame of analyt Intersectionality 2006). Grabham 2003; Hannett 2007; Conoghan 2007; Vakulenko ( studies 2003), (Yuval (Hawkesworth sociology science political 2003), Fernandes, 2004; (Burman psychotherapy 2007), critical 2002), (Brewer economics feminist (Valentine geography political including of methods and theory the to adhering researchers However, studies. legal in (1989) Crenshaw by coined was term Yuval and (Anthias studies, race critical in intersectionality Marushiakova and Popov 2004 Popov and Marushiakova

By the mid 1990s national human rights NGOs emerged in Central and Eastern Europe; such as the Human Human asthe such Europe; Eastern and Central in emerged NGOs human rights national 1990s mid the By )

nd Hulme (1995) investigated how civil society and NGOs attempt to foster humanfoster to attempt societyNGOs and civil investigatedhow (1995) Hulme nd

ua rights human - ai 20) post 2006), Davis - Communist dissidents, who had risked unpopularity under totalitarian totalitarian under unpopularity risked had who dissidents, Communist

nescinlt nw a be can now intersectionality 22 d the role of NGOs in Eastern Europe Europe Eastern in ofNGOs d therole vakia, and the Office for the Protection of National and Ethnic Minorities in Minorities in Ethnic and National of Protection forthe Office the and vakia, Te blee ta te aum et y srnig tt sector state shrinking a by left vacuum the that believed They . - 1980s: self 1980s:

; Klimova 2002 Klimova ns are mobilized and contextualized in particular political in particularpolitical contextualized and nsaremobilized - - ooil tde ( rnee 20) n socio and 2005) Arondeker ( studies colonial profit oriented organizations that servethat organizations oriented profit est of eradicating racism and social exclusion in their in exclusion social and racism eradicating of est - determination; (2) 1990s (2) determination; ical tool for tool examiningical my data 20 )

and conceptualization of human rights and and rights human of conceptualization and but the first World Romani Congress held in Congressheld Romani World first the but - governmental organizations‘ (NGOs). organizations‘ governmental i agopo raiain heavily organizations of group a is s on i a ie ag o contexts, of range wide a in found s NGOs with the focus on violation violation on focus the with NGOs s - Davis, 1983) and a bit later the later bit a and 1983) Davis,

against Roma, and the like. the and Roma, against

- early 2000s: human rights human 2000s: early al intellectuals in the early theearly in al intellectuals

- based is discourses

h hmn rights human the some private orprivate some ( Bárány Bárány - legal cal CEU eTD Collection 2002). Naples Desai (Desai, Manisha and Naples A. Nancy 26 populations Roma large with countries candidate of reviewing accession the Commission European the to or EU the within Women Against Discrimination of Elimination the Committee on 25 2011) http://www.eu2011.hu/news/romastrategia : website Commission’s European the on Accessed Roma.” of situation improving the is for essential segregation, and discrimination combating by notably rights, fundamental of protection the carea health employment, of education, improvement areas: the four on concentrate haveto strategies Roma National Roma. the of situation the forimproving integrati Roma 24 website: Inclusion Decade Roma of signed the governments eight participating first the of 2003.Prime in Ministers Hungary, Future," forthe Challenges Europe: Expanding an emerged from Decade of the Theidea mainstreaming. gender and discrimination, issues poverty, of employme education, of areas priority the on focuses The Decade way. quantifiable and transparent a in review progress such to and Roma welfare of the improving toward progress accelerate to civil society, as Romani aswell organizations, an intergovernmental governments, together brings initiative that international socio the improve to governments 23 Roma in their NGOs organizations, philanthropic western women Romani rural or poor incorporating various success of lack their for criticized also are NGOs by supported Romanes, and mo English speaking 2001, leaders, NGO urban Trehan of class 2002; a of (Baranyemergence the Upon society. 2009) Rostas civil 2010; within ‘subalterns‘ Romani for dependency of are NGOs these that of claiming parts region the in NGOs Roma the of critiques several are There of patterns reverse international conventions to litigation strategic comprise abu ERRC rights human of activities The 1996. in OSI of support financial the with founded was (ERRC) Centre Rights Roma European the Roma, int Forexample, theleading Framework Strategy Inclusion a Roma of Decade the as plays initiatives international such in role keyand level, transnational the at leadership and representation Romani the facilitating Roma for support institutional and financial provides OSI The 1989. after region the in organization for donors philanthropic philanthropic hegemonic a became Soros George by Institutefunded (OSI) Society OpenThe major on dependent become also continuing their work have post sector in NGO the and within communism under both support financial Roman as Just faced. day well the these about of little knew most intellectuals minorities, meaning for justice about views progressive their Despite societies.

Similar critique has been arti been Similar has critique Discriminat Racial of Elimination the on Committee asthe such „ „ The Decade The

- EU’s Roma Integration Framework Strategy Framework Integration EU’s Roma eae atvte ad raiain, prts t on programm own its operates organizations, and activities related http://www.romadecade.org/about a mainly elite driven paternalistic leadership project effectively creating a new kind new a creating effectively project leadership paternalistic driven elite mainly a on strategies or integrated sets of policy measures within their broader social inclusion policies, policies, inclusion social broader their within measures policy of sets integrated or strategies on of Roma Inclusion 2005 Inclusion Roma of 26 .

se, submitting so submitting se, nt, health, and housing, and commits governments to take into account the other core other the account into take to governments commits and housing, and health, nt, 24 .

. in Sofia, Bulgaria, on February 2, 2005.” Accessed on the Decade Secretary’s Decade Secretary’s the on Accessed 2005.” 2, February on Bulgaria, Sofia, in for structures state on dependent been have politicians and leaders i

25 culated against women NGO leaders in different contexts in an edited book by by book edited an in contexts different in leaders NGO women against culated ; andorganizing forms various ofhumanrights education. ernational NGO combating specifically the human rights abuse of of rightsernational abuse combatinghuman specifically NGO the - economic status and social inclusion of Roma. The Decade is an is an The Decade Roma. of inclusion social status and economic

– 2015 is an unprecedented political commitment by European European by commitment political unprecedented an is 2015 - called shadow reports to international bodies monitoring bodies international to reports shadow called -

egyontetu ( Accessed on June 05, 200 05, June on ( Accessed

a high a

will provide a framework for Member States’ national national States’ Member for framework a will provide 21 nd housing conditions. The Conclusions point out that that out point Conclusions The conditions. housing nd - - tamogatas level regional conference on Roma held in Budapest, Budapest, in held Roma on conference regional level

- to

- day problems that many Romani people people Romani many that problems day ion, the Committee on the Rights the Child, Child, the Rights the Committeeon the ion, - szocialis - omns tms Rmn actors Romani times, Communist 11)

tanacsban d nongovernmental nongovernmental d

s ie a directly at aimed es

23 ( Accessed on June 04, 04, June on Accessed ( Declaration of the the of Declaration

and the EU RomaEU the and "Roma in in "Roma

stly stly - CEU eTD Collection int 27 ThirdWorld with the Escobaron ―gypsy argues when that industry‖, Kawczynski‘s statement Rudko with coincides argument Escobar reality. influence to power the on having is that discourse sense, the that argue shall non the I by constructed been mainly dissertation has Roma my In 1984) of (Escobar discourse a control. as and seen power be should development that is argument i theoretical global main ofEscobar‘s understanding new and perspective can unique which a 2003), Fridman give 2005; 2003, 1996, Harvey, David (see NGOs of critique liberal neo the with integrated if especially NGOs, Roma of life social the in apply to relevant still post The freedom, freeand anrightsglobal entrance economy. as humanmarketsystem the into so the in cultivated w which models working attracted development, Roma of field the in agencies western of industry‖ by cultivated rule‖ of ―mechanisms and industry development the to levels some on similarities and cultural rooted, imagined‖ (1995:39) contextually spac a a ―created that as project historical development international mainstream describes that Escobar hegemony, of fact concept Gramsci‘s applying and sense Foucaldian a the in discourse a as highlight development coloni of legacies through articulated closely is on studies locations many Recentin which, order, world given the shape discourses and processes development about, (1995:9). knowledge region producing geopolitical for apparatus efficient 1945 after West or North dis global development the in that originating emphasizees particularly who Escobar, discourse with development that argue scholars inline 1990) Appadurai 1994; Ferguson Escobar1995; (e.g. asymmetry Several of power a reproduces philosophy. and models political and interventions. such of E Western context via issues‖ the ―Roma conceptualize in experts developmental power Western claim they aid, receiving and ways giving of and the nature define the donors truths Western Since 1995:22). in ―powerful (Escobar world‖ produce the role in intervening and and creating crucial intertwine power a and play representation money, differentials power where 1995:6 (Escobarknowledge of implementation and dissemination space cultural encompassing an ―development‖ Escobar, For levels. many on Hungary, in particularly countries, socialist post in aid development Roma of study the to applicable is work Escobar‘s World‖. ―Third L in countries Western by international intervention development of how exposing by politics countries developing techniques and in intervention effects local and the analyzing technologies for framework theoretical implemented working and develo applied the from frequently imported of and field the issues in agents social minority became they which by (NGOs), Organizations Governmental the of beginning the At of Development 1.4.4 Discourses uig h post the During

Rudko Kawczynski used this term in the article „Politics of Romani Politics” in in Politics” Romani of „Politics article the in term this used Kawczynski Rudko ernet:

cos okn i so in working actors http://www.reocities.com/~patrin/politics.htm - 27 eeomn ciiu (e Ecbr 95 Scs 92 wt sm m some with 1992) Sachs 1995; Escobar (see critique development , as Rudko Kawczynski, one of the prominent activists described the interventions the described activists prominent the of one Kawczynski, Rudko as , -

not only produced the notion of ―Third World‖, but also ―created an extremely an ―created also but World‖, ―Third of notion the produced only not atin America has influenced the making of imaginative geographies such as the as such geographies imaginative of making the influenced has America atin - od a, etr ad o post to aid western War, Cold - called Third World. Many international interventions expounded ideals of ideals expounded interventions internationalMany World. Third called

0, post 90s, ped world. Arturo Escobar laid the groundwork in providing a a providing in groundwork the laid Escobar Arturo world. ped - called Third World (Barsegian 2000). Indeed, the ―Gypsy ―Gypsy the Indeed, 2000). (Barsegian World Third called

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CEU eTD Collection expressing their resistance. from interdependent and ‗movement‘ their Roma of articulation and participation women‘s and rights human global the with interactions their from character‖, ―dialogical a Romani has struggle realm. political the in and media suc society, the of segments various of domain the in conducted nature in discursive characteristically are struggles recognition recognition, signifying others‘ of is which life‖ human of feature affirmed through identity ―fundamentally character‖ argues He thatas is (1994:32). dialogical crucial ―a of terms in connection recognition the and explains identity Taylor between difference. of politics the to rise given has identity gender) o idea the to rise gave equality of importance The recognition. for demand the indeed, need, the by animated Recognition‖, of Politics ―The identi on authors first the of One political neglected mobilization consciousgender their taking analysis. upa perspective in it their and that movement Roma the about written have who historians and scientists political is most politics identity on in ofbuilding up the to contributes basedgroups frequently within movement social the intra ignores or conflates offrequently characteristics the of One to framework conceptual a offer understand ofethnicity thecore issues representations political and politics identity of politics. Theories identity transnational strengthened and activists Roma united discrimination racial prevaili this result, a As integration. of was policies paternalistic or discrimination unification systemic the their of basis The subgroups. Romani different ethnographically the united t In identities. ethnic transnational Roma of production unprecedented an witnessed have I decade, past the Over politics 1.4.5 Identity the rights ―Roma of development NGO the interrogate critically will I research, my In democracy. of form genuine a consolidate and society civil active an nurture issu help can Roma below' 'from on participation working NGOs supported largely have Europe Eastern and Central in makers policy and agencies donor Western Pinnock1999:15). ( ― development' 'self 'participation', of policies on embarking Europe Eastern in issues working practitioners those modelforsuitable a be to proved has 'developing' world the to ―application its and techniques that believed West the that argued She Europe. Eastern that and their actions supposedlyjustifyexistence. continued their own objects their to support real offer or employ involve, they rarely however projects, is they industries that both in common is What hegemony. Western for become has World Third asthe Europe in industry of basis developmental same the became Roma is, That ‗experts‘. for Roma that argument Kawczynski Similarly, 1995:46). (Escobar servants‖ civil and an experts planners, of for basis industry the became […] services extension local and services consultancy conferences, a hunger and illiteracy poverty, its KathyPinn - ism‖ which was looking for immediate and popu and immediate for looking was which ism‖ - never stop producing goods in the forms of new reports, research documents and documents research reports, new of forms the in goods producing stop never based and developmental approach to problems of'social approach exclusion'. andbased developmental toproblems ock also used the developmental framework in Roma related work in Central andCentral in work related Roma in developmentalframeworkthe used also ock f universal human rights, while the importance attached to (ethnic and and (ethnic to attached importance the while rights, human universal f

he extended identity extended he communities became fields of research and project generating objects objects generating project and research of fields became communities

ty politics, Charles Taylor (1994), in his influential essay on on essay influential his in (1994), Taylor Charles politics, ty

xlrs h eegne f eet oiia movements political recent of emergence the explores s the object of Western research of ―academic programs, ―academic of research Western of object the s - group differences. Ignoring gender and class differences differences class and gender Ignoring differences. group -

and genderand - making process the Roma and non_Roma activists non_Roma and Roma the process making the ―men led‖ local grass local led‖ ―men the 23

- based political lar remedies based on the adoption of adoption the on based remedies lar tra - group tensions. Until recently, Until group tensions. h as the civil society, in the the in society, civil the as h

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ng CEU eTD Collection political and The the of conceptualization Roma of participation women‘s perspective fromwell asthe Roma for neo the used through examined and and reconsidered developed were be which to need also 2004) Klimova 2002; Vermeesch 1998; Barany theories 2001a; (Kovats participation, and concepts The 1988). Klatch 1968; Kenniston e.g., ( individuals the of biographies the study who at movements analyze those to ) 1995 Tilly 1989; e.g.,Tarow( movements and nations across contention ofpatterns who people of insights and diff perspectives together bring to need I premises are ofthismovement. the what and change social meaningful bring movements these how has, it form the takes it emerged, ‗movement‘ Roma the why and how identity revisit the to necessary be will it research my in considerations, theoretical above the on Based Romani the in issue integrated an as women struggle Romani their how movement oras aseparat expose of to dimension important gender be the will it articulated addition, In identity. political new discursive a the on depend stra the subvertcan movement Romani identities constructed the how is logic this deeply from arise could which questions the of One establish. they articulations ideas, their Following politics. and Laclau as is, model‖ ―articulatory The rights. of idiom the using Europe in Roma as situation which the of narrative discourses a construct variousto activists i allowed developed subordination subordination of forms of These terms. relations class and existing gender the through happening been This subjects. has political as emerge to communities Roma enabled which well, as movement Romani transnational by the appliedbeen articulatoryhas of logic kind identity. This political over and relational are identities all that is thesis Their 1996). Laclau 1993; (Mouffe movements identities all starting that a point with (1985) Mouffe and Laclau by works foundational some are there Moreover, their practices. through politics representational of questioning constant a proposing time same the of at this while character With multifaceted emancipation. the seeks exposed it Butler which move from theoretical power of poli structures very representational the by of constrained limitations and produced is women and of category the politics this within that contradictionsfact the on is, that feminism, the on rests from departure Foucault of point whose 1993), (1990; Butler Judith like others by developed further s of power of exercise the to linked practices and discourses through subjects of production the underlined (1973 Foucault Michel Alcoff, Martin (see with identity politics‖. of conceptualization the on understanding great a offeredhave Poststructuralists ―identity of construction the of Hames in field focus the a in become trend groups), emerging opp by particularly newly (is identity a racialized where States, is United the in there studies minority However, identity 1999). criticize (1998, who Rorty Richard scholars progressive or liberal p numerous There Anglo the in world. criticized widely academic been has politics identity that mention to have also I ltc, nldn Ei Hbbw (96, ac Fae (97 Wny rw (95 or (1995) Brown Wendy (1997) Fraser Nancy (1996), Hobsbawn Eric including olitics, rn lvl, noprtn wrs f hs cascl coas h lo a large at look who scholars classical those of works incorporating levels, erent ubjectification that the subject performs on him or herself. Foucault‘s theory has been been has theory Foucault‘s herself. or him on performs subject the that ubjectification - determined by others relying on the articulation of a possibility for the construction the for possibility a of articulation the on relying others by determined - Gracia, Mohanty and Moya, eds.Gracia, 2006) Mohanty - practices through mechanisms of discipline and normalization, as much as practices as much as normalization, and discipline of mechanisms through practices - based social movement academic approach and to understand the peculiarity of of peculiarity the understand to and approach academic movement social based

are problematic, including collective identities associated with social with associated identities collective including problematic, are ; 1979) being the most influential scholar in this area. His work work His area. this in scholar influential most the being 1979) ; e gender struggle.

tegy of oppressed identity to a strategy of constructing constructing ofstrategy a to identity oppressed of tegy - 24 iea, ua rgt hegemoni rights human liberal,

how it is conceptualized as a movement, why movement, a as conceptualized is it how

Mouffe argues, a hegemonic form of of form hegemonic a argues, Mouffe

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of of CEU eTD Collection discourse. academic the in analyzed critically be to needs ‗movement‘ the in issues Roma of commodity

CEU eTD Collection spaces. every the within racism or occurring domination gender and cultural/social of modes unconscious is on based Spivak’s concept reality. subaltern the is distorting always understanding of way one’s of marginalization and destruction wester of domination 29 2009) Trehan s 28 isconstructedRoma historically academicand reinscribed discourses. in image ―othered‖ the how and identity Gypsy of conceptualization the on analysis an offer will I 2006). Zoltan 2008; Trehan 2000; Heuss 2002; Hancock 2004; (Clark today enclaves conse violence the from respite little is there ‗Gypsy‘), (or Romani be to perceived is someone If attention. academic people rather, or people Romani t that racism perceived and prejudices of range and complexity The to also and ‗other‘ the to relation in identity European maintain theEuropean the over‗European hegemony the Orient‘. of creation the to important dichoto This ‗others‘. and Europe between dichotomy the of creation the to contributed discourses political and social historical, through Roma of (mis)representation The thinking. politica and social historical, how explore will I today. even Orient‘ ‗European the constructs governments and institutions scholarship, academic by produced Roma about knowledge the that chapter this ideol an was Europe, in centuries through of operation the with connected producedwas strongly it as ‗knowledge‘ Orient‘, which‗the aboutto theextent out points power.Said is it 1969), (Foucault innocent not is applies knowledge orientalism on work foundational Said‘s W. Edward S CHAPTER „OTHERINGTWO: ROMA‟:HISTORICAL, ocial justice: the struggle for the soul of the Romani civil rights movement in the ‘New Europe’ ” (Kóczé and and (Kóczé ” Europe’ ‘New the in movement rights civil Romani the of soul the for struggle the justice: ocial

Gayatri Chakravorty Gayatri co I article the of parts some incorporated I chapter this In OCIAL POLITICAL AND LEGACIES texts produced out ofthe it.‖ (Said 1978:94) for responsible really is author, given a of originality the not weight, or presence material tra a produce such reality time Inand describe. knowledge to appear they reality very the also but knowledge only not create can texts such important, Most [...] governments and institutions, academics, of authority the […] une f esset n del ebde anti embedded deeply and persistent of quence

b Roma be o

n ways of understanding in contrast to non to contrast in of understanding ways n l discourses create Gypsies and how these discourses generate structures of of structures generate discourses these how and Gypsies create discourses l

Spivak, postcolonial theorist evoked the term of 'epistemic violence' which refers to the refers the which to violence' 'epistemic term of the evoked theorist postcolonial Spivak, –– hscl smoi, epistemic symbolic, physical,

Pierre Bourdieu Pierre face in contemporary Europe has only recently received critical critical received recently only has Europe contemporary in face

dition, or what Michel Foucault calls a discourse, whose discourse, a calls Foucault Michel what or dition, ’s notion of symbolic violence accounting for the tacit almost tacit the for accounting violence symbolic of ’s notion

ogical auxiliary of colonial ‗power‘. I will argue in argue will I ‗power‘. colonial of auxiliary ogical 26

- wrote with Nidhi Trehan “Postcolonial racism and and racism “Postcolonial Trehan Nidhi with wrote 29 - –– western ways of knowledge production. The production. knowledge of ways western - Gypsyism within European cultural cultural European within Gypsyism

28 ht nod Rm pol a a as people Roma enfolds that

h Fualin nihs that insights Foucauldian the

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of CEU eTD Collection language. Romani is called TheRoma. language Kalderas, Sinti, Gitanos, as such groups, ethnic different even or (1992) 31 Fraser Nancy as (2009). Kocze Angela or Trehan Nidhi like issues, Romani focusing on such theorists, critical amongst recognition gained sub entire formal outside are who groups use commonly certain be to started to it politics; of refers structures term this reading, Gramsci’s In 1930s. the in Italy in (2001) 30 common the understood and supported all Kenrick have Donald Who and (1978). 1997) (1992, Hancock Ian 2000), (1995, Fraser Angus (1995), Crowe David as such scholars, of number a to refers Weermesch 2006:14) (Wermeesch migration.‖ ro historic common with community fractured now but bounded a as Roma labels identity Roma of conceptualization first The perspective. unique a represent identity Romani of conceptualizations various The anda atrue for 2.1.1 Searching I kinship biological of useracewill language biological ismore relevant a which in s instead conceptualization my In kinship. biological of issue the on lifestylesthe focuseson second the diaspora,historical a as Roman for basis Roma defines conceptualization first (2006), The identity. Romani to ―transcendental‖ approachesWermeesch three defines which Peter of a schema conceptualization the follow offer to opted have can I activism. which work scholars‘ through identity Romani various conceptualize to need I construction identity of process historical anti contest to (Wermeersch attemp clear a mobilization, connotations. political Romani first romantic the was event This and 2005) Klimova 2006; negative by overloaded been previously having the was term the adopted they where London, in Congress Romani World first the organized leaders Romani 1971 April in Hence, exotic as images, tolerant more in or ot scapegoats, and outcasts social of group a as imagination merely the in appears ‗Gypsies‘ word The 1995). Kohn 1995; 1992, discourses(Fraser persecuted ‗post or anti modern‘ European Although 1997). Hancock 2004; Clark d welfare European imaginarium, the into recycled and fabricated socially been has identity Romani authors, many an offered and misrepresented been have Roma find centuries, will the Gypsies Over footnotes‖(1997:vii). for in searching only goes them who history European of ―reader any it, put Willems f narrative historical mainstream ‗subaltern‘ Romani European of history The The2.1 legacy theof conceptualization of Gypsy identity

I used the term the used I hers Trehan 1995; and (Willems romantic and outsiders. Kóczé 2009) h maig f oa s ua big n oai agae Rm i bt snua ad lrl embracing plural and singular both is Roma language. Romani in being human is Roma of meaning The

- introduction of a politically constructed category to change the image of Roma, Roma, of image the change to category constructed politically a of introduction discipline of ‘subaltern studies’ (Guha and Spivak 1988). More recently, the concept of concept the More recently, 1988). Spivak and (Guha studies’ ‘subaltern of discipline ependents to culturally distinct exotic groups of people. (Trehan and Kóczé 2009; 2009; Kóczé and (Trehan people. of groups exotic distinct culturally to ependents

otherised n simtzd n aiu hsoia, oil n aaei nraie and narratives academic and social historical, various in stigmatized and

where Roma have come to occupy various subject positions from thieves and thieves from positions subject various occupy to come have Roma where - ‘subaltern’, which refers to the marginalized position of Roma. It was first used by Gramsci Gramsci by used first was It Roma. of position marginalized the to refers which ‘subaltern’, ysim n te tgaie Gpy dniy I odr o nesad this understand to order In identity. Gypsy stigmatized the and Gypsyism - colonial‘ concept, it is not a newly born phenomenon. They were were They phenomenon. born newly a not is it concept, colonial‘

iden

tity in social and political discourse. As it has been pointed out by by out pointed been has it As discourse. political and social in tity Rom

31 rom school history books to everyday talk, or as Wim Wim as or talk, everyday to books history school rom , uthentic Gypsy uthentic to describe themselves (Fraser 1992:317). Certainly, thisCertainly, 1992:317). (Fraser themselves describe to

d in postcolonial studies in the 1980s, where it inspired an an inspired it where 1980s, the in studies postcolonial in d 27 30

etc. Romani is the adjective derived from the noun noun the from derived adjective the is Romani etc. a bcm ivsbe ihn h European the within invisible become has

- itrcl diaspora historical ysim s cneprr ‗post contemporary a is Gypsyism

and behavior and the third centers third the behaviorand and ocial and political discourse.and political ocial

historical roots of Roma with with Roma of roots historical ots and common patterns of patterns common and ots

coas n activists and scholars , namely, ―a once once ―a namely, , subaltern political i

has has - t CEU eTD Collection 2010.) activities. their about information some contains 33 cast, military the i.e., Ksiattrya, m of second the centuries of few first the followersduring camp their with leftwho India members were Roma of ancestors the that states which theory specific a the during Europe in arrived and India northwest in 32 identityRomani (Weermesch 2006:15). called is which romipen world the of interpretation distinct a have people cleanlines of rules customs, religion, of characteristics as such practices, cultural common on focus also Jean (1991), cus and behavior lifestyle, of matters of characteristics the on rather but itself, origin However, common the thesis. on not origin is Indianfocus their common the with agree even and ethnicity Romani distinct of issues on focuses identity of conceptualization second the schema, (2006:15) Weermesch‘s Following and customs behavior lifestyle, 2.1.2 Gypsy 196 biologist 1997: Robert(Willems Ritter biologically as Germany Nazi in Gypsies of treatment the influenced Society Lore Gypsy the how shows also Willems 109). 2004: be (Acton century‖ twentieth early not and nineteenth applie late the racism should in Gypsies scientific of Gypsies vehicle main of ―the as regarded representations widely is wider it as on underestimated influence Society‘s Lore Gypsy The . Lore Gypsy The describes Willems Society as (GLS) entrenched origin. Indian an on based culture Romani distinctive of idea the support to center resource a became that communities academic the of one is 1888 Th Roma. of image orientalistic an create from them alienating and 12 1983: category (Okley same culture theEuropean in people of number large a putting of effect and language grant for Roma taken be and not should Hindi perspective diaspora the the hence between connection linguistic real a is there that proveto evidence linguistic sufficient no is there that was concern Okley‘s O (1995). Judith Willems Wim by criticized mainly been has perspective diaspora historical The the Romani language Hindi(Fraser and 1995; 2000). Hanckok specificity some

The majority of these scholars view Roma as descendents of a population that traveled from Punjub region region Punjub from traveled that population a of descendents as Roma view scholars these of majority The Even today, the Gypsy Lore Society Society Lore Gypsy the today, Even ean o Gpy utr, erhn t ahee hs n a rmnial inspired romantically as end this achieve to searching culture, Gypsy‗archaeolog of remains printgrownhadroad.into aristocratsthe […..]GLS of in wasonpublicists intent preserving the of mor developmentsocial, in assumed were who the for Gypsies‘ importance ‗true in primarily whose interested however, were, They writers mistaken. be cannot of studies Gypsy succession a yielded has society The

. Certainly, according to this stance, Gypsyness is one of the essential compon essential the of one is Gypsyness stance, this to according Certainly, . , t. n o te ruet o te ersnaie o ti sho i ta Roma that is school this of representatives the of arguments the of One etc. s, - - rmnl non criminal lifestyle and behavior. and lifestyle Pierre Li Pierre ists‘ for the last traces a of people they saw vanishingas (Willems 1997: 172). 32

and all of them base their argument on the linguistic connection between connection linguistic the on argument their base them of all and é

geois (1994), Andrej Mirga and Lech Mr Lech and Mirga Andrej (1994), geois - Aryans, particularly in the work of eugenicis of work the in particularly Aryans, toms. in the idea of describing the‗true‘ Gypsy:

Some well Some al and racial respects to be far superior to other travellers and travellers other to superior far be to respects racial and al attempts to influence academic discourse on Roma. Their website website Their Roma. on discourse academic influence to attempts -

130). This perspective offers a good basis to portray and and portray to basis good a offers perspective This 130). Scholars repr Scholars

e Gypsy Lore Society Lore Gypsy e - 292). thirteen century. Out of this group Ian Hanckok (2000) has has (2000) Hanckok Ian group this of Out century. thirteen http://www.gypsyloresociety.org/ - known scholars and activists, like Ian Hanckok Ian like activists, and scholars known 28

esenting this school accept the existence of of existence the accept school this esenting ed, especially because it has the has it because especially ed,

33 óz (1994) óz

established in England in England in established Gypsyness

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ents of ents d to d CEU eTD Collection 295) 35 in it more about 34 cannibalism of allegations madeGypsies againstgroup of district aofHonth thesummer of in inthe Hungarian 1782 involving case infamous the around ambiguities the out pointed (1997:25 Willems Wim by criticized vastly 18 to first the Lom was Lombroso since intellectual and Roma, cultural development‘ that them. (Kohnnoonecanof upwith 1995:185) put incapable so of and morally criminalitylow ‗so being innate as Gypsies characterize the with discourse any a centuries for Roma stigmatized which idea pervasive most the was it Probably, 49). 2009: Trehan in cited 2006:19 (Lombroso vices‖ and passions its all with race, criminal a as Roma out single to first the crimina was Lombroso Cesare crime‘, ‗Gypsy on policy work breaking ground into the in In1878 1995). filtered Kohn 2009; Kóczé and Trehan 2009; have ‗mentally (Trehan domain popular ideas crime‘, ―scientific‖ ‗Gypsy These Gypsies‖, medi documents, inadaptable‘. of ‗socially ―Problems or the backward‘ as such concepts problematical 19 growing a is there Roma pseudo of customs and behavior lifestyle, special of notion the on Based a as regarded be of Gypsy lifestyle. should and might This Gypsies. n to unintentional, be might which attempt, dangerous the amongst revived simply been has which lifestyle nomadic traditional a is there that suggests document the Europe, Eastern and being of Instead re political and 2001). economic social, of Kovats symptom complex a in as perceived cited the 1995:13 to return (Verspaget a Gypsies‖ merely is of it mobility West; normal the over sweeping Gypsies of wave‖ ―tidal a of pictures not must 1990 mobility since in increase ―the that arguing Verspaget Geraldine by signed 1995 in report a released Europe of Council The countries. European western various policy su in surfaces often lifestyle, diasporas the Gypsy utilize of customs and and circumstances behavior and diversity their simplify to desire the various However, in population this of distribution geographical I countries. European the to refers certainly it but ways, ‗ are Gypsies repor The 1993, January in accepted Itwas report. Europe‘s core concepttheCouncilof Gypsya in Thelifestyle of notion become tracedeven inpolicy marginal‖. and nomadic inherently as Moreover Roma about thinking stereotypical of preservation a ―offer 15), (2006: Weermesch by emphasized as approaches, academic of sorts these cases w legal and valid a as promoted even and respected be ―should which Gypsies of characteristic special a as it use lifestyle, Romani

The original source of the story is in the book of of book the in is story the of source original The The Lombroso’s idea on Roma influenced the European’s social, political and academic discourses. Read Read discourses. academic and political social, European’s the influenced Roma on idea Lombroso’s The ch policy dates back to the mid the to back dates policy ch th th

broso developed his ideas following Heinrich Grellmann‘s sensational and popularized popularized and sensational Grellmann‘s Heinrich following ideas his developed broso etr suy n ypy anbls (ilm 19:5, hc ws cuiie and scrutinized was which 1997:25), (Willems cannibalism Gyspsy on study century n ear and - l population in population l academic approach born out of the scientific and socio and scientific the of out born approach academic , these modes of representation simplify overall circumstances which can be clearly be can which circumstances overall simplify representation of modes these , y 20 ly true Europeans‘ true Stephen Jay Gould, Gould, Jay Stephen

cal and educational professional discourse, the political sphere and even the even and sphere political the discourse, professional educational and cal as an objective category, is used in various ways. On the one hand, activists hand, one the On ways.various in used is category,objective an as th ay of life‖ (Clark 1999 cited in Weermesch 2006: 17). However, in most most in However, 17). 2006: Weermesch in cited 1999 (Clark life‖ of ay

- t may also refer to some sort of inherent disposition of Roma in Europe. in Roma of disposition inherent of sort some to refer also may t oriented documents.oriented etre. hs pseudo These centuries. L‘uono Delinquente L‘uono

. The concept of concept The . The Mismeasure of Man, of Mismeasure The - 1990s when many Roma migrated and sought asylum in in asylum sought and migrated Roma many when 1990s t on t Gypsies in Europe in Gypsies

Karoly Vajna, Vajna, Karoly [ - Criminal Man Criminal 26). In 1997, Willems in an extensive analy extensive an in Willems 1997, In 26). 29 -

true European true cdmc iw mk ue f rne of range a of use make views academic

(Gould 1981). (Gould ormalize the abnormal under the notion notion the underabnormal the ormalize Hazai R Hazai ] describing them as a ―thoroughlya as describing ] them égi Büntetések égi (Verspaget 1993) declared that declared 1993) (Verspaget can be understood in various in understood be can

- political thinking of the late late the of thinking political 34

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CEU eTD Collection by written 2010) 24, June on (accessed article fascist the to reaction Csurka. a as Istvan Forum Democratic Hungarian the within 1992 in Foundation 37 Örké (CsepeliGyörgy, in István retorikája’, Csurka 2002.’Ellenségdiskurzusok: 36 the use to opted therefore have and subtle too kinship) (biological concept his find I schema. (2006:16 Weermesch the from depart shall I identity, Romani of conceptualization the In 2.1.3 Race campaign gain andof able was aofpublic to andjournalists number intellectuals the support political ongoing its of epicenter the it making criminality‘ ‗Gypsy of concept the reinforced closely activities Nazi political the and of rhetoric reminiscent a with Parliament Hungarian and the in Csurka group political István by applied extreme current the by first reiterated been Roma deviancy on the to adhere that concept those by supported Darwinian Social distorted The Gypsy manner inaninstrumental toachieveownpolitical (Póczik aims their 1999). social how about social as coded Hungarian are the Jews of right, rhetoric the extreme In theories. conspiracy Jewish reinforce Póczik, like school, such are themselves guise, Roma that well social own their is for clever responsible school this a of thesis in main The 2010:244) scholars (Dupcsik approach. by supported was P rhetoric Szilveszter This 2002) Kriza state 187; the by citizens ―normal‖ as treatment same the deserve not does He re Forum. Democratic Hungarian the coalition, ruling the of member a such as and parties Pártja Élet és Igazság b the and theory newspaper issue Istv political current 1992 a into evolved has politici criminality‘ populist by espoused ‗Gypsy of notion the Hungary, In the other as handgenetic abiologicalconceptualized is and issue. vernacular, the on impact hand one the hugeon is criminality‘ a deep had popular for and foundation statistical centuries a providing for discourses everyday in present through cannibalism‘ ‗Gypsy like Notions

Borbála Kriza gave an overwiev of the anti the of overwiev an gave Kriza Borbála Imre Furman, who was one of the leading Roma rights defenders in Hungary established the Liberal Forum Forum Liberal the established Hungary in defenders rights Roma leading the of one was who Furman, Imre which population, dysfunctional biologically and unadoptable socially a as Roma garded each other‘seach heels the accusations assumed grotesque proportions.(Willems 1997:25) on rapidlyfollowed which sessions court the during and newspapers the in attention prominent guilty were they that admitted women 31 53 and hearing men their During eyewitnesses. no were there and however, authorities, the to missing disfiguredhaverobbed have reportedto then travelers,been one had eaten andsaid to them.No One - hundred án Csurka Csurka án Magyar Fórum Magyar - biological language biological óczik, óczik, - http://www.mr1 n thirty and iological concept of racial hierarchy racial of concept iological - liberals (Jews in a coded political coded a in (Jews liberals rmnlgs ad itra, ersnig h deviancy the representing historian, and criminologist

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the - CEU eTD Collection Nazi. co who those only preserving 39 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1141/is_n11_v30/ai_14760056/ Reporter Catholic National mistreated” hated, are Gypsies world, the “Across article the in statement Meciar’s on There alsoreference is 38 loc a at enforced necessarily not however, (1711 was, of which Romas, VI all era of Charles extermination norms, to Christian forcibly back to or date or Romas order, Europe the Central of in ‗problem‘ communities the Habsb Romani with roaming deal to large attempts assimilate serious first The areas. (Romania), Transylvania and Slovenia Banat the Ukraine, and Poland southern Slovakia, Republic, present included Empire ‗civilizing of Habsburg is, The that century, eighteenth the of narrative of mission‘ historical the to I turn Gypsy‖ ―the now of shall category identity the including identities, construct do and can narratives and scientific the on historical, based firmly current is ―Gypsy‖ of construction identity the above, demonstrated have I As The2.2 ‘civilizing of Habsburgsthe mission’ of in Roma overrepresentation an created and professionals educational by up taken been has argument, race the in embedded backward‘, ‗mentally of concept the that here noting worth st through patterns reproduction in intervention professionals‘ medical of issue the While Roma. towards doctors of attitudes ar there eugenics i.e. science,race how Also, show to practice medical 1995:180). (Kohn issue Roma the term the of use the namely, claim, third His society. Slovak the of part not are Roma therefore society, into integrating of term the concerns point second His group. ethnic an as society of section problematic the identified Meciar First, threefold. Kohn Marek with rhetoric agree I Slovakia. of population Roma the to be backward reference implicit his understood mentally everyone that clear and it made organizations rights unadoptable human socially the of population‘. reproduction ‗extended the curtail Spissk of town Slovak Eastern the in Slovakia, whe 1993, September Agency,in Vladim News is CTK the by reported was statements Europe outrageous most his of One Eastern Slovakia. of Minister and Central in politicians racist explicitly s and economic entire the for factor causal are the Roma that believe who those from support and votes gain to order in argument race the race constructed academically the Alongside o form the centuries.overt and covert a in reiterated and supported been has view This argument. this

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urg Empire. As a reaction to Roma‘s lack of inclination to adhere to the rule of law and and law of rule the adhereto to inclination oflack Roma‘s to reaction a As Empire.urg to illustrate racist political discourse political racist illustrate to , Croatia, many living Bosniaandcommunities Serbia northern inthese with Romani

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Jan 14, 1994 14, Jan nformed to a Nordic stereotype. Roma were one of the groups singled out by the the by out singled groups the of one were Roma stereotype. Nordic a to nformed ‗mentally backward‘ ‗mentally

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by socio Harry James Cargas Harry - oiia tikn. o eosrt hw historical how demonstrate To thinking. political - day Austria, Hungary, parts of Italy, the Czech Czech the Italy, of parts Hungary, Austria, day - - 32 biological language, politicians also tend to use to tend also politicians language, biological

mary of World Broadcast, RTN 8 September 1993. 1993. 8 September RTN Broadcast, of World mary who pointed out that this offensive phrase was was phraseoffensive this that out pointed who á Nová Ves, and Ves, Nová á ocial crisis in their society. One of the most most the of One society. their in crisis ocial

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CEU eTD Collection of ‘civilising’. need in flawed, and deeply asalien, culture Romani viewing despite Roma, of humanity corporeal the accepted perha were Hapsburgs the terms, relative in Thus, lands. these entering even from Roma dissuade to order in penalty) death the (including place 41 cost maintenance their for directly farmers the pay would counties (Buti beliefs and identity core their 40 of negation corresponding the for concern without becoming their on placed being emphasis the with civilized‘, ‗becoming of to up right purpose expressed Australia the for manner) in widespread and general more exercised much a in was although 1970s), which schools, boarding and day (usually care in placedwere and families their from removal forcible underwent children indigenous where (Australia), Wales South New and States United the as places such in mindset colonial c of site a Romani eliminate to Habsburgs the Austro from of identity part the on made was effort conscious a Therefore, became decrees public discourse asequal notconsidered whichGypsies had citizens. these the of the with accordance decades in enacted Nonetheless, were final laws discriminatory of the series a when during Empire, Habsburg matter discouraged. police a into was evolving predominantly issue ‗Gypsy‘ Romani term the progres of use the while Spain, in introduced artisan an conduct trades to permission the settlement, Romani for land of provision the example for included, and nature, in inclusive appeared initially measures these above, demonstrated As demonstrated by the apparent became soon policies these of failure the However, abducted. basically were children 18,000 some which of result be to 5 of age the p and families their over from separated children ordered fourth and The Gypsies jurisdiction. between their marriages under outlawed decree Roma register to settlements and villages ordered and dr traditional their wear to Roma prohibiting and communities, their over authority of forms conventional exercise to leaders their banning by hierarchy communal traditional and identity cultural Roma‘s affected (1767) order third The n not were commanders military which on service, military compulsory (1756 War Years Seven the of midst the in enacted (1761), order second The Habsburg the affected particularly and rule. continent the through swept that wars of series the this during Europe overwhelming hardship of account on land, the farming peasants particularly manpower, of lack the as well asperiod, economic the to response a as enacted largely of ownership as well w as and permission, horses without domicile prohibiting respective while their landowners, leaving and church from the them for services do taxes, pay settle, to Gypsies There Maria Empress war a in contributions economic of sphere the enlarge to need the by fuelled also and colonies of of mission‘ lack the of account ‗civilizing on possibly solution, rational more a was absolutist‘ ‗enlightened an the as to colonies, their to them (1740 Theresa Maria deporting Empress by problem‘ ‗Gypsy the of rid get preferredPortugal,to who andBritain the like westerncountriesexceptionof the With

Romani children were to be placed in foster homes with peasant families from the age of four, and the the and four, of age the from families peasant with homes foster in placed be to were children Romani In some areas of Europe, it was a crime merely to be a Gypsy/Romani, and harsh punishments were put in in put were punishments harsh and Gypsy/Romani, a be to merely crime a was it Europe, of areas some In - ravaged empire.

iey ase (áli n Trsk 00 9 2000: Törzsök and (Kállai harsher sively te pnn u o gid ebrhp o oa I adto, iial t decrees to similarly addition, In Roma. to membership guild of up opening the d

olonization. agons to reinforce the former. From the perspective of the Court, this was was this Court, the of perspective the From former. the reinforce to agons

- way Gypsychildrenfromway escaped parents. custodyback totheir Hungarian lands, even as the Romani body was ‗salvaged‘ and became became and ‗salvaged‘ was body Romani the as even lands, Hungarian a nce fu eit cnenn Rm. h frt 15) ordered (1758) first The Roma. concerning edicts four enacted sa

hs cvlzn msin hd tog eoacs ih h British the with resonances strong had mission‘ ‗civilizing This Romanies ps relatively ‘enlightened’ among their contemporaries, as they at least least at they as contemporaries, their among ‘enlightened’ relatively ps - 80) and her son, Emperor Joseph II Joseph Emperor son, her and 80) – laced under state supervision, mainly in foster homes, as a as homes, foster in mainly supervision, state under laced

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were to be called ‗new Hungarians‘ or ‗new peasants‘, peasants‘, ‗new or Hungarians‘ ‗new called be to were 33

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CEU eTD Collection timeHabsburgs. the the of during language Romani the towards to antipathy the part in attributed 43 2004: 4). (Buti peoples own their of influences ‘contaminating’ the from isolation children’s the ensuring 1870s, 42 European the Central region. EastEuropean contemporary in as reproduced communities being Romani society. otherness‘ for ‗Gypsy repercussions have of to narratives continues pernicious that belief a Habsburg society, within ‗inferiority‘ ruled and ‗deviance‘ Romani in belief pervasive the reflected time 15 2005: (Kemény 1787 in Affairs Gypsy Departmentof of Habs level the the to at mired experiment‘, ‗failed interest official of longer no wasissue‘ ‗Romani a the 1780s, late bythe legislative declaration: remained negation cultural and assimilation resolutions, chosethese simply verified councils Courts governing Royal the though even end, the In restriction. significant feared who conflic members a be to proved homes foster placementin and families Social their from children Romani ofremoval by artisans. rejected Romani was from Roma competition for membership guild objective, desirable a be to felt necessarily not was settlements Romani in investing addition, In regulations. new decrees these of implementation the for responsible authorities 2004:1

Boarding schools for Native American children had becom had children American Native for schools Boarding n ugr tdy ls ta 1% f oais pa a ilc o te oai agae wih ca which language, Romani the of dialect a speak Romanies of 15% than less today, Hungary In

- 43 4).

