38 Portland's Changing Riverscape

Chapter 3 Portland's Changing Riverscape James G. Ashbaugh Department of Geography Portland State University

When the first white settlers arrived of the population. A description of the in what is now Portland over 150 years Willamette will help 'in under­ ago, the was virtually standing factors that brought about a pristine river. Indians used it for these changes. transportation and fishing but their WILLAMETTE RIVER impact was minimal. The white settlers, however, immediately platted a town, The Willamette River originates in built docks and started using the river. the Cascades and Coast Range and Therein began a series of changes and flows 100 miles not:t]J.ward over a modifications which continue to this meandering course to City day. Within a few years wharves and where it drops 50 feet over· Willamette ind ustry lined the banks and there Falls, then flows at a low gradient to its were several ferry crossings. Increasing confluence with the 15 numbers· of ships used the harbor. miles distant. The Willamette has an Eventually were built and annual runoff of 26,000,000 acre feet, replaced, a seawall was added, the most of which occurs 'duripg the was deepened and transferred winter. dams built' after 1938 from the east to the west side of the as part of the Willamette Basin Plan river, and an island was enlarged to store runoff during the winter and re­ accommodate Portland's first airport. lease water during the dry summers. On the east a freeway replaced This has tended to reduce the natural river-related industrial and transport fluctuation in seasonal flow, as well as uses. The Willamette, which became improve water quality and reduce flood­ heavily polluted before the 1960's, has ing. Prior to World War II, low areas been rehabilitated and now supports near the river in the Portland area" were water related recreation. Today's subject to flooding in the winter. riverscape has relics of the past side by The river level in Portland is also side with new housing, stores, offices, influenced by tJ-le level of the Columbia. and recreational development. The Columbia River's maximum runoff The factors responsible for the is in May ,and June. This high water changes that have taken place on the ponded the Wtllamette and caused river are complex and include: flood flooding ill' low lying areas. Dams in control, sewage abatement, improvement British Columbia, Washington and of navigation, transferral of port Montana have reduced this problem facilities downstream, highway con­ and there has been no significant struction, air pollution control, loss of spring flooding on the Columbia or the industry, increase in downtown building, Willamette since 1948. Before the building and changes in lifestyles and attitudes of the dams the major historic flood on Portland's Changips.. Riverscap.e I 39 the Columbia River (1894) inp.ndated a became an undesirable area, especially large part of downtown Portland. ,during low water in the summer. Portland's ,changfng ri~erscape can Sewag~ also accumulated during spring perhaps best be seen by comparing and winter when ~higb river levels specific areas along the river a~d caused the water to rise above the analyzing the factors responsil)le for sewer oiIffalls a~d ' backed up the changes. The areas to 'be discussed into gowntown buildings. . are: The Downtown Waterfront, -the East Frequent floods near the river were Central Waterfr~nt, Johns Landing, a nuisance and caused bqsinesses to McCormick Fier, RiverPlace, and Swan seek higher ground to the west (Figure Island (FiglJre 3.1). Bridges, an esp~cially 3.2). The city decided that. a solution.to important .componept of the riverscape, the Hooding and sewage backup had are'discussed separately. to be -found. A seawall would keep out flood water' but the city charter did not Downtown Waterfront permit a' local jmpravement district for The Downtown Waterfront has under­ this purpose". Sewer cQnstruction, gone more change than a'ny othel sec­ however, was allowed so' the se~wall tion of the river (Figure 3.1, A). Some became part of the sewer plan. A changes have occurred because of river­ seawall was built from S. W. Jefferson related uses such as shipping, flooding to N. W. Glisan streets (Figure 3.1). An and waste disposal; since 1970 changes interceptor sewer built behind the have occurred because the downtown se"awall carried all effluent to a was declining. Efforts to revitalize pumping station at the foot of S. W. downtown' h~we included prQjects to Ankeny Street (Strong.and MacNaughton, beautify the waterfront and have 1929). At low water the raw sewage resulted in the development of a water­ flowed by gravity dir~ctly into the river. front park. During high water it had to be pumped.. The Downtown Waterfront was The seawall along the west Qank of Portland's initial shipping area. In' its the river was constructed of solid heyday there was a contin!1ous line of concrete 18 feet wide at the base and :wharves ,along the riyer. J:he opening 32 feet "high. This was abov~' all known of the Panama in 1914 stimulated flood~ except ;that of 1894. The wall has intercoastal trade. which increased never- .been topped, although the harbor congestion and resulted in the Christmas flood of i964 came very movement of facilities downstream, close. The seawall project succeeded in away from downtown. By 1915 few ships keeping water out of downtown and used the downtown waterfront (Figure kept sewage out of basements. Part of 3.2). the sewer project plan also called for a As the city grew, outdoor privies 24 foot-wide esplanade along the seawall were no longer adequate and sewer to provide river access for pedestrians, lines were placed under the stream but it was not built (Staniford, C. W., courses flowing from the West Hills. et aI, 1924). In 1931 the" city decided to They terminated at outfalls built at the construct a public market near the seawall low water line and discharged under between the Morrison and Hawthorne the wharves. The growth of population Bridges. Completed in 1933, it never between 1890-1920 increased the enjoyed the popularity of the Farmer's volume of sewage and the waterfront Market it replaced, which was strung 40 Portland's Changing Riverscape