These ‗civilizing‘ impulses towards Romanies have been historically inscr historically been have Romanies towards impulses ‗civilizing‘ These 42

ug, n i dsperd rm h ipra aed wt te lsr o the of closure the with agenda imperial the from disappeared it and burgs, otntl fr oe oai aiis iig ne Hbbr rl, local rule, Habsburg under living families Romani some for Fortunately

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CEU eTD Collection Balkanism subjects. Romani for ‘otherness’ of and burden this creates double some extent a what to and interwoven, ‘Gypsylorism’) (what termed have Romanies Lee Ken of and view Hancock Ian Orientalist as such the scholars Romani how prominent explored be to remains ‘backwardn It 1997). (Todorova atavistic ‘Balkanism’ an from suffering people 44 the activism within Romani European political landscape today. whose can strategies there ofthen variety vis a Westerners for superiority deploying of position as resultant the is ‗Orientalism‘ factor common about talks Said W. Edward as asymmetrical maintaining of waya as colonialism those at and looks one classes if Furthermore, subaltern ‗infrahuman‘. be comprising to state, perceived subjects the human to internal is such as ‗colony‘ ongoing The an ones. as but past, the in event or b power political and conquest military economic, of exercise specific a as just not sense, broader ‗po a in and ‗colonialism‘ terms the understood be can ‗colonialism‘ term the of contextualise application The movement. Romani the to regard to important also is It vis tendencies ‗civilising‘ the despite level, thatRoma are pervasive throughouttoday. Europe national the at differences these reflect a region, the of parts various in differently perceived dichotomy and This civilisation between 13). 1996: (Wessely society‘ civil of institutions the and boundaries stable identity the assert and define ‗to peoples European Central all by adopted of that and identity; national their West by Wessely used ‗civilisation‘, in of notion qtd. the in divergence 1978, the out (Elias points Elias ones‖ Moreover, 13). 1996: contemporary primitive‖ ―more or societies earlier to Western which in everything Process, Civilizing The countries. Western by assistance conceived often is region the context, this In neo of influence the by overrun been has which Roma, of rights human the for movement the in replicated is dominance This 1996;). Gowan forc capitalist global of influence profound the by marked space post The Colonization2.3 and controversial Romani emancipation

Furthermore, continental Europeans, particularly those who reside in southeastern Europe, are framed as as framed are Europe, southeastern in reside who those particularly Europeans, continental Furthermore, ern nations such as France and the United Kingdom as a self a as Kingdom United the and France as such nations ern

- oils Cnrl n Esen uoe a a ein cn e iwd s colonised a as viewed be can region, a as Europe, Eastern and Central socialist e o ob aot h eitne f neo a of existence the about doubt no be

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society of the last two or three centuries believes itself superior itself believes centuries three or two last the of society

44 offers an intriguing clue as to why Roma people have been been have people Roma why to as clue intriguing an offers relations of economic and political power (in the same way way same the (in power political and economic of relations

Wessely cites Norbert Elias‘s ground Elias‘s Norbert cites Wessely ‗Kultur‘ ess’, or what the historian Maria Todorova has termed termed has Todorova Maria historian the what or ess’, , used initially in Germany and then subsequently then and Germany in initially used , of as being implicitly ‗backward‘ and in need of of need in and ‗backward‘ implicitly being as of 35

- liberal policy regimes over the past decade. decade. past the over regimes policy liberal

y stronger states and groups over weaker weaker over groups and states stronger y nd as to how state policy continues to continues policy state how to as nd - ooils attd i rlto to relation in attitude colonialist

es (Chen & Churchill 2005; Churchill & (Chen es - confident appellation for for appellation confident

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- à - vis are are CEU eTD Collection betfcto o Rmn rpeettvs Rmn ciis li ta rte than rather that claim critics Romani representatives. Romani of objectification Oneprooutcomes of ofthe ofthe work unintentional women activist commented their own way: infollowing silence pro the by the within even the in even practice colonial tacit the identified discovered already who activists be can techniques, women Romani with particularly colonial conversations several had I as movement. rights civil Romani viewed be can which of some a practices, racist subtly pernicious and diffuse see, will we as And, result. its are that society broader within relations asymmetrical the and Roma of status economic dispossessed v is Objectification processobject. thanconceivingas merely ofsomeone anAsRichard Schmit complex more a is objectification of concept This 42). 2000: (Cesaire objects mere of status called he what ‗thing with colonialism equated previously had who Césaire, Aimé following was Applying racist. racism does not what are they that convinced are rights‘approa Fanon‘s Frantz ‗Roma of sphere the in working self a by neglected Romani the within dynamics non their by positions power these in installed been have cases, many in who, and power hold who Roma those by movement the discourse within taboos mechanisms various oppression with engagement painstaking a entails post of discussion A themovement within hierarchies racialized and 2.3.1 Objectification

(Interview with J. who hasT. been employed by OSI, the 2010.12.10) exp traumatic a always is it conditions these overcome or confront successfully cannot I When interests. personal of dynamics strange and mistrust, jealousy,racism, with confronted sin Anyway, [….] own their with preoccupied interests. personal beyond look and so taboos about talk to will is the has anyone Hardly quo. Everyone status jealousies. and interests personal of full pitiful, the Roma on on as influence well great as international a the have on they issues power; in growing is organization The job. particular that fulfill to qualified are Roma] [as we that though even [….] them, by employed are we that scaredpeopleare talkThe to elegant their about theyIn raciste acts.fact, relationship. (Schmitt 1996: 36) human genuinely of refusal systemic and orchestratedcarefully a as but freedom, their of them [o]bjectification ification‘: the process by which the subjects of colonialism are reduced over time to the to time over reduced are colonialism of subjects the which by process the ification‘:

, - much of which is exerc is which of much Roma philanthropic organizations such as the Open Society Institute. A Romani A Institute. Society Open the as such organizations philanthropic Roma

do to people to do s o bs udrto ete s unn pros notig, r s depriving as or things, into persons turning as either understood best not is - isible and pervasive in Romani affairs, and is further intensified by the the by intensified further is and affairs, Romani in pervasive and isible ce I have been working in the Roma movement as an activist I am regularly am I activist an as movement Roma the in working been have I ce perpetuating power structure. Many non Many structure. power perpetuating - colonial racism and racism colonial ch to racism in our research, we might ask the same question as he did: did: he as question same the ask might we research, our in racism to ch - oai patrons Romani

? movement are yet to be exposed as they are clearly being being clearly are they as exposed be to yet are movement

Fanon‘s own answer was brief: racism objectifies racism brief: was answer own Fanon‘s ised by non by ised

social justice social Several critical aspects of the internal power power internal the of aspects critical Several national level. While the life we have here is so is here have we life the While level. national 36 - Romani human rights entrepreneurs, but also also but entrepreneurs, rights human Romani

–– with the ‗silences‘ that permeate its its permeate that ‗silences‘ the with - Roma human rights organizations is the organizations is humanRoma rights within

ht r caatrsi o internal of characteristic are that - Romani human rights advocates advocates rights human Romani

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xpect us to be gratefulbe xpect usto course of employment of course t argues,

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Here, he he Here, t least t being CEU eTD Collection scopechapter. this of the this is beyond but agency, victims’ and ‘victims’ of subject the on literature vast a is There abuse. rights human a from suffering 46 parasites’. the are who 45 been being accusedorthieves, criminals withtheassistance sometimes of the same of Roma coRomani members ofcolonized various (2) activist, Romani Horakova Monika work. professional of former of latter member theCzechof Parliament ontheinfantilization Roma: commented the as capable as not are many Similarly, language. French non by the patronized are activists of Romani mastery gaining of incapable group (white) be dominant would the they by that assumed was it whom of French, Black the of example the (1) in colonialFrench Algeria areworth mentioning theRomanimovement: to here inrelation his own experience A fewby Fanon characteristicfrom ofobjectification practices mentioned rights human of part the on during missing caseand very proceedings, follow little often responsibility is victims ethical the for respect of basic even since lack region, the current in entrepreneurs a is there out, points (2006) Bukovská view, my in as, where, area another is This procedures. litigation of result a as backlash a is there if scapegoats national or local becoming risk even Romanies wil many which after proceedings, of outcome the over control little case exercise purposes, test litigation‘ ‗impact specific for a for victim a out seeking researcher or lawyer NGO an Romani by initiated often of position subaltern the victims emphasizes rights human clients Romani their non and (usually between lawyers relationship the Romani) in power of imbalance the about insight above The them‘. professionals humanrights thearena, in Barbor lawyer to project a are ‗we but Kozma, Blanka nothing intellectual Roma a by succinctly Put entrepreneurs. rights human profess legal of hands the in ‗experiments‘ as treated been frequently others of work rights human the for subjects become have they movement, rights human the in participants active as received

She also mentioned how difficult it was for Roma in Hungary to assess ‘who are our genuine friends, and and friends, genuine our are ‘who assess to Hungary in Roma for was it difficult how mentioned also She h tr ‘itm can ‘victim’ term The parents. (M.H.2007.07.23.) as of longwe thelit inposition asremain in anorganization which are […..] We supposestoworkgood for Roma. in their eyes alwaysWe […] continuouslyskills upand tocatch have ourtowork develop inorder areWe ofthe alwayskepttheposition ch in Denigration Infantilisation ea lnug, hi ―ae s o ogr n hi hns a avcts s specialists as advocates as hands‖ B their (Barbora Kairo 2006.) in problems. their longer over no take is automatically ―fate their language, legal subordinated hu a after assume strategy law and complicated legal and with amysterious procedure litigation. are confronted Once victims tactics the to of regard understanding with no position or little with uneducated often elites of hands the agendain [the] concentrates […]litigation mmunityhavewith the established structure favor power have who fallen outof : AsFanonindicated research,isnearly inhis it always that assumed l continue to live their lives in extreme poverty and exclusion. Indeed, some Indeed, exclusion. and poverty extreme in lives their live to continue l

: Roma are perceived to be, and are thus tre and arebe,thus Roma:are to perceived

46 be problematized, however, it is used here generically in reference to a person person a to reference in generically here used is it however, problematized, be

h, rm h o the from who,

groupsLikewise, are ‗defective‘. members leading of the –– 45

a tiny group of Romani elite notwithstanding elite Romani of group tiny a n rr rfeie ic o te nevnin o legal of interventions the on piece reflexive rare a In

- - up is conducted afterconducted up is Roma in Roma te o lgl rcdrs ae u o ter behalf, their on up taken procedures legal of utset tle child who nevercontests the against 37 ild whoneverild able a evertobecome senior.

the movement, who assume that the former former the that assume who movement, the a Bukovská (2006) notes that: Bukovská notes a (2006) ukovska‘ speech at conference in in conference at speech ukovska‘ man rights advocates decide on on decide advocates rights man wards. wards. ated as, children. Fanon refers to to Fanonchildren.refers as, ated –– lawyers, victims [who] are [who] victims lawyers,

ionals and international and ionals –– and have have and

correctly

- CEU eTD Collection create and a ownfor reality canonher behalf? speak herself, she question: rhetorical a here me let language, classic Spivak‘s Adopting justice. and power of issues core with along the and subjectivity agency, of questions post The ‗catch of justify thestatusquoof non mode ending) (never continuous a symbiotic in always and are they reality in intertwined power of imitation an has complex, Roma Whereas legacies. discursive upon their based with along non the Roma, with relationship of activism political The even and academic historical, preserved thesubaltern ofRoma. status through forms diverse These discourses. in political us with remained nevertheless post the in condemned been has groups, colored and race, of conceptthe that fact the Despite Concluding2.4 remarks organizingsome important grassroots has betrayed been several by times One women Romani oftheactivist courageous from Hungary most whohave been doing themovement,within similarly serving dissent. tostifle attacks onoutspoken Romawhohavecrossed th governments,a tendency there public is raise dissent.character The notto aforementioned generallythe fundingthe handsfor benefactorsand projectsofphilanthropic rests Romani in further ‗yes toRomani inconnection men‘ exploration or‗Uncle mutual dependencytensiondesire relationship; this this and within contained surely merits others, has referredexistence ofa to the colonized and tensionbetween colonizersand tothe who areLeela patronage. beneficiaries of theorist Postcolonial their (1998), Gandhi a themovementwithin itself oppression internalized of dynamics the of understanding our better to order in analysis surrept a as well as (V.Z. person. capable a 2009.08.23) am I that prove and myself defend to having always of tired become i personal offenses and and professional accusations my false damaged Their me cry] against to started [she project. the in damage Th significant a […] work transformative my non powerful encouragementof and support the with intervention of jealous become ‘friends‘ Roma the of some for project generation income non an and become Roma can Roma with work to Well, ….] [ In short, the deep denial of these ‗silenced‘ narratives and insights continues to persist, to continues insights and narratives ‗silenced‘ these of denial deep the short, In - colonial realities of Romani advocacy is surrounded by increasingly problematic problematic increasingly by surrounded is advocacy Romani of realities colonial

- Roma as well. I had to defend myself several times just because some of my of some because just times several myself defend to had I well. as Roma itious process of auto of process itious -

oa ua rgt eie a b se as seen be can elite rights human Roma racist discourses are supported by tacit colonial techniques which which techniques colonial tacit by supported are discourses racist can the Romani subaltern speak? Can the Romani subject finally subject Romani the Can speak? subaltern Romani the can - Roma dominance.Roma .

and its use in relation to Roma or any other minority minority anyorother Roma to relation in use its and omdfcto o Rmn clue n affairs, and culture Romani of commodification - censorship, and both of these deserve further further deserve these of both and censorship, 38

is invisible line serve invisible tomarginalize them is ntegrity […] they humiliated me. I have have I me. humiliated they […] ntegrity - Holocaust period, the idea and images and idea the period, Holocaust

- up‘ and empowerment in order to to order in empowerment and up‘ - Roma activist which caused which activist Roma

Toms‘.

y ae n informal an made ey patterns of domination domination of patterns

Furthermore, since her Romafellows:her mong mong

raise raise

CEU eTD Collection ( Kóczé 2008) , article my of version 2009) an Trehan (Kocze and ” Europe’ ‘New the in movement rights civil Romani ofthe soul forthe struggle the socialjustice: and racism “Postcolonial Trehan 47 to attempt and identity, gender and p ethnic discursive this how toward of question the approach answer ideological the of roots the political explore to proceed I as concern tra my be organizations‘ will Europe the Eastern and Central throughout initiatives on international affairs of different state this of around implications The organized agendas. force and a as by activism women assisted Romani always transnational of evolution and emergence the outline cha this In generations. different of activists women a by mode contentious as rights the activism Yet, imposed activists. gender women Romani transnationally international of key by adopted centrality was and leverage the political movements: bec discourse equality social gender activism, Roma of context the In force. other progressive with trait one important share does movement of Roma the however, terrain distinctions, contextual ideological the Notwithstanding and theoretical the marked has politicalRomani activism (Kóczé and Trehan 2009 agencies these of trend discursive Soros George the and Bank, World the neo with dealing agencies international influential a by the formulated on basedof discourse rights adoption human a in wholesale embedded is movement the that is comparison movements, in ―movement,‖ Romani the of characteristic main The of part the both private actorsand thestate (Trehan 2008). on racism and discrimination exposing by discourse to problem‘ liberal ‗Gypsy began prevalent Roma, with for along rights activists, bel civil as Romani Roma of promoting vilification the 1980s, challenge movements late emerging newly the the in in ‗transition‘ dissidents of days early the In traditio the of result a as political struggle menhave in which aPeter taken leadingAs describedVermeesch: part. by part in identity, gender and ethnic of Romani the conjunction the about analyses their in consider written to failed mobilization political its have and ―movement‖ who historians and scientists political most recently, Until ACTIVIS IDENTITY POLITICALTHROUGH AND SOCIAL CHAPTER FORMINGTHREE: POLITICALCOLLECTIVE

This chapter u a a ocpul em eoig h ttlt o atvte crid u i te otx of context the in out carried activities of totality the denoting defending and cultivating term conceptual a as but organizations, recognized officially of collection bounded and defined clearly a as understood a of concept the of understandingnuanced more a necessitatingthus diffuse,‖ and complex is Europe Eastern and Central in movementRomani

is contingent upon my two articles. The first part is based on the article I co articleI the is on based part The first articles. two my upon contingent is M 47 “Ethnicity and Gender in the Politics of Roma Identity in the Post the in Identity Roma Politics of the Genderin and “Ethnicity

shared identity.

- - iea rule liberal ae ies ee oal tasae ad dpe i a in adopted and translated locally were ideas based d the second part of the chapter is built upon the extended extended the upon is built chapter of the part second the d -

funded Open Society Institute (OSI). The imported imported The (OSI). Institute Society Open funded onging to a ‗criminal subculture‘ and to contest the contest to and subculture‘ ‗criminal a to onging (Vermeesch 2006:9) - olitics informs/shapes the work of both old and old both of work the informs/shapes olitics 39 of

―movement‖ itself: [a movement] must not be not must movement] [a itself: ―movement‖ law and ―democratization‖ principles, as as principles, ―democratization‖ and law ).

jectory of Romani projects and and projects Romani of jectory

the question of Roma, such as such Roma, of question the a epai o frs of forms on emphasis nal

to other social justice justice social other to - Communist Countries” Countries” Communist pter I will briefly briefly will I pter - wrote with Nidhi Nidhi wrote with ame a new new a ame

CEU eTD Collection Reconsidered, Politics 48 turned groups interest and parties political leaders, political of number considerable a 1990s, the of beginning and 1980s the of end the at regimes communist the of breakdown the After ide womenappear meetings. at various international Romani active politically a 90s, the of half second the in addition, In communities. Roma of concept the and Roma of ethnicity the articulated largely post the in transformation by particularly groups change oppressed social for knowledge of resource a is identity that namely, recently, of field the studi In minority communities. Roma subject, political new a of construction the and for difference basis of the politics of object the became elite political Roma young emerging newly post t the difference ethnic of construction in particularly 90s, ethnicity‖. ―Roma In early the difference. ofsamenessrepresentation and of regime different veryaccording toa othe commonly and themselves moreabout in they talk who to knowing even how trouble and accepted were no or, had Gypsies widely local communities‖ changes, political ―Roma the becoming before Presumably, term was the adopt Roma to term Roma of the recognition political and public political national and international and Moreover, legal the 2006). of respect (Vermeersch in well as Minorities)(Kov countries neighboring Ethnic of and Rights the on LXXVII National (Act minorities ethnic and national of autonomy participation cultural political the and for context legal new in a in created policies Parliament Hungarian instance, minority the protection For of Europe. development political Eastern and and legal Central the by supported was formation diverse amongst Klimová regimes consciousness socialist and the identity of collective fall the since discourses public violence and racism hostility, rising to responses political the of One Emerging3.1 coll of structures the contest to struggle various external their andinternaloppressions that life. govern their in women Roma/Romani for tool emancipatory a simply is their legitimize powe law to groups rights powerful by human nationally and whether internationally used remains, weapon strategic questions the hence women, Romani of gender claim to of human rights institut spread international activists the how obvious allow not still could is it However, discourse context. Romani in rights equality human by offered frameworks of socio in o life social the influences examine, discourse to present my is of purpose comprehensive analysis more a Thus, activists. Roma of generations young

There is a wide range of excellent works on identity politics. See See politics. identity on works excellent of range wide a is There grabs r - Alexander 2005; Barany 2002) In addition, this process of collective ethnic identity identity ethnic collective of process this addition, In 2002) Barany 2005; Alexander — es, particularly in the United States, there is an idea which has been explored explored been has which idea an is there States, United the in particularly es, wno desn fr el politics real for dressing window a 48 (Alcoff, Hames (Alcoff, Smlr rcs i tkn pae ht medd n oil n poli and social in embedded that place taking is process Similar . ions and discourses are reshaping the specific local structural inequalities inequalities reshaping localstructural specific areions anddiscourses the ective identity

- communist bloc, an entirely new identity regime emerged, which which emerged, regime identity new entirely an bloc, communist

- Gracia, Mohanty, Moya 2006) Moya Mohanty, Gracia, - omns cutis w wtesd h unprecedented the witnessed we countries, communist hrough serious institutional practices and discourses. The discourses. and practices institutional serious hrough - nhoooia trs hw tnczd n gendered and ethnicized how terms, anthropological f an oppressed group, in this case Roma, and what types types what and Roma, case this in group, oppressed an f

t 20) Smlr rcse wr eegn in emerging were processes Similar 2001). ats

discourses. Newspapers and documents began began documents and Newspapers discourses.

Hungary, in 1993 in the era of minority minority of era the in 1993 in Hungary, rs including non including rs — or whether it can provide a practical practical a provide can it whether or

groups of Roma. (Pogány 2004; 2004; (Pogány Roma. of groups for instance the edited volume edited the instance for -

a be te omto o a of formation the been has

- yse. hyjs i it did just They Gypsies. - ntity regime started to started regime ntity

both officially, and in and officially, both Identity Identity tical CEU eTD Collection 51 2004. 21, March 50 Revol of Age an in Politics Difference of 49 non almost are membership organizations countries, CEE based In voluntary NGOs. Western from 1990s, differently the conceptualized of beginning developed the in is addressed be to started citizenship issues Roma where of sector NGO The concept privileged the diff that and democracies Western of histories particular the by explained partly be can difference The democracies. emerging civil of idea applie the society that argues Who (1992). Arato by discussed widely were post period the transition in society civil emerging newly this of contradictions and peculiarities sector CEE In post the in agents Roma. active most the ofof one countries, situation the to response ideological and political a as partly regarded be Centra in NGOs and society civil of development The post the Commission Report 2004;Ringold before than more violence physical expr publicly of victims become Roma Program, Development Nation United the and Bank World the Commission, European the by released inter to According housing. and education as such areas in segregation long unemployment, (Szalay Europe Eastern and Szelenyi Central in 2005; transition economic and political the of onslaught perti most the of one are Roma that documented well now is It economically andand socially ongoinga decline‖ dramatic both undergone actually have CEE) Agnes the (in as Europe Eastern and Central however, of states communist hand, other the On l and conditions 2003). living ―the suggested, Daroczi (Kovats activity political paradoxical Roma a of levels present Roma unprecedented historically to led has which initiatives, regarding policy other and governmental formal processes political pol increasing attracted have Roma hand, one recent the On phenomenon. outlined above The introducing anti ratifying including Roma, of situation improve the to governments European Eastern and of often Central on accession.pressure put centuries Eastward powerfully are EU EU The the After to and people organizations communities. rights human these Roma international from pressure of institutions, atte generation‖ political governmental gaining now ―token are Roma and marginalization, first parliament a as to characterized access find failed to largely politics spi electoral in others in in while 1998), Barany identity 2002, (Vermeesch ethnic on many based In unification outcomes. political puzzling countries, sometimes and varied produced mobilization political Roma ethnic against fight identification and t o ethnicity (ethnic identity) as a predominant frame of reference for political mobilization political for reference of frame predominant a as identity) (ethnic ethnicity o

Third sectorThird More about the identity politics in different contexts see John, Comaroff. “Ethnicity, Nationalism and the the and Nationalism “Ethnicity, Comaroff. John, see contexts different in politics identity the about More As stated by Agnes Daroczi at the workshop organized by the European Roma Information Office, Brussels, Office, Brussels, Information Roma European the by organized workshop the at Daroczi Agnes As by stated erently (Fowler countries 1997). inCEE

addressing social and ec and social addressing comprising public interest foundations and non and foundations interest public comprising d in Western democracies is almost incompatible with the needs of in newly newly in of needs the with incompatible almost is democracies Western in d

- - discrimination legislationdiscrimination (Sobotka 2001). Ladanyi 2004, etc). This is most starkly manifested in their mass mass their in manifested starkly most is This etc). 2004, Ladanyi 49 . In the case of Roma, this identity based politics created opportunities to opportunities created politics based identity this Roma, of case the In . - - ae mriaiain dsrmnto ad malt and discrimination marginalization, based term impoverishment, declining living declining impoverishment, term

onomic exclusion and human rights issues (Arato 1992). The 1992). (Arato issues rights human and exclusion onomic ution.” (Comaroff 1996) (Comaroff ution.” - Mitchell and OrensteinMitchell and 2003;Ivanov 2002).

international minority protection standards and and standards protection minority international 41 ife chances of most Roma people in the post the in people Roma most of chances ife -

communist transition period (cf. European European (cf. period transition communist - e - se peuie dsrmnto ad even and discrimination prejudice, essed itn a te aoiy f rjcs are projects of majority the as xistent communist transition period was the third third the was period transition communist - governmental organizations, (NGOs). organizations, governmental

ntion in Europe due partly to ongoing to partly due Europe in ntion l and Eastern European countries can can countries European Eastern and l te of some Roma activists being able being activists Roma some of te 50

. conditions, as well as increased as well as conditions,

nent victims who endured the endured who victims nent itical attention in terms of of terms in attention itical etet A a result, a As reatment. - governmental reports reports governmental - founded and and founded

- communist communist

- CEU eTD Collection In trajectory? current its to alternatives there are and consequences, its are What reflect? neo the rights‘ is ‗Romani How addressed. be to need post in movement rights Romani contemporary mak to attempting In affiliated withGeorge Soros‘s of Europ rights‘ neo overwhelming ‗Roma of time the a at movements,emerged movement other these Unlike 2001). Trehan 2005; Ost 2005; (Guilhot impinge post inevitably its particularly Europe, The3.2 rise ofneo and Kertesi (Havas, level. local a at change unnoticeable Kemény 1995). almost may pyramid limited, social imaginary highly the of bring top the at organizations by absorbed subsidies top elitist an follows ‗Roma also and (e.g. coupling‘ ethnic ‗rigid pointed against arguing Hungary, vis sector NGO the in trends compelling two the against warned also respec three 1995, In competingsometimes eachfor with otheropportunities. thelimited or resources other‘s each using and reinforcing by mode balanced a in function usually level politic general self minoritythe into integrate to the fail hence and representation through political own their segregate that to tend Roma fact the against warned who and activists (2005) Kállai and (2001) self minority the namely, 1993, in up set was channel institutional special a Hungary in that fact public Roma Hungarian of character special The delegated non or totheprivate been have tasks cultural and social whilst sphere, economic the in responsibilities its limited th since fact, In itself. policy state on influence and of support state‘s the government of cultural because only not significant is state social, the and on reliance (1999) Heavy donors. Wizner including Hungary, to issues respect With from sector third the of interdependencymultistage the out pointed others rights. several women‘s as represent well as economicones, organizations These NGOs. so civil of development the to regards with country interesting an is Hungary undermines the independence NGOs (Trehan oflocal 2001). and affects seriously dependency consequent the and driven, donor necessarily

human rights through the interventions of human rights entrepreneurs, particularly those those particularly entrepreneurs, rights human of interventions the through rights human - government system. The political influence of this structure was analyzed by Kovats Kovats by analyzed was structure this of influence political The system. government e, and one corollary of this development, as I shall demonstrate, was the was demonstrate, shall I as development, this of corollary one and e, out that this ultimately results in ethnic segregation of Roma from majority society society majority from Roma of segregation ethnic in results ultimately this that out - friendly NGOs, but also because of the way these organizations have a growing a have organizations these way the of because also but NGOs, friendly al system. However, NGOs and Roma minority self minority Roma and NGOs However, system. al

movement? What order is it (re)producing and whose interests does it it does interests whose and (re)producing it is order What movement? on the current trajectory of the transnational movement for ‗Roma rights‘ ‗Roma for movement transnational the of trajectory current the on ted social scientists, Havas Gábor , Kertesi Gábor and Kemény István, Kemény and Gábor Kertesi , Gábor Havas scientists, social ted e sense of and explain the ‗neo the explain and of sense e - liberal agendas - - Open Institute Society governmental (Trehan sector 2001). socialist countries, has connections to global forces that that forces global to connections has countries, socialist - on tutr i ms ognztos weey rns and grants whereby organizations, most in structure down xesvl ciiie b Hnain oil cetss and scientists social Hungarian by criticized extensively -

iea hmn ihs prah aietd n the in manifested approach rights human liberal 42

e late 1980s, the state has decentralized and decentralized has state the 1980s, late e

- and political activism also stems from the from stems also activism political and socialist Europe, the following questions questions following the Europe, socialist - . liberal policy consensus in post in consensus policy liberal

- iea hmnrgt‘apoc o the to approach rights‘ human liberal

- - governments at the local the at governments pcfc rgas, and programs), specific - à - - vis Romani issues in issues Romani vis oenet systems government the state, as well as well as state, the ciety and Roma Roma and ciety marketization - socialist

only only

CEU eTD Collection membership associations, society. actors in other among religious bodies business cooperatives, workers’ unions, labor parties, 53 wo the on See development. ideological Soros’ on details further for (2005) Guilhot See 52 ‗democratization‘ of variant particular American on the neo by contemporary informed discourses rights human of model disc the of acceptance alternative implicit an constructin resulted to inability their as well towards criticism as activists, European eastern of part the on agency of sharplack and powerlessness of feeling The and edge radical initial their lost mainstream ideals. having movements, social that new claims the of constituencies the into she turned and ‗tamed‘ become Moreover, have NGOs contemporary agenda.that this implementing for mechanism important an as seen a with strategy economic neoliberal combined Agenda‘ Policy ‘New the that arguing War, Cold the Western their of motives after came which Agenda‘, Policy‘New the criticizes book her in (2003) the Kaldor Mary rights. about doubts grave on with had benefactors, they when Euro their even with networks; commensurate rights donor human of philosophy cogent and language several a were adopt There 2006). d (Trehan former 1990s the why the reasons throughout region the in rights human networks and communities epistemic American of dominance material and ideological early the in sector NGO 1990s. the permeate to began which Europe, Eastern in society‘ ‗civil on neo the extent, great a To asymmetrical relati and rights in post communities Romani subaltern ofdevelopment human of promotion the on focuses which activities, OSI‘s 2007). Trehan 2005; a has thus frameworks, ideological post in Society‘ ‗Open Trehan and Guilhot today. sphere NGO global movement the within divisiveness consequences unintended revealing of tendency clearest most the globally, shows date to struggle rights civil Romani campaigns the that suggest would progressive re post the numerous and in prevention of people HIV/AIDS including Romani support of generous rights OSI‘s the Notwithstanding for ‗movement‘ the of backbone global a (OSI), Institute foundations. of Society network Open the of work the through initiatives NGO philanthropist, Romani of single other any than More Hungarian 2008). Trehan 2005; Guilhot 2005; Churchill unwittingly rights ‗neo term the employing

The wri The ‘Civil society’ generally incorporates NGOs and non and NGOs incorporates generally society’ ‘Civil

concerns and campaigning operate within a global capitalist system, and thus and system,capitalist global a within operate campaigning and concerns n emphasis on parliamentary democracy. Based on her analysis the NGOs came to be be to came NGOs the analysis her on Based democracy. parliamentary on emphasis n 53 tings of Popper and Hayek were strong influences upon Soros, who was a student of Popper’s at LSE. at Popper’s of student a was who Soros, upon influences strong were Hayek and Popper of tings

rk of Open Society Institute and its affiliates. and Institute Society Open of rk h vsbe bec of absence visible The - American billionaire George Soros was responsible for the support and promotion and support the for responsible was Soros George billionaire American –– -

ae fudtos hs po whose foundations based eoe n pedg o te lbl neo global the of appendage an become - liberal ethos (Trehan 2006). Being aware of severe financial dependence financial severe of aware Being 2006). (Trehan ethos liberal ons ofpower between non Romaand

y iia rssac t te rvln neo prevalent the to resistance minimal ly -

socialist Europe, in fact promotes a policy agenda based on particular on based agenda policy a promotes fact in Europe, socialist 52 -

- liberal human rights‘, I refer to the phenomenon whereby human human whereby phenomenon the to refer I rights‘, human liberal The organizations funded and supported by OSI curre OSI by supported and funded organizations The siet o post of issidents liberal approach works hand works approach liberal

lentv taetre t ti apoc i a eut f the of result a is approach this to trajectories alternative ––

powerful impact on civil society in the region (Guilhot (Guilhot region the in society civil on impact powerful that are characteris are that –– –– in this particular case, the creation of hierarchies and and hierarchies of creation the case, particular this in o i, pro wit, to - oils sae blee te wr cmeld to compelled were they believed states socialist - iia oinain tn t b lmtd o one to limited be to tend orientations litical 43 ulig f eorc i te Unit the in democracy of building -

profit organizations, and broadly encompasses political political encompasses broadly and organizations, profit

argue that OSI, while attempting to create an an create to attempting while OSI, that argue - ourses and practices of human rights, rights, human of practices and ourses free market and procedural democratic democratic procedural and market free - socialist Europe, create and reproduce and create Europe, socialist - - in tic of utopian approaches within the within approaches utopian of tic Roma. Roma. - - iea eooi odr Ce & (Chen order economic liberal hand with the dominant discourse dominant the with hand - www.soros.org

iea prdg o human of paradigm liberal - evn organiz serving - oils Europe. socialist

for further details details further for ntly form the form ntly d tts I States, ed –– tos and ations - Atlantic Atlantic perhaps

CEU eTD Collection (1988). see McIntosh privilege, white of discussion further a For rights’. ‘Roma consid 55 be hardly could they unorganized 7). society’ (1999: and powerless being but account; of out society 54 not are society civil and Romani academicshierarchies. comprising makers, organizations as policy world international and national NGO the prevalentin also privilege(TrehanInwhite is activists addition,of 2001). coalitions comprising established elite was an NGOs, these for constituency grassroots a of place In NGOs. national and local with superficially only cooperate cases, many in and, constituencies grassroots lack Well NGO sector inthe subalterns 3.2.1 Romani Trehan 2001;Oprea 2005). 2005; (Bukovská movement the within elites by resistance and agency Romani of dismissal reason the of Part politics. emancipatory of monopoly current neo the of because explored be to yet are order current the to Alternatives Nicolaeone compellingfor explanation this: Gheorghe offer NGOs altogeth represent remain would perspectives leadership Romani the characterizes also rights human of 2005). (Vesely sponsors its by ‗manageable‘ ‗multiplicity‘ criteria, the selective on that based being ensuring participation and NGOs Romani grassroots many invite 2004. 2005 Inclusion: Romani of ‗Decade ongoing the being initiative such one with Institute, Society Open the and Bank the throughout result initiatives this and Recently, projects region. Romani of trajectory the has for ideologies implications their profound and foundations based US on dependency severe discussed above The liberal project 2005). (Harvey wayincommensur no prevailingarein principles these its logic Accordingto non influential by formulated ba partly been have region the in decade past the of structures legal/juridical the of reforms for rights. human corporatist of model dominant the on reliant not are that methods ra more devise to unable etc. elections, reform, constitutional considerations:

As Canadian political scientist Richard Cox asserts ‘Corporatism left those who are relatively powerless in in powerless relatively are who those left ‘Corporatism asserts Cox Richard scientist political Canadian As taei mngmn pss r dsrprintl gatd o non to granted disproportionately are posts management Strategic e o te taei aoto o lbrl rule liberal of adoption strategic the on sed relations between existing states (Acton andGheorghe 57).2001: anti and rights human of concepts same the onto lock to but choice no have politicians Romastruggle, their for legitimacy seeking [I]n - liberal human rights, which inhibits the rethinking of Romani grassroots advocacy and and advocacy grassroots Romani of rethinking the inhibits which rights, human liberal -

f The po unded organizations focusing on diverse Romani communities in the region generally region the in communities Romani diverse on focusing organizations unded 55 litics surrounding this Decade initiative are instructive with Organizers failing to failing withOrganizers to are initiative Decade instructive this surrounding litics

As I suggested in one of my previous works, ‗one of biggest challenges facing challenges biggest of ‗one works, previous my of one in suggested I As

–– nae i te ua rgt mvmn fr oa Thom Roma. for movement rights human the in engaged

- 2015‘, which was launched with a donors conference in Budapest in in Budapest in conference donors a with launched was which 2015‘, dical means for their human rights advocacy, alternative means and and means alternative advocacy, rights human their for means dical

ed in an interesting collusion of initiatives between the World World the between initiatives of collusion interesting an in ed

- governmental organizations such as the OSI and its affiliates. affiliates. its and OSI the as such organizations governmental - –– racism that operate in international organizati international in operate that racism both traditional community leaders and those who those and leaders community traditional both - s one ot y oe authors some by out pointed as The lack of effective resistance to the status quo status the to resistance effective of lack The 44

of - –– law and ‗democratization‘ concepts as as concepts ‗democratization‘ and law Eastern European activists seem to be to seem activists European Eastern

- Romani professionals in the field of of field the in professionals Romani

mue o racialized to immune ate with the neo the with ate -

ered part of civil civil of part ered o ti i the is this for 54 s co and Acton as constituency

Movements ons and ons er er - CEU eTD Collection t encompasses also but phenomenon, Sector Third a Romani of solely number not is industry’ ‘Gypsy The Doors’, Closed 2000. the on Harder Knock Gypsies ‘Czech Erlanger, Stephen jobless’: go helpi by living a making Romani no speak who li 57 of cost the (taking similar positions. in London York or thoseNewthan in working account) into parity higher proportionally are region the in NGOs international full dysfunctional even 56 adjoining, an to ‗Gyps led word Kawczinsky Rudko using has ‗ethno as foundations it to referring cynically intellectuals Romani many with phenomenon, private Western through ri human the corrosive of marketization the the of making of one impacts was hence This potential‘. work, ‗career good a academic with field or a sector jobs rights‘ ‗Romani government sector, private the join otherwise profes qualified highly of number large a attracting 2001) (Trehan worker foreign a is one if still internation by higher and professionals, local of those directly than higher times several be to likelyare foundations, sponsored NGOs NGO within of salaries especially the region, that the in in resulting this workers achieve to way effective an as seen human was salaries and development of field the to rig people attract to critical were efforts recruitment post of days early Inthe developmenthuman rightsRomani or projects. This NGOs. partic whole, elite a as sector the within the asymmetries existing exacerbates then with relationship funding dependency a have often NGOs grassroots the as footing, unequal this an on based generally legitimate are partnerships These partnerships. ‗strategic‘ to seek community to then out they reaching industry‘, by position rights ‗Romani the within the position about dominant concerns foremost their of one be to mov this found have we leaders, Romani with discussions various in Nevertheless, publications. NGO/INGO of plethora the in found be to c radical of type This in insight following the offers council, city Budapestrelation th to the of members Romani few the of Hungary one Association and in Women‘s Romani the directorof Blanka Kozma, movement. NG of composition elite The movement‘ 69). (Kóczé 1999: non the

For example, in Hungary, a te a Hungary, in example, For Monika Horaková, Romani Czech MP claims that ‘there is too much paternalism … with too many Czechs Czechs many too with … paternalism much too is ‘there that claims MP Czech Romani Horaková, Monika - t. h ojcie a t ehne rfsinls i te il ad feig generous offering and field the in professionalism enhance to was objective The hts. this day. (Conversation with Blanka Kozma 2008.02.12.emphasis added) EU the to danger a not are we b situation, the develop to or societyRomani help to not is aim main their … development our about not it‘s capacitation, and empowerment our about not it‘s perspective, our from designed not were projects [T]hese ie ugra NO okr ae i Bdps my an vr 50mnh Te aais ihn some within salaries The $500/month. over earn may Budapest in based worker NGO Hungarian time ement. A concomitant development is that once elite NGOs have established their their established have NGOs elite once that is development concomitant A ement.

- Roma who work with us is how to work for Roma rights without controlling the the controlling without rights Roma for work to how is us with work who Roma e planning Roma of - eae ofcs n porm fo clue o dcto t mnrt rgt i te state the in rights minority to education to culture from programs and offices related ritique rarely surfaces in mainstream literature on Roma, but it is likely is it but Roma, on literature mainstream in surfaces rarely ritique

- socialism, NGO entrepreneurs in the region and abroad believed that believed abroad and region the in entrepreneursNGO socialism, ut to to ut acher employed by the state earned $150/month on average in 2000; whilst a a whilst 2000; in average on $150/month earned state the by employed acher O circles also influences the construction of priorities within the within priorities of construction the influences also circles O

…this was the motivation [in the past], and it continues to be to be to continues it and past], the [in motivation the was …this prevent them [Roma] from going to England or America so thatso America or England to going from [Roma] them prevent - related NGO projects: industry‘. y ng a people they do not understand, while Gypsies themselves themselves Gypsies while understand, not do they people a ng - ghts. The generous influx of money into the region the into money of influx generous The ghts. based organizations and by forming alliances and and alliances forming by and organizations based 56 45 . By the late 1990s, this produced the effect of effect the produced this 1990s, late the By .

inl t te G sco, h would who sector, NGO the to sionals hl oe hud etil nt lament not certainly should one While

ig n prhsn power purchasing and ving

New York New ularly in relation to relation in ularly

Times - business‘ or or business‘ he growing growing he al private private al , May 12, 12, May , CEU eTD Collection Report the was co there communism+ of *under years practice 40 during as action, voluntary against suspicion ‘legitimate the by 58 man includes which society’, civil of ‘development the for earmarked funding have region the in programs Phare EU the Indeed, well. as sector those to comparable are society civil within intellectuals and advocates Romani active Even dist and so those inthe and communities Romani their between parallels draw Roma for advocates European Some prio (Trehan 2001). different have may agendas neo to subscribing donors as initiatives and NGOs local of autonomy the undermines non elite whilst assistance, these foreign without sustainable on rely not turn are field the in in working NGOs most above, explained NGOs I NGOs As survival. own Romani their for NGOs local elite and foundations which private of via order in philanthropy pecking A emerged work. their has continuing dependency for donors philanthropic major on post dependent in did so support, d historically were politicians and leaders Romani If much a get to order in pieceNGO ofthefunding pie(KovatsTrehan 2001,2006a). 2001; projects and NGOs‘ ‗paper of range wide a in participation economy market a to transition neo on the based from resulting Roma of majority the of circumstances socio the of deterioration profound the view, my In evolved. has it as sector NGO and 20s their (in generation younger the by acceptance eager and even or tacit a rightsand above) and 40s their (in activists human Romani older of part the on of resignation fields ‗NGO the called have to scholars some respect due sector NGO the of With proliferation the of view critical more a take shall I development, 1998). (Pinnock an ‗integration‘ of of part is Roma to these related commun strengthening for projects avenue an of communities, Romani body within strategy the survival important that suggested have scholars Some Dependency 3.2.2 Donor NGOs of dynamics hierarchical the at further looking by working below enquiry this continue post in work rights human of marketization and institutionalization is (2 community‘ rights ‗human imperative the within reflexivity that suggested and theKennedy lawyer rights David human manifest scholar American prominent to Indeed, serve. to begin meant are adopt they people theyand strategies the and neo a of movementimperatives the within actors when asked be must questions serious rights, human of field the within professionalism increasing

The lack of voluntary membership of these organizations was explained in the early days of post of days early the in explained was organizations these of membership voluntary of lack The - xset te aoiy f rjcs en ncsaiy donor necessarily being projects of majority the existent, , Autonómia Foundation Autonómia rin ta rsl fo ter well their from result that ortions ities‘ prospects for the future by offering spaces of resistance to non to resistance of spaces offering by future the for prospects ities‘ in the area. in the mpulsory ‘volunteering’, and membership fees were deducted from salaries’, salaries’, from deducted were fees membership and ‘volunteering’, mpulsory - liberal principles has forced ma forced has principles liberal 004). -

called Third World (Biró 1995), but they tend to overlook the power dynamics power the tooverlook theytend but World1995), (Biró called Third - h aoe eto hs asd sus soitd ih h growing the with associated issues raised has section above The

libera

- socialist times, Romani actors within the NGO sector become become sector NGO the within actors Romani times, socialist .

l economic order, losing sight of the priorities of the communities communities the of priorities the of sight losing order, economic l y Romani y –– ideological and structural control structural and ideological - zto‘(tbs 07.Froetig hr s increasing is there thing, one For 2007). (Stubbs ization‘ iis rm oa, cnmcly erse communities depressed economically local, from rities - related projects. related - enn itretos n oai communities. Romani in interventions meaning 46

membership their to leading straws‘, at ‗clutch to Roma ny

ependent on state structures for financial for structures state on ependent n IGs r rlat n Western on reliant are INGOs and - funded organizations are virtually virtually are organizations funded 30s) of inequalities within the within inequalities of 30s) - driven,

socialist Europe. I shall shall I Europe. socialist 58

- hc however, which Romani notions notions Romani 1990 Annual Annual 1990 - economic , or what what or , - - socialism socialism - needed needed liberal liberal

CEU eTD Collection directors the of Program Participation Roma Regional Politics” Romani of Politics ‘The and, communities their families, their themselves, people whole their indeed, represent to attempt their in carry intellectuals Romani participants Romani inhibits 59 German, contrast, between. By Europe. in cause rights‘ far‗Roma the in stake controlling establishment‘s and few are origin Romani of Retrospectiv those while committees, advisory of legal members as their well as INGOs and NGOs domestic of trustees as act and/or boards various promote to leverage are activists NGO of majority non the that problem outlined above the to importance equal Of supposedly represen was that socialfieldawithineven position marginal own his emphasizing firstspeak to asked non the because irritated visibly was Horvath the in Romani, not are whom of most entrepreneurs, rights human movement: elite by the that up argued instance, taken for Hungary, of in NGO national director a Foundation), then Budapest in Horvath, University European Central Aladár the at forum a In sector. rights human the within wield entrepreneurs representati these monopoly Romani the with times,frustration increasing At their publicly sponsorship. rights human global to and access skills networking easier superior have who entrepreneurs, rights human elite of power the by European the and Europe re Union of Council the OSCE, like organizations intergovernmental governments by and ‗partners‘ legitimate as accepted were NGOs rights human elite many that mak (2006) Bukovská the NGO sector? who and within Roma decides, of emancipation and Who development the for public? are priorities the general what decide, should the to or assist, to seek they communities Romani non and To Romani raise. to are begun whom now have activists Romani that questions ethical serious inhibi raises polemic large. that at society civil within structures those including emancipation, own against their of achievement increasingly now but state, Roma and dissidents both region the in minorities double as struggle common Their subalternity. their other, the on g position isolated relatively their of terms in hand one the on World Third the in

Some Romani intellectuals in the region who believe that the hierarchical structure of the NGO sector today today sector NGO the of structure hierarchical the that believe who region the in intellectuals Romani Some CEU) organi Movement Rights Roma onthe Workshop of 2001, Future (Horvath, end. the in something say to get Roma, we, while movement, non several have we situation: normal a from are we discu present This go. to way long a has Movement Romani The - oa i ta isd tee ntttoa crls hmn ihs lts s ter personal their use elites rights human circles, institutional these inside that is Roma,

sulting in that Romani voices at the local or national level are being largely usurped usurped largely being are level national or local the at voices Romani that in sulting

ely, one can see that the 1990s was characterized by the American human rights rights human American the by characterized was 1990s the that see can one ely, European Roma Rights Centre Rights Roma European

ting emancipatoryofhisowncommunity. interests the the careers of friends and family members, many of whom re whom of many members, family and friends of careers the es an interesting point with regard to the question of legitimacy, noting noting legitimacy, of question the to regard with point interesting an es

––

from participating fully in the decision the in fully participating from if this is even conceivable, let alo let conceivable, even is this if –– Transitions takes place on several fronts simultaneously: not only against the against only not simultaneously: fronts several on place takes - oai Gs ultimat NGOs Romani

within the the within , September 1997. Mr. Kawczynski was at that time director of the the of director time that at was Kawczynski Mr. 1997. September , . oa ogroi Alapitvány Polgárjogi Roma

Open Society Institute Society Open zed by the European Roma Rights Center at the at Center Rights Roma European the by zed 47 - Romani human rights entrepreneurs had been been had entrepreneurs rights human Romani

- Roma experts discussing the future of the of future the discussing experts Roma l rsosbe T ter oos t the to donors, their To responsible? ely ne possible ne - making process Certainly, the burden most burden the Certainly, process making - Rmn priiain n the in participation Romani t Budapest –– ssion itself illustrates how far how illustrates itself ssion is tremendous. See R. Kawczynski, Kawczynski, R. See tremendous. is , as well as on the the on as well as ,

(Roma

ooiig oe is role colonizing

ii Rights Civil lobally, and lobally, - appear on on appear ves voice voice ves

n 2001, in board of of board 59

This –– CEU eTD Collection 81e5048fe380d3f55b6da30b13a5 http://cps.ceu.hu/romapolicyfellowship_resources.php?cmssessid=Tf1b587168444c140a50c9af5adda001d5cf Europe 61 So Open the with affiliated closely is which Watch, Rights asHuman such NGOs rights human 60 the Councilof reportBitu‘s 1999, who women In communities. Roma the to related concerns Romani and issues gender articulated who community, several were transnati there a 90s at late active became the In level. national the and by international women, Romani that inter add and to influence like the with would 2000, of I beginning (1996:12). activities‖ autonomous in leaders are but politics, macro and state of sphere the in invisible are ―paradoxically women, poin also Silverman as region, the in society civil Romani emerging the countries. and discourse gender international CEE the through impetus gained activism the women in organizations donor and NGOs by accepted ri and human recognized the of parts as issues, gender and rights Women‘s Development3.3 of women’s rights thein Roma NGO activism particularly a considered being Roma with place, first the undeservinggroup. in unwarranted are policies government non by of expense favored the being at now programs are Roma that suggesting by either negatively, react to ‗Romani to regard in 2006). (Zoltan dignity their regaining in victims Romani assist not does litigation cases, many In society. in embedded inequalities structural the or prejudice popular of roots Romani local for resulting harmfulalways be to prove cases many inand victims the for results desired obtaining always not interventions legal with rise the on past the over Roma distanc social the instance, For clear. of becoming now are integration approaches these the of weaknesses for and oversights programs fundamental the decade, ambitious of launch the and media r in rise seeming the plaintiffs, Romani of behalf on courts the before brought lawsuits rights civil of number increasing the despite However, framework inwhich progressive agendas and ofintegration civilespoused. rights are be to appears Roma‘ of ‗management This unstable. potentially manage salvation‘), neo the from drawn preconceptions with burdened usually are As demonstratedabove, proliferation of US the area,accession by propelled theEuropean of post Union i active become recently only have networks advocacy rights human British or French,

This is a model espoused by ERRC’s former director, Petrova (2003), and one of the legacies of international international of legacies the of one and (2003), Petrova director, former ERRC’s by espoused model a is This hs eoe fnig ouet o Rmn Nclt Bt „ Bitu Nicoleta Romani for document funding a become This ” Accessed on 2006.10.24 2006.10.24 on Accessed ” –– - governmental organizations (UN, CoE, EU) started to gain visibility both on the the on both visibility gain to started EU) CoE, (UN, organizations governmental r pacify or 60

elcs h itrss f hs Euro those of interests the reflects Europe.

in justice in 61

––

was supported and adopted by the Specialist Group on Roma/Gypsiesof on Group Specialist the by adopted and supported was - oai omnte prevd o e agrul mriaie and marginalized dangerously be to perceived communities Romani specific‘ initiatives for integration, post integration, for initiatives specific‘

per se per

onal level, including Nicoleta Bitu, a leading member of the the of member leading a Bitu, Nicoleta including level, onal

- Roma citizens, or by implying t implying by or citizens, Roma , since a primarily litigious approach does not address the the address not does approach litigious primarily a since , e between Roma and the majority population is actually is population majority the and Roma between e

of the international human rights advocacy network network advocacy rights human international the of 48 - funded NGOs, whose orientations NGOs, ideological funded

ights awareness in the public sphere and the the and sphere public the in awareness ights ted out in the Bulgarian context, Romani Romani context, Bulgarian the in out ted - tatc lts h ae tepig to attempting are who elites Atlantic - aoiy eain, r or til not trials court or relations, majority - socialist states (Trehan 2008). The Situation of Roma/Gypsy Women in in Women Roma/Gypsy of Situation The hs eie bcm gradually became regime, ghts - - socialist societies have begun begun have societies socialist liberal p liberal concealed within a broader a within concealed hat affirmative hat aradigm (e.g. ‗law as as ‗law (e.g. aradigm

ciety Institute. ciety Institute. - action type type action Moreover,

n this n

CEU eTD Collection until seat her keep to able was and (SzDSz), Democrats Free of Alliance party, liberal the mainstream a 1990 was in them between of Parliament One forces 1994. National and Hungarian progressive the most in MPs the Roma three of were There one politics. became women Romani Hungary, and In Bulgaria, Republic, Czech in specific attention representation. towomen‘s training leadership political Romani organized myself and Russinov, Rumyan Horakova, Monika 2000, In level. atinternational the politics Roma of generation new the of representative a considered was She Deputies. of Ch Czech the to representative, elected was Union, Roma Freedom the one of representative onlyHorakova, Monika 1993, in Czechoslovakia of dissolution the and Revolution F Kesaj Fairy Romany as Good the of Minorities Ethnic known for Bureau Defense Legal the is of Director Koptova (VPN). Violence against People the for 1990 in elected was Koptova publicly Samkova Furthermore, representative. Romani a associat as perceived in was such, elections as and, 1990 the non is SamkovaAlthough In office. lawyer, political rights for human a Samkova, Klara contested Roma, as identified who elected were women two Czechoslovakia, candidates Romani women more much deservespoliti and academic politics electoral in participation women‘s Romani context, a such In political organization. their for basis ethnic the favor members these that fact the by questioned however, is, politics p Romani the of effect The discourse. political international the and national the in issues Roma mainstream and recognition political promote to channels visible most the of one to access had system electoral European or national the in participated identity. who ethniccandidate Romani their activism. Roma on international for solely alliance strategic based a became Parliament MPs These European the or national the of member politic strong of result a As systems. electoral mainstream in role a play to aspirations having even which of some ―movement;‖ Romani the in position forefront a gained parties political Romani Thus, e establishing by was claims their public supportfor hoped tofind activists in which discrimination, way andmaltreatment. One ethnic against struggle political their maintain to them for possible it early the in Europe Eastern identity Roma, of case and the In 1990s. Central in regimes identification communist the and of mobilization breakdown political the for after reference of frame predominant group a interest as and ethnicity parties, political leaders, political of number considerable A activism women‟s Romani of transnational emergence 3.3.1 The countriesCEE whosewomen ofactivities scope issues. include Romani manner. diverse in scales different at contested or negotiated transformed, principles equality gender and making rights levels human both with encounter to their connected are them of few local very as fellows their local their within from detached issues equality gender and rightselite small a still activists, women Romani Transnational community. human global on messages transmit to able are activists women Romani few very participation, transnational active this Despite oundation and also as Director of the High School for Roma of Kosice. After the Velvet Velvet the After Kosice. of Roma for School High the of Director as also and oundation ed herself with the biggest Romani party, Romani Civiv Initiative (ROI). Anna Anna (ROI). Initiative Civiv Romani party, Romani biggest the with herself ed h ws lce s ii ou (F ersnaie adAn Koptova. Anna and representative, (OF) Forum Civiv a as elected was who al lobbying, several Romani activists gained an individual party ticket to be a a be to ticket party individual an gained activists Romani several lobbying, al cal attention than it has previously acquired. From 1990 to 2004, several 2004, to 1990 From acquired. previously has it than attention cal

- Roma, she is the wife of a well known Roma activist, Ivan Vesely, IvanVesely, activist, Roma known well a of wife the is she Roma, woman, Antonia Hága, who had been elected from the list of list the from elected been had who Hága, Antonia woman, thnically - based politics offered site offered politics based

- 49 based political parties. (Veermesch 2006:102) 2006:102) (Veermesch parties. political based

Therefore, there are very few NGOs in the in NGOs few very are there Therefore, s for political action and made made and action political for s

group, are usually quite usually are group, - articipation in electoral in articipation based marginalization, based

Hungary with a a with Hungary tre to turned s amber s CEU eTD Collection 2001) (Gheorghe Roma,” for Deal New a of Search Gheorghe, “In 62 the improve to purport they level, program a at that, meaning Roma, of situation the improve post in that working found Glenn NGOs K. John Western and Mendelson E. Sarah movement, Roma the on organizations Western of assistance the of impact the Examining conflict. ethnic of reduction the as well as and civic media, independent development, institutional democratic of aspects various on working all countries, European other and Germany Kingdom, United post non Western 1989 in era, War Cold the of end the Since less democratic.‖Rights (RomaQuarterly, No. 4:14) 2001. self are they paid, better are they ar ones bright the politics: Romani in now crisis a is ―there that notes Gheorghe Nicolae generation. older the than politics much Roma shaping have in influence Roma more qualified highly by cosmopolitan, favored namely these being criticism, for this elite salaries, Despite Roma constituents. of generation high older the offering by criticized severely NGOs Rightsis group This Roma Europe. of European Council at the the as such organizations, and intergovernmental in OSI work or Center, as such to donors, Western by started supported organizations people Romani qualified English when diversified further became movement the in politics Romani constituents. Roma political a establish to need based The Roma. all are mayor and council, in local municipality the Orizari MP, the Suto Skopje, the in especially constituency Roma large a was always there empowermen political of form a as construed be can strategy political of form this countries, some In Democrats. Social the In now. decade with alliance an established they a alone, constituency Roma the on relying of instead strategy: than more for existed has which ethnic an is there Romania in instance, For parties. political ethnic of legacy strong a is there where Romania and Bulgaria in prominent ethnicity of idea the on agenda their base that parties political Roma of proliferation a been has there recently identity, national their underpinning land) (the support o are some which parties political Roma in than politics, mainstream in made visible more are women Romani MEPs Romani different their female apoliticians norm,rather thanexception, inthe European political arena. With two affairs. these family issues, in und women‘s intervene Romani family should in to one and approaches violence no domestic that against arguing working planning, in believes v different Mohácsi slightly women. has Mohácsi, Romani Viktória Demszky, Gábor of place the concerning took who policies public discuss to forum MEP Romani second the However, women. Romani aagainst discrimination of forms multiple provided hearing This women. Romani of situ the explore to 2005 November in Commission European the of representatives and experts activists, women Romani several for hearing public a initiated she where Parliament, o right discourse the shape to level the international the on role decisive most of the playing is Parliament, list the from directly elected two first the with country a being for headlines international gained Hungary it, put Vermeersch As 1998. Rmn wmn Se s mme o te oe‘ Rgt Cmite n h European the in Committee Rights Women‘s the of member a is She women. Romani n

o te icsin n h poutvns o Rmn pltcl ate, e te neve wit interview the see parties, political Romani of productiveness the on discussion the For nal cags te ot oal o wih s aig h peec o Rmn female Romani of presence the making is which of notable most the changes, eniable rganized around the concept of ethnicity. While Roma have no traditional geographical traditional no have Roma While ethnicity. of concept the around rganized 62 - female Romani MEPs in 2004 (Veermesch 2006:114) . Lívia Járóka, who was who Járóka, Lívia . 2006:114) (Veermesch 2004 in MEPs Romani female governmental organizations (NGOs) and donors, from the United States to the to States United the from donors, and (NGOs) organizations governmental

at i ti priua nihoho ws biu t al h political the all to obvious was neighborhood particular this in party

t rather than marginalization. In the case of Macedonia, where where Macedonia, of case the In marginalization. than rather t - - appointed, they are less accountable to the people the to accountable less are they appointed, omns cutis empl countries communist - ig ouit at FDS t te European the to FIDESZ party populist wing - 50 ae Rm pltcl at ( party political Roma based

- omns onre hoste countries communist

h ls eeto, hy hne their changed they election, last the

y status a oy e drawn into work in NGOs; in work into drawn e

human rights advocacy, rights human . They are particularly are They .

- raising strategy to to strategy raising atd Romilor Partida - speaking, highly highly speaking, d a number of of number a d

non -- h Nicolae Nicolae h iews on on iews they are are they - Roma Roma ation - ) , CEU eTD Collection Societies Endowment Carnegie post in NGOs 63 e of lack and protection programs, health of planning lack rate, family unemployment high education, of level low the as such problems, Roma general to correspondence in framed were issues women‘s Romani Initially, to connected and concern activists those as such by discourses, public identified significant gradually were issues women‘s Romani Specific which are supportingandconceptualizing inEurope. women‘s Romani still rights activism th as such donors, certain for priority a became discrimination gender and equality genderof issues specific more the for audience receptivea create to helpeddiscourse spe a within population Roma broader the against violence of framing The deeper levelsofviolation. and further from Roma protect would that remedy legal adequate provide to and population states member new the pressurizes it and (EU), theEuropeanandUnion (OSCE)Europe in SecurityCooperation and lang for Organizations (UN), Nations The United (COE), Europe of Council the as such organizations state. the by them discrimination of form could serious Roma a as which issues through their present leverage political new a created discourse South based rights and human Central in live who Roma post the in change political on focus violence rather but and home,‖ ―at discriminations similar heed not do others) of and Monde, host Europe du Medicines a Watch, Western nowadays consequence, from a As Western originating rights. whom human organizations for ensure group to needed target they a these felt became liberals groups, analysis, marginalized his and discriminated thought, to most they demo rights, According ―new emerging whose the in block. ―peoples‖ affirmed be to new needed Soviet for looking dismantled were organizations the philanthropic from emerging were oth in rights human for struggle a started instead but countries, own their in rights human about talk to not opted donors international liberal that post the of ―democratization‖ the book 1995 his in Wallerstein, Immanuel any to of anomaly accountable an as Western constituency be a to tounaccountability the cites required also who Gheorghe, not Nicolae are they thus limi a from apart constituency, […], support constituency roots grass enjoy not do donors Western by directly financed Trehan NGOs of number subject, ―A Organisation: this On 1999). Odinkalu Chidi (Pinnock quoted communities (2001:138) local of needs real the addressing without population, Romani the Balázs onto ‖sustainability‖ and Pinnock, rights,‖ ―human Kathy ―empowerment,‖ including beca mostly scholars, Trehan, various Nidhi and by Wizner, criticized is strategy funding work.‖ this rights human and education to assistance material from shifted has [f]unding Rom for funding ―Western emphasize Mendelson As Glenn them. and against violation rights human decrease and Roma of level education

Sarah Mendelson and John K. Glenn’s work describe in a most persuasive way the work of the Western Western the of work the way persuasive most a in describe work Glenn’s K. John and Mendelson Sarah

(February 2000), , 62. ( Accessed April 21, 2008) 21, April ( Accessed 62. , 2000), (February - supported NGOs. supported NGOs. - communist countries “Democracy Assistance and NGO Strategies in Post in Strategies NGO and Assistance “Democracy countries communist - ae voec i te oa omnte. h ise o gender of issues The communities. Roma the in violence based

okn Papers Working

of the EU to emphasize respect for the human rights of their Roma Roma their of rights human the for respect emphasize to EU the of

ted number of donors.‖ Odinkalu‘s assessment parallels that of that parallels assessment Odinkalu‘sdonors.‖ of number ted ae f ua rgt i gvre b intergovernmental by governed is rights human of uage n. 8: no. , - Soviet block by international organizations. He points out points He organizations. international by block Soviet hmn ihs ayr f h London the of lawyer rights human , freet f xsig eilto, n polm of problems and legislation, existing of nforcement eorc Assac ad G Srtge i Post in Strategies NGO and Assistance Democracy - E use it enforces Western popular concepts such as as such concepts popular Western enforces it use After Liberalism, After sen uoe Itoue b Wsen countries, Western by Introduced Europe. astern 51

a programs in the 1990s increased [and] [and] increased 1990s the in programs a (Amnesty International, Human Rights Rights Human International, (Amnesty cracies.‖ Roma people, being one of the of one being people, Roma cracies.‖ ing gender, ethnicity, and public policy. public and ethnicity, gender, ing er countries, most notably in those that those in notably most countries, er — specifically, as perpetrated against perpetrated as specifically,

- connects philanthropi connects Soviet countries and the plight of plight the and countries Soviet e OSI, EU, and COE, all of all COE, and EU, OSI, e - C – ommunist Societies ommunist cific rights based based rights cific ae Interrights based c activity to to activity c - Communist Communist 63 - based based

Yet,

,” ,” -

CEU eTD Collection instrumental. was report Intolerance and Racism Combating to Relevance Their Europe. in Roma of situation right 64 Activism Women‟s ofRomani Character 3.3.2 Dialogical allowing turn in genderthem todevelop a internationally), and Europe within (both issues their to visibility political substant not has assistance external this all though Even 2002. in Care‖ Health Public to Access and Women ―Romani entitled report landmark the produced IRWN COW, of auspices the Under women, Romani of health the is activities IRWN of focus main The (RWI). Initiative Women Romani the of that than traditional more and older being leadership a with (IRWN) Network Women‘s Romani to effort a an women in Romani leaders, Europe, women of Council the of Romani assistance the with young 2003, In women. Romani committed OSI of rights human the of improve 1999, group In core itself. a catalyze movement and Roma the in Wom Romani the structure established power dominated male existing the challenged Budapest, women Romani some conference, the at that, noteworthy Itis rights. women‘s in Women se on Romani focused it because unique of was meeting The Europe. Conference Eastern and Central from International delegates by particularly an attended Hungary, organized OSI 1998, In other women activists. informat exchange to network a up set to them allowed it such, as and, level, international an on issues women‘s Romani in of recognition political first the was it Roma against discrimination women. Romani of concerns specific the educationalto attention less paid it i.e., general, and hardship the economic that notes emphasized Intolerance andhearing Racism Against Commission European the by issued report organiz intergovernmental attempt by first was the women.encounteredrights it Although by Romani in later, and equality human conflicts concerning and year toidentify problems was hearing purpose this of One Europe. o part in as Strasbourg women Romani in Women‖ Roma/Gypsy of of―Hearing the organized Europe of Council situation the 1995, September the to referred specifically ―Manifes the of publication the was Congress this of results striking most the of One in 1994. in IntoleranceSpain, Seville, and Racism Against Commission European the by organized Roma/Gypsies the from gai first issues different women‘s Romani them rendering identities, class and gender, subjectivities of boththeir Romani non ethnicity, and specific men Romani of by suffered those from Indeed,Romani women. different are that discrimination of forms the of experience an as i.e. experience, their of uniqueness the of terms elaboratedin and both on ethnicity based discrimination, double their face women Romani that recognized was it women: Romani of situation precarious the on light some cast did approach This violence. and racism

European Commission Aga Commission European tos o nie oai oe atvss n t big iiiiy o hi ise, the issues, their to visibility bring to and activists women Romani invite to ations ially changed the material well material the changed ially to of Roma/Gypsy Women,‖ the first publicly printed material that that material printed publicly first the Women,‖ Roma/Gypsy of to

which focus has been consistently encouraged by the Council of Europe. of Council the by encouraged consistently been has focus which f the Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men. The The Men. and Women between Equality for Committee Steering the f their their

inst Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) played a significant role in exposing the human human the exposing in role significant a played (ECRI) Intolerance and Racism inst

- intersection the at variables by areforged positions subjectwomen‘s based theRomanimovement itself. within discourse tvss rm 8 uoen onre luce te International the launched countries European 18 from ctivists edr Nwdy, oai oe‘ ise ae ot often most are issues women‘s Romani Nowadays, gender.

en Initiative (RWI), which has since worked to develop, link, link, develop, to worked since has which (RWI), Initiative en ned visibility in public discourse at a at discourse public in visibility ned - male and non nsitive issues such the tradition of Roma culture versus versus culture Roma of tradition the such issues nsitive - being of Romani women, it has nevertheless brought nevertheless has it women, Romani of being

(ECRI 2004), (ECRI 52

- Romani fellows.Romani

Activities of the Council of Europe with with Europe of Council the of Activities

ion and foster contacts with with contacts foster and ion

Congress on the EU EU the on Congress 64

Nevertheless, - Romani CEU eTD Collection 66 (Lake Dialogue,” Struggles in Recognition Indigenous: Black, Lake’s “Women, Marylin in women my to relevant 65 highly context a ― other in essay intersectionality of her political In context ofdiscussion. the concept within the Cr working deploys color. activists of women and are concerning approaches scholars movements additive or by divisional criticized These another. particularly one reinforce, instead but racial/ethni exclude, that emphasize and approach this ofstatic dangers the highlight theories intersectional Feminist categories. these of separation d the analyzing of male the ethnicity, instead and gender between thinking: intersectional statement: of following lack the the gender.‖ shows make their and could ethnicity their leader between choose Roma to have educatedwomen ―Romani highly a even that surprise anti and shoul it Thus, dynamics. parallel best, feminist at or, autonomous as movements racist discuss usually struggles recognition to approaches academic identities, W movement.Roma male the with interdependence its and regime rights human global the with interaction its both byinfluenced is resistance of expression and visibility its because character‖ ―dialogical light. this women‘s Romani in of recognition view a for propose struggleto like would I politics. or media the as such society, dialogue the in life‖(Taylor conducted and human nature in of discursive characteristically feature crucial ―the recognition, signify is others when affirmed the latter is Identity 1994:32) the through t that recognition claiming generated and dialogue, identity identity of between notion gender) connection the and the of explains (ethnic Taylor to recognition difference. attached The importance recognition. new for the need simultaneously, while the rights, human universal of idea the to rise gave equality by of importance galvanized movements political emerg recent the examines Taylor Charles Recognition,‖ of Politics ―The essay his In peoples indigenous and groups subaltern with the effectofRomaniwomen‘s identity ofan occlusion and activity. historically to attitude Western dominant a r women with Romani the of problems the in interest this Hence 1991). Mohanty 1988; (Spivak interests political and economic own its pursues party interested the while Romas), organizations. international and kin this donors Mohanty, Chandra by and Spivak Gayatri rhetoric, as such scholars, feminist in postcolonial to According least at appreciated, more much have par leading men a taken which in struggle of forms the on analysis emphasis traditional their the of in result a gender as arguably of consideration a eschewed Roma of mobilization political the scien political most recently, Until of impetus the broader empowerment.and strategies complex of driving women Romani for position subject different power a produces patriarchal discourses broader the to challenge a constitute s also they but women, Romani of representation political of lack or trafficking, prostitution, marriages, forced women, Romani activists Romani progressive of women discourses The oppression. ethnic and social gender, their to linked are forms political various in participation women‘s Romani of inequalities foundational The tructure of Romani communities and to societal hierarchy in general. Each of these these of Each general. in hierarchy societal to and communities Romani of tructure

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Mapping the Margins: Margins: the Mapping

tists and historians writing about the Roma movement and movement Roma the about writing historians and tists 65 - dominated leadership of the movement argues for the the for argues movement the of leadership dominated T e eonto srgl o Rmn wmn a a has women Romani of struggle recognition he 53 n Society Institute, Budapest, September 2005. September Budapest, Institute, Society n thus Crenshaw Kimberlé theorist race itical

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— CEU eTD Collection 2007).28, August (accessed at Office Initiative Roma Fund Educational Roma 70 2007). 28, August (Accessed 69 2007). 31, October (Accessed 68 b agenda only that and sterilization, forced of the issue the discuss for issues violence domestic and three unemployment, identified had recal women subsequently She Racism. Against Conference World UN 2001 the attending group wit Roma Cultural the in the delegate a was of competeSlovakia, in President Roma of the Association or Bučková, Andrea activists. who structure male by women power betrayed or Romani discouraged, male those that existing indicate the stories men challenge Individual Roma balance. by dominated gender are any organizations without international key in Romania. Roma Iulius from of by representations led male is which Roma (RIO), Office another Initiative Rostas, Roma the a and Russinov, Bulgaria, Rumyan is from Director male Deputy Roma whose and Romania, from male Roma a Bercus, education the in Roma of integration the for programs and initiatives policy and educational governmental finances which (REF), Fund Educational led. and Serbia Romania, Montenegro, Macedonia, Hungary, Republic, South and Central several and from commitment political a with Bank World the and racismInstitute Society Open the by initiated against ―struggle the is issues to Germany. Romani to visibility bringing from and leader Roma freedoms‖ male a fundamental is exerc discrimination‖ effective and the promote rights ―to human aim the [their] with groups which Roma organization diverse international an together (ERTF), brings Forum Travelers and Roma European the of President the instance, For men. Roma by led are ―movement,‖ Romani the of part are which gender power the issue, the of dimension gender the to attention paying without intervention any male or statement the with interdependence the within structures ―mov power Roma patriarchal deconstruct and contest to discourse, have rights also human women of Roma universality the and sexism, racism, challenging while Finally, feminist discourse ingeneral. creatin of instead discourse‖ ―additional an generate and color anof women creating of marginalization that the reinforceaware would be color of to women importantwith solely is alliance s it the time, same contesting the for At them. strategies affect develop that oppression to Romani basis groups, useful broader marginalized a of gain these norms can with totalizing women dialogues the establishing resist By process, movements. this in feminist and production, cultural their hi lost and their recover to endeavor who feminists World‖ ―Third and Black the as such modern and white largely the of failure the discloses color of women of sisterhood on emphasis This feminism.

The Statutes of the European Roma and Travelers Forum can be found at at found be can Forum Travelers and Roma European the The of Statutes At the moment the Executive Director position is fulfilled by a non a by fulfilled is position Director Executive the moment the At ed oe nomto o te oa eae t h htt the at Decade Roma the on information more Read ta laesi nes o e cuiie ad nergtd y oai oe. Male women. Romani by interrogated and scrutinized be to needs leadership that n 69

— and middle and s n pedg t te eae tutr, hr ae w ky ntttos te Roma the institutions: key two are there structure, Decade the to appendage an As - ae rssacs Te e isiuin ad raiain a te nentoa level, international the at organizations and institutions key The resistances. based o js i te oa community Roma the in just not - ement‖ itself. The ―dialogical character‖ of Romani women‘s activism implies implies activism women‘s Romani of character‖ ―dialogical The itself. ement‖ day imperialism as fundamental forms of forms fundamental as imperialism day - class feminist movement to globally recognize factors of classism, racism, racism, classism, of factors recognize globally to movement feminist class t ht:/oadctofn.u (cesd ue 8 2008); 28, June (Accessed at

- Eastern European Countries, such as Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech the Croatia, Bulgaria, as such Countries, European Eastern

- constituted leadership. If Romani leadership makes a a makes leadership Romani If leadership. constituted — oai edr (l ml) loe te sll to solely them allowed male) (all leaders Romani Decade of Roma Inclusion (2005 Inclusion Roma of Decade — 55 s las eedn o te nesfcto of intensification the on dependent always is 70

hs exam These p://www.romadecade.org/index.php?content=1> p://www.romadecade.org/index.php?content=1> — gender al system, whose president is Costel Costel is president whose system, al ecause an effort to control the Roma the control to effort an ecause 68 aey ivlnay sterilization, involuntary namely, g diversity or ―dialogicity‖ within within ―dialogicity‖ or diversity g

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CEU eTD Collection UK. the in drift’ termedhas ‘multicultural Hall Stuart what 72 2003) PublicMihalache Life,”( in Women’s Participation 71 rights neo civil of interventions indigenous Romani powerful these the first by of usurped autonomy the now the is since that organizations ever suggested Romani also years, have I twenty formed. than were more organizations for lines these along recogniza remain to continued structure its of contours basic the but it, within fluidity and internal colonieswithinEurope. co whose Roma, of position political and economic marginal a in resulted repre their semi and and communities rural Romani (usually local finally, and Roma) educated (urban, by followed entrepreneurs, rights non European human eastern o American) top (primarily very Western the be at to elites tend advocacy ladder the today, movement the within specifically, More ‗human contemporary the as ‗infra such rights community‘. spaces and social marginalization progressive seemingly ongoing in even the hierarchy, obscures which Eu Romani quo of humanity‘ status a of consolidation well for of sites frameworks institutional l issues policy social state in specialize including that departments ministerial various and machineries, minorities national and ethnic for offices minorities, institutional state extensive 1998 Kovats (cf. difference‘ cultural of preservation and ‗ethnicization‘ of the rise whilst Romanies, including groups minority visible of number a towards symbolic, and violence,extreme of rise the to linked is nationalism of resurgence The Europe. non casual re the in resulted full structures of emergence state socialist of collapse The movement. rights civil Romani to society civil within global justice a within subsumed then were neo practices hegemonic rights human discursive these that socio chapter concomitant and liberal discourses for rights space a human created Union) European the of membership subsequent (and state socialism of ideologies diverse of disintegration the countries, European eastern and central For Concluding3.4 remarks men activists, both Romani and women. rights. human women‘s of that necessarily not and rights Roma general of violation a as seen is population This racialized hierarchy is not hermetically sealed as there is considerable differentiation considerable is there as sealed hermetically not is hierarchy racialized This

The development of the expanding institutionalization of minority policies in post in policies minority of institutionalization expanding the of development The Andrea Bučková is leading Romani women activist from Slovakia, qtd. in: Isabela Mihalache, “Romani “Romani Mihalache, Isabela in: qtd. Slovakia, from activist women Romani leading is Bučková Andrea - oai omnte ta hd cre udr ucsie oils rgms n Eastern in regimes socialist successive under accrued had that communities Romani ty of the ‗transition‘ was the incipient and fragile social solidarity between Romani and Romani between solidarity social fragile and incipient the was ‗transition‘ the of ty de facto de - meaning initiatives for social inclusion, one inadvertent result has been the the been has result inadvertent one inclusion, social for initiatives meaning 71 -

liberal political order, thereby relegating issues of egalitarianism and social social and egalitarianism of issues relegating thereby order, political liberal hs ye f gender of type This - blown nationalism as well as the rise of ethnic visibility in the region. One region. the in visibility ethnic of rise the as well as nationalism blown 72

centre and periphery within Europe itself, thus exacerbating the already already the exacerbating thus itself, Europe within periphery and centre –– -

oai lts te re te mvs on o nld Rmn elites Romani include to down moves then order the elites; Romani in one of its most liberal variants liberal most its of one in - ieae. oevr E acsin o te post the for accession EU Moreover, literate). ropeans, who continue to occupy the bottom rung of a racialized racialized a of rung bottom the occupy to continue who ropeans,

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inked to Romani citizens. Although these may appear to be to appear may these Although citizens. Romani to inked - estv dsore s osdrd eelos y many by rebellious considered is discourse sensitive

- legal practices. I have suggested in this this in suggested have I practices. legal ). This latter view is supported by supported is view latter This ). –– mmunities continue to subsist as subsist to continue mmunities took the shape of a ‗celebration ‗celebration a of shape the took - socialist Euro socialist - oils countries socialist - liber

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f tnct, edr ad oil ls, n wud ed o xlr Roma explore to need would one class, social and gender, ethnicity, of ed through their continuous resistance against male against resistance continuous their through ed ion and to find alliances on the international level, Romani women have been been have women Romani level, international the on alliances find to and ion - ooil eain te en they relations colonial ni women‘s activism can be made more transparent and visible through visible and transparent more made be can activism women‘s ni tudy nd, they must contend with the universalizing idea of ―gender ―gender of idea universalizing the with contend must they nd, h Sus f lc Folk Black of Souls The - communist countries. In order to gain political space political gain to order In countries. communist

- generational struggle, and it is likely to remain so so remain to likely is it and struggle, generational nder equality regime. However, the same view of view same the However, regime. equality nder 57 ndful of Michel Foucault‘s central proposition, proposition, central Foucault‘s Michel of ndful one a sblen, hrb empowering thereby subalterns, as counter

movement for today. Roma

next 10) i i cer o s ht o an for that us to clear is it (1905), e their common lives and realities, and lives common their e im s sitd y international by assisted is vism - dominated leadership within their within leadership dominated - nstitutions. These levels can be be can levels These nstitutions. iea hmn ihs institutions rights human liberal century because, in the spirit of of spirit the in because, century r configurations that are that configurations r

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CEU eTD Collection politics” Romani in dimension gender activism: the 73 h explaining better, or ‗culture‘ own their condemning of trap the avoid to how is that activists argue shall I conclude To etc. disability, the demonstrate who feminists critical by intersectionality espoused approaches to contrasted be then will feminism within discourse liberalWestern mainstream This World. Third the in women other sees which and gaze intervene to compelled ‗white‘ are imperial an as discourse culture whiteRomani feminists (cf. as Thus, Oprea andbackward/primitive patriarchal 2004). feminist liberal Western internatio mainstream in involved actively women Romani with had I discussions of number a of analysis the be will argument my of basis The marriage. early particular, in issues‘, women ‗Romani as identified issues those on discourse interve the examine shall I chapter, this of part second the In countries. European in discourse racist the enhanced also and control population implicit into mutated h to due were ills society‘s manyof of causes the that and sterilization) forced (including breeding, of control through improved be could qualities the racial that idea the on centered eugenics of recognize ideas clearly must we e of possible, ideology the is of this pervasiveness how understand to order In communities. ‗undesirable‘ of rates birth control to measures effective a and rights reproductive is of violation sterilization Coerced sterilized. been have who women Romani and activists women Romani amongst out carried I projects research my of one on elaborating further on focus shall I first chapter, present the In activists. includes for research women Romani of sterilization the of recognition political The women‘s global the to connect issues these how movement, fuelled andhow has Romanipoliticaldiscourse. it examine shall I ―intimate Specifically, European violence. target the legitimized outspokenly constructed an inequalities become various who others‖, of intersections that argue shall e and sterilization forced under are of which issues the interrogate I chapter, this In on gender of other and bodily forms difference. based hierarchies power and inequality social inferiority, otherness‖, ―exotic their justifying of posi of emblematically processes is history to body the women‘s subjected Through Romani violence.Europe been and have control bodies birth exclusion, women‘s inferiorization, wartime, exploitation, in with women of experience rape embodied mass women‘s links invariably fe of sexualization the From body 1997) (Davis power. of practices the on scholarship Feminist MARRIAGE STERILIZATION FORCED BODIES: WOMEN‟S AND EARLY FOUR: CHAPTER APPROPRIATIONOF ROMANI

This chapter is the reformulation of my article“ my of reformulation the is This chapter ereditary defects (Marks 1995). In contemporary Europe the view of eugenicists has eugenicists of view the Europe contemporaryIn 1995). (Marks defects ereditary

- f tnct, edr cas n ohr etr o ieult sc a age, as such inequality of vectors other and class gender, ethnicity, of under and researched 73

―save Romani women‖ similarly to their attempts at saving at attempts their to similarly women‖ Romani ―save ugenics in Europe which is still a hidden operation. The The operation. hidden a still is which Europe in ugenics - theorized in the context of ethnic minority women. I women. minority ethnic of context the in theorized nal Romani political activism, and who perceive perceive who and activism, political Romani nal The limits of rights of The limits

(Kócze 2009) (Kócze 59

the real question and challenge for Romani Romani for challenge and question real the

question intimately connected to the the to connected intimately question ind s st o power of site a as tioned -

based discourse in Romani women’s women’s Romani in discourse based f prsin dsrmnto and discrimination oppression, of ntion of Western liberal feminist liberal Western of ntion

male body in advertising to the the to advertising in body male arly marriage, both of of both marriage, arly utpe sus to issues multiple - discourses discourses ow CEU eTD Collection 2006). Trehan Europe”,(Crowhurst, in mutilation female genital and sterilization coerced reproductive rights: and groups “Minority Isabe Crowhurst heredity. and evolution of fromtheories derived rejuvenation national social and the emphasize which countries European in widespread become thoughts and Eugenics concepts practic contentious showed this also they but Europe northern and western in sterilization coerced the exposing article they the In Europe. in domain public the visible most in and strongest was the which Germany in 1933 adopoted was sterilization 1938.Th in Iceland 1936, and 1935, Estonia Danzig and Finland 1934, Norway and 1929, Sweden Denmark in Subsequently, 1928. Swiss in in passed lawwas sterilization the first Europe In implementation. discourse, American)scientific and European( within established became thinking eugenics (pseudo)scientific how that described They countries. European the 74 ( through thebodies o ―gardening‖.eugenic The between practicesand links population controlling Romani can War the Roma World during all be reduced theSecond ofeugenic tomodernist visions consideration,Zygmunt documentaryis no evidence tosuggest thatthewas Holocaust driveneugenic solelyby the eugenic War, World became rhetoric and even stronger Although tookuparacial tone. there introducedexample inHungary for a the 1940sEurope. Thisideologyanti confirmedbya was of series wherebyeugenicsand became biopoliticalnationalism rather the theexception in norm, than extensively forabou advocates talked eugenics how meant purifyitsunwanted to Turda members. society of (2010: 115 regulate of alsolegalize worthy selection but to procedures individuals, thesocial those ofstate legalization sterilization inthe process was ofthe beganSwitzerland ontheabove sterilization groups eugenic topractice mentioned countries, Finland,France, suchasSwedenIceland, Denmark, Germany,Norway, and others, wasrecently.By discovered quite cen theearly twentieth on persons various withmental Gypsy disabilities, groups, ‗deviants‘, criminals sexual and 2010:1). The practiceeugenic onvarious of sterilization groups deemedtobe‗unfit‘, that is theory human grounded improvement almost of exclusivelyraceand class‖ inideas of (Tur eugenics that:―Over movement, past stated as the decades,seen abiological was eugenics steriliz The historyand thetheorybeeugenics ignored the coerced weof when shouldnot discuss Eugenics:4.1 biopolitics in Europe violence ? Romani of bu sphere, forms public the generated have the which realities and forces in structural internalized the are what is: heard question fundamental be to certain voices marriage. women‘s Romani in early for struggle as a resulted such definitely women, have against work Roma which against oppression oppression of centuries Kenrick and Puxon, 1978,Kenrickand 1995;Friedlander,Trombley, Puxon, 1997). 1995; 1988;Willems,

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t the the t da CEU eTD Collection facin issues 0303.pdf rights human http://www.soros.org/initiatives/women/articles_publications/publications/macedonia_2 key ’s OSI highlighting and from ERRC, assistance (RCS), financial Skopje and of technical Centre Roma the CEDAW, UN’s (October Macedonia” 79 78 at those sub of between 4 that 77 (2001). Szelenyi Ivan and Fodor, Eva Emigh, Jean Rebeca cited by 32), János(1996: Ladányi Sources: their in survey.See population non a Treiman used and Szelényi Interestingly, population. families are Romani that 76 (2008). Europe of Council (2003); Wilkens and Orenstein, Ringold, (2006); 75 life. their in point some at partner of male intimate an numbers a by committed large violence sexual instance, or vulnerable physical suffer For women Romani men. more Romani to them compared as makes status, health communities their regarding various gendered in the women moreover, of and communities, status Romani in phenomena similar indicate studies play. at structure power asymmetrical an exposing men, vulne of that women‘s from distinguishes position approach WHO‘s the that note to interesting is It The Health(WHO) World states Organization that women. gender Moreover, and illness of (2006: 1)project summary rates higher populations. other significantly amongst than Roma shows amongst data available Europe, Across Health4.2 and Gender suggesting data provides 1989” after Europe Eastern in Stratification ”Social study, Treiman’s and Szelényi . See World Health Organization (WHO) at http://www.who.int/gender/genderandwomen/en/index.html at (WHO) Organization See Health World Trap : Dependency the Avoiding

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CEU eTD Collection D. John and Thomas Catanzano Donna Doucette, M. Margaret D., 1987) Stoeckle. Thomas, Doucette, James Stoeckle (Thomas, Thomas by done work the Also 81 pp.92 2006, (UNDP 2003,) Europe, of (EUMC/Council institutions health the that 80 belief a on twentieth based the history, during violated impacts European severely significantly century were which rights exclusion reproductive economic women‘s Romani and o health. social image their of ‗undesirable‘ analysis inferior, substantive socially the perpetuated and accessing from population this 183 (1997: healthcare adequate receiving preventing illiteracy deep and addressing poverty as than such rather inequalities, problems, health for culture and Romani blame ‗lifestyles‘ to tended which health, women‘s Romani to approach empirical insensitive studies most 1980s, and 1970s the during Smith, Tracy late the to According future the neoliberal strengthen diminishing perspectiveand/or whereprivatized. welfaresystemsare could population changes policy and structural serious Romani growing and i. youngworkforce, a university, to childhood early the from investments educational serious of benefit the offered if However, format Bulgarian from coming is it unfortunately areas, right some in issues healthcare women‘s Romani about demogra about discussion constructive a even not is There level. national the at healthcare to access of lack and needs particular women‘s Romani to given attention policy adequate no is there date to However, about but societies.praised withinEuropean fertility, high about not is question the whose words, other In ―discouraging‖ so. of do instead to women children, Roma have to whitewomen i.e. French, encouraging France, pro to however, approach, discriminatory explicitly this contrast on of based discrimination to subjected women Romani are they non to relation in higher is Moreover, rate fertility and reproduction women‘s Romani that assumptions belonging. class and gender do women Romani when that usuallyof is it care, health receive show reports Several care. health to access limited their is severely women Romani of status health poor the and of cause main the Racism vulnerab report, the to the According on of issue Centre the Monitoring gender on focusing first European debates, the the of and one Europe published of Xenophobia Council the 2003, In also are There segregation. territorial which social and ethnic birthrates low and miscarriages sterilization, as such severe problems, health reproductive particular of outcome an as rather where (Durst 2007: 74 ago years and ten than overrepresented, earlier mothers are becoming are Roma girls Romani adolescent where year every Hungary southern and northeast of regions

Various sources refer to the complex health problems and discrimination faced by Romani women in public public in women Romani by faced discrimination and problems health complex the to refer sources Various She referred to the following studies: (Barsoca studies: following the to referred She

the community the - wing extremist groups, such as the chauvinist Hungarian political party political Hungarian chauvinist the as such groups, extremist wing

- etlt? f e akd bu wie middle white about talked we If fertility?

amongst Europeans - 103; e. the much needed tax payers for an aging Europe. Realizing this would require would this Realizing Europe. aging an for payers tax needed much the e. Virág 2003 80 ion Th . –

perceived in less in perceived e core problem here is the European perspective of the ‗undesirability‘ the of perspective European the is here problem core e Attaka Attaka

). Theis ex fertility high rate hc hne i te oa ouain I tee s oe concern some is there If population. Roma the in changes phic -

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out of fear of supposedly losing their own white nation. nation. white own their losing supposedly of fear of out ly affect Romani women‘s affectly health status. Romani

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paradigm shifts shifts paradigm - s, Karayanni, .Tsipouras, Baibas, Bouloukos, Papadatos 1979) 1979) Papadatos Bouloukos, Baibas, .Tsipouras, Karayanni, s, 196). These kinds of studies of kinds These 196). - human terms and as a drain on society. One can can One society. on drain a as and terms human

e elh tts f oai oe (2003). women Romani of status health le - eae rprs o ufc i international in surface to reports related - ls wmns etlt, ris a fertility, women‘s class plained notby phenomena, cultural but -

which might challenge the current current the challenge might which increasing ‗undesirable‘ Romani Romani ‗undesirable‘ increasing - f Roma, without offering any any offering without Roma, f 93).

- natal government policies in policies government natal -

directly or indirectly, indirectly, or directly

- roote 81

adhered to an to adhered Jobbik e would be be would e d structural structural d

or the the or - CEU eTD Collection Other Assaults on Roma Reproductive Freedom in Slovakia”, see full report at: at: report full see Slovakia”, in Freedom Reproductive Roma on Assaults http://www.reproductiverights.org/pdf/report_slovakiafolloup_0603.p Other “troublemakers”. of forced rid from get suffered 84 could women society that parents, so their http://www2.wcc “insane” from named taken were were people children sterilization, “*Romani+ Norway, in i Churches, well life” of way “asocial an leading 83 31 1945 Czechoslovakia, and Hungary Socialist in Policy “Gypsy W.D. McCagg, also See report, 82 of sterilization coercive coercive on alleged chapter regarding specific initiated a report were with a lawsuits healthcare published Several public also sterilization. in (2006) Roma ERRC against alone. isolated discrimination Slovakia an not to is women limited Romani of phenomenon sterilization coercive the above, implied already As as Hungary. theCzech Republic and ju not women Romani of sterilization advocates, their and women and harassing intimidating and Romani report their by the responsibilities disparaging authorit Slovak example, for developments, manyother st Amongst country. the discriminatory of outside and inside discourse political Slovak on racially influence extensive staff, an had medical report The records. medical including to access of denials by and matters hospitals, health in misinformation abuse public in physical discrimination and of verbal patterns widespread reveals and women Slovakia Fre Reproductive Roma on Assaults Other and Sterilization Forced Soul: and Body report the of publication the with agenda international the on high rose sterilization Coercive Forced4.3 sterilization Nazi in socialist bloc allies forced the local in practices sterilization example for as continued, women Romani against discrimination to its subjected and were Roma regime years, subsequent In force internment, sterilization, 38). 2000: (Lewy ―undesirable‖ Romani to [ Gypsies of sterilization referred forced the permitting they law a passed reproduction; by ‗disease‘ ‗ term their the with of communities in spread sterilized be the to prevent needed which to population order diseased a as Roma viewed regime Nazi The are women currently Romani of Therefore, sterilization grounded 2006). inahistorical dis legacyofprevious coercive the Crowhurst as such and violations, (Trehan rights human society reported to threat a poses population

There is a summary of the government of Slovakia’s response to “Body and Sou and “Body to response Slovakia’s of government the of summary a is There - See further on sterilization policies of the the of policies sterilization on further See ey 20: 9 nts ht I See, large Sweden, “In that notes 39) (2000: Lewy 36) and Ulc, Otto ’Integration of Gypsies’ in Czechoslovakia’, (Ulc 1991, pp. 107 (Ulcpp. 1991, Czechoslovakia’, in Gypsies’ of ’Integration Otto Ulc, and 36) Struggling for Ethnic Identity: The Gypsies of Hungary, of Gypsies The Identity: Ethnic for Struggling in 2003. The report cites 110 cases of forced and coerced sterilization of Romani Romani of sterilization coerced and forced of cases 110 cites report The 2003. in 82

- b coe.org/ccdocuments.nsf/index/plen ut also in someut alsoin ofthe Western European countries. 84

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d labor, and eventually extermination at the hands of the Nazi the of hands the at extermination eventually and labor, d t te post the nto st in Slovakia but in many other countries as well, such well, as countries other many in but Slovakia in st

socialist countries in the Helsinki Watch/Human Rights Watch Watch Rights Watch/Human Helsinki the in countries socialist age - cuid ertre. vn fe Wrd a II, War World after Even territories. occupied - scale sterilizations were carried out on those accused of of accused those on out carried were sterilizations scale ‘ or ‗Gypsy plague‘. On 14 July 1933, Germany 1933, July 14 On plague‘. ‗Gypsy or ‘ - ol Wr eid” codn t te ol Cucl of Council World the to According period.” War World 63 criminatoryEuropean policies by the states. - 4.4

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CEU eTD Collection See law.” rights human international violated act the for http://www.errc.org/cikk.php?cikk=2637 compensation due with S. Ms. provide to failure Hungary’s that ruled CEDAW procedure. the of implications the concerning understand could she being information without sterilized was and miscarriage a following hospital to admitted been had S. Ms. 2001. UN’s January in consent her the without woman Romani a when of sterilization the with 2006 connection in Women against August in Conve level the violating international for an Hungary condemned at CEDAW breakthrough important “an was there Warsaw, 85 that concluded CEDAW 2006, In sterilization. illegal the concerning CEDAW to Hungary aga complaint joint a filed NGO, Hungarian domestic a Minorities, Ethnic and National for Bureau Defense Legal the and ERRC remedies, domestic available all exhausted Having reversible fully dismisse simply not judgment, its are evidence health and experts by public medical provided professionals. reaching in sterilizations Court, Hungarian female The reversed. CEDAW, be UN‘s the could sterilization A.S.‘s Ms chance that little very be therewould words, other as in operations, well health as to According compensation. experts, any to entitled not therefore suffered was had she she detriment, that lasting proof no provided had A.S Ms since that and operations‖ ―reversible court Hungarian the but hospital, the against damages civil for claim a filed attorney her 2001, In Furthermore, that thereportstated was who A.S. Ms. for compensation appropriate and ―without hersterilized informed full consent‖: provide to government Hungarian the the to respond to (CEDAW) Women against Discrimination ofForms Allof Elimination failed authorities Hungarian the was it when that 2008 July revealed in emerged subject this on news of pieces startling most the of One and Slovakia. Hungary including countries, socialist former the in women Romani

According to ERRC’s statement at the OSCE’s Human Dimension Implementation Meeting in October 2006 in in 2006 October in Meeting Implementation Dimension Human OSCE’s the at statement ERRC’s to According another baby. (Danka 2006: 35). b give again upon not birth leaving hospital the when asked she doctor when the she couldwould try have to she that learnt only She operations. both of completion the the and at hospital arriving ambulance the between passed minutes seventeen that reveal records Hospital hospital the reached she timethe by blood of deal great a lost had She regard. this documentationin related any of lack the and testimony her from revealed was This contraception. of forms other about nat the about information no given was she theof word ―sterilization‖ (Danka 32). 2006: pregnant.‖Afterthis,sterilization was performed.knowmeaning not didtheHowever,A.S. Ms give to intend not do I sterilization‘. ‗my be request I firmly womb my to inside fetus the of death had the knowledge ―Having page: section same the on doctor caesarean the by a hand that a signed also she and told section caesarean the to consent was to asked She off. broken had immediately performed remove order to in fetus.While dead the onthe placenta the that was she and where hospital, to taken was She examin bleeding. heavy by accompanied was this amniotic fluid; her lost she and pains felt she 2001, January 2 On pregnant. was she that confirmed Hunga a is A.S. Ms -

in two separate two in ed. It was diagnosed that her fetus had died in the womb, that her womb had contractedhad womb her that womb, the in died had fetus her that diagnosed was It ed. n ws n sae f hc atrlann ta hr eu hd id n e womb. her in died had fetus her that learning after shock of state a in was and

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instances

reached the conclusion that sterilizations, as such, are fully are such, as sterilizations, that conclusion the reached

(accessed on 2007.05.07). on (accessed

ure of sterilization, its risks and consequences, or consequences, and risks its sterilization, of ure

64 ntion on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Discrimination of Forms All of Elimination the on ntion

birth again, nor do I wish to become to wish I do nor again, birth

written statement written statement written Co UN‘s operating tab

85 , which in 2006, in which , , the , Czech Republic, Czech mte o the on mmittee le, shele, was d the expert expert the d provided with with provided e able to able e urged inst inst

CEU eTD Collection 88 2008. 12, August Budapest, 87 groups. vulnerable clients their from and 86 leaders Slovak some addition, In Slovakia. Bukovská, to to ‗traitors‘ According as them 2004. viewed in feminists EU Slovak the into entry Slovakia‘s jeopardizing issue. the on raise this to attack time right political the not highly was it that a saying protested, as citizens Slovak seen Many nation. Slovak was issue sterilization the Slovakia in Moreover, def to enough [rights] brave ratherviolation, issue‘‖ tothe field they it of relegated ‗Roma gender a as not issue this articulate were not did They organizations rights. reproductive women‘s feminist Romani ―Slovak that notes against from Bukovská, fight of support director former the political the As enough raised, Hungary. ( in receive nor was Slovakia not in Europe neither did groups, advocacy women in Romani women of Romani sterilization against sterilization forced the issue of Despiteat severaland conferences, thefact international workshops that meetings particularsuch this caseasA.S. in Ms individuals for nor Europe, in communities Romani for justice in i result necessarily not does the the when levels, institutional instances highest the at those recognized is women in Romani even that illustrates case This compensation‖ ―unfair an been have would this that grounds the on located, is department gender the where perfosterilization the reverse to Justice operation victim‘s the of financing of Ministry idea absurd Hungarian the with up the came compensation, financial any receiving Before apology. a coerced over compensation her by rights her for advocated originally largely had who those from prompted even not organizations, advocacy any husband, from support appropriate receive her from be subsequently divorced She sterilization. A.S. Ms Meanwhile, and steps necessary the government symbolicreceived money. amount and of the take Hungary to been 2006 authorities in had the com though who urged even CEDAW women that Convention, stated Romani the campaign compensate violated the to of campaign spokesperson The a sterilized. organized ERRC 2008, In alternative and sterilization carried being herout without having a c made fullyinformed intervention on an such information against guard to specific order in to planning family for Convention procedures the of (h) 10 Article on depends and applican the that low stated Committee is the Furthermore, sterilization risks.‖ bemany reverse to to surgery intended of is rate ―sterilization success the that that stating irreversible, ERRC/NEKI by forth put arguments w the conclusion upon CEDAW The A.S. Ms of sterilization illegal the of because Women against Discrimination of Forms All of Elimination on Convention the violated had Hungary ete o Hmn n Cvl Rights) Civil and Human for Centre Author’s interview with B. Bukovská, Budapest, June 28, 2008. 2008. 28, June Budapest, Bukovská, B. with interview Author’s See uhrs interview Author’s pensate the victim of illegal sterilization. Finally, in 2009 Ms A.S. was compensated by by compensated was A.S. Ms 2009 in Finally, sterilization. illegal of victim the pensate rmed. This idea was strongly contested by the Ministry of Social and Labour Affairs, Affairs, Labour and Social of Ministry the by contested strongly was idea This rmed. Bukovská’s (2006) excellent piece about the tensions and power imbalances between legal advocates advocates legal between imbalances power tensionsand the piece about excellent (2006) Bukovská’s Poradna‘s 87 .

with G.J., a Gender Officer in the Hungarian Ministry of Social and Labour Affairs, Affairs, Labour and Social of Ministry Hungarian the in Officer Gender a G.J., with

long period of time, and would have simply been happy with a public public a with happy been simply have would and time, of period long

efforts to publicize sterilization abuse were seen as potentially potentially as seen were abuse sterilization publicize to efforts

ae eiul dpesd drn wih ie h dd not did she time which during depressed, seriously came

86 . She desperately waited for the government‘s financial government‘s the for waited desperately She . .