Figure 3.1: View of Portland towards the imately 2 114 miles. The north. (A) Downtown Water­ Columbia River is at the top front, (B) East Central Water­ of the photo (Photo: Photo front, (C) Johns Landing, Art). {D) McCormack Pier, (E) RiverPlace, (F) Swan Island. along S. W: Yamhill Street. Both shoppers Bridges are (a) MQrrison, (b) Steel, (d) Burnside, (e) and vendors preferred the informal Broadway, (f) , atmosphere of the street market. '(g) Marquam, (h) Fremont. Increasingly the area came to be used The distance between the for parking space by the growing Marquam (g) and number of automobile commuters . Fremont Bridge (h) is approx­ attracted to downtown. Portland's C~anging Rive.rscape 41

Figure 3.2: Portland waterfront in 1915. View toward the west. Note there was a high bacterial count, and absence of ships -along the that sludge was accumulating on the waterfrQnt. To, avoid harb.or river's bed (Gleeson, 1936). A primary cOf}.gestion, vessels w~~e sewage treatment plant was proposed berthing downstream. In for the Columbia ~lough south of the upper center of photo is the central business' district Columbia River; how~ver, funds were which had moved away from not available during the Depression. the river to C\void flooding. Finally in 1952, 19 years after the 1933 Its elevation of 50-60 feet report, the plant was built. New inter­ was 20-30: feet higher than ceptor sewers were constructed on both along the river. The Powers Building -1878 (P) also' on sides of the river. On the west the Figures 3.3 and 3.4, can' be }?umpjng station terminated at the foot used as a reference point for of Ankeny Street. Sewage was pumped change aloog the river (Photo: under the river to a trunk line which Oregon Historical Society, carried the sewage to .the plant on Negative #G16921). Columbia Slough. ~yer pollution q>n­ tinued, how~ver, with discharge from By 1929 the feculence of the river pl,llI? and paper mills, canneries, and was so great that. people were repelled upstreaf!1 m\lnicipal sewage. rather than attract~d to the area. Water Finally, in the m,iddle 1960's a massive related recreation became severely cur­ cleanup of the Willamette was initiated. tailed. The water pollution, at times, Mandated by law and. aided by various W{lS so gt:eat that even the hardiest grants and tax incentives, the progra:t.n forms of life could not survive proceeded )Vith greqt popular support. (Qregonian, 1936). A major study c,On­ Municipalitjes upgraded sewage facilities ducted from 1926-33 concluded that: the from primary to secondary. Pulp and water had a negative oxygen- balance, paper mills and canneries were forced 42 Portland's Changing Riverscape