, a Slovakian human rights NGO lawyer, Barbora Barbora lawyer, NGO rights human Slovakian a , 65 hoice.‖

88 . se f trlzto against sterilization of ssue

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CEU eTD Collection Poradna racial gendered 89 of examples extreme suppor most fully not the did leadership male of the that fact one the Despite applied. be should is and can approach intersectional an sterilization where discrimination of issue The the on assault an also is it sterilization), through communityRomani wholeas aseffect a it case this in but rapes, through wars, cleansing (in ethnic of site the also are bodies women‘s minority as but women, Romani about activists. Romani male the of bymany statement insolent consideredwasan this participants,women Romani Accordingto atten delegation Roma the Racial of Racism, member an internalBucková, dynamicexposed gender spoke upandRoma: within against A Conference 2001. South World in Durban, in the Africa (WCAR) Intolerance at of Forms as Related and such Xenophobia Discrimination, women, Romani to relation developments years,some beenhave there few pastIn the to poormental healthabuse and stateby medicalauthorities. professionals vulnerability their increase and healthcare, to access women‘s Romani on impact devastating specific a deep that with reality combined the dynamic, underline gender reports rights human in above illustrated cases the All men Romani by recognized 4.3.1 Sterilization the ethnic withboth is aviolation gender and ignoring components. to that out problem intersectional whilst reach an as to sterilization of ERRC, issue the as ethnicity, construct and such feminists Hungarian organizations, elite or international of part the gender on failure a be either as such whi territory intersectional categories exclusionary whose use women Romani to prefer they Rather, class. and ethnicity gender, Hungarian on based violence intersectional of instance for connect in approach 2008 critical a construct to effort July conscious no made organizations in feminist Moreover, violated. been had ERRC rights reproductive by organized campaign o feminist Hungarian issue‘. ‗Roma a solely as discourse public in constructed similarly was women Romani of sterilization the Hungary, In on as manner same the in Slovaks ethnic se women.Romani on to performed interesting been been had have sterilization would if It reaction issue. this on silent totally were who Church Catholic B all were women Romani the of behalf understandforeigners,did not socialand Slovak they reality thus on advocating activists rights human that claimed

ukovská also noted that one of the most disturbing denials was that of the Slovak Roman Slovak the of that was denials disturbing most the of one that noted also ukovská By ‘foreign’, they were referring to the New York New the to referring were they ‘foreign’, By not necessarilynot women‘s human (Interview rights‖ with Mihalache, 2001). a seen if population, Roma the control and reduce to effort an as sterilization, forced the about speak to allowed only were men)(exclusively leaders Romani

published the path the published

generally a strong advocate of pro of advocate strong a generally

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Romani women‘s sterilization, sterilization, women‘s Romani - otd oet ad racial and poverty rooted ively destroys future generations. ively destroys future - based Center for Reproductiv for Center based 66

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regardingin intersectionalthinking s a violation of Roma rights and rights Roma of violation a s I would argue, is predominantly is argue, would I ding the conference, Andrea Andrea conference, the ding 89

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CEU eTD Collection phenomena cultural not are are who women Romani community against discrimination and the violence of types in various Hence vulnerable. those most against or world, outside the and themselves against turn mem collective the within carried oppression(s) of forces of These centuries life. social of domain different a in oppressors new become will oppressed negotiations political and Roma social the through like group oppressed an In been them. has which community a between differential oppressivefacing (Roma), its outsideworld centuries imaginarium and and hostility of the for power the is here noteworthy is What and ability the oppressedcommunities lost wife the easily toprocreatecan lead of to divor ‗traditional‘ other many in se, per Roma to particular not is this Indeed, wife. his divorce to above men Romani s wife‘s his about news the with competition inevitable of case an the In competences. reproductive creating souls Romani future about These power. reproductive their from men Romani deprive institutions state/health the that be can sterilization of reading Another the dilute central just internalized) thus oppressions, focus ofthe movement. issues gender critical other then, perspective men Romani and dominating gravity of centre the women as defined is Romani between which ethnicity, their to loyalty the on other each towards solidarity and agreement tacit their tension pol Romani This in engaged activists all that fact the the nation‘. from comes of presumably reproduction political the limits ‗Romani it because disputed population ste Romani whole the the Certainly, threatens women difference. the national/ethnic are who of and culture signifiers cultivate privileged and transmit who groups, ethnic/national the reproduce of who those boundaries being as well as nation‘, the of ‗mothers being of W condemn burden identity. the collective bear of repository To symbolic a as significance. processes ethnic and national political other own their identity political contested of foundation e normative an as sterilization the be must which solidarity‖, political ―Romani destroy could it fragmentation, gender internal the about nationalizatio of processes the to central is which sexuality their and women control to is Yuvalinterest men‘s that (1989) of Anthias claims the with resonates This Ro Durban. in WCAR at encouraged issue sterilization who activists Romani male those to similarities share which positions hold movement political Romani the in men Many subject their generates intheir socialposition context. disadvantage their to connected social, responses The economic activists. women even Romani political, of claims the to responds partly report UN the Thus, recognized the intersectional of discrimination women Romani inthereport: as they state UN the Conference, the from report official an in violence domestic or oppressions internal e fml bcue f e gne. h sm cn e ad f n brgnl oa lvn in living woman womenThese live at the crossroads of aboriginal gender and racial discrimination (UN WCAR 2002). an of said be can D a same Australia, The gender. her of because family her within and status minority her of because community her within marginalized is She hostility. popu Romani the of member a As alit woman living in India, a female asylum seeker living in England and so on. so and England in living seeker asylum female a India, in living woman alit xtreme form of discrimination is to fit it perfectly into the pan the into perfectly it fit to is discrimination of form xtreme - terilization, he became completely depressed and later on, decided decided on, later and depressed completelybecame he terilization, building process. This is a classical picture about women in many in women about picture classical a is This process. building

e se per ad tnczto o gop. f hy lo wmn o talk to women allow they If groups. of ethnicization and n lation, she has few advocates and is the target of constant of target the is and advocates few has she lation, rte te s they rather , state/health institutions render authoritative decisions authoritative render institutions state/health Ms A.S., for example, when her husband received husband her when example, for A.S., Ms -

hr i a ih rbblt ta toe h are who those that probability high a is there 67

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minoritized d - - Davis and and Davis European

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CEU eTD Collection patterns and their dist cultural various internal on whenever impact the and violence, place, and oppression first extreme face the communities in exists phenomenon such why comprehend better by rape and molestation until (practiced Wallachia from girls Romani protecting of and way effective an was marriage early Moldavia context which in 1865), in slavery of years hundred several the of legacy its interrogate and within sati marriages child venerated Similarly, origins. which myths the acknowledge society, Hindu in women cognizant oftherole ritual, cultural be onemust discern of contemporary therelevance ofthis (meaning sati of Sugir significance 1989; Thapar 1994; (Oldenberg controversial and are ‗chaste‘) origins the regarding Attitudes history. Indian of course the in wars and invasions herself various to immolating response partial widow a as a originated pyre, of funeral husband's groups) other few a and Rajputs amongst common practices. cultural as expressed are oppression of arranged and veiling, death, dowry sati, following: the include marriage. media the by received well are which color of women confronting issues The 1992). (Mohanty audience white the their that illustrate they if recognized alien, exoti distinct, is culture are issues women‘s colored that purports view This LoombaAs states (1998: 218) colonizers. by compassion of objects and oppression male of victims simultaneously that are they suggests women brown of construction This men‖. brown and from women primitive, brown ―saving backward, as representat it of depict kind to This serving oppressive. or culture Romani of nature‘ ‗exotic the illustrating mostly concern, political generate or media the in coverage international receive is gender particular are there sterilization, from Apart ‘Saving’4.4 Romani contradictions, women: contestations and challenges maintained as dominant frame themost for and political basis claims. interv political their of not focus do the they so, lose doing by to perspective, measure their from defensive individual and a power, reproductive is own deny sterilization their protect to leaders to male Roma Romani of which wish reaction The in recognize. not matrix oppression do social I hierarchical Although volition one‘s oppressions. and responsibility various of manifestations I would I like to provide an example from another cultural context, where internalized forms internalized where context, cultural another from example an provide to like untranslatable cultures. cultural essence ofparticular same or matriliny, immolation, widow polygamy, cultural excision, and clitoral Veiling, essence differences. cultural a as such well both symbolize as to relations come gender sexuality of women, patterns colonized, the and colonizers the both [F]or

ortions requires interrogation. - sex sex relations (to take just a few examples) are interpreted as symptoms of the of symptoms as interpreted are examples) few a just take (to relations their owners or owners‘ sons (Oprea 2005b). In this way, one can can one way, this In 2005b). (Oprea sons owners‘ or owners their c, and oppresses women, thereby confirming the expectations ofexpectations the therebyconfirmingwomen,oppresses and c, :

o o act not to o ad oie s nw fo te ooil cit of script colonial the from known is motive and ion nin. tnct (n tu rca dsrmnto) is discrimination) racial thus (and Ethnicity entions.

particular Romani communities persist partly as a a as partly persist communities Romani particular 68

s voet grso, n wrns o the of awareness an aggressor, violent a as

Sati , the ‗traditional‘ Hindu practice (more (more practice Hindu ‗traditional‘ the , sues related to Romani women which women Romani to related sues ni males are located is crucial to to crucial is located are males ni

tharajah 2003). tharajah

However, to to However, on

her her CEU eTD Collection media. the stimulated by Cris Romani the and UNICEF Romania” in Communities Roma within Marriages Early 91 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3159818.stm 90 report The activism. political Roma of and early toanalyze and marriage, attempts phenomenon this throughcase various studies. context the in marriages in of types three distinguishes issues sensitive on discussions Romania, in Communities Roma within marriages early Bucharest a Criss, Romani 2009 In the solefactoraffecting experiences‖ their (133 mono the challenge to but oppressed, oppressed Oprea communities. their by traditionally and culturally as women Romani portrays which discourse and political media the in women Romani of images prevailing the challenge to wedding publicized (2005) Oprea analysis, nuanced more a In another encourage to was EU effect episode inthe vilification of people‖. Romani isone way That ofseeingit. ―the press, Romania‘s British the for of story ( the awareon inquiry reporting journalist well an mounted authorities, 2007, Romanian in the accession prompted which harm‖, from Ana ―remove to police Romanian the upon called Rappo Special EU‘s the and MEP British the by act community. traditional Romani criminal and girl‘s oppressive an as marriage arranged the depicted media preparation Romania‘s of framework the within a Cioaba, Miss 12 of wedding the as the politics European process, in visibility accession frontline gained EU marriages the of context the in 2003, In which continues thewidest inEurope. toreceive media attention iss ‗cultural phenomenon‘ visible the most isperhaps bride, youth the of emphasis onthe with an women‘s Romani of recognition the to regards With their internalexternal communities. and towards mode reactional or relational a in developed been have they rather but development, of stories, reading different a offer these would explanations Such context. political and cultural social, localized specific a in to react included) (Roma People World Third did what and why, social how, of and discussions almo because cultural are only of practices but ‗cultural‘ image included), these (Roma the peoples legitimize World clearly Third of society backwardness of attention the capture that cultural certain of ‗site‘ discursivesubject a the offer than women rather World Third that suggests they (1998) Loomba Ania and (1995) McClintock Anne by formulated as color, of women of representation of mode This

‘Gypsy Child Couple Separated’, 2 October, 2003; BBC online, online, 2003; BBC October, 2 Separated’, Couple Child ‘Gypsy

- The most insightful NGO’s report on early marriage. marriage. early on report NGO’s insightful most The year - old Romani girl from Romania drew huge media attention. A heated debate emerged emerged debate heated A attention. media huge drew Romania from girl Romani old eas ‗nrnltbe utrl secs ae o a ie sculptural fixed a not are essences‘ cultural ‗untranslatable because

s. This report This s. 90 ‘s point was ―not to deny that Romani women [were] profoundly [were] women Romani that deny to ―not was point ‘s

h dbt i te uoen alaet a iiitd y the by initiated was Parliament European the in debate The

was inspired by the harsh public debate on early marriage which was was which marriage early on debate public harsh the by inspired was t ee cnetaie, o i tee uh elcin on reflection much there is nor contextualized, never st - based Romani N Romani based - focal conceptualization of ‗Romani culture‘ as being being as culture‘ ‗Romani of conceptualization focal

volving minors, arranged marriage, forced marriage marriage forced marriage, arranged minors, volving rteur for Romania, Baroness Emma Nicholson, who who Nicholson, Emma Baroness Romania, for rteur

(Acc - used the example and the occasion of the intensely intensely the of occasion the and example the used histo Macrae 2004). According to Macrae (2004), a a (2004), Macrae to According 2004). Macrae 69 essed 5 May 2007) May 5 essed - rical debates. Most of the time, those issues those time, the of Most debates. rical

(Bitu, Morteanu 2009). Bucaharest, supported by the the by supported Bucaharest, 2009). Morteanu (Bitu, 148). “Are the Rights of the Child Negotiable? The Case of of Case The Negotiable? Child the of Rights the “Are

- o E acsin wie h international The while accession, EU for Maria [the Romani girl due to be married] be to due girl Romani [the Maria

GO, published a report on the issues of of issues the on report a published GO, 91

e, ragd arae especially marriage, arranged ues, contributing to establishing formal establishing to contributing issue of of issue

Romani

ragd early arranged

CEU eTD Collection 93 92 set ofcultural are notnamed. practices (Frankenberg and that usually invisible 1993:1)The location ofadvantage, structural o at the ‗different‘and other. Frankenberg ‗racialized‘ According toRuth a ―whiteness is dominance how norm theunmarked‗white‘ constructed,instead tomake is oflooking visible The work ‗Critical ofWhiteness‘ provides Studies a gendered ourEuropean ―subaltern‖ societies. in European publicmaking is―otherizing‖women Romani ―exotic‖ and an other themeither or It expose important to is Concluding4.5 remarks issues argumentation which thesame culture? can wouldnotin Romani used, instancecondemn be these about talk can activists women‘s leaders. women Romani brainwashing by potential movement men Romani the Romani ‗invading‘ some for Moreover, feminism culture. liberal Western Romani criticized on attack by outrageous an criticized made highly who traitor was project This Program. wi women, Romani traditional including leaders, Romani Women‘s Network OSI‘s by was campaign supported related a and cult virginity the on project research a conducted she on, Later workshops inher community, forrecalled women Romani that become then which advances imperialistic and desires colonial masked―social as tointervene. a mission‖ of brown part ―saving huge for pretext a a as women‖, used is practices these of manifestation the argumentation, Spiva on Based Other. colonized the upon practices pivoting clearly phenomena cultural interpret as sati like to easier of is it oppression, finding internalized) as well the (as internal with scapegoating, interplay guilt, of denial o projection and a excuses, by Freudian in characterized on elaborated analysis, mechanism psychological same the as conquest colonial the identifies Spivak husbands‘ funeral pyres In in practice post literaryand feminist leading a (1988), Spivak In 2001, Enisa Eminova, an outst an Eminova, Enisa In2001, moreabout Read Author’s interview with S.J.on with interview Author’s atclry eaig a uiitn vriiy et n Rm wmns edn day. wedding woman's Roma a on test virginity humiliating ( a debasing: particularly R ofrightsthe somethingdoing advance practicalto about How talk. than more do to determination their from apart agenda, no had group […]the (1988:296). constr daughter‘s that ‗the formation same into the desire of part that is seduction‘ shaped that formation ideological imperialist masculine the Accessible at dia (―officially‖ until 1829) of widows immolating themselves upon their their upon themselves immolating widows of 1829) until (―officially‖ dia

http://advocacynet.org/resource/492. sati by Oldenburg (1994). Oldenburg by

92 that inthe courseforced and early sterilization marriage, of the , argues that nto the Other. Instead of facing structural exclusionary forces that forces exclusionary structural facing of Instead Other. the nto

28 July, 2006. 28 July,

f race privilege‖, andrace issimultaniously it af privilege‖, ―standpoint‖, a anding Romani woman from Macedonia, began to organize to began Macedonia, from woman Romani anding 93

h fnaetl q fundamental The

- Accessed on July 23 the analysis ofracialized relations of omatradition asout stood women?...[O]ne colonial scholar, in her writing on writing her in scholar, colonial what kind of theoretical framework and and framework theoretical of kind what cs h mnlti ‗hr ol women‘ world ‗third monolithic the ucts th some even viewing Eminova as a as Eminova viewing even some th eto i aan o Romani how again is uestion

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CEU eTD Collection powergovern tocontrol their and bodies. line,Romaniwomenembodiedthis difference theprimary becomes for object masculinist becomes for forms theoperation of theprimary site modern ofpat Through their practiceearly bodycult ofRomaniwomen the of and marriage thevirginity order (Foucault tolegitimate regimes different 1978,1979,1980,1988). ofdomination concern howbodieswas are toproblematize con arbitrarilyand often violently tothetheorists philosophical whocontributed andpolitical understanding the body. His of the Therefeminist theoretical range of underlay isawide onthebody intervention the which whitenessprocessconjunction andintersectionof of gender,race of ethnicity. and location in non

orization of the forced sterilization. Michel of sterilization. Foucaultorization theforced isone ofthe significant most - Roma ―whiteness‖,Roma relation Romaniwomen,constructs to andsocial in theirpolitical European discourse. illustrates women‘s The public sterilization the Romani

riarchical power.Followingriarchical structed in

CEU eTD Collection 2009). 12, March (Accessed http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/library/publications_en.asp Al approach. intersectional value an of on Reports Third proposals. and suggestions (ECRI) Intolerance and 95 Class and in Gender, Race/Ethnicity, 94 women Romani of disadvantage comparative the education,where areas main the explore will in I chapter men and women Romani of part first the in Hence, between violence. to vulnerability and healthcare to gaps access employment, gender as well as women, Romani Nevert womenRomani withthat ofnon discrimination, multiple or sample double of nature and religion, extent the color, into include should data investi for allow to order in gender, disaggregatedand origin, ethnic or national nationality,language, of that situation recommends the (ECRI) on statistics Intolerance disaggregated of lack a is Roma there indicated, issues Roma on papers policy and reports numerous as that, again noted be to Ithas analysis. complex more a collecti data Disaggregated that create structural inequality. statistical processes social underlying using of analysis byfurther for need women the out Romani point to necessary of Also data. inequalities of aspects different on focus I sex. and o based exclusion systemic as the normalize well that as processes structural Racism of women. consists sexism Romani against sexism and racism institutional group of inequalities ignore to is of purpose The equality political and social pursue to way differences, public policy. particularly in best the thereby that sameness with equality believes indentify to tends equality of language The Roma. as such ex historically of members disadvantage permanently that living of standards ways and normalized capacities, socialized labor, of division position, social in differences inclusion and equality of paradigm (Y dominant the by perceived inadequately are sexuality and class ethnicity, gender, of inequalities structural the that also argues Young Marion Irish interpret statistical data. o analysis poor this, data, for disaggregated reasons of various lack areincluding There to discriminations. evidence intersectional statistical of theorize forms and various use expose to unable are experts) governmental and NGOs as the which to regards data With quantitative women. political ofthissegmentfrequently activism society, wom very Romani of available Romani of on inequalities overview class and an ethnic provides gender, demonstrates chapter this of part first The INEQUALITI MANIFESTATIONS OF ETHNIC GENDER, CLASS AND STRUCTURALFIVE: CHAPTER DISCURSIVE AND

See for example, Seeexample, for oung 2009). The discourse on equality and equal opportunity ignores the deep material material deep the ignores opportunity equal and equality on discourse The 2009). oung This chapter of my dissertation is a reworked versi reworked is a dissertation ofmy This chapter ni women (EC 2008, 2007). Although, the European Commission Against Racism and and Racism Against Commission European the Although, 2007). 2008, (EC women ni heless, available data does indicate significant disparities between Romani and non and Romani between disparities significant indicate does data available heless, -

based sociological surveys and studies that allow for comparisons of the situation of situation the of comparisons for allow that studies and surveys sociological based the first part of this chapter is, therefore, to give an account of the structural the of account an give to therefore, is, chapter this of part first the country

on the situation of racism and intolerance in CoE member states, which include include which states, member CoE in intolerance and racism of situation the on ES

by 94 -

country reports of the of the reports country on on gender and ethnicity is the necessary first step in providing in step first necessary the is ethnicity and gender on on

Current Research and Policies and Research Current

- l reports can be viewed at: at: viewed be can l reports Romani women, or men. Roma women,Romani Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, and Norway and Germany, France, Belgium, Austria,

on of my publication: publication: my of on 72 Council of Europe Europe of Council

rsace ad ak f aaiis to capacities of lack and researches f

Romani European Commission Again Commission European Missing Intersectionality: Missing Intersectionality:

Women 95

hr ae tl vr few very still are there

in Europe in en activists (as well activists (asen well

comment on on comment cluded groups, cluded

(Kóczé 2009) (Kóczé 2009)

st Racism n race race n gation the the the

- CEU eTD Collection needs. emergent meet to it “stretch” to and issues, tofitother with it better ”bend” to be applied, engage actors political 96 than exclusion social and poverty of risk higher a face areasrural in child, live and areunemployed, one than more have age, young a at married undereducated, are who women Romani the family, the bread in the children of of gender number the household, head, the household of the head of the achievement of educational status employment the as such factors, various to correlates categor the Furthermore, creates( for adouble women‖ disadvantage Roma race and gender between interaction ―the that concludes and poverty in gender‖ and ethnicity concentration‖ this of explanation the ( as proposed are causes and social, poverty not in biological, concentrated arewhen these women ―when between occurs poverty of interconnections feminization and gender and links tha argue authors potential The way;. following in processes discuss publications subsequent und of is poverty distinct, of two and surveythe of authors poverty‖.The of racialization feminization the of as ―understanding the to concept‖ poverty the of processes: ―feminization‖ similar, and though ―racialization‖ about speaks analysis the non than Roma 2001).Szelényi for publicati ensuing as well as higher survey, the in analysis was of categories as gender used are poor and Race/ethnicity status. being employment and of achievement educational probability of irrespective the that was survey ( Slovakia Europe Central in countries five across poverty of dimension ethnic the addressed University Yale of Department Sociology the at Comparative Research for Center the by 2000 in out carried survey household A women. Romani still on is Europe Southeast and Central in ther women but scarce, Romani of situation specific the on Data 5.1 Interaction of poverty and ethnicity genderethnicity. and compreh a fromdivert often intersectionalitymost and conceptof the in contained potentials the ‗shrink‘ women Roma/Romani of situation the improving at aimed policies that however, argue, also improve would approach policy intersectional the and the an policies these addressing how initiatives indicate policy and ―positive‖ women, call Romani may of we situation what on focus will I section this issue women‘s Romani the on initiatives and intersectional languages their on focus special a with Europe, in Cooperation and Securityfor Organization of areas the and Nations United the Europe, of Council the Union, European the as such organizations discourses the review potential will I chapter, this of part the second the In to attention drawing documented, discrimination. been has mg, oo, n Szelényi and Fodor, Emigh, 2001). Szelényi and Emigh 2002; Tracy and Ringold

Similarly, Similarly, – ensive notion of multiple inequalities to focus only on two aspects of inequality, of aspects two on only focus to inequalities multiple of notion ensive Lombardo and Verloo (2009) argue that across different political contexts, various social and and social various contexts, political different across that argue (2009) Verloo and Lombardo

in a comparative quantitative assessment of the living conditions of Roma Roma of conditions living the of assessment quantitative comparative a in e are examples of edifying data collections and analyses that integrate a focus a integrate that analyses and collections data edifying of examples are e

However, race and gender are employed as separate categories, which is why why is which categories, separate as employed are gender and race However, in trying to ”shrink” the meaning of intersectionality and limit the areas in which it can can it which in areas the limit and intersectionality of meaning the ”shrink” to trying in winner, and whether the household is located in a rural or urban area. area. urban or rural a in located is household the whether and winner, 96

y of ‗Romani women‘ is not homogenous. Household poverty poverty Household homogenous. not is women‘ ‗Romani of y

approach to the situation of Romani women more generally. I generally. more women Romani of situation the to approach 01 7 2001: . h ppr lo drse ―h itrcin between interaction ―the addresses also paper The ). s developed in the last decade. In other words, in words, Inother decade. last the in developed s 73

– Emigh, Fodor,Emigh, and Szelényi

Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Romania Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, t there is a classificatory struggle around around struggle classificatory a is there t

One of the overall conclusions overall the of One of major inter major of rto a a ―analogous an as erstood ons ( ons

2001: 22). - governmental Emigh and Emigh

- Roma, Roma, of this this of

CEU eTD Collection (2004). Communities European the of Commission 2009). also: See December2007 13 on Lisbon 98 2009). 26, February 97 is urgently needed. the as However, further suggest, women. studies available Romani currently of of findings situation the of descriptions adequate provide would which indicators, set to policymakers encourage could engagements international Therefore, the through achieved education andinclusio social be should which strategy, this of priorities key o constitutes and agenda the on high remains poverty of reduction the through I Strategy. 2020 Europe the adopted 2010) (June recently you Commission European the crisis, economic of current integration social and the to reaction and continuation a as Inaddition, activities. EU‘s the of heart the at vocational dynamism of issue to the aims which people, place young for pact European a adopted Council European the which, of mid a launched Council European expectations, of short fall to continued have results how of account On training by Europe systemsin 2010. Strategy Lisbon the of priorities the of one also obj primary the of one is education non between those and or women, Romani and men Romani between differences the educational increase the exploring will education the quality highlight edu to in studies discrepancies andremarkable access reports numerous equal However, that Roma. of notion opportunities employment accepted widely a is It Education5.2 own communities. gender greater face also poverty absolute of levels highest the experience who women Romani that conceivable quite is it this, from Following areas. urban Rom

For more on the Millennium Development Goals, see: Goals, Development Millennium the moreFor on For more on the Lisbon Treaty, Treaty, Lisbon the moreFor on ani women who are better educated, have one or no children, earn income, or live in live or income, earn children, no or one have educated, better are who women ani

poig dcto lvl an levels education mproving

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, visit: visit: , signed by the Heads of State or Government of the 27 Member States in in States Member 27 of the Government or State of Heads the signed by n/poverty indicators.

http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/index_en.htm cation between Roma and non and Roma between cation - term ectives of the UN Millennium Development Goals, Development Millennium UN the of ectives

review process review 74 98 http://

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with respect to improving the education and education the improving to respect with www.un.org/millenniumgoals/

of the Lisbon Strategy, as an outcome outcome an as Strategy,Lisbon the of gender

- sensitive research in this field this in research sensitive - g epe n demographic and people ng - Roma, with few studies also studies few with Roma, related vulnerabi related

(accessed February 26, 26, February (accessed uniiain f the of quantification

in March 2004, the 2004, March in

ne of the five five the of ne (accessed (accessed lity in their in lity 97

and CEU eTD Collection (UN comparable broadly and low are rates illiteracy female and male which in communities, majority of case the in substantial less ―far is literacy in gap 22 to high compared throughmen‖ illiterate Roma are of noticeablepercent women Romani ―most of percent were 32 women: education among rates in illiteracy inequalities gender that found Europe by out carried Research rates 5.2.2 Literacy children furtherattention without togender differences. Romani on is focus the hence girls, Romani of attainment educational to attention special or objective opportuni equal horizontal to contribute demonstrate they how should education Opportunity of field the Equal in projects development mandatory other and infrastructural the with line in Str the for Authority Managing the beneficiaries, of the of experience groups the from out wereleft often negativeRoma when allocation,Funds Structural EU of round first the on building Hungary, In poli perspective. gender development lack how education demonstrate to and example an provide governments shall I Here for tasks urgent vocationaleducation. andhigher the of policy one the in policymakers boys, devel among that system awareness and educational gender raise girls to is Romani organizations intergovernmental of that as e the between differences the Given well. as countries European other in pattern educational similar a is there Presumably, percent villages. insurrounding lived ages 17 the between women Romani of percent 37.2 Ózd, of region the in that shows study The (2002). Hungary northern in research his out carried who Babusik, Ferenc by presented im The 17.5 percent malewhohad finishedvocational parents school. of with compared school, vocational fromgraduated parentsfemale Romani of percent 5.8 Only achievement educational overall vocationalgrammarschool. or in level, school menhigh the especiallyandthe women at Romani between difference significant found and students Roma of group a of parents of achievement educational overall the measured Farkas (2002). ed in discrepancies significant analysis, UNDP 2006 the in included not country a Hungary, In 1 in20womenfrom 2006: (UNDP majority communities)‖ with (comparedilliterate is third a almost education and communities) Roma from men five in one primary with complete not do women Romani of quarters ―Three women: many Romani Among of deficit 2006). educational severe the (UNDP summarizes compellingly region report the the findings, other of countries eight in group ethnic (UNDP), this of position Program Europe, Development Southeast UN in the Displaced by report 2006 The attainment educational 5.2.1 Overall ucational attainment between Romani women and men were reported by Péter Farkas Farkas Péter by reported were men and women Romani between attainment ucational - 29 did not complete elementary school, 30.7 percent of whom lived in the city and 46.4 46.4 and city the in lived whom of percent 30.7 school, elementary complete not did 29 DP 2006: 33 DP 2006: - makers should integrate gender analysis in the setting of targets for enrolment for levels the setting oftargets in gender in integrate analysis should makers pact of rural of pact . ).

- urban divisions on the educational achievement of Romani women was women Romani of achievement educational the on divisions urban

(UNDP 2006: 33). The same UNDP report observes that the gender the that observes report UNDP same The 33). 2006: (UNDP

NP n h stain f oa n ih cutis n Southeast in countries eight in Roma of situation the on UNDP ducational experience of Romani and non and Romani of experience ducational p rgas o Rm euain Mroe, ntttos and institutions Moreover, education. Roma for programs op

fes cmrhnie socio comprehensive a offers

ties. However, this initiative does not specify targets, specify not does initiative this However, ties.

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two and five percent, respectively‖ percent, five and two 29) .

- cnmc nlss of analysis economic At Risk: Roma and the the and Roma Risk: At - Romani girls, as well well as girls, Romani cies in the field of of field the in cies -

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CEU eTD Collection marriage. to due school attending from kept are girls as Romani or “troubl keep to try as authorities high isstudents disproportionately private among origin Roma of of pupils The number on. so and sports professional in illness, involvement their status for this request can 100 (2007: EUMAP in cited Population, the of Characteristics Social and Demographic 99 Romani for than lower are school attend to girls Romani for opportunities the stu that ethnographic indicate Some analysis. the in or data, the in either students Romani of gender in intersectional potential of discrimination example one but is Hungary in phenomenon student private The usedtorefer isnot youngit toRoma students,particularly girls. to Romani in not but Hungary, in women there where Roma countries those young of experiences education for indicator proxy a be can students private of number The marry. they when school of out girls Romani getting ensuringeducati compulsoryofobligation the student,‖ ―private of a status awardingthe child of practice Hungarian the professionals, educational to according example, For from pupils Romani of withdrawal the support practices Certain less likelycontinued tohave ontoupperalso26). secondary school 2001: (Ringold were women Romani men. Romani of case the Romani in percent of11 only is percentnumber this while 29 with befo out dropped men, had or Romani school in enrolled than been never had school women attended have were women to Romani likely that less found Bulgaria much in settlements eight in students. 2001 in Roma conducted religion of study group gender, larger the on among fewer) based are opportunities differences employment and city further the in than higher are are rates poverty areas, rural (in there class and (Muslim) that evidence provide statistics populations percent) girls thanas Romani (21.2 amonginmajority Muslim nationwide self the Turkish among percent per 21 42.8 Bulgarians, among percent 3.9 were: years 19 for 2007: Center International the by drop 2003 in Inter and published Studies data Minority example, For 2007). (EUMAP Roma years of number drop on average the that demonstrates clearly pupils data of number total the in pupils Roma of available proportion countries, European Eastern and Central most In 5.2.3 Drop non among (18.83 percent women,compared perc for Romani to2.29 than higher times eight census, is Bulgarian women Romani 2001 among the to According women. Bulgarian majority literacy in differences significant shows Bulgaria from Data one. ethnic an also but gender, a only not is women Romani for rates literacy in gap the because face, disadvantages women themultiple Romani of good indicators Literacy arerates

The most reliable data produced by the National Statistical Institute (NSI), Institute Statistical National the by produced reliable data The most -

The possibility to become a “private student” is a particularity of the Hungarian educational system. Parents system. educational Hungarian the of particularity is a student” “private become a to The possibility et aayi. notntl, ot tde o sho drop school on studies most Unfortunately, analysis. depth - out rates bet rates out 36 - reported drop reported cent among Bulgarian Roma. This survey also found that in the overall population overall the in that found also survey This Roma. Bulgarian among cent - 37) - out rates out rates . According to this survey, drop survey, this to According . of Romani girls, in which lack of more specific gender data precludes a more more a precludes data gender specific more of lack which in girls, Romani of ween Bulgarian Roma, Bulgarians, and Turkish and Bulgarians, Roma, Bulgarian ween - out rates are higher among rural Muslim Roma (25.6 percent), as well well as percent), (25.6 Roma Muslim rural among higher are rates out

children spend in school is much lower than the national average average national the than lower much is school in spend children

child if the child is unable to attend school for some reason like for instance instance like for some reason for school attend to is unable if child the child - is no such status at all, or if there is a private student‘s status then status student‘s private a is there if or all, at status such no is utrl eain i Blai sos infcn dsaiis in disparities significant shows Bulgaria in Relations Cultural

100

which releases both the school and the parents from parents the and school the both releases which - 76 on, is frequently used as a technical solution for solution technical frequentlya as is used on, out rates for pupils between the ages of 15 and 15 of ages the between pupils for rates out

between Bulgarian Roma women and and women Roma Bulgarian between

esome” Roma pupils out of the classroom classroom of the out pupils esome” Roma ent for non ent

- Census of the Population the of Census u rts o o idct the indicate not do rates out oai oe i Bulgaria in women Romani the public education system. education public the - Bulgarian pupils (EUMAP pupils Bulgarian

re finishing fourth grade, fourth finishing re 40). - Romani women). Romani An earlier qualitative qualitative earlier An

h iltrc rate illiteracy the out rates and the the and rates out - ugras and Bulgarians,

- . These

dies dies CEU eTD Collection percent 16 is women Roma for rate employment ―the Hungary, in while men, Roma of Roma of 90 percent pe 66 Republic 80 and unemployed Bulgaria are women Czech in women, the are inindividuals Roma that unemployed the shows of percent also report The inequalities.‖ gender ―pronounced Commission (European for Roma‖ conditions employment the and unemployment of breakdowns gender available Countries, ―few Europeanwere Thirty in Groups Disadvantages for Exclusion Employment, and Inclusion Social Gender, on Group Expert Commission‘s European the by 2006 in published report, Another (UNDP disadvantage‖ ―double a face 2006: 49). women Romani that for concludes report also show the study, findings, but this Roma, for for collected were differences which significant sex, by rates Southeast employment in and unemployment Displaced the on Data employment. including covers, and it that fields policy the of each on data disaggregated Roma on UNDP the by out carried study A unemployment. or employment, gender Roma aresearching while integrate perspective studies recent Most unemployment. Roma in differences gender on data is it region, the in comprehensive most the among were (non than Roma Wilkens (Ringol Bank World the or (2005), Fund Development Nations by United the released Europe Southeast reports and Central by in illustrated characteristics market as labor Roma point, concerning this on agreeing overwhelmingly community development int the with Roma, of integration greater the for means principal a is Employment Romani women of market participation oflabor 5.3.1 Lack Labor5.3 market drop general ethnicRoma group, hence furtheranalysis approaches andcomplex more are required. a of basis when the on drop account merely understood school be into cannot factors of taken various be issue should the aspects address these policies All educational fees. school ―hidden― or clothing, appropriate provide to parents of inability the income, generating bychildbearing, family the help to and desire marriage early duties, household fulfill to expectation the illness, as such massive a is students Romani m that problem educational by attendance school irregular Moreover, class. and pupils) Muslim for as (such affiliation religious and/or gender,ethnicity, on based differences further drop general the on data collect to above The thataexplained girl‘smarriage. successlifeona in dependedsuccessful verymuch 46). 2006: Surdu and (Surdu families their of breadwinner future a as seen traditionally are boys because girls, than rather boys for education of levels higher favored they that said women Romani 2005, in out carried was socio which research based and traditional Romani in in instance, For communities. integrated socially in than communities so more much boys, 2005). Both studies found that unemployment rates were significantly higher among among higher significantly were rates unemployment that found studies Both 2005). -

quoted research from Bulgaria and Romania further shows that it is not sufficient not is it that shows further Romania and Bulgaria from research quoted - Roma) majority communities. Despite the fact that, at the time, these studies these time, the at that, fact the Despite communities. majority Roma)

ay be caused by a number of social, economic and gender factors, factors, gender and economic social, of number a by caused be ay rcent have never held a paid job, in contrast to 34 percent 34 to contrast in job, paid a held never have rcent -

edr nqaiis n h Rss f oet ad Social and Poverty of Risks the in Inequalities Gender u rt am rate out 2006a: 109), and that the available evidence signaled signaled evidence available the that and 109), 2006a: 77

ong Roma students, as there are significant significant are there as students, Roma ong - economically marginalized (rural) Roma Roma (rural) marginalized economically the majority population. Based on these these on Based population. majority the - u. vn oe motnl, these importantly, more Even out.

worth to mention that they lacked lacked they that mention to worth

uoe 20) nlds gender includes (2006) Europe Moreover, Romani mothers also also mothers Romani Moreover,

nelnd ht there that underlined d, - out ra out a a community community a a Orenstein, and and Orenstein, ernational

te for the the for te

CEU eTD Collection 2006). 58 a on based women, Romani with discussions focusgroup series of 18 of ages the women between Romani of survey a parts: 103 2009) 12, March http://www.soros at: 2005, November of Macedonia the Republic in Women Romani of Situation the On Report: Shadow Submission: Joint ofSkopje, Centre Roma See: Macedonia. in women Romani of situation the document aimed to which researchers, women byRomani 11 out was carried research a which on is based report The Women. Unit the to report shadow a provided jointly Bratislava, office in regional UNIFEM of the support the with Institute, Society Open of the (NWP) Program 102 labor women’s Romani corresponding the Yearbook, 101 Statistical Romanian formally 2003 being study, the research to community According 2005 a employed. during interviewed women, Romani cond Research and elsewhere. protection. social any without market black the on working were percent 34 and benefits, social with employed wit firms private in employed were cleaners, percent as five institutions state in employed were percent eight unemployed, were percent 51 years, 54 and 18 of ages the between women Romani 202 of out that showed Women against to submitted Macedonia of Republic Report Shadow 2005 a for out carried Research Beska,Layharand 1997). se research, the for domestic asemployedbeen had restthe while interviewed jobs, formal everhad women Romani onlytwo were that mothers Romani Romani of 96 group of whole the out From activity. 94 that found (1997) fr Macedonia mothers in UNICEF by out carried research household. Earlier inthe work childcare, or on are at home women Romani of shows thathalf in example, For states. of women Romani w member percent 18 EU and men Roma of now percent 32 about only are that estimated (2004) Babusik that Hungary, countries European Central in similar European Southeast some in women Romani for rates employment above, outlined study UNDP 2006 the to According are amongworkers. overrepresented women domestic women Romani that is difference the However, work. paid than less valued and granted for are roles reproductive and domestic women‘s Romani women, majority of case the in as Just position. market labor their understand to order in analyzed be must women Romani of onl work interpretation narrow a reproduce to continue ‗work‘ and ‗economy‘ they that in perspective gender the lack in be to continue women ―Romani that argues she ―Firstly,‖ women. Romani of disadvantage market labor severe the for reasons two be could there that argued Tóth Herta advocate rights human and Sociologist case non ofthe the in than lower significantlyare rates which of both men, Roma for percent 29 to compared

rvants, or worked in the informal market without social protection ( protection social without market informal the in worked or rvants, The Romania research sample was composed of 717 respondents. The research was conducted in two two in conducted was The research 717respondents. of was composed sample research The Romania Network the Women’s and (ERRC), Rights Centre Roma European the Skopje, of Centre Roma the 2005, In on offers data which Hungary surveys in sociological representative few very the of one is work Babusik’s

y‖ (Tóth 2005: 1). According to Tóth, both the productive and reproductive roles of of roles reproductive and productive the both Tóth, to According 1). 2005: (Tóth y‖ om eight different cities were not engaged in any sort of income generating generating income of sort any in engaged not were cities different eight om

ce i Romania in ucted - .org/initiatives/women/articles_publications/publications/macedonia_20051101

Roma p Roma

102 -

market position. market These findings resemble data from other studies conducted in Macedoniain conducted studies other from data resemble findings These ere employed(2004: 13). ere informal jobs

- opulation (57percent63 respectively). and opulation

only focusing on the formal economy, and interpreting work as paid as work interpreting and economy, formal the on focusing only visible in most surveys and publications, and secondly most studies most secondly and publications, and surveys most in visible

countries are below 20 percent (UNDP 2006). The situation is very very is situation The 2006). (UNDP percent 20 below are countries

103

hw smlr ednis wt ol 1 pret f 717 of percent 11 only with tendencies, similar shows ed Nation Committee on the elimination of Discrimination against against Discrimination of elimination Committee the on ed Nation h Cmite n the on Committee the 78

and 73, based on an 80 an on based 73, and hout social benefits, four percent were self were percent four benefits, social hout On the Situation of Romani Women in the in Women Romani of Situation the On

- item interview guide (Surda and Surdu Surdu and (Surda guide interview item 101

lmnto o Discrimination of Elimination

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ther ther eps an an CEU eTD Collection http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/10/225 website: Commission European the on accessible 120 Work and Promotion, and Training Vocational Access Employment, to asRegards Women Men and For Treatment of Equal Principle the of Implementation the on 76/207/EEC 119 Treatment Directive). Equal (L1)484(hereinafter 1994O.J. by incorporated 194N, in derogation 40, O.J.(L39) 1976 Working Conditions, and Promotion, and Training Vocational Employment, to Access Women asRegards 118 Directive). Framework (hereinafter 16 2000O.J.(L303) Occupation, 117 Racia (hereinafter origin) ethnic and of racial irrespective persons between 116 Eur the establishing TheTreaties Union, European Treaty on the amending of Amsterdam Treaty 1999. 1, May force on came into and 1997, 2, October on was signed which Amsterdam, of Treaty the of 6a asArticle promulgated Integration 115 Roma National for Framework EU ―An on document published recently the on based growth, cohesion.‖ territorial and socialdelivering Inclusive economy and economy; an competitive developing and low growth, a promoting growth, Smart Sustainable innovation; and areas: knowledge priority for reinforcing vision a mutually out decade ―sets next the which over strategy economy EU market social 2020 Europe's the new After a developed inequalities. c EU multiple the more the Strategy for Lisbon of solutions provide elaboration and the acknowledge that on strategies depends women Romani for single end, that t increase to To economy. women grey developed the of out step to Romani them enable are and women Romani of of participation market programs case targeted the unless in illusion fulfilled be an would remains they that hope the while communities, percen 60 than more majority onlyin met often are targets the Europe, to throughout vary rates these Although 2010. employment in women of number the increase and percent 70 society. productive highly Strate the of goals main The 2010. The sustainability. environmental and social as well until as growth, economic are Strategy Lisbon action for framework a sets which Strategy, Lisbon the h EU the 2000, March Since interventions redress to disadvantages Romaniwomen. the of of notion comprehensive more the include and terms. policy in addressed and articulated be must women Romani of discrimination multiple the (2007), All for Opportunities Equal of Year European the of up follow the 2006b),and Commission th to According now provide rather diversegrounds. levelstherespective for ofprotection employment, in men and women between Discrimination Directive, Equality orientation. sexual and age disability, belief, or religion origin, ethnic or racial sex, prohibited: is discrimination which on grounds eight lists (1997) Amsterdam of Treaty and language inclusive most address the to tools probably policy provide still policies these and equality gender anti on policies implement and adopt to organization intergovernmental

The EU 2020 Strategy should be harmonized with the European Roma Strategy. The EU 2020 Strategy 2020Strategy EU The Strategy. Roma European the with be harmonized should Strategy The 2020 EU D Pr the of Implementation the on 76/207/EEC Directive Council and Employment in Treatment Equal for Framework General a Establishing for 200/78/EC Directive Council

Council Directive 2000/43/EC, 2000 O.J. (L 180) 22 (implementing the principle of equal treatment treatment of equal principle the (implementing 22 2000O.J.(L180) 2000/43/EC, Directive Council O.J.(C 340) 1997, 10, Nov Community, European the Treaty Establishing irective 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council Amending Council Directive Directive Council Amending Council the of and Parliament European of the irective 2002/73/EC gy seeks to increase European competitiveness by investing in a knowledge a in investing by competitiveness European increase to seeks gy opean Communities and certain related Acts, Oct.2, 1997, O.J. (C 340)1 (1997). (1997). 340)1 1997,(C O.J. Acts, related Oct.2, certain and Communities opean In the following I shall argue that European initiatives should go even further further even go should initiatives European that argue shall I following the In - axis strategies are not sufficient as achieving the goals of the Lisbon Strategy Lisbon the of goals the achieving as sufficient not are strategies axis Ramp o Eult bten oe ad e 2006 Men and Women between Equality for Roadmap e 116

h Faeok Directive Framework the the intersectional social status of Romani women. Article 13 of the of 13 Article women. Romani of status social intersectional the

One of the aims is to increase the overall EU employment rate to rate employment EU overall the increase to is aims the of One as formulated its policies in line with the ambitious objectives of objectives ambitious the with line in policies its formulated as

120

The EU 2020 Strategy is loosely connected with looselyconnected is Strategy 2020 EU The 88

intersectional discrimination intersectional 117

otrn a high a fostering n te qa Tetet ietv on Directive Treatment Equal the and inciple of Equal Treatment for Men and forMen and Treatment of Equal inciple , and rests on three interlocking and and interlocking three on rests and ,

118 ing Conditions, 2002 O.J. (L269) 15 2002O.J.(L269) Conditions, ing

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CEU eTD Collection 2009). 27, February 2006). 123 Roma. of active participation 10) society of civil involvement evidence a 4) approach non and pragmatic constructive, 122 roma 121 used ethnic case this in groups, some that recognizes it is and example) for gender, (only approaches discrimination‖ ―double above, the In ethnic minority women (Prio intersectionality on focus a includes Roadmap 2006b).The Commission (European policies‖ development and external in equal equality gender of promotion stereotypes; gender life; of elimination professional and private of reconciliation representation men; and women for 2006 the independence for equality gender on action EU for areas priority re and actions new proposes Roadmap The discriminations. multiple to attention includes that initiative EU 2006 Men and Women between Equality for ―equal for plans the from Apart inequalities, whichaffect particulargroupsEuropean context. inthe and differences multiple of recognition the meant nevertheless use its plan, the in elaborated c some in initiative this of part as implemented activities all of theme major the and year the for strategy EU the of focus a was All for Opportunities re and recognition representation, rights, were: year the of All. for Opportunities Equal of Year European the of out roll the anti The at presented were the first Platform Roma meeting 2 on24April which Inclusion Roma on Principles Basic Common 10 the use namel to gender,States to reference EU one only using is there by framework integration Roma to approach States Member encourages Commission European The Roma. of situation devastating current the to respond to seeks Framework EU 2020 to up Strategies

They were annexed to the Council conclusions of 8 June 2009. They comprise: 1) comprise: They June 2009. 8 of conclusions Council the to annexed They were http://www.eu2011.hu/document/eu on: is accessible Communication The the of text See Decision Decision See rights and civic participation, to fully use their employment potential and to improve to their and access educationand 2006b:10). to lifelong Commission (European learning potential employment their use fully to participation, civic and rights integr and migration in equality gender of promotion the requires This discrimination. double from suffer often They emblematic. is women immigrant and minority ethnic of situation The counterparts. male their than an of creation the of members Women and all. for society inclusive discrimination all of elimination the to committed is EU [t]he

- rity Area 1.6: Area rity integration Available online at: at: online Available - based policies 7) use of EU instruments 8) involvement of regional and local authorities 9) local and of regional involvement 8) instruments EU of use 7) policies based - discrimination and gender equality agenda of the EU came to the fore in 2007 with 2007 in fore the to came EU the of agenda equality gender and discrimination iming for the mainstream 5) awareness of the gender dimension 6) transfer of transfer 6) dimension gender the of awareness 5) mainstream the iming for - on the European Year of Equal Opportunities for All (2007) (2007) All for Opportunities Equal of Year European the on - strategies n decision in affirms

Combating multiple discrimination, in particular against immigrants and and immigrants against particular in discrimination, multiple Combating

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) and states) that Communication of the of Communication - 2020 h ne t ipeet xsig ns Te ouet ulns ―six outlines document The ones. existing implement to need the http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/eyeq/index.cfm?cat_id=EY - - discriminatory policies 2) explicit but not exclusive targeting 3)intercultural exclusive targeting not but 2) explicit policies discriminatory - aig eaiain f l frs f gender of forms all of eradication making; communication

opportunities for all‖, the European Commission‘s Roadmap Commission‘s European the all‖, for opportunities ountries, such as Romania. Although the concept was not not was concept the Although Romania. as such ountries,

- eur to adopt or to develop further a comprehensive comprehensive a further develop to or adopt to - opean 89 2010 (European Commission 2006b) is another another is 2006b) Commission (European 2010 009 European Commission (5 April 2011)‖ April (5 Commission European to plce i odr o nue women‘s ensure to order in policies ation

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- CEU eTD Collection which in ways the obscures groups specific on focus her However, policies. equality gender for groups target ‗classical‘ also are These violence. domestic of victims or widows, mothers, specifically more even focuses and women, Romani of situation economic and social particular the acknowledges Devonic above, the In DG Men, and Women between Equality on Unit of 2005 EmploymentAffairs, andSocial that declared the Head at given Devonic, speech of Fay a In situation Forum, discrimination. Roma specific double their the on focusing of EU the conceptualization in women a offered also officials women. European Romani of disadvantages specific the of recognition urge to one only the not was I probl networks specific the rights encompass women‘s to European discourse multi and the language that inclusive requested more a specifically develop also I point, that At I When gavefront a ofthe in20 speechEuropean in Parliament discriminations. ethnic of manifestation the change significantly can class that me persuaded recognized anti in accepted widely was which rhetoric class skip to decision conscious a not was artic to attempted who feminists the added we and faced women Romani gender what discrimination ethnic than more was it that subjec specific the capture to knowledge and concepts lacking was I time the at policy because discrimination, targeted double term forthe used I support responses. rally to hoping face, women Romani discrimination double the reality.o ignored With toahitherto attention draw to well in order as activists women Romani by used widely been has discrimination double time, same the At of axes are constituted. mutually two only d double of notion captures The It discrimination. intersectional inequality or discrimination multiple of notion narrower the is discrimination However, double inequalities. multiple experience women, immigrant and minority factminority that they belong2005: 7). toa group theproblem exacerbates (Devonic ideal These trafficking. and prostitution for victims the them makes violence. which poverty domestic extreme of of situations in victims live often women widows, These mothers, unmarried for case the particularly percentag significant A double of discrimination. victims the are women Romani that consider we if challenge one greater a even quite en is and This life. political and social economic, in represented are Roma discr of forms all eliminate must [w]e host racial other their ownpatriarchal hand, by oppressed community 2003). (Kóczé majority by targeted hand one the ethnic on are Europe and in living face gender they their thus on simultaneously; based background discrimination experience often women Romani - dimensional discrimination faced womeninpresent by Romani - based discrimination. Double discrimination was already a well a already was discrimination Double discrimination. based –

n rights in gender and ethnicity and gender

- ae dsore bt y ae tann i ciia rc fmns has feminism race critical in training later my but discourse, based iscrimination fails to capture how gender and ethnicity intersect and and intersect ethnicity and gender how capture to fails iscrimination

ulate gender and ethnic based discrimination. Back then, it then, Back discrimination. based ethnic and gender ulate – hntemr nopsigaditgaiecnet of concepts integrative and encompassing more the than

and treats them as if they were separable and additive. and separable were they if as them treats and imination against the Roma and ensure that the the that ensure and Roma the against imination - o Rmn wmn r uepoe. hs is This unemployed. are women Romani of e based discrimination, but rather just following the following just rather but discrimination, based - t position of Romani women, but I definitely felt felt Idefinitely but women, Romani of position t discrimination discourse. Class as such was not was such as Class discourse. discrimination 90

on those Romani women who are unmarried unmarried are who women Romani those on

phenomena affect women in general. The The general. in women affect phenomena obe discrimination double 03, my formulation was: own ther activists, I about spoke activists, ther - day Europe.day - Rmn women Romani . known term amongst term known ility, and on the the on and ility,

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CEU eTD Collection oevr ti poer ae tls bu ―estv ise, sc a dmsi violence, domestic as such issues,‖ ―sensitive about talks Roma. paper of pioneer situation the this improving Moreover, at aimed policies elaborated who governments national the on data of lack the as such points, important several raised Bitu by prepared report The issues. Roma of field the in progressive and provocative considered was and descriptive very is report the is comprehensive women‘s a Romani requested on Roma/Gypsies document on Group Specialist CoE the 1999, in on, Later the in integrated resources atthe level andofthe mechanisms CoE. be to needed ar issues to women women‘s Romani Steerin for forum a provided Romani event the This framework. equality to gender by mainstream attention convened that was message conveyed meeting and Europethe of Council The the of Men 1999). and Women between (Bitu Equality for Committee women‖ Roma of the of situation one Bitu, Nicoleta the activist about discussion the in dimension Romani new a introduced hearing ―the that Young argues participants, women. awareness Romani raise to of attempt situation first a the as about 1995, in women Romani of hearing a organized CoE activism.Roma The concept internationalgender equality the in becomeactive inintroducing of Council The ofethnicity domain the feminizing Europe: of 5.7.2 Council in the Member States‖ 2008:42). (European Commission women and girls Roma of in situation specific the address Summit directly that programmes Roma few a only EU first The long. very still e that recognized 2008, September 16 on is held was which Brussels, Union European the in equals as thrive can women Romani that secure to ahead road the and however, remain, challenges Important intersect etc., class, gender, with each other‖( race, of inequalities various the which at point the on focusing of instead comparison, for norm the as one dominant the as appears what taking pro another, to and women one treats that analysis of logic bipolar simple Romani a ―overcome for opportunity good a created have level EU the at Initiatives thinking. of ways complex more towards debate the EU The th and frames limited. policy important provided is nevertheless have women institutions Romani of situation the of understanding their specifically that ofthe conceptualization intersectionality andMeier within Verloo and by EUofficials, 2009), above the by illustrated As and forvictims trafficking‖ prostitution (Devonic ideal the them make which poverty extreme of situations in multiplelive ―often women Romani that the about pove to trafficking speak and prostitution to vulnerability who women‘s Devonic Romani links above, observers quoted speech by same the in even example, For women. overlooked, Romani of oftendisadvantages is point Romani latter unmarried The by experienced those Ro of lives the of context social wider as the shape they because also but mothers, such disadvantages, specific very configure discrimination of occur. situations particular which in social context social a present widely on more operate a create inequality of axes These class. and ethnicity ma the of position social the iuae hi priua cnen ad asd wrns aot h eitn gender existing the about awareness raised and concerns particular their ticulate

Thus, the intersections of gender, ethnicity and class are relevant not onlybecause they areand relevantgender, class not ethnicity of Thus, theintersections status of Romani women, lack of understanding of gender concepts by the the by concepts gender of understanding of lack women, Romani of status

Europe (CoE) was one of the very first inter first very the of one was (CoE) Europe Verloo and Lombardand Verloo - jority of Romani women is shaped by the intersections of gender, of intersections the by shaped is women Romani of jority utd xml ad ofre b rcn aaye (Lomdardo, analyses recent by confirmed and example quoted sues, with Bitu preparing the document. The language of of language The document. the preparing Bitu with sues, o 2007:25). 91

2005: 7).

- Romani women equality advocates to to advocates equality women Romani

type of inequalities as compared as inequalities of type - governmental organizations to organizations governmental ven to this day ―[t]here are are ―[t]here day this to ven - tutrl ee as and also level structural

eoretical ideas to steer steer to ideas eoretical rty only, arguing arguing only, rty mani women. mani - related g

CEU eTD Collection reinforced which position a societies, majority and communities their between interlocutors overrid can which identity, national Roma a forge to attempting in groups ethnic different across women symboluniting aintoof women Romani bytransformed used discourse TheCoE community. co cultural where domain private the in centered are women Romani Europe. in cause Roma the for mobilized be to needs which population, Roma the of subgroup a as women Romani defines discourse one is CoE the by significantly is women Romani non of of that from different position structural the qualitatively, and quantitatively see which womanhood, global or universal a of umbrella convenient the under non issues women‘s Romani push and to tried them between or women, Romani amongst differences level the at discourse The reconciliation, seek they which rather thanjustice. in role gender traditional the upon reflect women Romani of positions ―peacemakers,‖ The society. and communities their between ―mediators‖ as seen deep the emphasize not does it that is conceptualization this of shortfall The tradition. and culture of issues as solely issues diversity and minority treated makers policy CoE‘ illustrates, above the as However, Roma in needed were changes broad that understanding ingovernmentalcommunities, action of and women: Romani inthe roles the ( against belief supported origin‖ fight nationality, CoE social the their Network, of and or irrespective education ethnic women, care, and all health system for to issues access priority as are such discrimination issues analysis, final and the national with solidarity of bonds non of establish organizations international to aim the with (INRW) Women Romani follow a As discrimination, gender and racial and injustice which preventfrom accessing women Romani pu economic the on emphasis enough placed kick the at delivered speeches the nor report, the neither as However, for. caring women Romani for health pictures own their report sacrifice who communities the their of Generally, heroes (2003). health‖ own their neglect often well ha families‘ ―the their for on responsible ―traditionally was are they report as the face‖, women of Roma emphasis main the of one that explained CoE, of 11 (Strasbourg, on conference Europe of Council a Care at report Health Public to Access Women‘s Romani on report a preparing in role key a played also EUMC, and OSCE with cooperation in CoE, The activists. trafficki

c a bigs ewe ter omnt ad oit. s o th for that directly communityaffect, ( the Roma fully as As treated are women society. Romani that and ensure to efforts make community must too you today, conference their this attending are who between representatives bridges as act also must they that but mothers, and wives sisters, of role the play simply longer no can they that aware are They culture. living a as exist to continue can culture Roma that so cur to values Roma traditional adapt to required today are women Romani

ng of persons and prostitution, which had never before been discussed by Romani Romani by discussed been before never had which prostitution, and persons of ng

sub e - p o h rpr, o spotd h ceto o te nentoa Ntok of Network International the of creation the supported CoE report, the to up - 12 September 2003), September 12 -

ethnic divisions. Moreover, Romani women and mothers were seen as as seen were mothers and women Romani Moreover, divisions. ethnic ntinuity is guaranteed along with the identity of family and Roma Roma and family of identity the with along guaranteed is ntinuity - dime - otd social rooted, nsional, particularly focusing on the ethnic dimension. The CoE CoE The dimension. ethnic the on focusing particularly nsional, - ms both unfair and unworkable. As I have argued above, above, argued have I As unworkable. and unfair both ms Romani women. The conceptualization of Romani women‘s issues women‘s Romani of conceptualization The women. Romani of the CoE did not make any reference to the social and economic and social the to reference any make not did CoE the of - Roma women. The understandi The women. Roma

Maud de Boer de Maud - tutrl ass f in of causes structural e Boer de de Boer de 92 Roma women and access to public health care health public to access and women Roma

blic health care. - Buqui - lde itrouos n l decisions all in interlocutors fledged - - Buquicchio 2003 Buquicchio, Deputy Secretary General Secretary Deputy Buquicchio, EM 20) A te anh o launch the At 2003). (EUMC cchio.2003 equality. Romani women are are women Romani equality. the benefit of those they are they those of benefit the -

ng of INRW was that ―in that was INRW of ng Romani women and they they and women Romani ). At the onset of the the of onset the At ). ).

governmental e rent realities, rent - off conference conference off rsh realities rsh - being and and being the f CEU eTD Collection previous chapter. a in was introduced 2001.This case January in consent her without woman Romani a of sterilization the with 125 http://www.errc.org/cikk.php?cikk=2136 The rights. reproductive concerning 124 especially rights, women‘s Romani for advocate mec UN the date, states. theseTo upon recommendations their enforce to power limited made very has Committee Committee the CEDAW the However, countries. European Eastern and women, Central various in women Romani of sterilization Romani of the raising rights in steps reproductive important of field the In women‘s and rights human recommendationsCommittee usually receiveattention strong media local with som have they CEDAW, for mechanism jointly enforcement an have not does Committee the that fact ERRC the Despite by prepared organizations. Czech were the of reports process reporting the of Croati part as Republic, Committee, Romani the of situation to the submitted on were reports shadow women several years, few last the In women. submitted Romani have issues women‘s Romani t on reports working country NGOs of number a years, recent In process. monitoring this to access great enjoy advocates rightswomen‘s Romani Convention. Discri of Forms Allof Conventionon theElimination compliancethe monitor with to 1982 in established was Committee The rights. women‘s Romani on bodies active most the of one is Women against Nations United the Within the social disadvantages and women. economical ofRomani analyze to failed but women, Romani to related issues highlighted specifically paper working i of subjects as up ending prostitution, into forced or lured are women there Roma ―young that that information was noted also section same The women. Romani of sterilization and violence sexual sp that section one only is there document, important this In Rights. Human of Protection and Promotion the on Commission UN an includ Roma the of protectionsand problems rights human the on 1999 in Yuen Sik Yeung Y.K.J. by prepared paper working A discrimination intersectional towards Nations: 5.7.3 United but rather simplistically ―feminized‖thedomain ofethnicity. o point intersectional an from issues women‘s Romani interrogate and understand not did CoE the so, doing In communities. Roma the outside and inside reproducing both distribution economic are which boundaries, gender Roma symbolic deeply the for challenge not justice did their women, discourse achieve Romani of disadvantages to the on focused need that organization intergovernmental the downplayed and communities roles‖ ―female stereotypical

To illustrate this, in Au in this, To illustrate above the texts full the of For - gendered public and private divide, the power structures and the unequal social and and social unequal the and structures power the divide, private and public gendered ee. h ppr a iiitd y h U Cmiso o Hmn ihs Sub Rights, Human on Commission UN the by initiated was paper The level.

trainl rfikn‖ ( trafficking‖ nternational and Romani women within their communities. Although the CoE was the first the was CoE the Although communities. their within women Romani and 124 e political leverage in urging states to comply with international law. CEDAW CEDAW law. international with comply to states urging in leverage political e

iain gis Wmn CDW, iey eerd o s h Women‘s the as to referred widely (CEDAW), Women Against mination a, Macedonia, Germany, Romania, Serbia, Spain, and Slovakia. These These Slovakia. and Spain, Serbia, Romania, Germany, Macedonia, a, o the CEDAW Committee, which specifically analyzed the situation of of situation the analyzed specifically which Committee, CEDAW the o gust 2006, the Committee condemned Hungary for violating CEDAW in connection connection in CEDAW violating for Hungary condemned Committee the 2006, gust

aim a oe f h ms scesu ad epnie vne to avenues responsive and successful most the of one was hanism - system, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Discrimination of Elimination the on Committee UN the system, mentioned countries’ submissions, visit: visit: submissions, countries’ mentioned

wrns o te nentoa cmuiy bu te forced the about community international the of awareness ecifically engages with gender issues; this section refers to refers section this issues; gender with engages ecifically

(accessed February 28, 2009). 28, February (accessed ed the first acknowledgment of Romani women‘s issues at at issues women‘s Romani of acknowledgment first the ed en Sk un 99 35). 1999: Yuen Sik Yeung 93

125

t s motn ta the that important is It .

f view, f - CEU eTD Collection about women‘s Romani agendaam awareness raise to greatly contributed and issues women global the to rights women Romani connect to forum critical a provided instruments and mechanisms its and Nations United The 2007). their prevent to measures policy and legalintroduce to representatives state encouraged and girls the Romani against explored discrimination and gendered emphasized systemic I speech, my In girls. Romani of situation the on specifically to invited I was child. girl the against violence and discrimination of forms all eliminate to initiatives policy key on discussion panel expert interactive an hosted 2007, the on Commission UN the by up Sta taken were with issues girl‘s compliance and women‘s into Romani 2007, laws In their bring to states CEDAW. some encouraged has process reporting and recommendations its cons stateskeep thus of favor in pressure public of power the mobilize can Committee tus of Women. The 51st session of the Commission, held from 26 February to 9 March 9 to February 26 from held Commission, the of session 51st The Women. of tus

cious of their legal accountability for discrimination against women. The againstThe women. discrimination accountabilityfor legal their of cious ongst globalongst rights advocates. women‘s 94

social and economic exclusion (Kóczé exclusion economic and social

speak at the panel panel the at speak CEU eTD Collection as and voters as both women potential candidates. Romani of participation political of field the in example, for scope, narrower to its efforts more for within room still even is there However, arrangements. institutional the to and connected strictly mission are Macedonia, OSCE that issues to Albania, confined narrowly rather countries: are women following Romani of the in communities ( Montenegro and Serbia and Romania Roma in beings trafficking human of issues to related research sponsored (ODIHR) Rights Anti Human and the Institutions years, past the In free the control can that security border effective movement ofpeoplegoods, and transnational counter crime. to an requires such as their trafficking on Human upon traf reflect to vulnerable is which that group risk‖ ―high lens specific a in are women Romani that this is focuses the of one language through their in example, For discourse. seen are issues t women OSCE the Romani of concern main security a a is as issue conceptualized Security are matter. issues gender Roma, to related documents OSCE most In forContact andIssues Roma Point Sinti (CPRSI). its of part the As address implementation. to without activities commitments rhetoric of example another yet turning into of danger in is Plan Action the women, Romani of situation the of assessment clear specific identifythe to studybackground a require would Plan Action OSCE the of implementation the However, 14) (ibid: schooling‖ and housing care, health to access with them providing ―by needs these to response a urged crisi in children and women Sinti and Roma of needs ―the on focused also Plan Action The 2). 2003: (OSCE programs‖ and policies all of for implementation emphas Plan Area OSCE and Action design the in the account into taken be should within women the Sinti and Roma of Sinti situation particular 2003 and Roma in of and, Situation the perspective, Improving this modified developments Subsequent communitieswithoutRoma seeking endand against todiscriminations an them. justice OSCE majority words, between intermediating of other role auxiliary In an women prominent. Romani attributed also are issues gender where health, of area specific the for ‖reconcilers‖ as women Romani constructed discourse OSCE initial the CoE, of case the intermediaries in As ―as 127). (ibid: enhanced be capacities should providers‖ healthcare and women‘s communities Roma between Romani which in way the to attention draws report onc only women nothing was step first This 2000). (OSCE Romani mentions report the since issues, women‘s AreaRomani including at attempt an than more OSCE the in Sinti and Roma of situation o discussion specific a include to step first a took Europe in Cooperation and Security for Organization the 2000, In matter security a issuesare gender Europe: in andCooperation Security for 5.7.4 Organization e, in a very short section related to the context of education and health. The The health. and education of context the to related section short very a in e,

Rmn wmns sus ih h eaoain f t rpr o the on report its of elaboration the with issues women‘s Romani f situation of Roma, the OSCE maintains a special office called the the called office special a maintains OSCE the Roma, of situation - Trafficking Program Program Trafficking address Romani women‘s issues and initiate research, initiate and issues women‘s Romani address CPRSI 2006). CPRSI issues affecting Romani women. In the absence of a a of absence the Inwomen. Romani affecting issues ficking for prostitution and other sexual services. services. sexual other and prostitution for ficking 95

f h OC‘ Ofc fr Democratic for Office OSCE‘s the of

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CEU eTD Collection (2006). 127 and Central of countries applicant the 126 the in hostility faced women Romani However, the kindergarten. improved thiof context the learnedin lessons the of one employedTherefore,they at. institutions were in program children This Romani system. of education the in o employment children Romani of integration the improve to assistants, kindergarten i.e., nannies, as work to women Romani trained that tra of revitalization the on built which projects, women Romani targeted supported funding PHARE Hungary, In evaluation health of mediatorsRomania, found oftheand inFinland, work Bulgaria that conducted OSI an However, women. be should mediators that reasoned Ministry the health, of level the at children and womencommunities‖ Roma of Roma to health was the program ―promoting of the objective, of specific purpose a needs the achieve that was health program mediation health specific the in only women the address of 619/2002 to Decree of order in 11 Article with accordance (in women be should that, mediators as nominated those communities, decided Health Roma program making decree The a issued Health and Family profes official an Mediator of Ministry the 2002, August in program the of success the of result a As NGO. Roma a CRISS, Romani with cooperation prog The mediator. health the of that is implementation, its in women Romani of empowerment of dimension a has argue, PHARE a of example particular One impact direct a had having as cited be can that interventions of examples concrete only the women, Romani on Roma for programs of impact the about knowledge systematic of absence the In these evaluation PHARE evaluated researchershave independent and Commission European The rights. equalenjoy women Romani that ensuring outcome the measure to date to conducted been have evaluations few very However, interventions. specific for need the and women Romani ofpolitically, plightleastthe recognized,at have Europewider the as organizations intergovernmentalmajor Most 5.8 Impact of intergovernmental activities

Some evaluations include: EMS Consortium (2003), Guy and Kovats (2006), and Human Dynamics etal Dynamics Human and Kovats (2006), and Guy (2003), Consortium EMS include: Some evaluations Th etl r hscl iaiiis Rmn du ues ad oai eul minorities. violence, women5). ahealthRomani (OSI majorfor unaddressed concern 2005: sexual Romani and users, drug Romania Some Romani disabilities, physical or mental with persons Romani women, Romani as such groups, marginalized doubly of need the [i]n e

PHARE on Romani women‘son Romani livesare(few) targeted the programs. t cret aiettos Rmn hat mdain os o aeutl address adequately not does mediation health Romani manifestations, current its

program is one of the threepre the of one is program f Romani women, especially in rural areas, and also increased the participation the increased also and areas, rural in especially women, Romani f s addressed the gender the dimension inPHARE s addressed n RHMs have expressed an interest in learning how to address domestic address to how learning in interest an expressed have RHMs n ditional roles for women. In 2001, the PHARE program funded a project project a funded program PHARE the 2001, In women. for roles ditional . Since one of the main responsibilities of the mediator was reproductive reproductive was mediator the of responsibilities main the of one Since .

o atos upre b itroenetl raiain towards organizations intergovernmental by supported actions of s the Ministy of Health and Family). The reasoning behind hiring hiring behind reasoning The Family). and Health of Ministy the sion within the Romanian public health system (OSI 2005: 19 2005: (OSIsystem health public Romanian the within sion

a ws ntae b te iity f elh n oai, in Romania, in Health of Ministry the by initiated was ram Eastern Eastern 126

financing for Roma programs for example, but none ofnone but example, for programs Roma for financing - - Europe accession udd oa rjc i Rmna wih oe may one which, Romania, in project Roma funded operating in Central and Eastern Europe, as well well as Europe, Eastern and Central operatingin

96 in their preparations for joining the Union. the joining for theirin preparations

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- funded programs for Roma.

European Union European

to assist to

- 127 20). 20).

s CEU eTD Collection to forefforts specific support 128 OSCE Romani of situation inter major the the of level improve the at takento women initiatives and discourses of review multiple above the of sum, In concept the 2001, significantapproach the the in Eur inroads of in Durban in Intolerance Related and Xenophobia Discrimination, Racial Racism, against Conference World UN the Fourth UN‘s th by the and 1995 at in Beijing movementin intergovernmental Women women‘son Conference international the the of by formulated role Initially actions. the of discourse multiple of concept the of integration gradual the that seen yea the in and OSCE) of case the in (as change can organizations also is it Nevertheless, care. and reproduction solely for responsible be naturally would women prescribe that norms European the as such rein and stereotypes gender reproduced often too have organizations, CoE, the or Commission intergovernmental programs, Roma of context by the In informed tools and methods complex of development an era post of the is representatio the of rethinking a and theory, intersectionality needed is ―what it, put Verlooas Inwords, other inequalities. betweenvarious relationship and differencesthe nece is it language, sensitive more a create to order In women. Romani Europeanpolicy in date, To systematic lacking womenRomani isstill theacademic and inboth policyresearches. oriented the However, women. Roma situatio the of analysis andcollection data in class ethnicityand gender, of integrateeffort to disadvantage‘ ‗double the discuss commonly rece More University. Yale at survey household influential the as such projects, academic in developed gender was community, development Easte and on focused which Central of most Europe, in Roma of situation the on research early conclude, To Concluding5.9 remarks societies. majority and communities own their influence could that actors political potential as women created and care and reproduction as such issues with women Romani of association stereotypical the from away step to able was it because progressive very was project This government. of levels central to local from service, public and in politics equality Force continued project Task the Gender 2007, Pact and 2005 South Stability Between the OSCE. by with collaboration implemented in ―Ro was (SPGTF) project which 2003 It,‖ the Do was women Can Romani Women for programs targeted of example Another measures market workplace andmaintain onthewomen. labor aninclusive for Romani anti an for need the was project

Parts of the Phare program were continued by the EQUAL EQUAL the by were continued program Phare of the Parts - East European countries. The primary goal of this project related to improving gend improving to related project this of goal primary The countries. European East –

demonstrates a significant transnational political transnational significant a demonstrates

nt studies and research have integrated gender in data collection on Roma, and and Roma, on collection data in gender integrated have research and studies nt - identity politics‖ (Verloo 2006: 224). (Verlooidentity politics‖ 2006:224). rn Europe, and was conducted or commissioned by by commissioned or conducted was and Europe, rn

empower disadvantaged groups, including Roma including groups, disadvantaged empower - making, very limited attention is paid to the structural position ofthe structural paidto position is attention very limited making,

- bias training for employers and employees to accept active accept to employees and employers for training bias - blind. Gender blind. - governmental structures governmental opean Commission. opean 97 - discrimination into policymaking and concrete concrete and policymaking into discrimination

- Community Initiative (CI) Initiative Community

sensitive analyses of Roma poverty werepoverty Roma analysesof sensitive e transnational anti transnational e agreement on the need to address to need the on agreement n and participation of citizens in citizens of participation and n - iciiain a as made also has discrimination

rs to come, we may expect a a expect maywe come, to rs ni women. women. ni –

the EU, CoE, UN and UN CoE, EU, the

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- in 2004 in racist movement at movement racist

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, such as as such , 128

n of n ma er CEU eTD Collection inter by statements. used women media ina waylimited discourses. institutional thatclearly their upon own reflects Romani and on reports language conferences, the various However, in the beyond expressed shape, taken commitments also have political initiatives Some women. Romani of disadvantages the 98

- oenetl raiain is organizations governmental

CEU eTD Collection 1995. 1994; Henderson me: Higonnet by mentioned th Of criticism. literary feminist and socialsciences in literature both international border society female in accepted 131 2001). (Butler norms of repetition strict the but identity gender their construct can subject the which of kind a doesindicate rules.This ofstrict citing the through role identities gender determined 130 nők Roma muszáj szólnia”: annak világa hangját, 129 and social true their of because question criticize, to have they crossers‖ since sense, metaphorical a in ―borderalso but mobility, geographical as considered be can activists women ―[…] status that a offers role out political pointed also interviewee one as crossers‖ ―border as considered be cases all in can study the in interviewed I women The perceptions. own my reflects throughhistories reconstructionis the‗power‘ which of it spoken to meaning new that gives and reconstructs and also analysis my that conducte interviewees argue shall I have However, the I and interviews me the between of analysis relationship the that aware am I research. social every in methodologically through thought and raised be must that questions the are These background? institutional what with and position what from speaking, is Who sch and Romanistudies absent theiroutin from experiencesand arebothas feminist pointed are the‗Roma are activewithin movement‘, undertheorized politically and underresearched realizatio voice insocialis animportant discoursesufficient politicalact,not proper is it for political not received thepolitical in sphere.real recognition Although theappearance ofthissymbolic havethat politics symbolic givena voic all three nationaland level local spacesDespite politicalactivism. oftransnational, thefact subject activist‖ the ―Romanipublic activities woman appears in interactions through and her and bringsethnic, gender playcategoriesand into class atthe i performativity observation constructed was that they theirpublic roles inthecourse their narratives and of activists inapolitically otherwisediscriminatoryand andhostile political space. allowed toopenupmeabout my their experiences asRomani interviewees women interviews withthese women were Romani that activists inanenvironment conducted also womenrelate analyzeethnicity Romani totheirgender lif how and inpublic who areI andlocal national activism. intent thetransnational, onbridging levelwill political was de through and personal experiencesMy biographical inpoliticalactivism. stories empirical data political at activism thegender intersection ofand race, class InI chapter, this shall POLITICALAND ACTIVISM PERSONAL BYACCOUNTS IN SOCIAL ROMANI WOMEN FEELCAN “YOU SIX: CHAPTER IT ON SKIN”: YOUR

A volume edited by Boglárka Bakó and Zsófia Eszter Tóth in 2008 entitled ‘ 2008entitled in Tóth Eszter Zsófia and Bakó Boglárka by edited A volume establish roles gender that means this performativity; gender for Butler’sterm asJudith this understand I Hungarian. in written was article which my of reformulatedversion and extended an is This chapter olarship. - crossing women and women’s groups. ( Bakó groups. women’s and women crossing rived fromrived semi n for the Roma community.n for theRoma Todate these

130 . BasedI thedata, of reconstructs power on reproduces, argue thatpolitics ’ was p explore how―Romani emergesfields woman‖ of inthediscursive -

structured interviews I structured interviews conducted ublished in Hungary, in which numerous excellent writings can be read about about read be can writings excellent numerous which in Hungary, in ublished - changing, soci changing,

e to Romani women in recent years, womeninrecent theye toRomani have still

a politikai érvényesülés útján” (Kóczé 2010) útján” érvényesülés politikai a

al mobility opportunity for us‖ for opportunity mobility al 129 - Tóth 2008) Border Tóth 99

htvr ulc ie cvl r vn party even or civil life, public whatever upwardly mobile Romani women,whoupwardly Romani mobile

always intheanalyzer‘s hands. with Hungarian Romani womenwith Hungarian Romani - . crossing has a very broad broad very a has crossing I explore to attempt will ntersection of whose the Borderless women: Excluded and and Excluded women: Borderless cets n asymmetric an creates d ese the two most important important most two ese the . That is, Romani is, That .

freedom by freedom by My e. The

“Aki érti “Aki

131

CEU eTD Collection demographi Roma the to similarity great a shows which societies oftraditional characteristic demographic the to refers phase The first type. another statebecomes population 134 133 2005). (Havasi encroached severely income was their but 2003, between 2001and change not did of poor number the although that states researcher, Statistic Office Central Havasi, a Éva change. system the after drastically most Roma the affected which exclusion, market labor to linked closely is group this of The income states). threatening health or dangerous ruins, in homes are B most the of lack from suffering poverty” living “deep in those and poor Roma, Oláh groups: Roma 132 Hungarian following the on research her in models basic four compares She 1999:161). Neményi (Mária women Romani the of histories stud Neményi‘s birth Mária high. is mortality, infant including deaths, and births model societies‖ ―traditional cera discipline, scientific for demographicis the whatof aissue the growth,and population in interested been alwayshas as Sociology, behavior. reproductive their been has women Romani into. looked are strategies, integration identities, Roma‘s successful or elite‘s Roma the which in done research little very is There eye. scientist‘s social the catch not do often disadvantaged, a mobility social through who, Gypsies, Those issues todate. these of intertwining the of analysis an provided not has research mainstream national called so the as just aspect, class and gender ethnic, an lacks however, research, This illiteracy. of resurfa the and segregationregional unemployment, poverty,for responsiblemechanisms the archiving and understanding in interested is research social the of most if wonder no is it the after poverty denied were who those over are and people Roma them. levels, subsistence human ―normal‖ and obvious knowledge most to the access of one And society. the afte into society, Hungarian in breaks excluded the and fallen the of acceptance the integration, social on emphasis great places which discourse, political social present the were Roma disadvantaged socially of issues, problems the equality social and integration social Amongst structure. social the in groups Gypsy 15 last the in Gypsies Hungarian on Research How6.1 Romani women are represented in ground‖hallowed(Henderson 1995:2). onto stepped have they since punishment, but recognition with met not are crossers ―border and social these of in po because that said part they interviews taking the During conventions. crossers political and border on reckon unvoiced also and social voiced faced have or face bordercrossersoften as mentioned inmystudy must borders both the refashioning cross to wishes who 2 1994: (Higgonet Higgonet Margaret them. visi the down break and

litical conventions they were often exposed to continual attacks. As Henderson argues, argues, Henderson As attacks. continual to exposed often were they conventions litical Warren S. Th S. Warren Székelyi the is within that changes, political the after increased incomedisparity researchers, many to According 133 - tain national group. The Roma demographic model is very similar to that of the so the thatveryof to is demographicsimilar model Roma The group. national tain childcare

n eet yea recent In - Örkény ompson demographer describes a three step process during which one type of stable stable of type one which during process step three describes a demographer ompson

– - Csepeli

political changes, and were denied knowledge and basic human rights. human basic and knowledge denied were and changes, political

ys mtes n hatcr‖ fcss n h lvs n reproductive and lives the on focuses healthcare‖, and mothers Gypsy h bres n te tutrs eid h bres Al oai women Romani All borders. the behind structures the and borders the s h oewemn tee f oilgcl eerh ad rtn on writing and research, sociological of theme overwhelming the rs -

Barna 2005. Margit Feischmidt 2008; Anna Kende 2005. Anna 2008; Feischmidt 2005.Margit Barna l ad niil bres n wls oe hs osrce around constructed has power walls and borders invisible and ble - 134 represented in the latter group as they fell into the trap of deep of trap the into fell they as group latter the in represented

te an hrceitc f hc i ta te rprin of proportion the that is which of characteristic main the , r the political changes, was the one between those who have who those between one the was changes, political the r

100 - 3), a feminist literary scholar said that anyone that said scholar literary feminist a 3), - 20 years has primarily examined the state of state the examined primarily has years 20

void the circle of the socially deprived and and deprived socially the of circle the void

most emphasized. It was ―prescribed‖ by ―prescribed‖ was It emphasized. most Hungarian researches c model. c model. basic goods (e.g. they starve, they their (e.g. goods basic

y, ―Pregnancy y,

eásh Roma, Roma, eásh - called 132 cing

So - - CEU eTD Collection The practice. and indivisibility narrative of functional the on focuses Kovács 2006. 9/1 in Tabula in appeared 139 well. as issues Romani on researcher the of some on influence some made It degree. significant 138 education 137 136 135 Éva of writings Kovács the li in women individual Roma concerning articulated appear with speech and of mode experienced discursive critical, sometimes continually a constructs, of basis the discursive on several is, that narrative‖, ―I the through as studied be can individual an of post identity believable most the the appears to According them. but between and within identity, elements contradictory single a is identity postmodern not The space. and time in continuously change to subject is and others of concept rigid postmodern and dynamic static and t diverse identity, researches more related the Roma by replaced the were of concepts identity some in Accordingly, 1992) (Baumann the the to internal of rather structures but objective, and universal establish not are to bad, or used good false, theories or true criteria is the what that suggests thought Postmodern about granted. skeptical for us taken make and from knowl us truth, distance concerning beliefs to traditional seek they as much as in deconstructive are discourses Postmodern changed. slightly have Roma on research identity theories, social ‗90s and ‗80s the by influenced years, few last the Over the interconnectionnot expose theRomanifemale between and racism body. did they behavior, reproductive women‘s Romani studied Jánky and Durst Neményi, While t compared when high community. relatively be will reproduction of level force their and age young labor a at birth give will women the that chance the and greater the is, community education Roma a deprived and segregated worst more the So decreased. not have mothers young the of number where reproductive the integration, to recourse places no is there where prevail, those conditions in while noticeably, dropped has mothers teenage of number the integration, for allow force labor the and system force labor knock the and reproduction including women, young of problems data Gypsy representative de on half drawing a and one first reproductivitythe in women Romani of chances life the Roma how analyzed He 2003. in collected examines also Jánky Béla interviews ethni of intertwining an of writes Neményi Mária de Durst While cultural practices. Roma by than structures economic and social local in community Roma given a of domi children. more much bear is behavior reproductive to Roma that willingness found on influence ethnic an is there whether question, the ofbehaviors Durst theformation Judit reproductive studied groups ofand marginalized raised the greatest child rearing inthe was of knowledge observed while majority, the fromculturally differ Beásh the and Oláh the of behavior reproductive the study, the of findings the to According groups. mixed) (ethnically Budapest and Romungros

Éva Kovács: Mari an Mari Kovács: Éva Post with women of Romani behavior reproductive the connected 2005b Jánky, 2005a;Béla BélaJánky, settlement. the of pseudoname This a is women. Romani of the behavior reproductive on contribution significant madea (2001:71) Durst - modern theorists such as Jean Francois Lyotard and Judith Butler changed the notion of identity to a a to identity of notion the changed Butler Judith and Lyotard JeanFrancois as such theorists modern 139 ae atr h pltcl hne hd altered had changes political the after cades al and employment prosperity. prosperity. employment and al he main characteristic of which is that identity appears through interaction with with interaction through appears identity that is which of characteristic main he , Kata Horváth Kata , – - market integration. He concluded that in those places where both the education the both where places those in that concluded He integration. market

albeit very subtly. icuss hmevs n tu te ae itrcl n sbet o change. to subject and historical are they thus and themselves discourses d her “Gypsy her d

140 -

tnczs erdcie eair o te oa from Roma the for behavior reproductive ethnicizes and Cecília Kovai Cecília and

- ness” ness”

–

or the site and force of narrative in ethnic research, a study which which study a research, ethnic in narrative of force site and the or edge, power, the self and language that are often often are that language and self the power, edge, 101 141

, as well as of Boglárka Bakó Boglárka of as well as , c and gender issues during her analyses of of analyses her during issues gender and c . 137

post ák piaiy oue o the on focused primarily Jánky Budapest group. Budapest nated by the state and the fixture the and state the by nated - modern and post and modern o a more integrated Roma Roma integrated more a o - nefcso col and school of effects on e tr. hs new This story. fe - modern approach, approach, modern

levels and the the and levels

142

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135 - market

Durst 136 138 ,

CEU eTD Collection 142 appearance.” bodily individual’s the of part indivisible isgender an that “believe who anthropologists cultural those argues against The author situations. life narratives and 141 relations. familial qualified ethnically and gender, sexuality, of emergence establishes the 140 indivisible. all are deed, cultural the and performance & doing” and “saying that sheargues thesis, second the By essentialistcritiques. and colonial enforces her, to according she cr firstthe thesis By theses. two introduced study and can they struggles, emancipatory social and political own their on reflectand aboutspeak artistic wo Roma which in worksinterviews,andartistic in is that discourses,artistic research,in and scientific given the of objects social as regarded are they women, Roma around centering both works and writings in appears category whil However, identity discourses. an as woman‖ ―Romani Emancipation6.2 and identity politics of womenRomani expose and theorists critical which black perspective and new postcolonial a of deconstructsgaze the introduced theother thepower construction. of whopossesses of concerns hence, the visual Kovács, to identities. colonizing resonates with based driven tangible class representations and and ‗Gypsy‖ ethnic observable of studies the scientific between i social parallel the and a representation draws it because and gender ―Gypsy‖ how maps sexualitywere it because important only not is study Kovács‘ privileges. about an ―force‖ s other the to crosses self and change will position European Eastern Central the that fact the to attention draws also Kovács Eva groups. colonized own their of self practice non covertly, more and, Europe or, groups colonized the non the challenges openly author The Europe. modern of ‗primitives‘ become have has Gypsies she pictures how the through projected chosen, shows, are also Kovács bodies fears. these and desires how society‘s and white against modernity, European in to masculinized attention draws and Kovács level.feminized visual the observing at is their it as work, level textual their (mostl the in at tangible so The not still scientists is people, Roma 2009). on research social describes and girdles (Kovács which ―glance‖ by reasearch. taken social role in constructing the representations authoritative) of position visual the analyze the and problematize as to observer important as just is that argues she when the from picture study, inspiring and exciting most her in Kovács Éva identity the studying when approaches and narratives life.formation inpublic ofRoma women these on partly argument my base individual through communities Roma of models gender the approaches nvisible power relations. Gypsy women in the paintings she analyzes weave social, gender, social, weave analyzes she paintings the in women Gypsy relations. power nvisible

Boglárka Bakó (2008) She is also using Romani using Sheis also (2008) Bakó Boglárka gend relations, gender of construction studies the (2006) Cecília Kovai (200 Horváth Kata - reflection, as Western European Western as reflection,

constructed right from the 1850s until the first half of the 20 the offirst half the until 1850s the rightfrom constructed 1850s until the first half of the 20 the of half first the until 1850s 8) in this study the author is curious whether the discursive construction of skin color color skin of construction discursivethe whether is curious author the study this 8) in - un ih h non the with turn d. ht en ta Gpy raos n sca sinit apa and appear scientists social and creators Gypsy that means That ide.

e in social scientific discourses, that is in all scientific and artistic and scientific all in is that discourses, scientific social in e - Roma social scientists, to change their observer positions, positions, observer their change to scientists, social Roma - Gypsy creators and researchers and their invisible invisible their and researchers and creators Gypsy

women’s narratives in her works. her in narratives women’s 102 iticizes the late modern multicultural approach, which, which, approach, multicultural modern late the iticizes

artists have already done in the representations the in done already have artists - reflection will begin if the observed ―Gypsy‖ observed the if begin will reflection

century Black bodies, white bodies: The Gypsy The bodies: white bodies, Black

, opposes social scientists‘ work scientists‘ social opposes , er roles through various spoken spoken various through erroles

o s hr xrsin the expression her use to

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CEU eTD Collection pseudoname. with even recognizable and public will be stories their scared that 143 their spent them of Most comm original interviewees. their secondary education studies. orhigher school from the away moved of only and histories place one career in childhoods the in role important an socio Family, Racial6.3 community concerningmodels male and female rela Through constructs. psychological and profound sociological are active also,throughactivists but agents, personalframework, this inter women as Roma contain which in narratives, spoken well interviews construct only not they intervention The as process. data formation biographical the identity reflect their also influenced details Interview women. factors what and roles public women‘s Roma of understanding bettera provide should details Roma of analysis the and organization thematic motivation the while interviewees, the of multifariousness the in role important als I the of responses the analyzed have I to politics. intervieweesmajoralong themes,and these similarities differences. degree and the life public was interviewee into interviewees drawn the were the way they between which the difference was significant on A concentrated politics. I in they engaged factor were important did, Another they if not. and or partners Roma husbands, had interviewees the whether was interests their influenced had it whether was identit question the had earlier, they discrimination If identity. such gender experienced and race their to due discrimination experienced they whether or assimilate to An had. they aim capital social they whether of kind i.e. what with and them, overturn to formation, try or traditions maintain they whether and identity integrate of strategies their with status, integra or segregated in living were interviewees of generation whetherthe is that degreefamilyintegration, ofthe with myanalysisconcerned in firstmost I was the from come them the restremainedpartner. eitherfound a or single Romani of Many ,interestingly, and different. intellectuals po Roma quite Hungarian Their high is politics. status party a Hungarian class in in social role political work a played or or NGOs worked national/international 3) (except interviewees and activism political on thoughts all Almost movement. the in aretheir silenced which issues genderrelated on elaborateviews their express to women these for space a offer can they inter these structured I well. as level transnational the at but level, local a at only not active are them of Some activism. political Romani in players key were/are who semi conduct to chose I that, doing In agent. active an about as discourse speak their construct to and issues their women Romani for opportunity an give to intend I researcher feminist a As active own discourse. shaping agents their women,the toRomani thethemes choose the first, linked others in while words, other In experiences. own their express and themselves represent actively do

Unfortunetly out of twenty only eleven women allowed to write down their stories. The rest of them were were restof them The stories. their write down to allowed eleven women only of twenty out Unfortunetly tid o rae hmtc nt we aayig h itriw, ns ht a pa an play can that ones interviews, the analyzing when units thematic create to tried o - structured interviews with twenty Romani women from Hungary (I analyzed eleven analyzed (I Hungary from women Romani twenty with interviews structured ad oiia priiain o get ere A infcn fco o individual on factor significant A degree. great a to participation political and y - economic status, linguistic and cultural identity of the given community plays plays community given the of identity cultural and linguistic status, economic

other essential issue from an identity constructivist viewpoint was viewpoint constructivist identity an from issue essential other

103

ted communities, with their socio their with communities, ted two thirds are married to non to married are thirds two iin n ao Rm related Roma major in sition - group and interpersonal links.

second sees Roma women as women Roma sees second

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roma, while while roma, - economic personal of the the of 143 s

) CEU eTD Collection almost they when women, amongst solidarity the about community, non their from taken have theypresent patterns behavioral and customs those of sense own their make re them helps community rural the reflectingon while identities, own their strengthening for source a roots their consider they reasons; several for interviewees the recu a always is countryside, the in located usually is which community, ―real‖ the to back Going ascommunities Katalin reports: capital, the relatives country their in see rules, strict very under blocks in childhood their spent who Those circumstances. childhood their to socio verifiable is it perspective today‘s From circumstances. present their through view they which element, surreal beautified, a was cases, most in poverty, to relation interviewees‘ on effect great a both had which element, key a was cases many in grandparents the of role The which themother‘s non child‖. a as her strike not did identity ― her: to according in role In important an rearing. played child they and family the with lived grandparents the cases, most In cana makethefamily. better for life Katalin‘s Katalin with(Interview Pest. in here doing were we what understand don‘t I and me with stayed it and linke that In them. after looked children, her fed one otherthe ill was one if what, cookwould who aboutspoke together,womencame the there But attention,playingdoneathouse.door, all thego standasoutsidethemust insidebe but you can where…housel Mum that said,told in alwaysnot Gadjos, youknow,the from isolated different, so was It summers. the spent I where site Romungro the at happy unbelievably was I Mária with(Interview close.‖ really were children and parents grandparents, the that childhood, good I that say I when precise being am I think, I […] Granny parents. my to according forward step great a moved with in us there..‖ (Inte was it before, to compared slum but, a into flat, moved we [where] street, Vaskapu remember I and common, in nothing had two w he this, like it put fromalways I knowdad, my As I […] least at old. years three barracks… was I before was few it as it, remember a don‘t but dad, effectively and mum my born…from hearsay, were we where dump a in years won a […] wonderful was dad ] [… well family, the There‘s rring motif in most of the biographical narratives. Their past seemes to be important for important be to seemes past Their narratives. biographical the of most in motif rring

the identity formation of the interviewees and the way they took up public roles. The The roles. public up took they way the and interviewees the of formation identity the

2008.11.02)

parents moved to Budapest‘s poorest district from the countryside, hoping that they they that hoping countryside, the from district poorest Budapest‘s to moved parents 2008.10.12) - oa omnt. hi nsagc oe f paig bu ter rural their about speaking of mode nostalgic Their community. Roma - economic status which is important to them, but how they relate emotionally relate they how but them, to important is which status economic Mária‘s My father was integrated was father My

- Roma grandparentsRoma a played big role.

ae hwvr ol hr ahr a a ys i te aiy but family, the in Gypsy a was father her only however, case, rview with

She also talks about a tight a about talks also She Katalin 104 into her maternal family very well, as his ethnic his as well, very family maternal her into as the sky, while mum was the earth, but these but earth, the was mum while sky, the as

2008.10.12)

come from a poor family. But I think I had a had I think I But family. poor a from come as freedom as d - up life there was only beauty, pleasure, beauty, only was there life up derful man. They lived for many for lived They man. derful

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played infamilyrelationskeeping arole and key thefamily together: assistance was very strong. It worked as one huge family, control and value systems value and control family, huge one as worked It strong. very was assistance Ilona usehold, carechildrenforusehold, take the and care agricultural ofthe work. , her grandmother operated an ent an operated grandmother her , wrpae n uaet A infcn nme o Rm men, Roma of number significant A Budapest. in workplace r aiy h grandmother the family arious markets. Shehad individual buyers too, who emerged not Ilona - salse,ws rnmtesba infcn pow significant bear grandmothers wise established, - East, were coming as migrant workers to help modernize help to workers migrant as coming were East,

and social mobilization of rural based Roma into big into Roma based rural of mobilization social and 2008.01.19)

105 - known Hu known

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2007.04.17)

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talks about how much the family by and large fought against against fought large and by family the much how about talks their resistance they were able to ―uplift‖ their daughters and and daughters their ―uplift‖ to able were they resistance their - figure, therefore, could ensure the upward mobility of the the of mobility upward the ensure could therefore, figure, Katalin

ties and thus they are more likely to be delegated in local in delegated be to likely more are they thus and ties time the lover of the grandmother. Usually, women in the in women Usually, grandmother. the of lover the time ps not intentionally, but my mum sacrificed me and I had to to had I and me sacrificed mum my but intentionally,not ps

link to the non the to link

recounts how, after her father had become ill, her her ill, become had father her after how, recounts n ae oiae Rm cvl ihs organizations rights civil Roma dominated male in represented in literature and paintings as attractiveas paintings literatureand in represented 106 w with

Júlia‘s - Roma world through market exchange, market through world Roma ty wyfo mn h i general in who men from away stay , Júlia

2008.02.23) artv demonstrat narrative eally feared for us. They us. for feared eally th

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2007.04.17) es how she she how es Katalin - 15

CEU eTD Collection E an is experiencedalso animportant thearguably aremodel in political life. masculine relationship the non whether but a community, choosing Roma and the from support greater partner much enjoy partners a Roma had who of Those choice the interviewees the of life political seen, the for importance great has one exogamous or endogamous have we as Hence, to a more lives. public much their in vulnerable and divorced exposed are or relationship a in live not do who however, interviewees, Those persecution h Holocaust‖. the during Roma and Jews the of extermination the andin rooted is which us discrimination between relations transcended unspoken, an against is there that somehow opposition strong their diversity. hence for support family, Jewish a from usually However, mission. non the cases, other life In herself. their f asmore came ambition ambitions political these sometimes wife‘s their towards support political non These wife. Romani non cases, some non non as status higher husband‘s their capitalize can they as upwards mobile non Romani a have who ainterviewees Those careers. public had and mobility or age, non young with a at Relationships married partner. they whom husband their divorced or partner, non had interviewees the of Most rolesimbibed and of conflict. wife motherhood came into finally previ and ambition education, as crisis disastrous a in resulted eventually marriage This rzsébet‘ oa bfr I ae ln… e atd o nw h cmuiy utm, as te a it way the laws, customs, community the worked.(Interview with know to wanted he along… came I before Roma, p he life, his in Gypsy only the not am I and early very him met I that is truth The hassle. great no say, I can what no, was there him accepted they beginning the At no had they because simply fragile; more were who manypartner al are there but wife, and mother a was she as protectedwas Erzsébet state… a in was and divorced just had I as protected was I was the first real crisis myin she[ life is crying] (Interview with that Well day. the during study to back went and college from weeks 6 for leave maternity on wegotthen married, then I yearwas asecond student and onJuly 10 And20… at untouchedinterested…I was wasn‘t simplyI married.getting of intention no had I

- great one theprotection political enjoys life. degree inRoma oaprnr hwdmr upr oad yitriwe nterpbi oe. In roles. public their in interviewees my towards support more showed partners Roma s partner is not Roma, but he has worked for Roma rights for more than 20 years. buthe isnotRoma, hass partner for worked rights Roma than20 for more l sortsl of rumors were started about them […] (Interview with as the potential to create to a tacitas alliance thepotential between Romaand Jews. - Roma partner can mean upward social mobility. The male The mobility. social upward mean can partner Roma - Roma husbands even based their their based even husbands Roma Ilona, - Erzsébet Romani men often considered to the emancipation of and showing and of emancipation the to considered often men Romani

f or instance, has a Jewish husband and reports that reports and husband Jewish a has instance, or - Romani husband comes from a liberal, cosmopolitan family, cosmopolitan liberal, a from comes husband Romani - 2007.04.17) oa ates lyd n motn rl i ter social their in role important an played partners Roma - oa ubns wie h others the while husbands, Roma o te non the rom

107 Vilma

own carreer on the polticial work of their their of work polticial the on carreer own spoke about how one‘s family determines determines familyone‘s how about spoke - Roma husband than the interviewee interviewee the than husband Roma

Thus, this collective memory of of memory collective this Thus, Katalin

- th Roma partner are generally are partner Roma

my was born. child layed music with young with music layed Vilma

2008.06.21) either did not find a a find not did either

2008.06.14) - Roma. In general, In Roma. - female relations relations female

―[w]e feel ―[w]e I was

ously

. CEU eTD Collection the by self Roma the See history. moreabout art European in Roma of representations cultural 144 women‖ have still torespect andobey inthe power family. hisoverarching h disregarded husband her much did how it matter case, Júlia‘s not In desires. men‘s to interests traditional own respect their subject to norms, chosen Roma having patriarchal women, how me shows case Her Júlia. for role one in anothe one to tied closely are therefore, wife, and mother a Being husband‘s her endure to strength their her throughout gave him mother to as loyal role stayed endeavors. has her times, says, many She her relationship. on cheated has husband her conflict sourceof A emphasizes theimportancefor ofendogamousmarriage reasons. cultural Júlia serious as taken be will never political actors: they fantasies, men‘s European white in objects sexual a as above, hence creat and misrepresentations invisible the remain of people victims Roma deconstruction, of tool analytical main studies postcolonial their and and postmodern of center the at an been have as people black ―Other‖ and the Jewish of regarded was il Europe with associated when often period object, exotic a oversexualized, was this study, his to According century. twentieth early and nineteenth late the in sexuality Jewish and black represented arts cul European how of (1985) analysis Gilman‘s L. Sander with line in is This object. sexualized overtly an as regarded are women Romani which in women, Romani Veronka that Veronka

Junghaus Timea, young Romani art Romani young Timea, Junghaus because of my (Interview children. with Júlia 2008.08.21) it, done have not could I this of Because boundary.moral of sort some have I that. of incapable the and else anyone with sleeping imagine not could simply I sub same the from things.(Interview with come and Gypsy are ot learneachneedus…we don‘t to fewof a just are there I‘mafraid few, a Romapartner…only a find managed to we that in lucky are us of few A (Interview with non the of interest the upon depend will anyway who Roma of representation male […] her, with anything do can he that means doesn‘t need mostly, marryto her, and she costs him little..(Interview with that, then girlfriend Roma a has someone [f]or

belongs to the smaller group of my sample in sample my of group smaller the to belongs Meet Your Neighbours Meet Veronka Gadjo men Gypsy girls, whether pretty or not, are exotic, obtainable and over and obtainable exotic, are not, or pretty whether girls, Gypsy men Gadjo non of says partner lasting a found not has and 40s, late her in is who , ees n e saeet o h clna rltosi bten non between relationship colonial the to statement her in refers

oiae pltc wl tk te ete a a oe o smoe s symbolic a as someone or lover a as either them take will politics dominated

was right when complaining that as long as Romani women are represented are women Romani as long as that complaining when right was Veronka Júlia

Júlia , (Junghaus 2006) (Junghaus ,

2007.04.12) implies here is the loyality of her partner. Júlia, despite Júlia, partner. herloyality the of hereis implies