Figure 3.3: in 1944. View 3.3). The project necessitated the razing is to the north. Front Avenue is small road to the left side of a large number of Portland's oldest of photo. The seawall is on buildings. the right. Some of the oldest Constru\,:tion of the highway was buildings were razed to make interrupted in 1~42 and not completed room for the project. The. until after World War II. Harbor Drive Public Market shown here, comp.leted in 1933, remained. (Highway 9~W) had no traffic signals The brIdge is tpe Morrison and the ramps from the bridges were which opened in 19.05 (see raised so that north-south traffic was Thble 3.1) '(Photo: 'Oregon unimpeded. The widened Front Avenue Historical SocietY, Negative was signalled and served downtown #COP00548). traffic. The effects on public use of the river were considerable. Because Harbor Drive had no traffic signals, it was to pre-treat waste before discharge. The dangerous for pedestrians to cross to overall effect was a river in Portland the seawall. When navy ships visited which' could once again be used for during the Rose Festival, temporary recreation (Oregonian, 1978). wood bridges ~ere built over Harbor The waterfront area, though not Drive. People in vehicles could not see important fOF shipping in the 1930's, the river from Harbor Drive because of had considerable use. Automobile traffic the height of the seawall. Portland's was heavy on the streets and vacant downtown waterfront became more space was used for parking. Front Avenue isolated during this period (1942-1971) senred as the major nortll-south traffic than it had ever been. The seawall was way through downtown. Increasing' auto frequented by derelicts and occasional traffic caused congestion. After years fishermen who were willing to face the of discussion, voters in 1940' approved river's pollution and high speed traffic the Front Avenue Project which called on Harbor Drive. fot the widening of Front Avenue and Following World War II tl1e the creation of a major arterial next to downtowrr core deteriorated due to the seawall called Harbor Drive (Figure rapid suburbanization. Retailing followed Portland's"Changing Riverscape 43 people to the suburbs. Many down­ commended that the area between the town buildings, especially from Front waterfront and core be designated for Avenue to Fourth Avenue became urban renewal, which made tax increment dilapidated. In an attemEt to save financing available for" _public improve­ g.owntown, .several things were done. ments throughout the area. The City First, the Portland Pla:QI1iitg Commission Charter also had to be ,amended by was d~legated to develop a downtown vote of the people to eliminate the tax plan that 'would provide the framework increm~nt debt limit which expanded for development. Second, the Portland the financing mechanism without ad'­ Development Commission was given the ditional burden to the taxpayer (Wolff, tools to consolid~te parcels of land which et al., 1975). could be used for development. The In 1974 Harbor Drive. was removed most important of th~se was urban and by 1977 Waterfront Park had been renewal. Others were tax increment built along the river from S. W. Market ,financing and property tax abatements to S. W. Burnside Streets (Figure 3.4). on land used for manufacturing and for It 'was planned to be an integral part of rruadle income housing. downtown. Front Avenue became a During the 1960's the Interstate tree-lined boulevard with numerous Highway system came to downtown cross walks and traffic signals. The Park Portland. The inner distributor loop of and Front Avenue tree patterns extend the freeway was designed to cany through toward the downt9wn along city streets. traffic around the core (Figure 3.1). Large areas were left as open grass Gompleted in 1968, the west part of "meadows" for the use of events such the loop called the Stadium Freeway as the annual Rose Festival in June. An (1- 405), was constructed below grade esplanade was constructed at the river's and is bridged by ~major east-west streets. edge. In order to improve visibility of It crosses the Willamette River ove:F the the river the solid balustrade on the Fremont Bridge. Its main impact on seawall eventually w.iIll:>e removed and the waterfront was to divert traffic from replaced with an open rail. In the event Harbor Drive to the west side of down­ of flooding, panels can be added for tpwn.oln 1971 the city decided to vacate protection. The dock C!t the foot of Stark Harbor Drive and .replace it with a Street has been redeveloped for public p~rk. Opposition, to the proposal came uae and facilities for water access have from those who, felt the area could be been built at both ends of the seawall. more effectively used to park automobiles. When completed, the park will have Twenty years earlier the area might, in pools, fountains and artificial ponds as fact, have been used for 4:hat purpose. alternative forms of water contact However, air pollution had increased (Wolff, et al.,-1975). in excess of EPA standards, and as part Waterfront Par:k was renamed in of a solution to the problem, a limit of honor of the late Governor Tom McCall, 39,000 automobiles was set as the who led efforts to clean up the river. It maximum number that could be parked has been very successful in attracting downtown without using space along users. The Rose Festival, concerts, the waterfront. Neighborfair, a mid-summer revel, etc., The first phase of the Downtown attract people from all over the metro­ Plan was completed in 1972 and included politan area. It is especially popular a park along the river. The report t:e- among downtown office workers as a 44 Portland's Changing Riverscape