2008.08.21)

historian and Romani cultural activist elaborated her views on the the on views her elaborated activist cultural Romani and historian

d y h non the by ed

- 108 utr, lo ae ay ofit aot other about conflicts many have also culture,

is wife and children by his decisions, ―his decisions, his by children and wife is her‘s customs, and two people, even if theypeople,if eventwo her‘s customs, and

so far as she married a Roma man. She man. Roma a married she as far so - lness. However, while representations while However, lness. oa majority Roma

n kissing my children. I would be would I children. my kissing n Veronka r: they almost are subsumed aresubsumed almost they r: 144

2 I te ih o the of light the In . - 007.04.12) ture of science and science of ture - representation in arts arts in representation Roma politicians Roma - oa e and men Roma

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CEU eTD Collection grandparents. or parents their from stem is which model the on based relations gender their developed they in on Later interviewees. the for model a become it community the in other each treated female and male Romani as way the sum, In

their partnership but even in their political activism political their in even but partnership their 109

CEU eTD Collection interviewees, the of Most go. to allowed is Roma however, developedobstacl strategies torise above these no which beyond line inexpressible and invisible that cross not did they as long as only and provide, to willing were colleagues workplace, their in then and school in support great suffered other, the on and, teachers their discrimination. from shelter even support, got they hand, one the on that, say interviewees The children. Roma other painted she brush same the with teache her but status, social lower of students Romafellow from differentiatedherselfclearly She environment. school the in representation With skin colorwas attacks enough for ofprejudice. fa the face to had interviewees parents. Most their as support. prejudices same offer could that family or community the was these through working In event past ofher t ethnic their of reinterpretation and interpretation it. influenced had the that processes and events major those and identity with do to were cases these of Most experienced had they that said interviewees Most The6.4 pride and prejudice struggle Says Katalin about her contradictory environment. In most cases, the interviewees had some some had interviewees the cases, most In environment. contradictory her about Katalin Says ct that she had good grades and her family did not belong to the Gypsy community, yet her her yet community, Gypsy the to belong not did family her and grades good had she that ct akes ae te rprin f epe okn a yu hog dr gass Bcue if Because glasses. dark always, somehow, ina dialogue each with other through you at lookingthosenothing, is do you whateverpractically then prejudice, with that, people does someone of proportion the game, darkness say will I Júlia in even and happened, wit (Interview blamed. was I up, That own didn‘t something,and did someone if school, me. secondary blamed they disappeared, something if Or class. the in best sat was she or girl, Gypsymy for attacked also was I took and them for came they whether them. (Interview with see to waited they day every And them. of were there many frame, how door the on chalk in written hovel,every But on recorded is it persecution.that is sure is what of sense relative a was there so past, the of events controlled strictly feudal, the from different so not were and fast and thick came fears and terrors II, War World During Júlia

2008.08.21) there was a type of dissonance between her own subjective view of herself and her her herself and of view ownsubjective her dissonancebetween of atherewas type xeine oh ngnrl oh owe Ietrdnrey htsnhn and sunshine that nursery, entered I when so both, general, in both, experienced I

hat has ahat determining has effect ethnic even onher identity today.

next to me, as one could choose, who was repeating a year, yet I was the was I yet year, a repeating was who choose, could one as me, to next Erzsébet histories of war, terror and violence, given the lack of education, it it education, of lack the given violence, and terror war, of histories 2007.04.17) - Júlia ness. For example I had no friends and was sat next to a littlea to next sat was and friends no had Iexample For ness. reports that she was singled out at school despite the despite school at out singled was she that reports

110

– r, on the basis of her appearance painted her her painted appearance her of basis the on r,

( Interview( with Katalin 2009.06.12)

u ol a mc a t as much as only but

prejudice during certain parts of their lives. their of parts certain during prejudice es and prejudices. Erzsébet heir white peers and and peers white heir

talks of a tragica of talks

two were two h

CEU eTD Collection clear: was message The organization. an such for work to selected was she woman Romani non key the of one by of advocacy similar directors other than salary starting lower a an with hired was movement, she First, exclusion. rightsstructural civil Romani the in organization strategic founded newly a of director executive the as work her began Melinda broader a by scripted is that way white power structure prove a in to fate‘ serves ‗inferior their which fulfill and them is subalterns, making which ‗incapacity‘ NGOs structure Romani colonial of the lives understand the to around her generated enabled it irreparably, perhaps life, her sought Melinda, stigmatizing her exposed experience‗silenced‘and narratives. Shesaid: the samebeneficiaries Roma whoare oftheir patronage. structure ofbeiaccused been have memberscommunity of outof whohavefavor theRomanifallen with established power alwayscolonized assumed ofvarious thatmembers Fanonreminded meof(1967) Franz what indicated educatedherwoman, story denigrationby sharedabout colleagues. ofher her story one Her even hadtoface many though ofthem denigration. serious 2008:815). I inwhich position turnmy can and ―difference‖political intellectual capital‖(Cerwonka into cited i a greatroleIt of in the their formation ethnic identity. towhen similar is Allaine formation. picture Apositive ofGypsy strong,tie their maintaining Despite and frustrations never struggles, ending myinterviewees able inner toremain were ofthemost intervieweesoften felt was thattheir environment them. condescending towards organizational in combat to built hard it making cultures, and structures implicitly prejudices are obstacles invisible well.These as obstacles invisible as career groups‘ disadvantaged other but women, by mainly in experienced is This minority various ceiling of ―glass the called is members which careers, their during and experience groups women of frustration a about talked interviewees Many

ofSome observations theRomani womenactivists alsomade similar 2008.04.12) through the same experienc we are just ashamed to talk about it.(Interview with work too Th School. Secondary finish to Gypsy a for enough quite it‘s that thought they Probably university… and college for try to me encourage not did Baccalaureate approached,they the as but me Secondaryliked They at School. well went Study I want to talk about this because now a n her ofa study thewords womandescent,―I myself ofChinese suddenly find ina Trehan 2009) 2009) Trehan 145 damaged experience the Although people. her of visibility and rights the advance to

was confronted directly with the (neo)colonial dynamics of the NGO sector as she as sector NGO the of dynamics (neo)colonial the with directly confronted was The longer version of the Mel the of version The longer

–

says

- type organizations. When she mentioned this to her superiors, she was told was she superiors, her to this mentioned she When organizations. type Ilona

- about school her experiences. R

omani funders that she should be happy that as an east European European east an as that happy be should she that funders omani s totheiroriginal ofidentity community process through the

ng criminals orthieves,ng criminals withtheassistance sometimes of inda’s interview was used in my previous publication ( Kóczé and Kóczé and ( publication previous my in used was interview inda’s fter several years I have feeling a that many uswent of - ness and the notion of notion the―dedicatedGypsy‖ness andthe played d very soon, began to confront the forces of of forces the confront to began soon, very d 111

them in whatever form they appear. Indeed, appear. they form whatever in them

e same ―limited‖ support was present in my in present was support same ―limited‖ e

groups are ‗defective‘. Likewise, groups are ‗defective‘. leading in his research,in his isnearly thatit namely, Melinda Melinda

went through this through this went 145 throughactivism their , for a instance, highly

‖ in Gender Studies. Gender in ‖ Melinda

Cerwonka their

CEU eTD Collection and family members. to ‗self powerful as work assumptions these and subalterns of colo by assumptions unspoken sometimes and unconscious These vulnerablecountry. noteven andindeed, position, inthe attacks the under during an non was her absence via out her turned it years as several After such her. mentioned against circumstances mitigating the all with on Based act ofretelling. s me to story this telling was Melinda When not fully comprehend i against whyshe didrevolt not exception. an not was NGO particular this of case the and cooperation, than rather conflict generate having to size, tends posts this of organizations In Roma. were whom of both staff, NGO administrator office small in resulted full two which offering By structure members. staff organizational the amongst an relations corrosive designed financiers and organization their appreciate the should of she and fuss, a such create effort enormous not and place‘, her ‗know should she

Melinda and the people who had worked to destroy my professional standing behind my back. back. my behind standing professional my destroy to worked had (Interview with who people the and isshe crying]. (Interview with [ job professional organizational a accomplish to unable subaltern colonial a of expectation own structure‘s power a the in embedded was I finan and adequateadministrativewithout structure failures, administrative own my […]besides 2008.04.12) particularly women do my colleagues violatingfor my integrity, personal I internalize to began became psychologically shattered. Instead of hiring alawyer start to a legal procedu engineering my dismissal from Needless post. the to say,I was shocked by attack, this and actors o in prepared an internal report which they sent to donors, members,board other and influential Subsequently, it emerged that my colleagues (Romani men anon and money. (Interview with expense receipts and bills, and they come the to conclusion that I hadmisused the office me my in that criminal: they demanded that I using stop office the telephone and bank card. They informed rang my colleagues in office,the and they began berate to me, talking me to if I as was a order have the operation as medicathe summer, when my sonneeded to have surgery, I decided to take him my to country home in […]my tragedy was paved structurally andvery little effort was needed destroyto me.[…]. One I did not r not did I Melinda‘s , it took her over five months to be able to talk about the events to her close friends friends close toher events about the totalk able be to months five over tookher , it rder to rder to destroy my professional reputation and challenge my integrity, thereby etain enough self enough etain - -

- handed attempt to t to attempt handed

the of members key two the between rivalry strong a for ground the laid they absence, absence, they hadgone through the office bookkeeping, andscrutinized my all h eeuie n te euy ietr oiin, ln wt a part a with along positions, director deputy the and executive the

to provide her such an opportunity in the first place. Secondly, the founders founders the Secondly, place. first the in opportunity an such her provide to Melinda

description the Board did no did Board the description

Melinda -

Melinda all the accusations the all leveled against me. (Interview with 2008.04.12) - esteem and mental strength to legally challenge the organization the challenge legally to strength mental and esteem Melinda

believed there were certain intentions behind this, but could could but this, behind intentions certain were there believed 2008.04.12) ake the directorship from her at a time when she was in a in was she when time a at her from directorship the ake

l feesl were far more affordable. Whilst thein hospital, I 2008.04.12)

112 he was visibly re visibly was he

t recognize the complex nature of the case, the of nature complex the recognize t cial support, and this only served to solidify to servedonly this andsupport, cial

t atthetime. Asshe informed me,

- - Romani female colleague that it that colleague female Romani fulfilling prophesies‘. According prophesies‘. fulfilling - traumatized and crying by the the by crying and traumatized nizers can devastate the life life the devastate can nizers - Romani women) had - -

time positions withi positions time as manyas subalterns, Melinda

two directorial two re re against

- time time n a n CEU eTD Collection intellectuals Roma intellectuals. Roma positive as protest, were conscious of who sort interviewees, a undertook generation older The expectations. workplace with in fit to tried they and avoided be could misery every then work, was there If circumstances: to According community. well culturally were They family. In had theopportunity towork, Roma the when socialism, to particularly identity, their of source positive as well as periods Be years, she that: thinks several after now, colleagues, her by destroyed completely was Melinda that fact the Despite of women, Romani inreality, treatedas are asubaltern. still they majority the to compared privileged and educated highly are women these though even that of case The which Melinda werefeels internally divisive, that fact the in comfort takes she hand, one the on While redesigned. was office the of structure organizational the addition, in and received, she than salary higher significantly a offered was He successor. her be to man on Based

sides all the challenging personal stories, many interviewees referred to specific historical historical specific to referred interviewees many stories, personal challenging the all sides translator‘s note), and Mum always took on some sort of work. (Interview with with (Interview work. of sort some on took 2009.02.12) always Mum and Ganz note), at translator‘s electrician an was Dad My cultured and than the soil worldly more much was but vagabonds, as denounced was family mother‘s My the fact they hadnoproper footwear. (Interview with work… gladly, from sunrise sunset, to late at night, yokesto pull winter, in snow,in despite ice, Gyps for equality announced Socialism than stronger identity my and me made which life my in before.[…] (Interview with lesson greatest the was […]it and never compensated for. (Interview with damaged been has which dignity, own my with acknowledgment belated this for ‗paid‘ have I Erzsébet‘s

Melinda‘s Melinda,

- case this positi this case Katalin,

bound peasants. Interview ( with

ecito, fe se et h or the left she after description,

as other cases of Romani NGO workers and political activists, show activists, political and workers NGO Romani of cases other as working parents still found their way to progress even in difficult difficult in even progress to way their found still parents working - infor Melinda ve experience is linked to women, the female members of her her of members female the women, to linked is experience ve ht h Bad vnuly eonzd oe tutrl issues structural some recognized eventually Board the that med, thus med, 2008.04.12) - áa ( bg n well and big (a Mávag e[]hy tre t tk i srosy n wn to went and seriously it take to started ies[…]They Erzsébet Melinda 113 Erzsébet

20 was able to be proud of them in her local her in them of proud be to able was Csilla 2008.12.03) 08.04.12) ganization, the Board hired a Romani Romani a hired Board the ganization,

2007.03.02) -

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Katalin any –

CEU eTD Collection Neighbours 146 how proud she Self of Exhibition National first the of organizer the and activist political Roma distinguished a Daróczi, Ágnes and than sense some in more non eventheir or to, equal become could they thought they which through el determining non and and reaction Roma their influenced to partly relation has identity ethnic interviewees‘ the of formation The furthe this took They organizations. onthevisible national andinternational scene. rights civil by formed politics identity Roma positive already the on draw can they as formation, identity ethnic their in determined Yo fr quote a Again majority. the challengeto provocative a pose also but communities, Roma own their for important only not are interviewees the of roles intellectual and identity Roma The peopleHungarian thatRoma did, and artists t white as well as stressed, artists Roma culture. high Hungarian of part asregarded themselves om

Ágnes Daróczi wrote extensively about the “Roma visual artists in Hungary and Europe” in the Europe” and Hungary in visual artists “Roma the about extensively wrote Ágnes Daróczi time webecame noticed! we meant attract attention to similarity our to andour values through surprise and curiosity.It is wit culture high into break to wanted we When old. the and afflicted the towardshelpfulness and respect solidarity,of tradition the as well as skills, trading world. the of rest the teach T but preserve, only not need we are that there traditions that our among emphasize several must We literacy. computer and reading education, formal through hand once were skills modern those if And people. our of survival the secured always has market the of demands to reactquickly ability to our and modernskills knowledge of the contrast, that instress, must We ideas works and of literature had and wonderful a musicality. Romanescomplicated expressing of heard capable was had language Gypsy audience a that national saw country The a spoken. being time first the was Mastermind, show TV 1972 The famous white Hungari (other Nagy László and József Attila alongside poetry, Hungarian in stars brightest the of one poetry time, his fromthat light leading a is poet)Roma Hungarian(famous Bari Károlyme For unger Romani women, born after the 1970s, who took up public positions, are more self more are positions, public up took who 1970s, the after born women, Romani unger intellectual support at times whenintellectual times they supportat are threatened. hese include a love of peace, and the knack of conciliation, multilinguilism, interpersonal andmultilinguilism, interpersonalconciliation, of knack the and peace, of love a include hese Erzsébet - , 2006, edited by Timea Junghaus, Junghaus, Timeaby edited 2006, , Roma environment. This was perceived as a mobile force, which can give spiritual give can which force, mobile a as perceived was This environment. Roma : ements of their own Roma group identities were positive tropes about Roma about tropes positive were identities group Roma own their of ements

is of this emergingis ofthis identity. Roma positive - Taught Roma Arists in Hungary in 1979, emphasizes in her public writing public her in emphasizes 1979, in Hungary in Arists Roma Taught

ed down from one generation to the next, how they can be attained only attained be can they how next, the to generation one from down ed an poets), shines and his light will never fade‖ 146 - oa epe ad hi on esnlt srcue. mn the Among structures. personality own their and people, Roma

( Ágnes 2006:123 Daróczi

114 heir artheir doenrich values. universal cultural

)

h our selection of Roma visual art, visual Roma of selection our h

states states Erzsébet r and made it it made and r .

Meet Your Meet

- CEU eTD Collection ―extr the making recognize experiences whichidentities compose‖casecultural inthis thecategory and ―Roma‖. of identity homogenizing should the in we that about process us warns (1996:443) Hall the by Stuart fulfilled be to Roma. has expectations political of kind what and regimes of representation identity Roma the constructing of process framing The becameit and a toframe a tool political identity capital based politics. re been has it therefore, way, In strength. and pride of orde in byactivist subverted been identity has Romani Conclusively, odnr dvriy f ujc pstos social positions, subject of diversity aordinary 115

interpreted by activists and artists and artists and activists by interpreted is always discursive. It depend on the on depend It discursive. always is r to establish it as source as it establish to r

CEU eTD Collection because intellectuals became people where communities, peasant the were with who parallel path, a draw usual the tread not did who unsuited anyway those with cope also could community The She asked newspapers the postman which for oncredit, for played. others when read mostly and generation, her in others than differently dressed way, Ilona that important is It adoption. the personality,oneself to thedesireandit. ofbettering understanding supported agree not did mother herErzsébet but her, adopt to wanted non a and her for unsuitable as life village judged without education In university her completed she where city family support. big the in career lonely very life village comfortable her Over family. the sustain and soon married get sec had one no which in family, a (in education school women high village with as daughter her see to wanted father Her Budapest. in life new a started and emphasiz particularly She village her left her. she when her with disagreed completely who offather her with had she conflicts expected had a community choose than to able of be career to struggles different personal own her about stories several told Melinda plan. in family own their against and within to order struggle to had interviewees the of Most lifestyle. The family. and non the from or communities, community the commu of and family the path career/life within not alone, traditional act to decided them of Most crossers. border senses, all in are, interviewees the off individual the pointers mobility role, a traditional play that only occupation) (education, not is it Furthermore, generation experience. first normally Roma which intellectuals process, mobility complex the for account not does however, question, in those ge within than greater of much is generations between mobility careers market labor of degree and the Generally, occupation. and qualifications school father‘s the to them comparing school the examines generally methods, Inter Mobility,6.5 mobilization relations Erzsébet‘s customs. usual the all against went I as street, Romathe on and familymy for childstrange a such was I teacherbe a doctoror or whatever, she‘s goodin to up child this bring will I Madam! said proudly and quietly and smiled Mum and something, or doctor or teacher a be to up her bring will I her, adopt me let brain, good a has one this but quiteenou children,of lota youhave saidMumshe to that melovedand me and of lot a thought who her, preserve God teacher,Russian sweet a had I adoption. for up me give fro away 11 unfortunatelyat and child, oldest the was I -

eeainl n intra and generational also remembers being odd, she was not only treated as such but behaved in a strange strange a in behaved but such as treated only not was she odd, being remembers also

get permission to start a completely different life career as opposed to the family family the to opposed as career life different completely a start to permission get eebr te ruet o hr ohr wo a a eiin ad powerful and resilient a was who mother, her of arguments the remembers

m home, in and out of a sanatorium and the doctors said to my parents they should they parents my to said doctors the and sanatorium a of out and in home, m

case, her il her case, –

physically nity, even though they rarely have got support from smaller Roma Roma smaller from support got have rarely they though even nity, lness became to mean an access point to social mobility. Relatives Relatives mobility. social to point access an mean to became lness - eeainl oiiy eerh bsd n traditi on based research, mobility generational - Roma local community in order to break out of the traditional the of out break to order in community local Roma –

for the w the for

but all sorts of psycho of sorts all but

ork the others of their age did. And here we can can we here And did. age their of others the ork 116 - 12 became seriously ill, I spent more than a year a than more spent I ill, seriously became 12 hands home. at

- Gypsy mentor appeared appeared mentor Gypsy her parents had to pay.her had parents nerations. This type of approach, approach, of type This nerations.

- social factors too, which tip which too, factors social ondary education) who will will who education) ondary

–

Melinda gh to bring ghto up, a teacher a nl statistical onal

chose a chose ed the the ed –

who CEU eTD Collection mother‘s her to similarly fears. humiliated, being it of fear of out child a to birth give not did she that thinks she Now Gypsy. onlythe her, for except position, teaching school secondarya got Veronka only sitting imagine theBaccalaureate, her for more. nothing Veronka‘s their which advice, desires and imaginingspetered out. them give could who not. teacher, could a parents was this lives, their both In mentor. dreams, father‘s her fulfill to order In a became but community, that in very examplefor positive hisdaugh through this follow not could yet curious, very was who this of outcome w positive community. their within culture Romani Romani the these sees mobilization, community social the enormous and education university and college were They family. the in they their have carrier, nowthat their at familiesthe beginning of many withtheir women had hope of bearers Regard community. whole the the for hope embodied as perceived became interviewees my Thus, diploma. school high even obtain to able not were interviewees my of generations parent the cases, the their fulfill would they that hoped families their that also, reported, Many above as shetoldusthat, norms. and tasks community‘s a to up meet not could they allowed into a good position, and nonthe Romamajority will always be against them. She use. any as educationfurther see didn‘t she although Baccalaureate,my for sit to me liked have would She be to in. positionspecial a was this that believe I house.summer her to went I over, me invited She life. personal her entered who pupil only the was at I and sons, small two stopped had She child. adopted haveher would probably I me.for registration exam submitted the had she who[…]that one and mustn‘t I the that said She it. was that enough, was was that world, that in Because Baccalaureate. She thinking. of type A life. different her in thread foreign of sort some was there because probably teachers, prototypical all from different totally was somehow, who, teacher class my then And Dad‘s line. library, sowewent to the library fromI when was five. And my in the to me took and way,did natural most the in really 5 aged read to He me taught who one soul. the was he read, his in developed wound incurable an when broke father my believe […]I child is not fated do to manual work, physical hard work, andbear many children.‖ this that community, whole the in consciousness the formed that illness my precisely was ―[i]t

did experience her mother‘s prediction, in 1981, after university, all her class her all university, after 1981, in prediction, mother‘s her experience did

mother had similar restricted views, as the daughter of a mortar mixer, she could she mixer, mortar a of daughter the as views, restricted similar had mother

didn‘t see the end, and she was right. She always said: a Gypsy will never be never will Gypsy a said: always She right. was she and end, the see didn‘t

Katalin

would

have given up studying at the point where her father‘s father‘s her where point the at studying up given have ter.

Erzsébet Katalin‘s 117

smlry to similarly , omen have become icons for the whole whole the for icons become have omen

She was a woman, it was a little like I was Ilike little a was woman,it a was She

life is like a continuation of her father‘s, father‘s, her of continuation a like is life Erzsébet‘s Erzsébet‘s

Katalin

less of the struggle and fights and struggle the of less family Ifamily somehow carried on nd this then gave her a her gave then this nd nee a non a needed , case well supports the the supports well case desires. In most of of most In desires.

- - family ma tes tes CEU eTD Collection with contact direct into came they when social ‗80s, with the provided micro and social aintellectuals. political entered They were of they end that the said ‗70s, at the mobility before born interviewees the of Most pursue could use educationthatshe effectively during career. her public Zsuzsanna‘ Party),Socialist continued she her education higher studies. but degree adults. first as their education at stop not succeed did to compulsion interviewees the of Some working colleges. men‘s instance, For th segregation, deepening the economic that created context by neoliberal marketization. of cause root‘s the and difference of material deep issue the address the problematize not did they However, them school. elementary quality low a in children Romani of Many students. e Romani for specifically mentorship and opinions scholarship specific a is, that scheme, educational specific These a was tools supportive most the of degree. university achieve hardly t with correlate can students Romani support specific without that think They system. educational the in action affirmative in believe them of most did which system an educational in education their completed women these that fact the Despite opportunity. educational creating programs, social in reflected best are mobility social on thoughts Their less. and less affec will origins their that believe interviewees The ducational segregation. The purpose of their program is to reduce the concentration of of concentration the reduce to is program their of purpose The segregation. ducational science department. I will be a political scientist, when I‘m older, and now I must write my write must doctoral thesis. Interview( with I now and older, I‘m when scientist, political a be will I department. science an inter is degree,doctoral it studyIa doingnow.am for time little have I that admit must I as there, go I is that too, studyingthere currently am I now a off was There Pécs. of University the of Department Personnel the with but School Catering the over be would catering then because on, it take would I whether think to had then I Council. County the at work and advisor presidential a as go to Szolnok, in party the of president the then was who president, minority with issu Ipreoccupiedparty.was the 18 at MSZP joined I Roma that is too, highly qualified people, so be can presence Gypsy among engineersthe lawyers, doctors, a be must Therehierarchy. labor the of level every that at seen satisfied be we will then only and scholarships, with Gypsies, col men‘s working in ones the like programs special demanded then ―We pplied for the Human Resources Political Department at Pécs which I finished in 2000, and 2000, in finished I which Pécs at Department Political Resources Human the for pplied - site distant learning in Szolnok and I graduated from there, and then, without stopping, without then, and there, from graduated I and Szolnok in learning distant site s mobility also shows that her marriage, as an external influenc external an as marriage, her that shows also mobility s Erzsébet he claims of a liberal NGO, where most of these women have worked and one and worked have women these of most where NGO, liberal a of claims he - Zsuzsanna 19 years. I felt great there, I could work, was given various tasks within tasks various given was work, could I there, great felt I years. 19

–

, and naturally further education would change. I didn‘t register with register didn‘t I change. would education further naturally and , announced a program exclusively for Roma, similar to those in in those to similar Roma, for exclusively program a announced

continued to study in their adulthood, while others went into higher into went others while adulthood, their in study to continued not give credit for them for their disadvantage background, background, disadvantage their for them for credit give not Zsuzsanna

be og t ti gop hvn jie MZ (Hungarian MSZP joined having group, this to longs 2008.03.24) that we can Roma see in leading positions.‖ 118 es and then was asked by the CountyCouncil‘s bythe asked was thenand es

- t the evaluation of their achievements achievements their of evaluation the t community, where the political careers thepolitical careers where community, - discipl

inary Phd school, the politicalschool, the inaryPhd –

leges, especially for especially leges,

driven by a strong strong a by driven e, prompted her to her prompted e, sca and social e oppositional

CEU eTD Collection Daróczi. was Agnes program of the Editor 149 148 Zsigó2005) 147 of beginning the until France in living was and reasons political for 1977 in Hungary left Kemény 1971. in Hungary in survey representative Roma first the leaders oppositional such by out IstváncarriedofKemény,who students formalThe GáborIványiHavasGábor. and Solt, 1979 in established was It families. disadvantaged most the for system support social alternative an provided it Basically, poor. the supporting non by o supported one were interviewees the in were who intellectuals, those especially Roma from Apart she became knownnation E with relationship her affectedby very much was career Jolán‘s meeting. first their at immediately community family same the to belong met she how about speaks generation, too. ties family some were there interviewees, the that, among surprising not also was It intellectuals. Roma many to mentor a became she reference; a as her cited them of Many interviewees. myall with relationship of sort some had Phralipe) for emancipation. women Romani particularly Roma, for place important an was Pharalipe the sum, In SZDSZ. soc the in change a radical favored (FIDESZ) Democrats Young the of Federation with oriented together market SzDSz free and the liberal 1989 other and 1988 During (SzDSz). Democrats Free of Alliance Demo the 1988 In democracy. and rights human of issues around mobilization mass underground in engage to project socialist left were Opposition Democratic the established very was it Czechoslovak and the 1970s to late similar the in existence into came Opposition Democratic the that note to important is It 2002) (Vermeersch Opposition. Democratic the of members of support the f organization, Romani independent an was PhralipeThe during as were factions time, also opposing this formed. shafts‖ light of period the regime of intellectuals. roles political the for framework a provided which formed, was regime the from support With org conversations through period, this during other each with developed. be could intellectuals Roma of

In 1992 the Hungarian Television (MTV) started their Roma Magazin, which which Magazin, Roma their started (MTV) Television Hungarian 1992the In 1999:39 Körösényi ( by time period political this specific about See more writes Jenô Zsigó she tookshe meInterview on.( with I course, thefinishedeven hadn‘t I quickly,very metookon She the was She college. the at lecture MagazineGypsy to of Editor came and me, recognize didn‘t Secondary she as but relative, time a same was I the whom lecture, at to Erzsébet, came, graduated she school, journalist Ithe in her met and I Then School. long, years two was course journalist The

Erzsébet f the most important organizations during the regime change with a main agenda of of agenda main a with change regime the during organizations important most the f

―This was really like the perio the like really was ―This wo a oe f h fudr o Prlp, se s tl i te le the in still is (she Phralipe, of founders the of one was who ,

about Roma intellectuals’ links with opposition intellectuals in much more detail (Jenô (Jenô more detail much in intellectuals opposition with intellectuals’ links Roma about

- regime ialist wide.

149 – -

based moveme based

- said at that time. And then I went there to work, as she had found me. found had she as work, to there went I then And time. that at changing opposition in 1989, the Phralipe Gypsy Organization Gypsy Phralipe the 1989, in opposition changing

Jolán Szegényeket Támogató Alap Támogató Szegényeket

Katalin

rtc poiin omd lbrl oiia pry called party political liberal a formed Opposition cratic 2010.05.23) 148 Erzsébet . The Phralipe was an outpost Roma section of the of section Roma outpost an was Phralipe The .

about these years. Many friendships were forged were friendships Many years. these about 147 d of shafts of light in the 1950s. This was, for us, for was, This 1950s. the in light of shafts of d nt which was called Charta 77. The people who people The 77. Charta called was which nt 119 rzsébet. She started her off on journalism wherejournalism on offher started She rzsébet.

or f h itriwe bcm acquainted became interviewees the of Four

- and reports that it became clear that they they that clear became it that reports and ig nelcul wo a gvn p the up given had who intellectuals wing

ounded by Romani intellectuals with intellectuals Romani by ounded J olán, anized by the, then, opposition. opposition. then, the, by anized

didn‘t have the certificate,butthe have didn‘t - 44) (SZETA) circle. SZETA was SZETA circle. (SZETA)

was called Patrin. The Chief The Chief Patrin. was called

who belongs to a younger a to belongs who

the 90s. Gaining official official Gaining 90s. the - oa a well, as Romas - changing Roma Roma changing drhp of adership

as Ottila Ottila as

knew CEU eTD Collection 1989. in Hungary in social policy of firstdepartment the founded 1988.She Eotv at Sociology of became professor and socialpolicy and sociology, statistics, 150 political serious up taking women intellectual Roma of generation first The communities. non and Roma their as well as families their aided mobility social their cases, inter through went interviewees the Conclusively, dynamic for opportunity mobility Romaniintellectual for women, as an be to proved were parties political with relations direct Hence, mainstreamopportunity polit toconnect with Erzsébet Accordingto MPs. Roma own their as parties political by chosenwere who those of up made are intellectual who those of self of generation first comprised the generation to is linked closely group first first The ways. The two in world. life Roma political in appeared and women professional wider the intellectu with Roma with also only not connections build to sought interviewees the of Most intellectuals. signify figures these community, capital, that relationship important then surprising not is It study. Kemény the on based intellectuals Roma for breakthrough political serious a was poverty Gypsy of severity the for recognition

Zsuzsa Ferge was born in Budapest in 1931. She is an economist, having worked in the field of social of field the worked in having economist, is an 1931.She in Budapest in born was Zsuzsa Ferge the Ministry, more precisely to organize the replies, as we received several hundred letters a letters hundred several month.‖ (Interview with received we as replies, the organize to precisely more Ministry, the o to was job my and Department, Communications Population and Information the of manager deputy the be to me asked Judit then and ministry, Minist Health and hethis, and got me touch in with Judit Csehák who, onApril 1 Social formed then the in position high a received just had who Kökény,Mihály Dr Committee. PartyCommunist Budapest the leave to wanted I that pre in part serious a played who people fantastic some met I time this during And change. political preparationsforserious really were whenthere there, workingwas Isince period, excitingvery Party Communist the at worked I them gave We program. this represent can names, this was onlythe init they then and parliament into them take will we and MPs, your name then program, political a have you if that, said Alliance Democrats Free bes who Gypsies find to tried they done, always had they which thing same the tried them of Most way. own their in something do to tried all theyGod, to true and, discussions the to came they challenge, our acceptedparties political All famous. pretty became which places, many in festivals (Interview with cultural good very organized we v were which University), (Budapest ELTE at such and Department Work Social the came that after Then university. a of dreamed Ferge paring it all. Obviously it was no coincidence that it was at the beginning of 88 when I said said I when 88 of beginning the at was it that coincidence no was it Obviously all. it paring , those linked to first generation Roma intellectuals at the end of the 80s had the best best the had 80s the of end the at intellectuals Roma generation first to linked those , Katalin Katalin , too, talksabout Zsuzsa Ferge

2008.08.13) Mária iative by political parties

2009.03.07)

Committee in the 6th District of Budapest; anyway it was a was it anyway Budapest; of District 6th the in Committee

- organizing Roma intellectu Roma organizing ery important… There was a systematic social life, social systematic a was There important… ery

intellectual inspiration and spiritual aid for Roma for aid spiritual and inspiration intellectual Mária 120 ical partywork. the Only Gypsies. of idea their represented t

rganize ministry affairs, reply to letters to letters to reply affairs, ministry rganize also reported: - 150 .

( ( Interview with and intra and

with admiration: st

88, took over the running the of - generati http://www.fergezsuzsa.hu/en/cv

os University in Budapest in in Budapest in os University Erzsébet als. The second group is is group second The als. onal mobility. In most most In mobility. onal

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CEU eTD Collection fromexclusion the familyand th Erzsébet my personalandpolitical status,intents, aspectsmy of identity. status educational and class maintai and achieving different For me. others had from who with women, Romani amongst conflict woman Romani into a as experience own came my about write will I experience fieldwork they my on chapter forthcoming when interviewees institutions the organizations, of most for started, identity Roma of reinterpretation A systems. kinship social various in began identity re of kind A identities. own their into integrate to began members their and communities Roma both content; political a on took identity Roma Ilona exclusion. believe: However, woman. a c yearspolitical of duringthe and intellectual Roma non oppositional an in generation, first accepted the of was member who one only the was She Accordingly, literature. and cultural andpoliticalthe19 endeavors with theissuesof strategy. history political Hungarian cultural of of part sort integral a as emerged policy Roma Poli 80s. and 70s the in politics in began participation active and identity Roma of honing the in period striking most The Ethnic6.6 and gender identity politics and with politicalparty played Relationship capital members. arole mobility huge inpromoting The political careers thegeneration second of interviewees were also by affected close links intellectualRoma roles. pa political to linked were who werethose positions, lt cud ae wo on ohr oa oiia cniae, oe siiae Rm, who Roma, assimilated more candidates, political Roma suited them better. other found who take, could elite poli this than stronger was consciousness Roma and identity ethnic Her environment.[…] culture with force. to right no have we if rights, civil acommunity,exist as Gypsyaminorityand as Hungarian in no life, rights, human no have we if As lives. everyday our of grewuplovingreadingand We part were Hungarianus reformpoetsliterature, thatageso fora rsbt a ―o srn a oc i a ey acln itleta ad political and intellectual masculine very a in voice a strong ―too was Erzsébet

tically active intellectuals started to publicly consider Roma history and culture as an an as culture and history Roma consider publicly to started intellectuals active tically gaining positions. various

came into conflict with her family when she realized that the price of mobility was was mobility of price the that realized she when family her with conflict into came

hange she became marginalized. There are many reasons for her her for reasons many are There marginalized. became she hange

vr the over e Gypsy community. ning a status of ―insider‖, I continually had to negotiate negotiate to had continually I ―insider‖, of status a ning r tnc dniy Tlig bu iett, n the in identity, about Talking identity. ethnic ir 121

construction and reinterpretation of Roma Roma of reinterpretation and construction - Roma intellectual circles as a ―visible‖ ―visible‖ a as circles intellectual Roma rties and not those who remained in their in remained who those not and rties

century reform age.

then wemustdisplaythen own our

Erzsébet

compared Roma Roma compared

–

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who belong who entered political life in the 90s, as a very high ranking civil servant. She spoke about spoke She servant. civil ranking high very a as 90s, the in life political entered

ut were created by her own political, intellectual actions. Her activist work brought work activist Her actions. intellectual political, own her by created were ut 2008.10.23)

2009.09.16) political opportunities political

Erzsébet s to the second generation, tells how a Roma male colleague wanted to take take colleagueto male Roma wanted a tells how generation,second the to s

, took a background role in the first generation Roma inte Roma generation first the in role background a took ,

ont of the group did not leave space for inner power struggles and and struggles power inner for space leave not did group the of ont irl, who proudly, with head held high, greets Gypsies on the street the on Gypsies greets high, held head with proudly, who irl,

- eae oe rltos ht xse wti wdr political wider within existed that relations power female –

unlike others‘ unlike -

ness point of v of point ness any alliances, were not listened to, and did not find not did and to, listened not were alliances, any 122 .

(Interview with

–

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2008.03.12.) llectual group, llectual

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ates ates , CEU eTD Collection p identity their that recognized They other. each in see) them made politics (or saw they opponent the but ally, the not was it cases most In other. each acknowledge did they yet were There muchrecognitionwoman whodidnotgetas asher. Vilma people whogreatest role play emancipation. thein struggleRoma for stories. another‘s one on reflected also but stories, own their tell only not did life political and public in women Roma validateinstrumented person their caninterests community‘s ornot. Gypsies‖ ―token and become instruments can everybody course Of above. from decided as power, of instrument an as way a gender, isinterpreted insuch withethnicityand The body, imbued too. the bodyperson of the tha gender and ethnicity only not was it case this In identity. ethnicgender strategygovernment was tookadvantageand aofher for howshe selected post, Jolán male Her woman. Roma a as her colleagues only her but acknowledge gender. donot skills, ethnicity herandsee treats still environment her service, civil the of member fact the Despite with (Interview coarse. very was it felt Mária I fact in view, obv of point my he from answer Then friendly very a before. not day the from changed had wasNaturally this girls. womenand Romalove I youknow… replied:Well and somethingwittyvery what him asked with work I would I that so he glad howhim, said was and me rang he later then but me, with work to want a told I when fact in some, have I woman.But a as accepted being not about stories many have Ithink don‘t I Well ( Interview( with too.express to important is that one but view,another represents she different, ismentality Her a lose not did I most. didn‘t invest thatthe much. Andshe really sacrificed her whole forlife andinvestedit was very talented too. she as most, the lost she her, for sorry very feel I (Intervi bethey should Gypsy in instead affairs, Hungarian women taking are place our in Roma affairs. where is one No be. should she where is woman Roma what then but be, should politicalshe where not completely a charismatic, absolutelyshe where not is she clever, and animal fantastically Erzsébet, is there Look, looked who Gypsy any then woman, a not Gypsy, hewanted as playto them public. the Interview to ( man…if with a against than obvious less are woman obv modelcouldand embodyfamily she then the as husband, woman, a was who person a for looking and a hadchildrenshe goodif would be appearon television,it young, could good,wholooked was He me. choosing is that reasons, exclus equality it and did he offer, the made boss my and picture, the into came I when And , who be who , , who spoke about a national political career, felt it was important to mention the the mention to important was it felt career, political national a about spoke who , 2008.08.17)

ew with

few Romani women in public life, who had good relationships with each other, other, each with relationships good had who life, public in women Romani few leading civil servant that it seemed from our previous conversation that he didn‘t really didn‘t he that conversation previous our from seemed it that servant civil leading longs to the second generation, spoke with complete honesty about how she she how about honesty complete with spoke generation, second the to longs

that Júlia

Vilma Mária Mária 2008.11.20.) 2008.12.20) Júlia s el dctd qaiid n poesoa, n a accepted an and professional, and qualified educated, well is

r should be. And we know that, those of us close to her. She is She her. to close us of those that, know we And be. should pre hw ainl oiis i nt eonz te very the recognize not did politics national how eported

to the powers that be, but the question is whether that that whether is question the but be, that powers the to 123

t was (ab)used for political reasons, but but reasons, political for (ab)used was t iously negativeiouslyfeelings towards a Jolán 2009.05.21)

osy atd o say to wanted iously ively for race for ively

lot, as I as lot, olitics CEU eTD Collection women Roma cases whi certain from positions subjective situations, diverse those recognize to cases, exceptional in while obstruct, how us show color of feminists writingsof The cases, individuals. of validation political the support most in which, them, by created and differences, situations class the and gender ethnic, the of inequalities intersectional the anboth shows followed which I concept, activities, life public women‘s Roma of analysis complex a In and individuals. play of ethnic sum into and the instrument, gender brings an of as creates, categories activist‖ woman principle, ―Roma of ordering category the external treat simultaniously an as politics, Conclusively, communityRoma leaders. pa political of expectations the to according idea, political particular a logic for stand women Roma where cases in Butler‘s appears performativity of type This acts. performative here extend to like would furt I performativity. gender social establishes acts, continual and systems ritual of series a expectation, on based repetition formed turn, In expectations. ethnicity, an and reinterpreted gender be their identities can ethnic and in gender Naturally, accordingly. believe act and to expectations, their to start according candidates The discourses. fixed generation candidat second the of those identities the further, of bit a case the was, process thought this Butler‘s Judith take To politics. by chosen simply of were who women external Romani example external This best are candidates, The arena. matrix. the definitions political hierarchical of ethnicity the arena and in the determines gendercompeting compulsion candidates life, by public established in compulsions women Romani for that, is identity that arguments the nominat establishedof candidature,by a processinwhich Butler‘s Judith women consider Roma we If of platform. identity political the ethnic on and activists gender the discursively establish which roles, public o processes the analyzed I women, Romani of experiences the through study my In persistent racial hierarchy. and existing the challenge to and community and family own their of norms the against fight a and within ‗fighting of problematic overarching the was mobilization political and social in catalyst key the stories the of most In economic andidentity them. situation ethnic had predestined aga went They community. life a on took interviewees the of Most environment, and stimulating motivation individual friendly professional and relationships. constructs identity to relations relationships, male the families, male the adulthood, and duringchildhood and communities of by determined status seems, social it is, life political Roma of diversity The Concluding6.7 remarks not asa threat eithermovementRoma or mainstream for politics. them consider and differences their maintain and experience they if successful be only could her by arguing that not only social gender but also ethnicity can establish itself through itself establish can ethnicity also but gender social only not that arguing by her

te ue o te oiao cn e usind hog repeated through questioned be can nominator the of rules the d

–

nt h ft ad ietl, o wih hi fml‘ socio family‘s their which for lifestyle, and fate the inst

view the truth, and their public and political activities. Black activities. political and public their and truth, the view t, n i at a a akrud o h class the to background a as acts it and ity, gainst‘ the system of oppression. Many of them had to had them of Many oppression. of system the gainst‘ - changing role both in their families and in the Roma the in and families their in both role changing - female relations practiced in the given families and givenfamilies the in practicedrelations female es are brought into play through the repetition of repetition the through play into brought are es 124

of Gypsy of

- - ness and gender, the response of the the of response the gender, and ness eae oe rltos experienced relations power female who slot into a gender and ethnic ethnic and gender a into slot who

or defines the ―other‖, appears it or the defines

h floig atr: the factors: following the h aiu groups various ch rties, or of their own own their of or rties, - eiiin of definition f political f –

in - CEU eTD Collection these whether is future powers. the these for change and roles question political own their The cast to courage and it.) strength the have shape will women can wome Romani fact in static, brought which o arena political the into them grouping political the to and community, the to links their individual, given the of preparedness the on depends roles these unavoidable, in remain long how for and time, can Who spheres. same the at and, important an was voice‖ ―symbolic or role Gypsy‖ ―token a emergenceof This role. Gypsy‖―token of sort wereThose women selectedbegan Romani for bya who politics owninterests, its tomanifest organicallyRoma linked tothe were which generation, first the easilythan more addressingmuch process this into slot could women Romani of generation second The activists.) by achievement an as considered who (This those and to voice women gives needs it why reasons, is between structural That Gypsies. for relationship Politics, politics. the mainstream characterize and women which Roma relations, instrumentalized and silencing its hierarchical and oppression of Post dimension racist mechanism. and sexist the reveals criticism feminist

- ooils ad lc fmns lit feminist black and colonialist n the grounds of their ethnicity and gender. (These roles are not not are roles (These gender. and ethnicity their of grounds the n

emancipation movement. 125

manifest, on its behalf, these categories. categories. these behalf, its on manifest, tp o eonto i laig political leading in recognition to step erature helped me to understand understand to me helped erature

CEU eTD Collection Firm. Consultancy a and NGO Roma the of consurtium a representing fieldcou the asI 152 micro two in women Roma bla fate in tough a with (Women kistérségben” munkaerő nők Roma feketénfehéren: sorsú asszonyok Kóczé. “Nehéz 2010.Angéla May in published was report TheAffairs. research Labor and Social of Ministry the by supported 151 (1997) asalso arguefor they an In relies regard, my this dissertation Jacqui Alexander ontheand work of Chandra Mohanty inevitably of Romaniwomen. activism influence existence thelocal and political that argue will I chapter this In order. local/global the to submit to them force and them dominate powers These individualization. and exploitation degradation, as channels transmitting such through forces global prostitut experience forced mothers‖, Long ―welfare control. human workers, beyond unemployed seem that forces institutional to subordinated simply that is mediators institutional locality The practices. local concrete in forces various global the of values and interests through the translate felt ―global‖ themselves the make of Szikszó picture a ―create like town disadvantaged small a of life everyday the in forces global the However, we 28). 2000: Burawoy to According others. e of expense the at forces global the on mainly focus will I chapter my In Burawoy. by problematized are which ―field the of global nature widening and changing The 1997). Ferguson and that Gupta 1996; (Appadurai was once it and change constant in than vague more even and flexible more become has and widened and changed is has sites field world the that significant idea have processes the multi on of based concept is The survey. ethnography quantitative broad a nor ethnography‖ ―village neither ―multi was research my as ―fields‖, research overall my of segment one only was locality specific This ethn gender, of inequalities thesocial local thatshape andeconomic andthecontext. both wider intersection the at position of result the activists, women their subordinated Romani expose group to women local byRomani the tool as a used which then was local with research participatory feminist g to initiated order In level. local the at difference of axes different the reproduce and reconstruct 28) 2000: (Burawoy imagination‖ and connections forces, ―global the which in ways the of understanding better a gaining in interested wasI feminist, a as well researcher Romani a As global/local. of binaries historical key two the of reconfiguration the interrogate to opportunity the had I women Romani of networks transnational researching with years two than more Romani for experiences working my and research feminist participatory observations, participant on based findings research my presenting be will I chapter, this In FROM A LOCAL PERSPECTIVE CHANGING SEVEN: CHAPTER POSITION WOMEN‟S conomy, polity, and culture as composed of forces constituted beyond our sites‖ (Burawoy sites‖ our beyond constituted forces of composed as culture and polity, conomy, After one month of my involvement with the local Romani women I had a work opportunity to stay longer in in longer stay to opportunity work a had I women Romani local the with involvement my of month After one This chapter uses the data which produced my comparative research. It research. comparative my produced which data the uses This chapter

oe i a ml ct i Nrh ugr, Szikszó Hungary, North in city small a in women - sited‖ (Marcus 1995) and 1995) (Marcus sited‖ ‖ s nlecd y h fcos ―lbl ocs cnetos n imagination‖) and connections forces, (―global factors the by influenced is s‖ ld afford ld

from 2008 January . January from 2008 -

regions) in Kutatási Beszámoló, (Kóczé 2010) Beszámoló, Kutatási in regions) oa ipiain. codn t atrplgss te ocp of concept the anthropologists, to According implications. local

alysis that intertwines ―the global ―the Feministalysis thatintertwines and local‖. my overall methods were also multiple. My project is is project My multiple. also were methods overall my

I also wore a different hat as a community facilitator facilitator community asa hat different also worea I ck and white: labor market and income and market white: labor and ck lbl ocs eooi ted, ocps n ideas and concepts trends, economic forces, global 126 icity and class as well as the structures of of structures the as well as class and icity

151

- piaci és megélhetési lehetőségei két lehetőségei megélhetési és piaci

s dfnees EC cleaners TESCO defenseless es,

was carried out in 2009 in out carried was ain a better understanding, I understanding, better a ain 152 Atr eea yas of years several After . - earning opportunities of of opportunities earning

rnmt and transmit

- 2010 2010 - - sited term term

as as CEU eTD Collection year. one more for than dole the on havebeen individuals unemployed of registered percent 57 that adding isIt worth 155 na the over 27 percent 154 (Ádám summer travelers in to fruit sell alon is Szikszó still located that wine major a was already Szikszó Krakkó]. [Hungarian: Kraków Kassa+ and *Hungarian: Košice to leading roads main is the as it near its development to contributed location geographical The favourable city’s started. today, standing still church, ofits Gothic building the this and time growaround and flourish to began The city city. royal asa to firstreferred waswhen it 1391in was it but family’s land, Aba of the part was still time, “Zykzo” this At “Zykzo”. in charter a issued Charles Robert 1308 in weHence, know, as asfar today. Hungary of Szikszó “Z that conclusively argued historians however, Recently, MCCLXXX. judika dominicam post proxima feriatertia Zekzou, in Dated following: the with documents the closes who Cuman, the IV Ladislaus by dated threecharters to 1280, to back date Szikszó 153 behind far lagging are mortality and morbidity of indices segregation; social massive as extent as destitution, the of transmission intergenerational widespread reveal poverty of degreeassessing and figures furthermore, percent; 18 by indicator national the of short falls among percent 100 whole a as country the in unemployment of rate the well is well old the of collapse the after in fell the of r migration massive into a better generated turned have have together, which pride frustration, and the of prosperity bastion relative a also was concomitantly, and of domains economic earlier the economy, market to country‘stransition the proletariat.With agriculture, collective and industry heavy be to used Hungary of region this socialism, state of era the During economic instability, financial greatest the witnessed insecurity and social tensions. has country the of part This Roma. brought policies integration Roma and objectives developmental Roma the all dominated have criteria oriented market the era, new decades two past the over transformation political and ill of crisis deepest the suffered North the in inhabitants 5,637 with town rural small Ita as my is location. fieldwork Szikszó Ifound in Chapter how One describedI alreadyhave Context7.1 of m globalization wouldaim toaddressofthe global ―the (Eschle manifestations inlocal‖ 2001). geographers scholars feminist World and argue Third thataeffective approach more to