Figure 3.4: Tom McCall Waterfront Park (197S). View along the sea­ In the last 15 years, the downtown wall looking north. The has moved back toward the river. worn appearance of th.e Willamette Center, an office complex ground is due to heavy built by Portland General 'Electric, and crowd use associated with the Marriott Hotel are examples of this events such as Neighhbor Fair. Willamette Center is on renewed 'interest. 'f.he "Construction of the left of the photo. Build­ buildings between the river and Fourth ings on the lett are on the Avenue marks the reversal of a long west side of Front Avenue time trend started early in this century and are among the olqest in to build on higher ground west 'Of the. the city. The twin towers of the are in the river (Figure 3.2). A stimulus to building center. The area along the in downtown was federal tax' legislation seawall was covered by Harbor passed in 1972 which encouraged builcling Drive from 1942- 1974. The investments as tax'- shelters. Because 'Of market once stood to the over-construction since 1972 office right of the cars in the center of the photo. The bridge in vacancies in downtown have ranged the foreground is the new between 15 and 20 percent (Oregonian, Morrison, a draw15ridge built 1987). in 1958 (Photo: J. Ashbaugh). In the last decade there has also been ,an important shift in downtown sectorial employment. The, greatest gains have been in clerical office workers place to relax 'and eat lunch in good in the public and private sectors. The weather. Derelicts, long time users of effect of these changes on the river­ the river front, find the open meadows scape has been dramatic. High rise ideal' for. sleeping and resting, especially. Duildings of brick and stone hav~ during warm weather. replaced the low rise woocl frame con­ Portland's Chau.ging Riverscape 45 struction of the "earlier era. The daytjme built there was little interest in its im­ population density has increased be­ pact on land Use on the east bank of cause downtown workers now join the river. Many welcomed the removal shoppers on the streets. of blight (Running, 1961). Since 1977 developments on the downtown water­ East Central Waterfront front, including Tom McCall Waterfront The east or right bank of the Willam~tte Park have stimulated renewed int~rest borders a warehouse ap:d whole~ale dis­ in East Central Waterfront land use. trict (Figure 3.1, B).. The Southerp. Some have suggested moving the free­ Pacific Railroad closely parallels the way away from' the river to open the river. As the dty developed the river area for a trade center or a park. The bank was lined with, sand and gravel estimated cost of doing tbis, over plants, general cargo- docks, small boat $300,OOO~OOO, probably means that landings and, boat building yards (Figure Portland will have to live with decisions 3.6). A se~wall was not built on the made by highway engineers in the 1960's. east side since it was deemed unnecessary In the city's plan for Tom'McCall Water­ ror the railroad docks, warehouses and front Park }J: was suggested that -the industry that dominated the area. In east bank of the river should b~ planted 1932 a study noted tpat" fhe existing with trees to screen and subclue the facilities presented an unsightly appear­ massive highway structures. This has ance from across the -river (Barthqlomew, still not been done. 1932). A numper of outfalls discharged Johns Landihg raw sewage into the river. The area was also not easily accessible because Johns Landing was the first large bridge approaches were built, over the scale conversion of Willamette river railroad tracks to separate rail and auto frontage from industrial .to residential traffic. and commercial use (Figure 3.1, C). The east part of the inner distributor Because of its location three miles loop of was built along the south of downtown, land prices were east bank in 1964. Ingress and egress low enough to permit development from the freeway WqS by flyovers, some without subsidies. The east side of of which were built over the river (Figure Macadam Avenue, the site of the Johns 3.5). A proposal :was made to build a Landing Development, had been lined marina along, the river hut it was consi­ with 'industrial uses since the latter part dered too expensive. In&tea,d, an espla­ of the 19th century (CH2M Hill, 1973). nade was built between the aurnside These included sawmills, tanneries and and Hawthorne Bridges (Runping, 1961). furniture factories. Since World War II It can be reached by a walkway from the waterfront had been not intensively the east side of the , used. The warehs>using and manufac­ and at the end of Madison Street just turing functions had been declining north of the (Figure because companies needed room for 3.5). While proviqrng an excellent location expansion and preferred better access to view the seawall and the west side to freeways, Also furni~ure factories of the river, heavy freeway traffic pro­ found it pifficult to compete with mass duces extremely high noise levels and produced furniture from southern it is not a particularly pleasant place. California. Docks were mostly associated When the east bank freeway was with moving log~ and lumber. 46 Portland's Changing Riverscape