In fall 2009, the index for the region was 23 percent, while the corresponding national ratio was 10 percent. waspercent. 10 ratio national corresponding while the percent, 23 was region forthe index the fall2009, In is level education primary morethan no with those of ratio regional the population, adult the Considering

In order to grasp the roots of the town, some historical context is needed. The first written accou written firstThe is needed. context some historical town, the of roots the grasp to order In

- off groups of local communities. The region‘s statistics clearly reflect the vacuum it it vacuum the reflect clearly statistics region‘s The communities. local of groups off - below the national average national the below

tional average. tional y fieldwork adult Roma in many of the most deprived localities); per capita income income capita per localities); deprived most the of many in Roma adult

g a main road today provides the opportunity for a number of Roma families to to families of Roma number a for provides opportunity the today road main g a

ekzou” in the above document is in fact not the same settlement as the as the settlement same the not is fact the in in document above ekzou”

- 1980).

adjustment during the co the during adjustment

154 regime. The educational attainment of the adult population adult the of attainment educational The regime. ; the rate of unemployment is more than twice as high ashigh as twice than more is unemployment of rate the ;

deteriorating living conditions for the majority of of majority the for conditions living deteriorating 127 - producing town in the time of Mary of Anjou. The fact Anjou. of time the Mary of in town producing

155 eservoirs of decline and widespread widespread and decline of eservoirs - 153 Eastern region of Hungary, which has has which Hungary, of region Eastern

(the rate of unemployment being 80 being unemployment of rate (the

(Ladányi 2009; Szalai 2002). In theIn 2002). Szalai 2009; (Ladányi

urse of systemic economic, social economic, systemic of urse already in the possession of Sigismund I, I, Sigismund of possession the in already the stronghold of mining, mining, of stronghold the - trained and and trained

also nts of of nts well - CEU eTD Collection 2001) 2000 and 158 whole. asa country the for figure corresponding 157 f year 1.1 and men years for 2 figures by national corresponding of the falls short birth at expectancy life Furthermore, of 6.6. index national above the 156 micro underdeveloped in concentrated is reg exclusion economic and ethnic social, poverty, 20 nearly as (10.8%) basic and reg the In provisions welfare of areas critical healthcare needs. to communication, access including assistance, transportation, legal and public housing to through employment from life, daily equal eth of where exclusion social by characterized Roma, especially research This institutions. and and services educational poor, and social the to access ethnica depriving severely an emerged, interests, has establishment clashing and drives non conflicting and Roma between conflict rousing mainly in factors main the are degradation status fearing classes upper and middle post the of crisis The squatting, acts ofburglaryand drug offenses criminal reported of numbers increasing and high show statistics finally, 12 data national respective

- These statistical figures are based on the census data of KSH (Central Statis (Central KSH of data census the on based are figures These statistical the above ispercent 19 inhabitants 100.000 per caught forperpetrators index the region, this In The na ions predominantly inhabitedby (VirágLadányi people. 2006; Roma 2005) 3 n 10 and 13 tional ratio of infant mortality is 10.6 per thousand for this region, which is more than 60 per cent per 60 more than is which this region, for thousand isper 10.6 mortality infant of ratio tional ion of Szikszó, the proportion of Roma people far exceeds the national average average national the exceeds far people Roma of proportion the Szikszó, of ion

- 2 er bhn te onr‘ aeae o mn n wmn res women, and men for average country‘s the behind years 12

- - 25% of Hungary's Roma population lives here lives population Roma Hungary's of 25% communist social structure and the antagon the and structure social communist

156

(with shocking figures for Roma whose life expectancy remains expectancy life whose Roma for figures shocking (with

or women, respectively. respectively. women, or - oa naiat. s cneune f h prevailing the of consequence a As inhabitants. Roma - abuse committed by committed asabuse Roma. identified suspects

nic 128 - based marginalization prevails in all fields of fields all in prevails marginalization based

lly and socially highly segmented segmented highly socially and lly tics Office Office tics istic attitudes of the urban urban the of attitudes istic 158 . Research shows that shows Research . - based framework is framework based –

National Census in National

157 pectively); , namely, ,

- CEU eTD Collection micro or level ofregion the on kept rather is It forces. global of impact the reveal doesnot segregation spatial and restructuring economic on discussions scholarship Hungarian Similarly, in ce and uncontested go and global the in embedded are concepts state. Allthese liberal of the impact the is about democratization less cautious and privatization transition, economic the 160 group homogeneous socially and ethnic will an be left are behind who those suburb, the to city inner the families leave class middle educated whenthe example: provides following the textbook proces social normal asa segregation” “spontaneous about talks Hungary, in Departments Policy 159 dislocate and marginalize processes (Ladányi social countries and actors ofcommunities particularly color inthe post (Harvey 2008), Roma 2005;Escobar economic neoliberal national social and segregation economic spatial global and between restructuring connection the is miss to Amongst seem researches Hungarian green). dark with (marked which conceptualization false population accepted widely a Roma is there makers policy of and researchers Hungarian proportion highest the have cl map This AcademySource: Hungarian Sciences‟Center Regional Studies for of Hungary.in micro disadvantaged most 33 The 1: Figure

Lynne Haney (Haney 2000) wrote a s 2000)wrote a (Haney Haney Lynne Politics) Social of (Definitions books text university fundamental the of Even one

uhmsial cls hs rcs ―pnaeu segregation‖ ―spontaneous process this calls euphemistically early shows that those micro those that shows early

zlni 02. h uee sca, cnmc n territoria and economic social, uneven The 2002). Szelényi

tudy on the the on tudy 160 Atr h rgm cag, h dmnn global dominant the change, regime the After . - regions that are economically underdeveloped also underdeveloped economically are that regions “Welfare in Hungary” in “Welfare 129 - regions (including Szikszó‟s micro Szikszó‟s (including regions

. She argues that the scholarship on on scholarship the argues that She . lebrated by most scholars. scholars. most by lebrated - region. 159

at the Sociology and Social Social and Sociology the at

(Zombori 2009). (Zombori Te nltcl link analytical The .

s.The - communist communist

- region) region)

and l CEU eTD Collection war. afterthe them returning of left, none they or War World Second the during wasdeported either population Jewish Szikszó’s population. Roma the amongst rate birth increasing the otherto the on 2006) and Ladányi count the of restructuration geographical the to social and hand one the on 1990due after particularly significantly increased of Roma number the century, fourteenth the of end since the stable remarkably 162 this list. micro 33 underdeveloped 161 40% Szikszó, in around Roma of is number the on statistic official l Romani local of estimates the no to according is there though Even Roma. are 18 unemployed of aged 70% approximately government, local the in notary population the by made estimate an local eleme only total have 49.1%, group, this the of half almost and of 13.8% Szikszó, population, unemployed the Amongst unemployed. In th %. of composed 19.2 18 is representing the group final 18; the the of of whilst 21.1% age following:population, the the is under distribution is age population The households. 2,212 Szikszó‘s in live Statistical Central Hungarian the of data latest the on Based region, including entire the throughout inequalities growing of context the within so did it but wealth elite, tiny unprecedented a for and accumulation of sources new some generated has market liberal political The li globalization. better most offer and not the did in liberalization democratization shows economic region of This contradiction years. the following way the tangible in created were jobs few a micro only and depressed and underdeveloped peo Szikszó, from 10km just located is which Miskolc, in most the of Hungary one is it characteristics, s its considering that is fieldwork myfor Szikszó chose I reason main The considers them a nomore surpluspopulation. than ―bare only terms have can they Hun where Eastern North in and ghettos Roma Many apply, lives‖. not does law non sovereign the as where seen exception, be can people These identities. by or surplus the as excluded the theorizes Agamben territori rights.civil or any longerlegal bycoveredno they barearelife to reduced are saysmen when social and ethnic of of notion kind the evokes This spaces. deprived economically and socially into words, other in or, ―ghetto‖ a into locked were overrepresented, are Roma which ― created Hungary in development

Government Decree 3 Decree Government r cuh i a iiu crl o rpeso, nmlyet ehi cnlc, aln living falling conflict, ethnic unemployment, repression, of circle standards, social unrest and political backlash. (F.J. Mayor Szikszó. of 2010.02.12) vicious a in caught are In place, there its depression,is populism, anti shattered. been has democracy and peace growth, economic accession, European of dream The The local census from 1930 from census The local

where people have lost their labour productivity, and the market oriented economy economy oriented market the and productivity, labour their lost have people where

161 . In the early nineties, due to the closure of large industrial companies, particularly companies, largeindustrial of closure the to due earlynineties, In the . 162 the town of Szikszó. The ofSzikszó. localthe town mayorvery articulated trend this explicitly: Te etrs f h goa eooi rsrcuig ae tangible a have restructuring economic global the of features The . 11/2007 (XI. 17.) designated the economically, socially and infrastructurally most infrastructurally and socially economically, the 17.) designated (XI. 11/2007 homo sacer homo - regions. Szikszó is identified as one of the most underdeveloped micro/regions on on micro/regions underdeveloped most the of asone identified is Szikszó regions.

- 1940 shows that while while that 1940 shows

used by political philosopher Giorgio Agamben (1998). He He (1998). Agamben Giorgio philosopher political by used nenl colonies internal ves for the majority of the local population. The new The population. local the of majority the for ves eaders and the local government, their proportion their government, local the and eaders 130 - Gypsism anddeteriorating se personal the number of Hungarian population of the town was town the of population of Hungarian number the - 59 age bracket accounts for 59.8% of the the of 59.8% for accounts bracket age 59 - ua, hrfr rlgtd o h zns of zones the to relegated therefore human,

gary can be conceptualized in Agambeian in conceptualized be can gary

67.1 % qualify as long as qualify % 67.1 ‖ where disadvantaged people, within within people, disadvantaged where ‖ - effe ntary school education. According to According education. school ntary e population above the age of 60, 60, of age the above population e ple lost their jobs in great numbers, great in jobs their lost ple ct of the production of governable of production the of ct

Office (KSH), 5,637 inhabitants 5,637 (KSH), Office ocial and economic and ocial - term unemployed unemployed term l segregation al curity. We

- regions in in regions ry ( ry - 9 is 59

CEU eTD Collection the of presence the by fortified been has trend This even or verbal to lead may that suspicion provoke to likely are they street, main the along pass should Roma that tolerated is it though even observations, my on Based non settlement arenarrowstreet. linked by tothemain lanes and civilized the the between across road, main the beyond non to compared ―other‖ absolutely as seen are who people, e distinguished the indicates ―Chinatown‖ of name The e Row‖. ―Gypsy be than to mixed more ethnically considered considered is ―Chinatown‖ different. are slightly are neighborhoods areas Both non settlement. local the the by segregated of periphery northern the at located is and ―Chinatown‖ called is district second The settlement. the of periphery western no the in westernarea and liveintwopartssettlement The (one one of vastthe ofRoma inthe majority Source: F lasting long and deep in living are who people poverty. of majority the and elite tiny the between labor and employment parity formalgrowing drastically a and provision social local in cutbacks are there resources, natural and organized as far dec dramatic a suffering so are contracts in location this in manifestation igure 2: The map Szikszó Theare of (Gypsyigure and indicated). 2: the Chinatown Row www.terkepcentrum.hu

rthern area). The first is dubbed as ― as dubbed is first The area). rthern

- Roma inhabitants even though their perceptions about the two the about perceptions their though even inhabitants Roma - iiie prs f h town. the of parts civilized

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131 runnel, which serves as a symbolic boundary boundary symbolic a as serves which runnel,

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CEU eTD Collection So, assistance. my with established was which Association, Women Romani which other, involv each was to close very came we She Szikszó. in facilitator her communityas work my as well as research my certainlyinfluenced with conversation introductory first the In vase. She invited and sofa leather fake a glass the with flowersin plastic of bouquet a was there table table the of centre the In around. armchairs coffee a was hall the of middle the In colors. harsh with hall, the of walls The carpet. clean the over walking before hall entry the of front in off that shoes their saw took family Ithe of members lunch. normally for just back came int worker, public a as council an local the by employed was in situated home school two The house. their to me invited her to went by rebuilt I totally house Roma integrated typical lived. a is It house. she peasant fashioned old an neighborhood, where knew everyone that find the September against protest 2008 Roma the in organized who town women Romani the to came first I When ―Gypsylike Szikszó‘s forminganethnically cases micro inmost Row,‖ homogenous inhabita the enabling perception cultural own its has culture local every that emphasize to important non the on to themselves need distinguish the feel still they Gypsies‖, ―backward with street same the in live not do Gypsies‖ non as in Gypsy‖ or ―criminal Row‖ ―Gypsy the in e same the either using by live primarily ―Chinatown‖ who those from themselves differentiate markedly They trees. Christmas even and vegetables fruit, clothes, in dealing with living their earning are families These households. peasant from objects antique some and flowers plastic with decorated and etc.) red, yellow, bright (pink, colors harsh with in live non families Gypsy‖ ―decent few non with The neighborhoods integrated Gypsy‖. ―criminal ―decent lo or of amongst category ―backward‖ even the and in that them Gypsy‖ the note rendering system to classification encompassing important refined a is is forest it there Gypsies point, a this At by gathering. wood bordered outlawed is and 1990s early the settlement in privatization that fact the despite families Roma many for firewood needed the of parts neighborh hilly the located on is ―Chinatown‖ The households. many in off switched is electricity even and areas, soc low of homes and infrastructure limited with places as characterized be can Szikszó in districts Roma Both power relations. a for non and but Roma between borders symbolic fence, the respect to expected is the over place take ― may communication dem limited Gárda‘s Occasionally, the homes. on private visit report never can Roma that rule the tacit a become has It One, place. particular this to attention Chapter in mentioned I as right extremist Hungarian gypsy‖ - - Roma inhabitant, especially for me or any other outsider visiting the town. However, it is However, it town. the visiting outsider otherany or me especiallyfor inhabitant, Roma painted are Romas ―decent‖ of houses The Szikszó. of street main the on houses Roma Mária nts to identify Roma, especially in those cities or towns where Roma live in a ghetto a in live Roma where towns or cities those in especially Roma, identify to nts

to be invited inside a non a inside invited be to o. vn oa ti etnie oet s h ol psil suc o te much the of source possible only the is forest extensive this today Even ood. Mária‘s , the main organizer of the counter demonstration proved an easy task as it seemed it as task easy an proved demonstration counter the oforganizer main the , ed in the participatory research and later on she became the president of the the of president the became she on later and research participatory the in ed

me totake overchat a coffee. andhavea a seat cup of ial status residents. There is no sewage system or running water in these these in water running or system sewage no is There residents. status ial

husband, a non a husband, - wing paramilitary group. They have strong support in Szikszó and Szikszó in support strong have They group. paramilitary wing - Roma people do. That is, despite the fact that these ―decent ―decent these that fact the despite is, That do. people Roma discursive level even though many of them could ―pass‖ as a a as ―pass‖ could them of many though even level discursive - - Roma home is hig is home Roma Romani man, whose family also lives in Szikszó. So, she So, Szikszó. in lives also family whose man, Romani - Roma, but their houses are distinctly differ distinctly are houses their but Roma, - aged children were at sc at were children aged

which functioned as a dining room, were painted painted were room, dining a as functioned which xclusionary discourse against the ―backward‖ or ―backward‖ the against discourse xclusionary 132

hly unusual. Everyone in the settlement the in Everyone unusual. hly - coe I rmrl loe for looked primarily I October mainly (il)legal metal traders or or traders metal (il)legal mainly Magyar Gárda Magyar hool and her husband, who husband, her and hool - Roma based on unequal unequal on based Roma my attracted onstration

Mária

in August. To August. in ent from the from ent

provided provided - society. egrated

those cal cal -

CEU eTD Collection Anti7.2 has which community Roma local the about signif insight specific also and contacts numerous Roma a Roma realization createdbetween drawing solidarity a amongst boundary Roma, symbolic the town theyare same regardless oftheir manner treatedinthe upward mobility. This aga her words,arrival ofthe the would feel intheir discriminatoryagainst Asisdemonstrated legitimized actsRoma. it by Mária restructuring. making the Roma scapegoats thelocal effectseconomicand forsocia thenegative of yearsthe majoritylastpopulation in several local trend ofthe andof thesubsequent a context Thisconceptof theireconomic position. social hasbecome andlocal inthis popular criminality‖, The ― was bydeputy invited fight basically―gypsy thelocal Mayor, to against put it: as well as bytheconservat the anti homogenized categoryGypsy. of family‘s Her threatened integrated Romawas identity by community, theappearance However, no hermatter familyacceptedand how wasrespected by thenon follows: and inanNGO Rights howshean Civil became activist calledRoma Movement as appearance the local Gypsy self In at of toSzikszó, latethe time myfirst her thirties in2008, visit

school. ( against the Basically me some and my of and aunts sisters from the family started organizeto the protest the first time whenwe felt that we are no better than any Ro Guard‖ [Magyar was Gárda] turning a point for me and my for extended family too. was This August 2008when many local non ( by non the My relatives belong the to wealthiest Roma f Mária inst them was an illuminating moment when many themwas thatinthe moment―decent‖inst when anilluminating Roma realized icantly enriched the context ofmyicantly context enriched the fieldwork Magyar Gárda Magyar

― beli - This trend wasthe ―Hungarian strengthened in2008when [ Guard nd non

gypsybeing and advocated discourse legitimized byright extreme thelocal group -

s well maybe of tothe dramatic positions due inthe social decrease andeconomic Gypsism versus constructing politicized ethnic identity 2008. 09.21) Mária eved the thatifthey protestdid not against . Mária - Roma community. accepted We normsthe values and of the Gárda which portraysas aculturallyand genetically Roma group,regardless criminal

- Roma and politicized their ethnic politicized and identity.Roma

2008. 09.21.) . hadWe do to it, otherwise our children will be constantly threatened thein

described with howshelocal became Gypsy involved self - ‖ revitalized throughout‖ the country revitalized concept oldracist the of― government. isavery She s

ive political church partiesmembers of and as theprotestant she

of extreme right groups in Szikszó put groupsthem intheof inSzikszó extremeright Magyar Gárda

- Roma acquaintances, neighbors supported the ―Hungarian amily in the town and they were always respected , and thesubsequent demonstration , Roma 133

trong, sporty woman with anemancipatedtrong, sporty woman

Magyar Gárda ma from ―Gypsy the Row‖.

Mária gajos , the local non , thelocal -

criminality.‖ was amember of

(non Magyar Gárda

- Roma Roma - - government Roma) gypsy - Roma Roma l

- ] CEU eTD Collection and economic global of context the in position marginal territorial reconstruction. their of understanding new a These c oppression. the exposed inevitably discussions of of kinds forms multiple of intersection the at position subject their understand th of location and relationship gender their and conceptualize them help to information position and knowledge transfer social their regarding issues various about activists women Romani with conversations many conducted I fieldwork, my During Participatory7.3 research establish to and opportunity an class create ethnic, to conscious bo able their still were of they settlement, because the marginalized in location are gender they Although solidarity. of sources alsothe school duringth and non and Roma between exchange information and talk‖ ―street in manifested loosened, boundaries informal and formal change, fl the after women Romani these of work generous the support to known victims to evenhelp offered women Romani non and Roma to aid humanitarian distribute to able NGO local only the was non and Roma several destroying Szikszó in flood serious a was there recently very instance, For community. the mobilize to employmen platform social and space a offered and SZIROM that emphasize also would I community. services Roma educational quality create to applications drop school decreased significantly turn the of director Romani the Five in and parents Romani with relation school‘s the on and assistants. impact great a had has which hired, were teaching mayor as local women Romani the employ with to school negotiated meaning elementary also and Association, We Women‘s Hungarian). Romani in Szikszó‘s ‗petal‘ for (Short SZIROM called NGO Ihelped place. took also impact lasting longandhigh with actions important few afieldwork, my courseof Duringthe self degree, educated she isconsidered ofthe as Roma hence most inthe one settlement. Gypsy local the in woman only the and mother working a being activist, Romani a being of pleasures and pressures the about conversations also was She people. and materials what various into insight and to access me gave settlement, women. Romani inter three and gender regarding to one spent I week every almost 2010 changesDecember and 2008 September Between community. social some to ―alien an contributing as community Roma a in working insider while that failure previous my from learned was it also I services.community myoffer to like still Iwould researcher, a primarily am I level, although local the the and at clea women it class make Romani to and important of gender activism ethnicity, of political intersectionality the of on manifestation focuses mainly research my Since

as n zkz. dvlpd vr coe eainhp with relationship close very a developed I Szikszó. in days nhoooit otn al ky nomn. e pn mn hus oehr taping together hours many spent We informant. key a call often anthropologists , cno sml osre neatos n poess ihu gnrtn and generating without processes and interactions observe simply cannot I ‖, nds among peoplecommunity. intheentirends among local Mária Mária s epce psto wti te oa omnt ad n the in and community Roma the within position respected ‘s

r to r e flood, local Romani women engaged in redefining the common inredefining womenthe engaged e Romani flood, local Mária

to generate social change and seven other Romani women establish a R a establish women Romani other seven and - - Roma houses and damag and houses Roma Roma. Basically, through all these actions, particularly in in particularly actions, these all through Basically, Roma.

as well as to all other participants of my research that that research my of participants other all to as well as - out rates. Moreover, I helped them submit several submit them helped I Moreover, rates. out 134 oncept of intersectionality and gradually offered gradually and intersectionality of oncept

ood, inter ood, - government. ing hundreds of others. SZIROM SZIROM others. of hundreds ing -

ethnic relations have started to to started have relations ethnic Magyar Gárda Magyar i pltc. wne to wanted I politics. eir Mária Mária - tnc eain i the in relations ethnic t opportunities for the the for opportunities t

has a high scho high a has s el s other as well as omani women‘s omani - Roma victims. victims. Roma . Due to the to Due .

women women ol CEU eTD Collection (Kóczé 2010) income and market labor munkaerő sorsú asszony “Nehéz Kóczé. was Angéla leader team the and manager research The Kóczé. Angéla Havas, Éva BeaDávid, Albert, Fruzsina of consisted team 2010. Theresearch May in 163 by raised problems and issues the identified non we and n Romani interviewees a the as with together women Szikszó Romani other household 101 conducting of with course the In opportunity. interviews conducting and and power questionnaires of out filling of distribution process the used also They unequal research. this to contribution important the an is which to problems personal the relate opp During and issues skills. their research of acquire to conscious them make to was aim My incompetence. of feelingstheir to related were which of trained were SZIROM preparatoryo phase from women Romani genderheard or inmainstreamacademia related scholarship. seldom are who women Romani to voice a give to interviews the from excerpts provide will Romani the of statements and reports original the of translation the in faithful stay to tried I have is, that subjects, my ofvoice the of rhetoric the Iuse position, their illustrate to inters of manifestations the on focuses which research the of part the present only will I research, whole the of analysis full a for allow not does dissertation this of scope the unfortunately As women. Romani with disc group focus two conducted we county each policy local with interviews structured 20 additional an individua non women, Romani with interviews structured 1250 altogether received and households, given the in members all include to aiming households 248 in questionnaires distributed We economically an in located is more developedregion.) other the while region underdeveloped an in is one however micro two the in settlements the of structures the that reason the for researchas the of non and Romani disadvantaged of status quantitativelabor analysis andsocialresearch compared qualitative consisting and both the of inte their expose to language activist their shape and construct to them enabled researchprocess This with. workedclosely I who women Romani SZIROM of group core the of involvement the with project research by a As by controlled exclusively active was an data myself. the have of did evaluation the women research, Romani my in though role Even participatory research.‖ the in participation and over research, the of beneficiaries intended the or studied, being people the which in research social activist of type radical a is research ―[p]articipatory (1996:188), and inequalities challenge should Cancian describedby As 1991). Patai and Gluck research(Cancian1992; women forbenefits on focus that believe who scholars feminist with agree I

This research was supported was This research Borsod ortunities in the community and society. I valued their personal experience and feelings, feelings, and experience personal their valued I society. and community the in ortunities

- - rdc o m fedok hd the had I fieldwork my of product piaci és megélhetési lehetőségei két kistérségben” (Women with a tough fate in black and white: and black in fate tough a with (Women kistérségben” két lehetőségei megélhetési és piaci -

Aba j Zemplén új Borsod - Romani women. Our discussions enabled these Romani wo Romani these enabled discussions Our women. Romani f the research, there were several issues that needed to be discussed, many discussed, neededto be that issues were several research,there the f - earning opportunities of Roma women in two micro two in women Roma of opportunities earning -

Abaúj Zemplén Abaúj

ectionality at a local level in the case of Romani women. In order order In women. Romani of case the in level local a at ectionality by the Ministry of Social and Labor Affairs. The research report was published was published report TheAffairs. research Labor and Social of Ministry the by (BAZ) County and Pest County. Szikszó was integrated in this this in integrated was Szikszó County. Pest and County (BAZ)

rsectional inequalities and advocate for social change. The The change. social for advocate and inequalities rsectional

County - Romani women in the selected two micro two selected the in women Romani

135 potnt t cnut fmns comparative feminist a conduct to opportunity 163 - Romani women and Romani men, as well as as well as men, Romani and women Romani

ussions, one with Romani men and another another and men Romani with one ussions, settlement. micro (I these chose two rsoss W cnutd 0 deep 20 conducted We responses. l - -

questionnaires and 20 interviews in interviews 20 and questionnaires and decision and

- regions) in Kutatási Beszámoló, Beszámoló, Kutatási in regions) ok feketén fehéren: Roma nők nők fehéren: Roma feketén ok - have substantial control substantial have regions are comparable, are regions - makers. Moreover, in in Moreover, makers. men to validate to men etworking women. I women. - - regions regions -

CEU eTD Collection of womenthe plight wholiveinthe―Gypsy oftheRomaniand inthe Row‖―Chinatown‖. conscious more become SZIROM from women the result, a As SZIROM. in and sample in women Romani amongst dynamic interesting an created difference class This sample. research the in women the for group reference a as served project research the in participated somewhat a to belong SZIROM from social higher women Romani of groups the Nevertheless, strata. non the and Roma the because sample the in relevant the of analysis an through ethnicity and gender between link the examine to is research the of focus main The I Szikszó, from data local the used the overall tendencies inBAZ County. than reliable more is County BAZ officia in the households statistically of Since number data. County BAZ the as trend same the shows level. local the at manifested are class and gender ethnicity, clo research this of part the on focusing be only will I earlier, mentioned I as dissertation, my In boost and problems specific identifytheir self situation, their about knowledge commonsense their sely related to one of my research questions, namely exploring how intersections of of intersections how exploring namely questions, research my of one to related sely - esteem andabilitytospeak out.

class than the women in the research sample. The Romani women who actively actively who women Romani The sample. research the in women the than class

bv dsrbd usinars n itriw. h cas su i not is issue class The interviews. and questionnaires described above

136

- Roma groups belong to the same social social same the to belong groups Roma The quantitative data on Szikszó on data quantitative The l count of the the of count l

the the CEU eTD Collection self minority question the related to were controversies main The (2005). Kállai Ernő (2000), Peter Vermeersch (1998), Kovats asMartin such self Gypsy of system the critiqued who scholars There several are Europe. in system self minority of institutional national and local the established legislation self minority system the of through c of a establishment the Facilitating 1990s. of the beginning the at changes political the after codification of components main the of one was minorities 164 to came it when lived Council Roma where streets development infrastructural and those human on decisions ignored completely makers decision extra and discursive this of example well by alive are Roma kept local about narratives social the within ghetto ghettos. discursive and a of slums and walls into invisible funneled The real are Roma The where County too. Pest in than sphere traversed more social was (non the ―Peasants‖ and in Gypsies reflected between well difference symbolic is analyzed disparity income The Source: ownresearch2009 data, *on thebasis248householdsinterviewed ofdata from Pest Cou BAZ County income ofRoma,therefore, do The same! the Not respectively. HUF 23,200 and HUF 39,000 i.e. County, Pest in prevailed equally discrepancy similar The year. the in HUF 23,600 was it people Roma of case the in the that in monthly average the County, shows BAZ In clearly data The detail. in micro two the between analyzeddisparity income general is counties Pest and (BAZ) Zemplén the in households 248 of income the research, the In difference 7.3.1 Territorial Table 1.

Th ht h ct hd n in restrictions allow these didnot interventions. an had city the that authority local the from officials with discussions several during out turned it Although president of the local Gypsy Minority Council) see, you non few very MinoritySelf road several only […] made streets moneythree they Union‘sthese European buildings; the with old buildings the new several all build they refurbished constructions, city our of leaders political The e elaboration of Act LCCVII of 1993 (Act on National Minorities) on the rights of national and ethnic ethnic and national of rights the Minorities) on National on 1993(Act of LCCVII Act of e elaboration 164

nty

said: government system to tackle the roots of the social and economical exclusion of Roma. Roma. of exclusion economical and social the of roots the tackle system to government it is really hard to drive into this place in an emergency car or for anyone else. (B.G. else. anyone for or car emergency an in place this into drive to hard really is it

Household areasand incomes of ethnic small differences (N=1250) - -

Government did not have any power over where the money should go. There aremoneyThere go. should where the over power anyhavenot Governmentdid Roma who have no relatives and we accepted them as our family members. As members. family our as them accepted we and relatives no have who Roma s of legitimate representation, the financial basis of the system, and the inability of the the of inability the and system, basis the of financial the representation, legitimate s of

- remained untouched where most of the people are Roma. We, as a Gypsy a as We, Roma. are people the of most where untouched remained nw shmtc rjdcs an prejudices schematic known

39,600 29,000 Non Average monthly per person income erto pa t dvlp hs egbrod lcl financial local neighborhood, this develop to plan tegration -

government, is the key aim of the Act on National Minorities. This Minorities. National on Act aim of the iskey the government, es not alter on the grounds ofwhere es alter they not live. onthe

- Roma householdRoma

ollective cultural autonomy, based on the personal principle principle personal the on based autonomy, cultural ollective - icrie ghetto discursive come for non for come 137 -

1) Table (See three. to one almost is regions

. The leader of the local Gypsy Minority Minority Gypsy local the of leader The .

23,200 23,600 householdRoma two micro regions of Borsod of regions micro two - seetps Te ot spectacular most The stereotypes. d Roma people was 29,000 HUF, whilst whilst HUF, 29,000 was people Roma

- ulig s hn h Ps County Pest the when is building

- oa lvn i BZ Country BAZ in living Roma)

- government system in Hungary, Hungary, system in government - governm

16,400 5,400 Income disparity ents, which is unique iswhich unique ents,

- Abaúj and and Abaúj

CEU eTD Collection the within roles family. gender respect to important is it that said marriage mixed another in living woman A behavior. Roma male traditional to referring them, among Gypsy‖ most ―the was group a in were he if that added He respect‖. of mark ―a considered he which Roma, as him regarded community the and he both wife his via but descent, Roma of not was who man a also was there County Pest in group focus male the In blue blonde a was group focus whensmiled answering questi the woman‘s Roma the of members the of BAZ In groups. ethnic non various a theyhad that said respondents of number between be ‗crossover‘ to the where seemed County, ‗crossover‘ the smaller non and the status similar was, of Roma between deprivation and gap income the wider The Source: ownresearch2009 data, Roma Non Rom Persons Table 2 apparent Romabasedresidence. disparity between ontheplace of an Roma (3.1 between 0.2 deprivation was of County index the 2, Table in indicated As data relating womenRoma and narrated. tothe deprivation life histories by refuted was notion this but areas, disadvantaged in than regions prosperous more in better R of position Ithe research,that beginningimagined this the of At .

Romani woman married to years seventeen for Roma,is who husband, my with lived have I But Roma. not am I as situation, difficult a is this Well Figure 3:

. Index ofdeprivation(0 .

Romani neighborhood in asettlement in Romani neighborhood located Pest in county - .) wees n et ony t a 06 (3.1 0.6 was it County Pest in whereas 2.9), a Romaman. 2009.02.12.) –

this shows what I think about the Roma. (K.Zs. 34 year old non old year 34 (K.Zs. Roma. the about think I what shows this

- a mc getr ewe Rm ad non and Roma between greater much was 5) on ―What does it mean to be Roma?‖ andon ―What mean said: doesit tobeRoma?‖

3.1 2.9 County residents BAZ 1 38

- Roma spouse or partner. In BAZ County, one one BAZCounty, In partner. or spouse Roma

of Roma men they would say that he he that say would they men Roma of 3.1 2.5 Pest

oma and Romani women is womenoma and Romani - 2.5), hence there is no no is there hence 2.5),

non d - yd oa who woman eyed -

Roma, a higher higher a Roma, - oa n BAZ in Roma

- Roma - CEU eTD Collection cnmc n trioil tutrs anann te yblc n mtra ethno material and symbolic the maintaining structures territorial and economic economic micro and developed social a the diversifying Hungarian well, the as wh impacted inequalities geography 2005) political and (Harvey social developments economic, geographical global uneven The fea prejudices outduring came theinterviews. above people‘s Roma feed may which Roma, against prejudice their non non the Although interviewed Roma. with other I or friendly neighborly, world. outside the of non vicissitudes concealed, and overt of form a wi his protect to simply wants husband suffer.This Roma prejudice,which violent phenomenon, children everyday an seven by fed (raising is Men‘s him…‖ on fear support cheat will I then work, child to somewhere off closed go I on ―if that thinks their husband her living leaving woman but children, the after of looking of duty her old beside work gladly would she chance that said altogether) year less thirty much A have protection. area segregated a communi in living Women arena,rather than thewomen. social ―common‖ the enter to opportunity the have who men the chiefly is it way, segregated that was subjects my with had I discussions non and Roma where arenas social ―common‖ of scope limited very the to refer also may marriages mixed Fewer Source: marriageMixed marriageRoma Non Type Marriage of Table by 3. Marriage (N=1250)(%) County Types shows that,as opposedto9.8% inBAZ figure this County. County, inPest was 6.8% only non and Roma between difference greater a shows index deprivation the disparityandincome the CountyPest where in time, same the At of them.of year (37 have ever me seen naked or aswimming in costume. Absolutely We not. dono childrenor my relatives of anybelieve don‘t Ibathe.we otherif each of front undressin not do calmed now has This together. […] down. are we that accept to difficult fairly it found families two the Hungarian; is husband My school. at disadvantages are There must. we as live We proud. are differentway.lik I a in live We or my children‘s partners. So if one of them would come home with such a p a such with know whatI would say. 38year (B.K. home come would them of one if So partners. children‘s my or Hungarian, be should mate partner, my so Hungarian, am I that believe I anything. Or Negro. not this isAndtwo together. imagine the can‘t Imysomehow Ifamilyand have and families, own their have they but racist, a not am I Really. family. my in were they if pleased be wouldn‘t I - Roma marriageRoma exclusively with Gypsies or Roma, it is the same with all nationalities. Let‘s say with a with say Let‘s nationalities. all with same the is it Roma, or Gypsies with exclusively

own research 2009 data, is sne o atr o hrfl h get wls r, hy fe a ot of sort a offer they are, walls ghetto the harmful how matter no since ties,

We respect what is all right for woman and what is not. We respect each other. We other. each respect We not. is what and woman for right all is what respect We ich reflected upon the internal territories of the country. Furthermore, even in in even Furthermore, country. the of territories internal the upon reflected ich

- old womanold with two children living amixed in marriage) - ein uh s et ony hr i a itra lgc f oa social, local of logic internal an is there County Pest as such region

- Roma can meet. One of the regular topics during the roundtable roundtable the during topics regular the of One meet. can Roma

e being a Gypsy; there are many like us among Hungarians. WeamongHungarians. us many like are Gypsy;there a being e

- old non old

10 10 58 32 BAZ - Roma we found fewer mixed mar mixed fewer found we Roma 139

0 - ntcdta npae weeRm iei a in live Roma where places in that noticed I Roma woman)Roma

- oa h hd o ls relations, close no had who Roma -

Roma interviewees tried to hide to tried interviewees Roma 100 7 53 40 Pest

r, eventually these these eventually r, t undresst in front artner, I don‘t don‘t I artner, riages. Table 3 Table riages. - violent and and violent fe from the fromfe - racial

CEU eTD Collection o 17 16 and articles under States parties by submitted reports periodic Third Rights, Cultural and Social Economic, on Covenant 168 19 1990 and in Bank National Hungarian the of chairman Surányi, György or 1995, 1994and in government coalition of the also 1990and 1989and in government changing system the of ofFinance Minister the Békesi, László instance 167 1997) Bolton 166 of Pestcounty. 165 of ‗ghetto,‘ which ad has severelysocial andterritorial mobility.I both hampering am the aware several of meanings The socialused of ratherspatial notion ‗ghetto‘ andas isolation of ethnic animage is based in Hungary has remained and in spread to poverty Roma entrenched of started concentration the However, Hungary. in have cities larger the around districts slum urban devastated populated, densely decades, non non by predominantly populated areas in percent 22.0 people, Roma by predominantly populated [Hungarian: ―ghettos‖ gypsy in lived population of research the to According Roma, by administrative inhabited predominantly areas, these about that 96,000 estimates government The settlements. rural disadvantaged most the 2,000, than locati in live 40% and villages in live Roma Hungarian Many the in low is number their while western and ofpart inthe Transdanubia southernof part theGreat Alföld. Transdanubia, of part southern the and Budapest around with Alföld Great the of part northern the in and Hungary one Around Hungary. in Roma people of proportions and numbers the between differences regional considerable are There oft dimensions 7.3.2 Gender trapped spatialorder Hungarian at ofthe the inpolarized bottom localities. micro spat and social drastic decades two last the in neoliberal economists theHungarian of mantra The class includingpeople. individuals, Roma infrastructure business its and economy ―trickle under the and County Pest potential. economic or (3 political index deprivation the seen, any have we as have Interestingly, longer no that 97%) (approximately population ring ‗ neighborhood, another is there well managers, by districts inhabited some are there logic, exclusionary based ethnic and social the on Based exclusion.

After the system change, such neo such change, After system the

This information was written by the Hungarian Government in Implementation of the International International the of Implementation in Government Hungarian the by written was This information located neighborhood segregated the of isname the ‘Tabán’ - - - Agion and Bolton write extensively about the development of a theory of trickle down. (Aghion and and (Aghion trickledown. of theory of a development the about write extensively Bolton and Agion Roma people were in majority (La majority poor in nor were Roma people neither Roma where areas in percent 39.9 and classes lower of people Roma fenced from the rest of the inhabitants, and serves as a warehouse for its primarily Roma its for warehouse a servesas and inhabitants, the of rest the from fenced - ein ad iis ewe tp noe anr ad low and earners income top between cities and regions - – down theory‖ down

100,000 people currently live in some 500 some in live currently people 100,000 91 and between 1995 and 2001. 1995 and between 91 and

boundaries f the Covenant, Addendum, Hungary, 28 2005 Hungary, September, Addendum, f Covenant, the 166

167 ial difference both in wealthy and vastly underdeveloped regions, regions, underdeveloped vastly and wealthy in both difference ial , which says that if the top income earners invest more into the local the into more invest earners income top the if that says which ,

ifferent inthe UnitedStates than inHungary. image are There some , the ―trickle the , a ruralphenomenon. urban rather than

- and lack basic infrastructure and adequate living standards. standards. living adequate and infrastructure basic lack and eeoe BZ ony ir rgo. hs rsls eue the refute results These region. micro County BAZ developed -

dctd r vn cie low active even or educated - Roma the of percent 11.6 2000 in Szelényi, and Ladányi liberal economists and politicians got int got politicians and economists liberal he „ghetto‟ existence „ghetto‟ he - third of the Hungarian Roma population lives in Northern Northern in lives population Roma Hungarian the of third Tabán‘

- down economic effect‖ would not have caused such a such caused have not would effect‖ economic down dányi mr jb wl b aalbe o mdl ad lower and middle for available be will jobs more , 165

hc i ngtvl distinguish negatively is which 140 - Szelényi 2001). In the course of the past two past the of course the In 2001). Szelényi

―cigánytelep‖], 22.5 percent lived in areas in lived percent 22.5 ―cigánytelep‖], ar - 550 segregated settlements. segregated 550 sal ilgs r usd o their of outside or villages small e in the center of the town in the micro the in town of center the the in .1) of Roma is similar in the wealthy wealthy the in similar is Roma of .1)

- kle lbr oc. Additionally, force. labor skilled a major population concentrating population major a ons with a population of less of population a with ons

- o positions of power as for as power of positions o class poor Roma people, people, Roma poor class

d n virtually and ed 168

Most of Most - region region

CEU eTD Collection Budapest. in Company Services Social Education the 2008by in Hungarian in published 169 member family either are who men usually women, by described is it (as men Romani which in trafficking thei girls and prostitution local about talking women were stigmatize who several with and interviews conducted I personally research my internal During suffer further. even against should communities stance they a lest taking oppression, from them gender discourage effectively women Romani many of environment and social comprise poverty the that racism, sexism, effectsThe compound of are them.Nobody th by whoever wants taken protects sexual of victims become girls ―these slum, to the in woman older one to proneAccording prostitution. and trafficking violence, more are alcohol or drugs of influence the under come bu ghetto a is it concerned, are they as far As it. with deals authority or organization civil no slum, the in problem visible fairly a is abuse drug that fact the Despite conveyed not is which important, are they that experience through can other any source. they which in them, for world illusory an create or ghettos, of youth the for escape of means a offer narcotics cheap (―drink smoke and yes‖ glue‖ coffee ―sniff never would they that said one boys and girls both denoted behave, and all district, slum is, that policemen, all the they be to wanted in boys the while hairdressers, plans be would girls future the profession: their about discussions spontaneous i alcohol drank and self up took despair, glue theytheir sniffed which that typically meant abuse, destructive includingsubstance behaviors, in who, girls young many met we Rows‖ ―Gypsy Hungarian In activists whoadvocateracialfor e socialand science‘used particularly literatureis uncritically, humanrights and by scholars InHungarian academy,conceptthe American has the ‗ghetto‘ thebeen of imported from lethargy, a self andit‘sopposite, depreciation kindof mortality,and crime disease.Subjectiveare offendedness, features feelings, hostile despair, ―theputs it objective featuresghetto are ofthe over social dynamics,and social pathology psychologyofblackghettos. B.Kenneth Clark‘ (1965) t oriented ―have state policies atthebottomof that packed aggravated, and trappedpoor blacks Wacquant‘s (2008) American Ap Disadvantaged fundamental accounts sociological marginality, onurban (1987) such as Wilson‘s he spatialorder the2008:4)Even city.‖ polarizing of earlier (Wacquant‘s studieslike

to live for, just glue. There is nothing to strive for. I cannot count on any other pleasure, onlythat which pleasure, other any on count cannot I for. strive to nothing is There glue. just for, live to nothing is There being. human a considered even not am Ieverywhere, on down looked and at nothi Gypsy,haveI a Iborn wasWell, This book is published in Hungarian too. Kenneth too. Hungarian in is published This book

wanted –

artheid is in the plastic bag. (SZ.K. 20year

added a little girl). Glue sniffing equally affects girls, as well as well as girls, affects equally sniffing Glue girl). little a added , which emphasize therole, whicheconomy, of Denton‘s emphasize theand and (1993) Massey ―to help others‖. help ―to Urban Outcast Urban n front of everybody. The children, however, with whom we had a few a had we whom with however, children, The everybody. of front n , which stresses the importance ofracialMoreover, stresses segregation., which theimportance

Dark Ghetto

quality Roma.( of When we asked them about how they think one should live should one think they how about them asked we When

highlights and ofracially thespectrum ordered market ng, and I am uneducated. With such a curse Ipointeda curseamsuch With Iuneducated. amng,and

gave the most unstintinggave andmost authentic the account ofthe

141 B.Clark’s Dark Ghetto Dark B.Clark’s - old womanold slum the in district 2009.07.23).

- Ladányi crowdedness, housing, bad child high

‘to hell with it‘ behavior.‖‘to hell withit‘ (2008:31) em.‖

- Szelényi 2004; Virág 2004; Szelényi 2006 - Dilemmas of Social Power Social of Dilemmas 169 s or close to the victims) the to close or s

As Ken siness. The girls who girls The siness.

neth B Clark fmle and families r boys. These These boys. The Truly The Truly

)

- CEU eTD Collection 2011.02.01) Available at Secretariat. Nationa United Affairs Social and of Economic Department Division Population Development, and Migrat International Meeting on Group Expert Nations Beings United Human in Trafficking Omelaniuk, Irena Perspective Rights Human Beings froma Human of Human Sub Thailand, Bangladesh, in reported been has children own their selling of parents involvement example, For communities. marginalized most the amongst 170 of majority the trafficking ofsex victims and/or exploitation. Amsterdam, and Zurich in activists NGO with 80 which of women, Hungarian ―25 that me told NGO women‘s based grave numberswomen show and NGOs law of enforcementoffices of estimations trafficking, and prostitution of victims become women Romani many how on data statistical no is Hungarythere in factthat the Despite exploitation. sexual and trafficking victim become women Romani whereby this like stories unexposed several are There Laterwas with byher onshetolive relatives. rescued family her and went experiencesfollows: as pimps or her voiced smugglers exploitation, labor and sexual of purpose the asfor trafficking survived who woman, either position leading a taking were

There are sever There are sold mesold to pimpsthe whotookme Germany. to myFinall every sell day. body to addictions Ihissustain had order to addictand in alcohol and drug a was husband My crying] is [She prostitution. into me forced husband my that fact chi my in lot a suffered I http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/

al studies and researches that show family involvement in trafficking and prostitution prostitution and trafficking in involvement family show researches that and studies al

ldhood. I felt ashamed about it, I never ever wanted to talk about the about talk to wanted ever never I it, about ashamed felt I ldhood.

- 85% are Roma. She also told me that based on discussions discussions on based that me told also She Roma. are 85% - - 30% of sex workers in Zurich and Amsterdam are are Amsterdam and Zurich in workers sex of 30% Saharan Africa, Saharan 142

(B.Z.30 year old Romani woman 2009.10.23.)

, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006.pp.46. See also See also 2006.pp.46. Publishers, , Nijhoff Martinus ittmigdev2005/P15_IOmelaniuk.pdf

among others. See Tom Obokata, Obokata, Tom See others. among 170 A 0 er l Romani old year 30 A . oe i pottto are prostitution in women . An activist of a Budapest ofa activist An .

( accessed on ( accessed on Trafficking s of sex of s y,he

ion ion CEU eTD Collection globalization the of face another expose that well, as studies numerous are there However, ed no have who women Romani including women, marginalized many economy political global present the In 2003). (Harvey restructuring economic global of mechanisms the by sustained sexualized, by characterized cla and racialized is globalization trade, free privatization, flow, financial decentralization, global deregulation, the Beyond 2004:29). (James globe‖ the across (Hawkesworth relations gl inequalities of features and prime racism the power, of One relations, 2006). gender of mode new a produces and it and differently women and men intensive affects and positions it wit as of far so in agree phenomenon gendered subjects I are scholars. globalization among of debate continuing consequences and causes The liberalism. neo and globalization of critiques the on literature the upon based are arguments Our class. restructuring economic engendered tangible most a forced in globalinequality social enduring an created which the frame of who effects however, the as myself, trafficking including and activists, prostitution women Romani few a are There in the discourse o ofthe devaluation participating avoid to order in prostitution and trafficking about silent remain solelymovement the in women explained Romani many discourse, is racist inherently essentialist, this people with Faced pathology. Roma the of Therefore which ignored. crisis are inequality region social economic the over and all racism communities contemporary Roma affect and disproportionally historical of effects the while deviant, backward, of set essentialized an of consequences Alexandre 1966; ClarkB. (Kenneth povertyofculture literatureon the from ghettoand black disruption, ― itself term The scholars. even or R of position subaltern the understand to translation easy and coherence provides narrative This narratives media, and elsewhere. everyday discussions and stories political through relayed typically assumptions the that fact the underscore to interchangeably ―narrative‖ Paradigm‖ Pathology non bydefined be will it narrati cultural a as constructed is it If restructuring? economic engendered global of consequences of chain a as or narrative cultural a as framed be issue this Should asprostitution. it expose this at arise to which f questions the want what is point the of who One ethnicity. women also and educated gender poverty, highly of intersection the of some particularly movement, se The affair. internal an as exclusively issue this keep to trying movement, Romani the in groups conservative the by used mainly is approach first The prostitution. forced even in women Romani towards approaches topics tr discussed the At poorly activists. are women trafficking Romani amongst and prostitution forced of phenomenon The trafficking and prostitution forced 7.3.3 Framing

Black Cultural Pathology Paradigm‖ Paradigm‖ Pathology Cultural Black oma, but at the same time, it removes the responsibility of the decision makers, politicians, politicians, makers, decision the of responsibility the removes it time, same the at but oma, cto, o o ad ey iie opruiis o on h ―fast the join to opportunities limited very and job no ucation, - lyd 07. ihn CP icus, rfikn ad rsiuin r natural are prostitution and trafficking discourse, RCPP Within 2007). Floyed ss based social division which reflect those pervasive inequalities that are that inequalities pervasive those reflect which division social based ss ocus should be in the discourse of Romani women‘s trafficking and forced forced and trafficking women‘s Romani of discourse the in be should ocus (RCPP - Roma, particularly extreme right wing groups, as a as groups, wing right extreme particularly Roma, od prah s sd y h porsie rus n h Romani the in groups progressive the by used is approach cond ).