Figure 3.5: View toward the west. East right of the bridge is the Central Waterfront at bottom mast of the battleship Oregon ofphoto. The river front was (Figure 3.6) (Photo: J. o.nce lined with docks and Ashbaugh). various industrial uses (Figure 3.6). Today it is dominated by Interstate 5. Along the river's edge is a mile long B~cause of declining property tax reve­ esplanade which can be nues along Macadam Avenue the city reached by the cjrcular walk­ way at the east end of the sought ways to change hInd use. The Morrison Bridge (center of area was attractive to developers due photo). The central business to easy accessibility to downtown and district, which by 1915 had would be suitable for relatively high moved away from the down­ priced housing, retailing and offices. toW!) waterfrontI' is 6een to The view -to 'the east bf the wooded the west qf the parking ,lots at 'the end of the bridge., shoreline 'ef Ross Island ;would be Except for' the U. S. Bank attractive to tenants. Developers ·were Tower at uppe"r right, most found and the cify made "the h~cessary new -building is to the south zorie changes. The proj ect was financed , and is domina ted by the entirely with private capital aRd no tax First Interstate Bank :rower (far left). Extending across abatements were requested. the top of the photo ;is the Construction started" in tlfe 1970's Stadium Freeway. AlOng the and continues to date (Pintarich, 1971). west side.of the river to the Easy acceS's to the river was facilitated Portland's Changing Riverscape 47

Figure 3.6: View,toward west side of the Figure 3.5) (Photo: Oregon river looking north (1938). Historical Society, Negative Pacific Power and Light #ORHi37848). Steam Plant.is in lower left of photo. Savydust pile for fuel is north of the plant. The bridges shown from south to -north are Hawthorne, Morrison, and Burnside. by sloping the baRk and -clearing away The twin towers of .the Steel debris', An important part of the prdject Bfidge are reflected in the was 4,500 feet of dedicated public ease­ river at the north edg~ of the photo. The battleship ment along the river. This easement Oregon is anchored on the was paved to facilitate pedestrian and on the southwest side of the bityde use. -A combination of condo­ Hawthorne Bridge. RiverPlace miniums, offices artd'retailing has been now occupi~s the area be­ tween the battleship and the completed. Macadam Avenue has been steam plant. The east central widened and provides good access to waterfront between the downtown. Hawthorne and Burnside Elements of the past remain, however. Bridges is now dominated by The railroad, though not abandoned, the east ban;k fre*?lWY (I-5). The area at the west end of is infrequently used and stands as a the Hawthorne Bridge is one reminder of the impact of the automo­ of the fasted growing areas bile on fixed rail transit. During the in downtown Portland (see planning phases of the project, Tri Met, 48 Portland's Changing Riverscape

th~ metropolitan transit system, found location for housing this group restoration of the rail link not to be (Willamette Week, 1981). Located economically feasible. The Southern between'the Steel and'Broadway Bridges Pacific now wants to sell the right-of­ on the west side of the river it was way and the city is considering possible within easy walking distance of future uses. Many residents who live downtown bt].sinesses JFig!lTe 3.1, D). within a,4 few feet of the t!'ack fear use Following Worl9. War II the Southern for mass transit. Another relic that has Pacific Railroad acquired McCormick Pier been preseryed is the Biltwell Furniture for use as a track pide warehouse. The Building which was remodelled in 1971 dock was razed and a huge amounf of to house small specialty shops, offices crushed fock was dumped to create a and restaurants. The Water Tower which stable surface fqr construction. ,Increases had originally' been installed because in truck transportation and traffic of high fire risk was retained as a symbol congestion caused the railroad. to of the development (Oregon Journal, abandon plans to build, however. :me 1973). area, a little over 11 acres in siZe wa~ considered by some' to be unbuildable. McCormick Pier The huge amout;'lt of crushed rock had The nadir of residential housing was overburdened the underlying river silt. reached in downtown Portland in the From tim~ to time the silt wou!d liquify 1960's. Since that time residential units under pressure and part of the fill would have increased largely due to various slide into the river. engineers Jfederal programs designed to provide agreed that an earthquake of a low cost housing for the elderly. So, magnitude possible in Portland would too, has housing for those of upper con:tpletely liquify the silt and the middle and high income. Those con­ whole f;ill would slide into the river. cerned with the general decline of The solution to ·the problem was the downtown Portland felt that the poor removal of part of the crushed rock. and rich would not provide the economic With pe1'l1lission of the U.S. Army Corps stimulus necessary to revitalize the of pngineers the extra crushed rock was downtown. They saw the need for a put in the river next to the fill. In this substantial middle income group to live way a large part of the load was removed in the' core. However, those on middle and the rock that had been moved income could not afford the high rents nelped stabilize the river bank. required to make private investment The Department of Housing and profitable. A housing ,survey also found Urban Development provided a con­ that some potential renters felt that con­ stru.ction loan guarantee in exchange ventional downto~n housing did not for an :agreement that rents would be suit their lifestyles. In the suburbs they g~ared to those on middle income had space to store their. sailboats, (Oregon Journal, October 9, 1980). campers, motorcycles, bicycles and Finally, to make it profitable the dev­ seasonal recreational gear. This group, elopers receiveq tax. abatements from