In this particular case I used the terms ―paradigm‖ and and ―paradigm‖ terms the used I case particular this In Rm Clua Ptooy Paradigm‖ Pathology Cultural ―Roma f Romaculture. which derives from the literature on the on literature the from derives which blzto tdy s te pta etnin f social of extension spatial ―the is today obalization

143 nntoa lvl hwvr tee r different are there however, level, ansnational

toe h tik ht lblzto i a is globalization that think who those h

as a consequence of Roma cultural cultural Roma of consequence a as

in such discursive spaces as the the as spaces discursive such in self

way based on race, gender and and gender race, on based way - etutd oai culture, Romani destructed - track‖, are left behind. behind. left are track‖,

of this paradigm are paradigm this of

resonates to the the to resonates ―Roma Cultural ―Roma

Black family family Black ve, then ve, - CEU eTD Collection ( Bretell Caroline and Simon Rita ed. experience, The Female Migration: International in Women”, of Migration International the Overview of Demographic class middle have held diploma college or school high have Mexico and Philippines fromthe femalemigrants many example, 171 the dynamic interrelationshipofstructureculture‖ and 2009:135) (Wilson arguesWilson given tostructural weight that―more be should causesofinequality, despite cultural forces: of types two distinguishes and 2009:14) (Wilson inequality‖ racial reinforce or to mentioned contribute above the of field most the from on conceptualization different scholars‘ is forces cultural of understanding mainstream Wilson‘s the with compatible not is which system Hungarian society. belief and behavior norms, frozen tradition and culture Roma cultural interpreting way emphasize essentialist to an in tend factors Conservatives segregation. and discriminations institutional as focu left mainly progressive, by Hungarian Roma, of a situation the about talking solely were it if as culture a books previous his in 1996) (1987, Wilson forces. cultural and structural unites he where (2009) Wilson Julius William by developed framework explanatory new the on argument my base to inclined am I and observations my fo on The community. Based cultural own any there are but forces structural their by excluded are they if evenremains: still towards question loyal it‖. keep to try time, same against the at yet issues, and sensitive within s struggle with conversations ―the (1993) Sider Gerald of concept the by captured well communitiesis Roma within prostitution about talk to I loans. earn to and Netherlands ser the sexual providing by mortgagesmoney to went unpaid who women as Romani about such stories encountered circumstances, frequently financial grave by or smugglers, the byeither force a rather choice,but more in employed be housekeeper. to or nanny a countries as such European jobs, prestigious Western to most went who the women where Romani about from position, Durin services. geopolitical sexual provide to and is job social accessible specific a legal into the of economy out pushed political are who women, Romani Hungarian including women, vulnerable tr sexual transnational of business growing the Nonetheless, migrant the poorest oftenwomencountries donotcome fromclassessocieties from of poor their that note to important is It 2003). affl Hochschield in R. and work‖ (Ehrenreich ―women‘s countries World do to World Third the from migration women the about

rceswhich holdthem back from integration? social Indeed, many immigrant maids and nannies are more educated than the people they work for. For For for. work they people the than more educated are nannies and maids immigrant many Indeed, settings that and segregation and discrimination by created patterns linguistic and etiquette, self of styles preferences, skills, values, worldviews, systems, belief traditions, culturaltraits(2) and onrace beliefs andviews (1)national s on the structural conditions with most oftheattention most onracialist with structural factorssuch s onthe structuralconditions (Wilson 2009:14

albeit low paid albeit lways prioritized the dominance of the economy and ―tended to discuss to ―tended and economy the of dominance the prioritized lways everal Romani women, many of them are struggling to expose these these expose to struggling are them of many women, Romani everal

- 15). (emphasis15). added)

vices to cover the family debt and expenses. The impossibility The expenses. and debt family the cover to vices - - jobs back home. Andrea Tyree and Kathrine M. Donato, „ A „ Donato, M. Kathrine and Tyree Andrea home. back jobs that that - rdc o srcua fre‖ Wlo 20:3) When 2009:133). (Wilson forces‖ structural of product emerge from patterns of intragroup interaction in settings in interaction intragroup of patterns from emerge

exploitive male members of their communities or alien or communities their of members male exploitive

of Roma studies. He says that ―cultural forces may forces ―cultural that says He studies. Roma of Totowa, N.J: Rowman Allanheld, 1986) 1986) Allanheld, Rowman N.J: Totowa, 144

Based on their narratives this is not a free a not is this narratives their on Based g my field work I never heard any story story any heard never I work field my g reflect collective experiences within those within experiences collective reflect

- shared outlooks, modes of beha ofoutlooks,modes shared afficking will always find these these find always will afficking

as a set of static and static of set a as - liberal scholars also scholars liberal . Through the

- representation, uent First First uent s and s and vior, 171 .

CEU eTD Collection term the analysis class in studied use feminism of forms 172 all while (Weedon that production.‖ note of to mode i important feminism capitalist radical in ‗patriarchy‘, also the is of structures It social 1999:20) and economic the of well cann oppression ―women‘s as that stating Marxism against argued feminists radical Moreover, 1999:20) t (Weedon relations.‖ a gender and race class, by social of irrespective they individuals, achieved abstract of paradigm, rights the be for provisions based cannot rights both ―liberalism liberalist of that the practice argued Rejecting political Marxism. the traditional and and frameworks liberalism theoretical critiques the women‘s questioned World Third fundamentally and black to response a as 1980s early and 1970s late the throughout developed hand, other the on feminism, l Radical socialist from non away a as either moved gender regarded also thus feminists Socialist ― regimes. of basis ―sisterhood‖ objective the the with on oppression argued equality that patriarchal feminism of social of ideas stance traditional the opposes against clearly stance His race. and gender as an privilegeclass givesfor approach,then, Wright‘s race.categoriesgenderand ofthe subsumes already that category intersectional complex, more a is class therefore, Wright, to According class oppressions non as sexism and racism explained regard this in essential econom and social to connected strongly and payment equal and educational to access as such resources public of distribution the at attempt any hence discrimination, for am I communities. with Roma that fact the local of aware the of existence social the alters significantly even class movements, though based rights Romani transnational in conceptualized scarcely is category a Class ethnicity. and gender with class to of has intersection inevitably the account one into trafficking, take and prostitution of issue the expose to wants one if Also, racialentrenched segregation and poverty. sense culture(in a relational andbroad the sense)mediates internal, term, use ‗ to Wilson‘s dominant cultural are lens, Roma a asstigmatized perceived population,whichinfluences the

d does not give a substantial recognition of the structural function of other inequalities such inequalitiesother of the structuralfunction ofsubstantialrecognition give a not does d Erik Olin Wright writes extensively about the complexity of class oppression in class oppression of complexity the about extensively writes Wright Olin Erik 1997: 542)1997: underrepresented and class working the in overrepresentedbe mechanism should groups oppressed racially and women that so oppressions class discriminatoryinto direct non that predicted of be would it case, because either In themselves. or class, for matter non the because either oppressed significantly are non that groups social that expect generally would Marxists - class mechanisms will tend to be especially exploited within class relation. This can be can This relation. class within exploited especially be to tend will mechanisms class rgrls o cas n ehi dfeecs o tn u aant patriarchal against up stand to differences ethnic and class of regardless ,

172 .

(1997).

- ls opeso afcs h acs o gop t te eore which resources the to groups of access the affects oppression class

in the European legal framework legal European the in

sameness‖, meaning - issue or a deviation from class struggle. (Weedon 1999:17) (Weedon struggle. class from deviation a or issue t rather refers to a system of domination. Gloria Andalúzia Andalúzia Gloria domination. of system a to refers rather t c nqaiis Ei Oi Wih (97 woe ok is work whose (1997) Wright Olin Erik inequalities. ic ot be reduced to class oppression and epiphenomenon epiphenomenon and oppression class to reduced be ot - making‘ conceptualization of class represents a problem of of problem a represents class of conceptualization r n te wrs cetn a international an creating words, other in or n h ms piiee cas oain. (Wright locations. class privileged most the in 145

and ‗ decision er ad rcie hc mk the make which practice and heory - class oppressions will be translated be will oppressions class impact of culturalforces suchas class is not recognized as a ground a as recognized not is class -

class oppressions translating into into translating oppressions class f ht Wsen eiim It feminism. Western white of - making‘ wti cas relations class within s

Class Counts: Comparative Comparative Counts: Class br oeet that movements abor

process. Inprocess. this f raig gender creating of s a sociological sociological a s through

CEU eTD Collection similarly. impacted are region underdeveloped the in women Romani findings, research my on Based Asia. Southeast in economy Asia, Southeast 173 benefits. social draws who family the in person disabled or old the by sustained are households several that is field the in observation My pensioners. female for respect greatest the show families income of sources reliable and all ‗secure‘ and benefit child benefit, regular, all Maternityare these Additionally, thing. women‘s the as regardedare benefits social benefit‘. of types women‘s ‗the becomes not benefit does child occupation the their if indeed, or, to not work no have seem men the where Inhouseholds respect. any invoke they if even role, key a play women and poverty, dire in living families In family.the within women familyof role traditional the strengthens the beyond goes well as poverty community female the men, affects than community their to related issues with concerned more are typically women as Furthermore, family. the of givers care primary a role their hinders poverty extreme women‘s that argues literature feminist of body large A credit asksfor goes, “Mother positions: key in 7.3.4 Women kept silentaboutprostitution. Szikszó in women local The that. for made aresome women that further, and work, their of part simply is violence sexual prostitution; into forced not are women that belief the reinforce will prosti it then it, forced about substantial silent frame remain they to If trafficking. urged without are activists least political women Romani at local sum, mobility, In social where from The support, is institutional impossible. position unprotected. economic and and defenseless social increasingly ― and are localities segregated women ethnically Romani exploitation, and violence, class racial and sexual to comes it when Moreover, restructuring. economic inequalit global of forms of social case other the with In intersects domination. of forms other position class economical and social low their women, Romani of trafficking with and prostitution intersect and interact which domination to cl able the So life. be social of aspects shall all pervade which Iclass and race where from or ethnicity perspective, gender, on based dominations feminist as such domination of systems radical several distinguish a take shall I Conclusively, and intellectual physical, emotional their also but position, social material their only not affects color of men and women of oppression the that suggests she when further even goes 1990) (1987;

Roksana Bahramitash (2005) in her book book her in (2005) Bahramitash Roksana oai oe ad ide, y bevtos hw ht oai oe are women Romani poverty. families‘ that they all come but there notis even enough for the fire.‖ Z. (F. Local employer 2009. 08.12) their show relieve to observations ―Roma me, told work employer to my willing indeed, more increasingly and, women Romani Repre

sentatives of local institutions believe that managing the family is the duty of of duty the is family the managing that believe institutions local of sentatives

lives. writes extensively about how women’s roles have changed under the expansion of market of expansion the under havechanged roles women’s how writes about extensively

women want to work, as there is a complete crisis (firewood, bills), (firewood, crisis complete a is there as work, to want women

173 Cid ern, oswr, okn, ahn or washing cooking, housework, rearing, Child .

on Liberation fromLiberalization Liberation on Gypsy Rows‖ enclose them and offer a very limited limited very a offer and them enclose Rows‖ Gypsy , and in part, are the very the reasons why poor poor why reasons the very the are part, in and , 146 e rpouig hi vleal psto in position vulnerable their reproducing ies

who participated in the research still research the in participated who , women‘s role is upgraded as as upgraded is role women‘s , : Gender and Globalization in in Globalization and : Gender ass is one of the systems of of systems the of one is ass –

gets money forus” money gets s n local one As uin and tution

cleaning

CEU eTD Collection occ certain one On about family. children the Romani in roles with gender discussions as several such issues had also I work field my During the ―head the these household‖ days. of feminist The ‗double a endure to have 2004).who Sharp women and Romani Most women. of day‘ ‗double (Broomhill the as problem this to Australia refers usually literature as such ultimately countries, has developed activities more housework in participation childre men‘s to given attention the of decreased lack the and outside work paid the since caregivers, as role their regarding problems created has market labor the join status. employment fragile (Bahramitash very a have increased workers skilled been have employees female low ascompanies multinational by employedare who women fewRomani veryThose 2005). of insecurities other and financial bargai collective the eroded have privatization and deregulation the that, to addition In 1999). (Standing arrangements less employment casual towards with tendency increasingly a i.e. work, and employment of nature the been therehas restructuration global economic the With benefit. childreceive can who one the is she as woman, the be to tends now provider income key the since especially on aspresti the well as income household on impact negative a has employment male of decline The During workimage was this field my about families reinforcedwomen Romani as bywell. in their view, the traditional family changing. been model has Self Gypsy the of leader The practically do to willing are women Romani that me told ‗everythin who worker social a met I

children) under and nowadays.areeconomic We pressure. (K.B. 37year work to out go also and mother, a be must woman a Today before. than woman the to fall tasks more Now child. a My change. Many more Romani women go work to before. than They live much to lives than freer whenI was start things fat now my But but housework, work. does women‘s husband all was this as w housework, of and sort any men between roles the increasingly blurred.In the daysold itwould be weird aRomafor man sweep, to wash days old the In Gypsy the of President (B.Z. community Self Roma the in persists longer no women of position Th past. the of thing a is It today. exist not does such as model family traditional the […] not are there, the women work, gothrough rubbish.men (V.Z.Church social worker 2009the tone] sarcastic a using is [she men, Great TV. watch They home. at are They […] food water, for go women the […] too money for go women The -

government 2009.09.22.) ge of the men who have lost their workplaces and therefore their source of income, income, of source their therefore and workplaces their lost have who men the of ge g‘:

o h hue ok I hn wmn ok uh oe hn men than more much work women think I work. house the do -

Government pointed out something very important stating that that stating important very something out pointed Government

day‘ also have to play a ‗double role‘ in the family, becoming becoming family, the in role‘ ‗double a play to have also day‘ e wud‘ hv dn ay a ta ws u‘ work. mum‘s was that as any, done have wouldn‘t her

n in family. This phenomenon is also typical even in in even typical also is phenomenon This family. in n 147

mn ee iie, o tee oe are roles these now divided, were omen asion, I asked them whether they as as they whether them asked I asion, Also, the fact that women can now now can women that fact the Also, - old marriedRoma womanold twowith

ning, power of labor and the and labor of power ning, - kle, low skilled, -

What do the men do? men the do What .09.21.)

- ae jobs, waged a change in change a - up or do up or e low e

CEU eTD Collection womenRomani ―Gypsy from Row‖ the that complained the of One women. Romani from labor invisible and unpaid more require policies adjustment and health social, w discussions households. and interviews local individual the on to Based from sector public money the from of costs transferring amounts institutions, educational substantial of withdrawal the additional through an puts services health and social care women‘s of on burden lack the with state the therefore the families, of welfare the for responsible traditionally are women Since 2006) Faux 2005; (Harvey neo the of features key the of One as tradingchores melonpicking, doing for market or peasants. household casualexclusivelyincome such or iseitherfrom supplemented or work, comes informal some old it an as to well entitlement as advancement the and excludes training for opportunity less low t provides very it ensures important addition, usually In and wages. is unregulated, irregular, it is sector However, informal the 1994). in employment (Bakker globalization with increased has economyinformal the in employment female fact,in that show studies Various economy. informal the in income entire their earn or supplement, job a have women Romani all Nearly to just everything do can they children for fulfill food buy even or excursions, class for money or clothes new get to have they when However, shortfalls. family of sort some on count them as women Roma many of narratives the in role central a plays children, the for especially and family, the for Provision ― when theymilk, immediately ― added was money of fridge‖. the lack in brother/sister of signs unmistakable the of one them to According how. so if and financially, struggling is family their if notice children eos Wa e ae ntoetoad afmnh w ptaa o itr hs s great is This winter. for away put we security us.(K.M.months for 37year half and two p those we in summer make the In we needs. What he melons. as wood much as take may but it, for payment get doesn‘t He winter. the in times three is This on. go they then weeks, two for wood the clears husband the from branches thetakes and goes my husband then wood, a clear theywhen and clearingwoods with deal that companies are woodThere traders. local fromthe wood getshusband My out. share we rest the have we so month, the of end the by money no have we Sometimes month. a in comes HUF 100,000 About children. two the for benefit child get We working. started I when up them give to had but benefits get to used I months. five for doesn‘twork 76,000 HUF.husband Myno Officiallymy is income Romaniold woman 2009.10.2 35 K. (T. anything. lack they that feel don‘t they and everything have they that so living, forthat‘s my fact in reason andgirls, the to I thatcan givingall tryup, I I Basically,things give

their kids‘ expectations. slender trees. This is not regular work, if they cut wood for a week then my then week a for wood cut they if work, regular not is This trees. slender - giving roles. The state structural state The roles. giving this is the model they inherited from their own parents, and all of all and parents, own their from inherited they model the is this

- old marriedold Roma woman with two children 2009.10.23.). 3.)

Even th Even mum goes out, asks for credit for asks out, mum goes

- - liberal economic impact is the decline of s of decline the is impact economic liberal g pnin Mn Roman Many pension. age ough, I did not ask them what happens if there is no no is there if happens what them ask not did I ough, ith Romani women I learned that these structural these that learned I women Romani ith 148 to be careful. I always try to pay the bills first, bills the pay to try always I careful. be to

adjustment policies mainly operate mainly policies adjustment – hr i n ml fr u little our for milk no is there

getsfor us‖ money i women reported that their their that reported women i w. He has beenunemployed has Hew.

cnie that consider o ocial services. ocial

- year ick - CEU eTD Collection the of households The strong. especially is people Roma of income and position social poor these andand in between health conditions areas. the poor correlation deterioration social The t by explained be can which population, general the as of that as bad twice is slums in living those of status health the survey, health this to According 2006). Data 2002). (Vokó, health socio mental their and physical their both well as conditions, slum in living Roma of status health the that ruin indicates 2004 collectedin to potential the have all phys and social The ofexclusion pathology 7.3.5 The . children their of perspectives the women the of psychosomatic depends uponthem. and status neurotic health psychotic, the to for link struggle Regardless, direct the illnesses. a anxieties, have Everyday all indebted. recognition, are and they survival whom to usurers provident agencies, even credit various or the agents, with agreement an to come to have women Romani job. non the In household. the of problems financial the solve non from women Romani Ro differentiating issues other the of One is used by clients. private hospital public the in infrastructure developed most the Thereby patients. and clients private for services public (ab)use who hospital local the in doctors several about and services social the how about stories recounted women Many care. private or state any access to chance no had who relatives old for care social provide to had community the in women Romani Many community. the in also but household the inside only not work int has poverty increased and expenditure public reduced decade last the In

mani women often have to take loans from a private persons or financial institutions to institutions financial or persons private a from loans take to have often women mani cope. I had to come home, as the child was a minor. I had neither work nor money. I didn‘t I money. nor work neither had I know howminor. t a was child the as home, come to had I cope. mother myin son youngest my put I here.back come to had I as and hotel a in workedI Budapest in be must insurance agoyearsfour bank, the atoverdraft an have I the month[…] 5,000HUFa cost cylindersgas paid, car, a have children The gas. with cook I lighting. heating, the electricity: to tied is pole electricity the as huge, is bill electricity My second class services well.as (B. Z. 36year old Romani woman 2009.10.21.) They her.‖(B.I.with 43years old Romani woman 2009.10.13.) her arehabilitationput in institute therefore I give hadto upeven my in seasonal job be order to […] my mother had a strokewalkcouldmyspeakshea hadnot[…]motheranymoand and

think [in the hospital] that Roma are second class citizens therefore we should get the get should we therefore citizens class second are Roma that hospital] the [in think - economic situation can be linked to their low income status (Vokó et al., 1993, al., et (Vokó status income low their to linked be can situation economic o pay back the debt. year(44 ical exclusion of Roma, their lack of civil rights and increasing poverty increasing and rights civil of lack their Roma, of exclusion ical

I took a bank loan for 100,000 HUF. I couldn‘t pay it back it pay couldn‘t I HUF.100,000 for loan bank a took I

- old Romaold widowwith two children K.V. 2009.10.21.) 149

- Roma households this is the man‘s man‘s the is this households Roma - y have been squeezed out from from out squeezed been have y caravan. Everything is run on run is Everything caravan. in - law‘s care, but she couldn‘t she but care, law‘s he lack of medical facilities facilities medical of lack he re. We have no moneyhaveWeno to re. - oai oe i that is women Romani

ensified women‘s ensified

as CEU eTD Collection ( 10 LAM women Roma young in symptoms depression of Incidence (2000): Pruebl. Csoboth, Ürmos, Gyukits, ofeducation. level same the with women Roma 3 youcheer up can nothing that sad and broken so … … happy .. .calm, at peace you… energy are fullof that felt often you have weeks 4 last the In (%) area and ethnicity to according incidence health mental and Psychological 5. Table have they that extent an such neither deal time, northeirmoney with me to to energy people‘s to Roma struggle consumes the basis society, of daily segment a this on of survive case the in that possible is it shows, 5 Table As of treatment and depression medical ineithe sufficient its not is non the suicide of attempted having reported 5.6% only while women Roma for 12.1% were attempts Suicide for 25% to compared depression of sort some from suffered women Roma of non the of 2.1% to compared depression, serious from suffered women non between depression of range the by conducted non survey and Roma 15 ofages health on a 1998 in to colleagues refer his should and Gyukits we György point, this At neuroses. and psychoses field my during that non as well as mentioning Romani of number worth pronounced a work is it questionnaire, our in depression psychological of symptoms consider also the on to effects adverse important develo potentially exert very all may is condescension disdain, it Racism, problems. deterioration, physical from Apart Source: ownresearch2009 data, Disability status persons ill/disabled with households of Ratio declaredthey are officially disabled long a is there where households of Ratio 4 Table surveys members‘ responsibility. family of female the basis solely is the members family On these for disabled. providing districts, declared slum in officially conducted are they i.e. family, the study in this disability in interviewed were who Roma

The study shows that there is no significant difference between the depression suffered by Roma and non and Roma by suffered depression the difference between significant no thereis shows that study The (N=1250)

pment of personality and spiritual well being. Despite the fact that we did not include not did we that fact the Despite being. well spiritual and personality of pment

- 24 (Gyukits et al. 2000). They established that there was a significantatherewas that They 2000).established al. et (Gyukits 24

3 . These are interesting research results and the recognition the and results research interesting are These . - , Roma and Roma women. 9.3% of the examined Roma Roma examined the of 9.3% women. Roma and Roma

% 13 25 Non BAZ County 32,5 36 33 21 Roma Non BAZ County

- - Roma term illness/disabled person in the family, the in person illness/disabled term 150

- ntal health problems. ntal

ee ihy fetd y long by affected highly were 11

12): 911 12):

28 40 Roma 44 52 39 25 Roma

- Romani women suffered from va from suffered women Romani -

915.

r Pest County or BAZ County. r PestCounty BAZCounty. or - Roma women between the the between women Roma

18 32 Non Pest County 37 48 38 41 Non Pest County

- - - Romani women. 50% women. Romani Roma Roma - term illness or or illness term

- the non the

Roma women women Roma

difference in differencein 36 40 Roma 25,5 33 31 2 Roma 4

Roma. Roma.

rious i.e., i.e.,

CEU eTD Collection no (with grade 8th Max. 8th g gradeUnder 8th and locality to according interviewees the of education of level highest The 6. Table women had completed or secondary non of 62% County, Pest In women. Roma the for 19% was this while baccalaureate, non of 57% County, BAZ In differences. greater even education secondary of proportion the was at looked we non education level the next The education. of primary lower 92% had only while women Roma grade, 8th attained having women Roma of 38% with sharper even t women Roma the for while education, grade non ofthe In BAZ 43% County, of 6). education(Table level their in difference significant a is there Hungary, in classes social lowest the to belong non and Roma both of status social typical fromThe thatis from the drawn was 5percent sampleof theofpopulation, lowest income 7.3.6 Struggle on their mental well becomesrecent fortifiedby the macro theirconstitutes collective memory, however non financially for deprived,sociallygenerations. experience and excluded This marginalized alsoexplained macro with being between Romaand showdifferences non the marginalized people regardless happiness ethnicity.mental However, well and oftheir In canexclusion thepathology sum, reinforce ofpowerlessand d the everything andI have be to strong andhappy.‖ year(34 Romani old woman with three kids) their children. tobehappyareforced Theyas and they important optimistic consider for be itto Based many happiness women‘s observations, has onmy Romani fostered been by their deprivation than non happiness higher is anda better they strat have compared non to36%of the depressed fromregion. oftheBAZ respondents Roma reported 52% County being happy Interestingly, Romaniwomen are however, happie Source: Ownresearch2009 data, … exhausted … very upset ethnicity rade, without skills rade, without children.respondent succinctly Asone putit, (%)N=1250) (

in the educational system theeducational in - - being. Romani women. Romani

- Roma respondents.ItRoma women thatRomani subjective seems - economic women have changes. Romani

43 24 19 Non BAZ County vocational education, while only 8% of the did. whileonly Roma vocational education, of 8% -

economic restructuring and vocational certificates, in which case we found found we case which in certificates, vocational and - 66 60 Roma -

Roma women. Desp women. Roma 151

his was 81%. In Pest County the difference was was difference the County InPest 81%. was his egy tocopeegy withsocial and economic

- Romani women.Romani The differences be can

- Romani women‘s downward mobilization women‘sRomani mobilization downward r than non ―My future myis children. I survive to have 81 39 42 Roma 69 74

- Roma women had a maximum of 8th of8th a maximum women had Roma oa oe hd criiae and certificate a had women Roma

- Romani women,Romani particularly in which has a significantawhich has impact ite the fact that Roma people people Roma that fact the ite 38 33 5 Non Pest County

48 57

been trained tobe trained been efenseless position of position efenseless -

Roma

51 70

Roma Roma 92 33 59 Roma -

CEU eTD Collection 19 2010) http://www.mtaki.hu/docs/080611_12/rovid/nemenyi_maria_kisebbsegi_identitasok.pdf Sci of Academy Hungarian fromthe downloaded be can which synopsisof a strategies”, identity children’s Roma social psychology. by 174 self their children tostudy,encounter. theproblems despite they diminishes for important Stigmatization it considered study the in interviewed men, and women system. both Roma, time same educational the self against and confidence bias into transformed be can experience collective This school. primary finish to them discourages even or studies increasinglyde whichcolor, skin andidentity ethnic on based prevalent are practices discriminatory and humiliation system school present the In following the in children their way: of difficulties educational the explained woman Romani A from that system me told educational women families they towhom toprovide social services. have and Hungarian ear girls by hampered Romani the are opportunities the educational their of in sometimes some present Thirdly, university. discrimination to kindergarten hidden and open partl be may discrepancy the Secondly, inequalities. educational non and for Roma indicators education in discrepancy significant the behind found be can reasons Several Source: years)(Average36 ofsample: age baccalaureate certificateSchool Baccalaureate 8th Grade withskills further education)

An important contribution to school stigmatisation is Mária Neményi’s study „Minority identities examined examined identities „Minority study Neményi’s Mária is to stigmatisation school contribution important An 53 year they well however go, they wherever foreheads, our on ―G‖ the is there as good,no did it butallowed, not wasthis nurserythat teacher the toexplained they Then corner. investigated they and my happened what and them tell daughter to Government my Local the bit to childrenwent I Hungarianpunished. was the daughter of one school nursery to went children the Hungarian the hit couldn‘t Gypsies the th theirs,other, each only children, not but hands children‘s Hungarian the held they them, to nice not were teachers the to, attention paid not were They them. with bothered Gypsybeat them,tugged them.The earstheir hit and Gypsy a which was school, remedial a into thrown were girls The teachers. the with problems of lots were g 6th completed They them. of one not grade, 8th reach even didn‘t children My

Own research dat - old marriedold Roma woman two children. with 2009.10.23.)

the case, and saw that my daughterhadbeen hit andyet she was told to stand in the - -

only school before. This is why they didn‘t finish, as the teacher was very strict, very was teacher the as finish, didn‘t they why is This before. school only Roma women. The first is partly attributable to segregated schools and their and schools segregated to attributable partly is first The women. Roma – -

assurance, which, in turn, in most cases lead cases most in turn, in which, assurance,

ences homepage ences

a, 2009 e Hungarians would tease them but not the other way round. When round. wayother the not but them teasewould Hungarians e

57 26 31 .

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y due to the various forms of of forms various the to due y ly marriage or by their own own their by or marriage ly 62 36 26 s to school failure. school to s

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- CEU eTD Collection early, families school primary started finishing they before end the in but education, would their parents continue their to time them the supported at have that said children, many with thirties, their in them of both the after look or house, the around work must girls ― that: said adult an workeras becameskilled awho Szikszó, of―Chinatown‖ the fromwoman Romani old An their in obstacles about talked girls the family. female prevented invisible Allthis them work fromfurther. studying and in roles female women expected the to according act and home, at Romani help to had having like childhood Many system. welfare state an deep In age:this even study to important is it why into insight rich a provides story Her school. elementary middle a met I fieldwork my During eldest togo ones girls thelittle notime and had toschool. hadtolook after divisi the to due and, clothes shoes, no had they that reported Many poverty. great by accompanied often is practice this women Roma older For children. have and married get to school up give girls that said often is it education, to comes it When like that. (K.B. 47year been have wouldn‘t it perhaps to me allowed had she if […] household peasantmy the with work in to mother had I also and brothers and sisters younger my of care take to had pri I as finish [….] to me allow didn‘t mother My too. children had and alongside worked I since results, good with and older, was I when school technical and school primary finished I 53 myself.‖ in it pay and out it fill and over goI Now,in‘. it paycan‘t I and can‘t I as out this I money. count can I reading. practice out to fill couldn‘t storybooks got have I then Since great. that‘s and letter a read cheque, a out fill can I where point the to got have I Now 6th. finish to going am birth gave I school. to go really can‘t you then and came[…] children the then and old a years at 15 was married I when got family a we established I that age. youngis truth The it. like really didn‘t and grades three first the attended I in 101 was s school to went I stonemason. I a husband. mywith off ran Ias up it gaveIthen became And spinning. weaving and learnt and Miskolc brother older My school. to went regularly couldn‘t who one the wassister older My it. that‘sby candlelight,studied do, and school fromhome went Ito study. to just nothing had I did. she what family the in knew Everybody everything. did and us after mu She school. of out taken was sister older my so work, to had mother my drunkard; a was father My brother. older an and sister older an have I (K.B.53 cost.‖ any at goodwoman six with children, 2009. is studying study, them let married, get 16 are they girls factory…the plaster wit spoke just we Well, in carer. animalworks an boy as eldest America, my Well strictly. up brought were They pushed. been hadn‘t we if skills hairdr the to Misike waiter a is andZsolt goes college to went study to work. social Marika Grade. 8th completed have children my of three All - year eventeen then. (B.K. 44 year - d constant poverty girls have to work and compensate for the shortcomings of the of shortcomings the for compensate and work to have girls poverty constant d married Roma old woman six with children 2099.10.12.)

at the time time the at forms. And now it‘s very good that I don‘t need that‘ oh please come here, fill here, comeplease oh that‘ need don‘t I that good very it‘s now And forms.

- o o col s h dd vrtig t oe M odr rte ad I and brother older My home. at everything did she as school to go old old married Roma woman four with ch –

against my father‘s will will father‘s my against 12.08.) . One of them said regretfully that her eldest (a 16 year 16 (a eldest her that regretfully said them of One . - old Romaold widowwith two children 2009.12.08.) - - 17 years old but aren‘t married. There is time for them to to them for time is There married. aren‘t but old years 17 aged Romani woman who is in the process of finishing finishing of process the in is who woman Romani aged

153

at 16. I had completed three grades, and now I now and grades, three completed had I 16. at

st have been in 5th or 6th grade; she looked she grade; 6th or 5th in been have st younger children.‖ younger h them on the phone and they work in a in work they and phone the on them h –

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CEU eTD Collection 197 neo shifttoward was major a there that argue (2005) Harvey (2000) Negri and and Hardt society. from the institution separate as a market the to gave it precedence emerged, and market regulating new s a century, eighteenth the of end the at him, to According institution. subordinate a societyas of human part been has market the human history, throughout He argues that newly 175 the joined who women Romani those that note to important is It activists. women cons new a gives Feminism 2003) Hochschield and (Ehrenreich help. need who community the of members and children their supporting into resources financial and energy mental and physical their com invest women these the in and family the in women Romani of role traditional the state, welfare declining a of context the In them. but of care payers, take also tax they and pool labor future the produce only not women Romani societies. of life o part important an is it though even calculations economic national andimportant activist career. roleintheir mobilization m active politically and leaders local become have who women Romani those of lives the In women. Romani for mobility social the for means only is system educational the Meanwhile, difference. racial and inequality based ethnic and research and produces My unwittingly instead mobility, women. social promote not problems Romani does tremendous facing especially system education dysfunctional Roma, the that well of as show attainment findings economic and and their social imprint the education that maintains further experiences inequality their cultural structural The collective institutions. towards their attitude regarding also and especially identity ethnic circumstances,racialized difficult em in living women non and Romani between differences great are there demonstrates, research the As the family. few a if impr considerably even not that is see we what Yet, employedlow as been have women Romani women. for opportunities employment greater to Romani for places argumen main the of One workwomen. few a offering enterprises multinational and local small relatively some are There region. the in rate employment the change significantly could who investors the to belong women high Romani Roma/ particularly, addition, In children. and women color, entrenchedaddressthe poverty to failedand growth market global ope elite tiny a to prosperity brought has the market free country the of whereas restructuring economic shocki global was In periphery northern the locations. and certain regions relevanceof the evaluates decidesand It the position. of local dominance specific a the in witness women Romani of inequalities class gender ethnic, and contextualized the influence structures these how and context economic and f My Concluding7.4 remarks The traditional role of Romani women as primary caregivers of the family is ignored in in ignored is family the of caregivers primary as women Romani of role traditional The

Karl Polanyi (1944) criticized (1944) criticized Polanyi Karl lyet potnte ad hi hat sau, hc, n ot ae, s ikd o their to linked is cases, most in which, status, health their and opportunities ployment 0s, with a stronger emphasis on the free market, which was imposed by international agencies. agencies. international by was imposed which market, free the on emphasis stronger a with 0s, - ieldwork has enabled me to explore how macro how explore to me enabled has ieldwork risk group in this region. My fieldwork l fieldwork My region. this in group risk

ove the income of households, only serves to create new problems in in problems new create to serves only households, of income the ove

the self the ciousness, language and line of argumentation for local Romani Romani local for argumentation of line and language ciousness,

- regulating free market system in his work, hiswork, in system market free regulating ts in favor of neo of favor in ts - skilled workers in TESCO, this opportunity does this TESCO, workersin skilled 155 munity should be valued and appreciated as as appreciated and valued be should munity ocation has been ignored by major economic major by ignored been has ocation

175 - embers of local NGOs, school played an played school NGOs, local of embers liberalism has always been that it has led has it that been always has liberalism -

economic forces shape the local social local the shape forces economic that disproportionallyofthat peopleeffects

ocial structure based on the self the on based structure ocial rating as the engine of the the of engine the as rating f the social and economic and social the f

The Great Transformations. Transformations. Great The reinforces class, gender class, reinforces

the exclusion from exclusion the - liberalism in the late late the in liberalism

- Romani Romani g to ng -

CEU eTD Collection my hasalso it generated academic local but interests, some change. and political solely serve not does fieldwork my of that hope truly I discussion. academic or making decision object the often are women Romani p Indeed, issues. their language about their construct talk to and rhetoric of voice a offered process research the in participation leve local the at even So, families. Romani ―decent‖ integrated, from come all NGO Romani local established olicy - making debates, or even of academic scholarship, rather than participating subjects of subjects participating than rather scholarship, academic of even or debates, making l the ―elite Roma‖ are the most mobilizable for political action. Their Their action. political for mobilizable most the are Roma‖ ―elite the l 156

CEU eTD Collection agendas,further feminist hand, while withthe their ontheother contend they own must themselves: on aofHowever, women Romani contradictory the women offers Romani sitefor same the view theirexpand scope and ofcontrol contributegender tothe humanrights and equality regime. argue thatinternationalor certain and politicalfactorsabove immediate ofwork. outside myI their Based on findings level, women been Romani have toallowtheirown forced agendas tobe influenced by to gain politicalspaceand transnational re international organizationsthat advocateInrights, rights. particularlywomen‘s human order transnational level. equalitywom and designed used discourse, by Romani My thefirst thatthere hypothesis research findingssupport emerged isanewly gender parties and internationalorganizations. participatio specificgender community.equality Moreover,thepolitical thestrengthen can discourse discourse translated becontested will transformed, byactivists andina sometimes local movement whichisg Hypothesis: main questions,argumentsandfindings ofmy study. which ha IAt theoutset ofmyformulated questionsand study, someresearch relating hypotheses under the―empowering women‖. of banners Romani through ―Romani women‘sand they promote ―humandemocracy‖ which rights‖ and rights ―women‘sat the transnationallevel, issues‖ andaswell as thelocal centers) Hungary).and at level the local As part (Szikszó, I of closely research, my observed the transnational networks level and Roma (mappinginternationalresource thevarious theabove concernsWith I outlined an mind, inmy undertook empirical research proje andRoma non by andintercations the complicatedrelationship describing NGOs, other among donors, Ibiographical togo aimed level. beyond representat thesuperficial women‘s political and activism thestructural social discursive status, from and through the narrowIandfocused local my study, (particularly have on transnational Hungarian) Romani gender,manifestations ethnicity of class incontemporarylife. and women‘s Romani The aim analyze ofthisdissertation hasbeen and empirical material toexplain throughthe struggles social women‟s Romani and Revisiting activism Conclusion: political

community? andgenderare transnational discoursesandmodified translated inthe specific local leveltransnational respect in How areintersections ethnicity, of gendermanifested atthe localand andclass ve been tested in the scope of my research. Here, I thescopeve Here, testedin been ofmysummarizeand research. will reiterate the n ofRomaniwomen, as as apolitical wellused as commodity be by political

There newequality) (gender isamarginalized emerging discourse inthe Roma -

Roma activists, and their also activists, within Roma groups. the one hand, they can use human rightsthe one they can hand, human to languageastool use aprogressive

The emergenceThe by isassisted transnational ofRomaniwomen‘s activism eneratedlevel.gender at The rights and the transnational human

ganizations advocate for victimized Romani women advocate victimized ganizations inorder for to of Romani women activism andsocialposition?of Romaniwomen activism

cognition andtofind theinternational alliances on 157

ento the whohaveaccess

ion of women‘s activism, ion ofwomen‘s

discourses anddiscourses activities

How ct at ct CEU eTD Collection andimportant activist career. roleintheir mobilization have the meansIn the for social lives women‘s ofthose women Romani mobility. Romani who and racial proves difference. based to be Meanwhile, findings, theeducational system onthe problems unintenti My showthat the dysfunctional research findingsalso education systemfacing tremendous fromfurtherexclusion economic the social women. maintainstheand Romani attainment of between Romaniandnon Theposition. comparative household that research demonstrates are theregreat differences ethnic, gendercontextualized ofRomani and womenina inequalities specific class local forces and the local economicco impact social However, hoped itis thatmy macro empiricalillustrates chapter convincingly how organizations. local become local encounters, and commoditiesof activists NGOs transnational chapteras ofthe mypoint forthcoming 7 ethnography starting about to process ethnographic dataI my critically and uponmy reflect the role. consider empirical localimmersion in requires which activism still more (alienation time distancing and myself) It contested at byactivists. level due the local womenis tomy Romani and long deep transnationallyconstructed genderdiscourseand negotiated istransformed, humanrights and Nevertheless, f politics‖ (Verloo 2006:224). rethinking anof andparticipationin representation citizens era ofthe ofpost development methodsandinformed ofcomplex tools by intersectionality and theory, a Inbetween as inequalities. words, Verlo various other more sensitive language,isnecessaryit thedifferencesrelationship tocomprehend and Istructural of women. Romani Mieke position agree Verloo tocreatea with thatinorder policy integrategender, and ethnicitycollection class analysis. indataand My academiclack research illustratesthat researchthesystematic projectsstill effort to women‘s structural position. and genderpolicy violence.researchesavailable Romani These oriented demonstrate educational as lack with statusas well childcare ofaccess to facilities), poor health conditions amongst drop of education (low literacy access lackrate, education, overrepresentation higher of to gender, inlack are ethnicityclass position regarding and manifested women‘s Romani social UNDP, and CoE OSI. researches These answer my partly mainly policyresearches oriented by commissioned inCentral women‘sposition andEasternRomani social isdemonstrated Europe ina few, betweenposition theexternal con andinternalhierarchies: ―dialogical women‘sRomani activism,which character‖ isinformed by of their peculiar globalanimated by actors,suchas OSI. thespecific theEU, CoEand also Mystudy shows against male resistanceOn theidentified is women‘sthrough one hand,position continuous Romani their countries. structur universalizing idea―gender equality‖ ofunderscoring thatlanguage and ignoringthe

become localbecome and politically leaders activemembers played of NGOs local school an - making asin the academic well asmaking literature there isvery l ally women inthe relationsspecificpost power unequal toRomani

- dominated leadership within the Roma political that, activism dominated leadershiptheRoma within - outs, etc),lackouts, ofemploy

ollowing myollowing study firstindepthhowthe my hypothesis, fails todemonstrate onally producesreinforcesclass, gender andbased ethnic inequality - Romani Romani

women social withsimilar status. Thestructural inequality ment (which strongly correlates with thelow stronglycorrelatesment (which with 158 ntext andhowinfluence thesentext structures the

international organizationssuchas the o put it, ―whato putit, needed isthe is first question that intersectionsfirst of that question test and subordination. test and subordination. imited knowledge onthe knowledge imited

To date, inEuropeanTo date, how transnational andhow transnational -

communist communist in most cases,in most is - identity

- economic CEU eTD Collection involvement inlocal and Hypothesis: what called is ‗Wes of symbolic configurations power rooted it, otherness‘ in‗Eastern to and, incontradistinction advantages(e.g. thedominance ofnon Furthermore, racial thepostcolonial orderup‘ and tojustify empowerment statusquoofnon in the of power,imitation inreality (nevera are always continuous they in aredomination discursive based upon elite demonstrated interviews by withRomaniwomenactivists. the The of patterns This creates intertwineda and complex, paradoxical, symbiotic withthe Roma relationship based translationm is findings onmy this To talk aboutthecapacityrightsgenderequalityof human discourse, translating and the argumentation womenactivists. for Romani app IBasedwith educated Romani interviews thatmany onmy women, ofthem observed integrated toconstruct Romaniabout their women language their andissues. talk m feminist participatory include women to Romani inknowledge Based method production. on than participating ofdecisionI subjects making.This wasreasonswhy one ofthea chose Indeed, Rom action. respond eagerly most callrights they ofhuman are tothe and activeinpolitical themost right discourse.atgender evenequality So, the local and ―elite level Roma‖ the integrated womenRomani influence their capacity toac literate). as research So my demonstrates,of status andgeographical theposition social and finally, and communities their Romani representatives local rural andsemi (usually elites; theRomani order then movesdown toinclude Ro (primarily rightsAmerican) followed human by Eastern entrepreneurs, non European the humanand rights policyadvocacy very elites at tobeWestern thetopoftend ladder My secondRoma within research supports the hypothesis because principles supposedly ontheof class activists. capacities belonging and depends translation Hypothesis: y offered theparticipatorytolocal observation, research a process ofrhetoric voice ropriated languagegives offeminism, anewconsciousness line whichof the and 2. 3.

for human rights andgender rights for human equality What tobe determinewoman activists, tofight kindofpersonaltrajectories Romani activ political

How doclassdifferences amongstRomaniwomen affectand their access rights to

The local of humanrights conceptualization gender of equality andtranslation Unfair treatment, discriminationUnfair and violence women Romani treatment, determine against ani women areani womentheobject andpolicy often ofpolitical tern normality‘. ism?

transnational activismon class. based

hierarchy is a resultofmaterial resource notjust isa hierarchy

and structural legacies.have Whereas an Roma - Roma who have who cause),Roma Romani taken upthe butalso ainly by non done the

? 159 cess political and activism cess internalize thehuman

mani elites (urban,educated Roma) - Roma dominance.Roma -

Roma human rights elite. rights human Roma

- political activism today, making debates rathermaking - ending) modeofending) ‗catch

- -

- CEU eTD Collection within theRoma social sciencesas awhole. promises toraise the ofthe profile research field bydiminishing th studies inEurope, ‗race‘ critical theoryand post My envisioned inthe cognateareas contributions also are ofpost rightsethnic stu and and thearea to anthropology, makes mywork studies,human seminalcontributions gender of a phase, researcherembryonic expanding sociology inan however, inan within research field anthropology, particularlyin respect ofRom opted totake bridgesgaps thestudy andtheoretical empirical in ofsociology and This area isunder in other countriescontinents. and specificities andamong ofracially thedifferencessituations Mycomparative offers a study for framework research further boththe tounderstand struggle sho Stepping theconsider and broaderRomaniwomen‘s back viewsocial of political activism to Perspectives struggle,and islikely it possibly toremain soforcenturies. decades, narratives that also explain oppressioninvisible thattheyencounter socialThe andwomen‘s through political activism. solidarity women.However, women‘s storiesalsosomeunspoken, amongst expose Romani families. Thereveal interviews the inte wherecommunities, insustaining haverole women and an protecting important their One ofthe study knownmatriarchic findings ofthe Roma showstheless face ofsome challeng interviewees tofightagainst ownfamily thenorms had oftheir and and community to problematic andwithin against‘ of‗fighting the Many systemof oppression. ofthe In ofthe most st predestined them. fate andfor their lifestyle families‘ which socio Icommunity. women activists whom The meet Romani research during went against my the oftheMost interviewees ona took life through political activism. experiencedsometimes genderseek thatencourage racial and social violence, justice themto stimulating Gypsy relationsgiven practiced relations intheand families toidentity relationships, constructsof female rela power determined by the followingofcommunitiesand themale factors: thefamilies, social status in theirinterviews life. Romaniwomen,their Basedwitheducated onmy discriminated compared tothose who to beactive thathave status are a inpolitical activism even higher they though least My mysince thoseRomani womenare research finding modifies lasthypothesis, likely more - ness and gender, motivation responsethe individual and the and environment, ness of e the existing andexisting e persistent the racial hierarchy.

professionaland friendlyThey fellow‘s relationships. witnessed theirand Romani ws many similarities with indigenous, third worldthird withindigenous, andcoloredwomenws many activists. similarities

ories the keycatalyst politicalwas socialmobilization ories and the in theoverarching

- tions experienced during childhood and experiencedadulthood, themale duringtions childhood researched and lacks theoretical conceptualization. The approach I conceptualization.approach and theoretical Theresearched lacks have dies.

for emancipationa an is people, multi oppressed

areand discrimination politicallypassive face harsher - rnal narration aboutrnal and the intimate supportive narration changing rol changing

a groups onthea social andpolitical periphery.As 160 - - economic situation andeconomic situation ethnic identity had colonial studies. I studies. colonial my hope that work

e their bothin families and inthe Roma

- marginalized women groups women marginalized - socialist and transition socialist e marginalized position of position e marginalized

political life is - generational - female -

CEU eTD Collection Gloria.Andalúzia, 1987. Altorki, Soraya El and Camillia Aghion, an Philippe Agamben, Giorgio. 1998. Alexander Alcoff,Linda Michael Martin, Hames IstvánÁdám, Acton ofthe Thomas. Nicolae.world and2001.‗Citizens Gheorghe andnowhere: minority, ______. 2004.'Modernity,Is"Gypsies": Culture and a there Meta Acton, Thomas. 2000. Abu Abu General Works Bibliography - - Lughod,Lila. eds. 1998. Lughod,Lila. Writing against Culture. In 1991. - Floyd, Nikol G. 2007. Floyd, Nikol Aunt LuteAunt Books Field Ltd. 151 64(2): Development". Stanford Politics 2006. andEasternEurope Roma ofCentral ethnic and Guy Roma‘‘, humanrights inW. ed. for Press N.Saul & S.Tebbutt. Understand Anddothe ofGypsies? Dutch theRepresentation Really Exist?' Hertfordshi :PrincetonPrinceton, N.J. University Press Research 137 Press: Working thePresent in

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. Palgrave Macmillan 1980. d Bolton, Patrick. 1997."Ad Theory ofTrickle University Press re: University ofHertfordshire University re: Press Scholarship and theGypsyCommitment and Struggle Romani in Studies Scholarship use: Syracuse University Press Borderlands/la Frontera TheBorderlands/la NewMestiza Szikszó. Egy abaúji község története.Szikszó. Egy község Szikszó. abaúji Homopower andbare sacer: life sovereign Review ofEconomic Studies – 172

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Between PastandFuture: the pool: Liverpool pool: University - Down Growth and Growth Down . San Francisco: Spinster/ y Press.Hertfordshire of

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CEU eTD Collection Babusik, Ferenc. 2002. 1990. Autonómia Foundation. Arondeker, Arjeli. orHow Queer „Border/Line Race Matters Sex: Postcolonialities, Outside Arato, Theory, So 1992.‗Social Andrew. Civil Appadurai, eds. 1997 Arjun. ______. 2006. ______. 1996 Appadurai, 1990.Disjuncture and Arjun. Diff acriticalAponte, ofIn theunderclass: Robert. 1990.Definition Gans analysis. ed. H. Anthias, Floya,YuvalNira and Anthias, FloyaYuvalNira. and ______. Anthias, Floya,YuvalNira and Angel ______. 1990. - Ajani, Asale and Victoria Sanford eds. 2006 VictoriaAjani, andeds. Sanford Asale 2006 Budapest: Kávé Kiadó. no. 2(2005):236 the United States. „ Szombathely, Hungary In Socialism‘ Cambridge:University Press Cambridge Duke University Press UniversityPress Minnesota of Featherstone eds. Sociology inAmerica London :Routledge gender,boundaries :race, c nation, Rights Center. Understanding Oppression‘, ofRomani EducationalRacea Access as divisions, Class advocacy, and activism. Perspectives ofColor Feminist by 1989. Modernity at large : cultural dimensions ofglobalization,Modernity at :cultural large dimensions Women, State Nation, Fear small of Face,Making Haciendo Soul. Making Caras.Creative andCritical Az ózdi régiócigány ózdi népessége Az

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, numbers onthegeography :anessay ofanger.

tercensions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studiestercensions: ofPostcolonial International Journal

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New Brunswick,New :RutgersUniversity Press N.J.

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