mostly childless in their twenties and the city (Oregon Journal t April 10, 1980). thirties often with two incomes, would Three hundred and five apartments were be the main mar:ket for this housing. q>ITstruc,ted along with a small marina. DevelQpers beUeved that the old A public walkway serves as an esplanade McCormick Dock wQJ1ld be a l5uitable along the river. Storage problems of Portland's Changing "RiverscaI1e 49 tenants ·were solved by the acquisition were explored. None appeared to be of a nearby warehouse. Tenants have economically feasible. The completion easy access to the light. rail system, of the Tom McCall Waterfront Park to MAX, which crosses the Steel Bridge. the immediate rrorth in 1977, however, Critics·.of the .development pointed stimulateq. interested in development. out that noise of rail traffic across the In 1978 the Portland City Council Steel' Bridge would aggravate tenants. amended the Downtown. Waterfront To overcome this apartments on the Urban Renewal Plan to include this south were provided with window South Waterfront area. The Portland shutters and extra insulation to reduce Development Commission invited the sound. Another potential .problem proposals for development of 10 acres was dust fr.om the loading of grain at of the area. The winner of the competi­ the Globe elevator directly acrbss the tion was Cornerstone Development river. The initial response to apartments Company, a division of Weyerhaeuser. at this location was not overwhelming. They named their development River­ However, they are now completely Place. occupied and there is a waiting list of Their plan called for the construction potential tenants. of SOO residences, a small luxury hotel, restaurants, retail shops, a small boat RiverPlace marine and a river front park and RiverPlace is .the most ambitious esplanade. Everything except the undertaking thus far in the development residences have been completed (see of the downtown waterfront (Figure Figure 4.5). The construction schedule 3.1, E) It includes the construction of depends on market absorption. About condominiums, a public marina, luxury 160 residences were completed as of hotel and retail shops. August 1986 (PQrtland Magazine, 1986). For years the west side of the civer The project appears to be successful to the south of the Hawthorne Bridge and represents the culmination of was dominated by a sawdust-fired Portland's return to the river. Rowing, electric generation facility owned by sailing, water skiing and other water Pacific Power and Light (Figure 3.6). related· recreational activities are in­ Steam from the plant provided heat for creasing. downtown buildings. Until 1957, when Swan Island the plant converted to natural gas, a latg~ area was needed for the storage At the time of settlement, Swan of sawdust. Sharing the site next to the Island was a small tree covered island Hawthorne Bridge was a small park lying in the center of the Willamette and former moorage of the decommis­ River (Figure 3.1, F). The main channel sioned Battleship Oregon. At the on the east separated the island from beginning of World War II the outdated Mock's Bottom. The swift current and battleship was scrapped at Kelso, the sharp curves on the downstream Washington to provide metal for the end of the island created a hazard to war effort (Carter, 1983, p. 82). Portland bound vessels. The west Inexpensive hydroelectricity and channel was ,wider and straighter but changes in building heat technology very shallow. During high water the had rendered the utility plant obsolete island was submerged. and alternative· uses of the 73 acre site In 1921 Swan Island was purchased 50 Portland's-Changing Riverscape

by the Port.of Portland. Between 1923 elsewhere. They named the development and 19-26 they dredged a new channel Port Center Village and signed an to the west of the island. The new agreement with Ports 0' Call in . channel was 1,500 feet wide with a California to operate a mall made up of minimum depth of 35·feet at low water offices" restaurants' and specialty shops (Oregonian, 1926). The old east channel (6chulz, 1971). From the outset the was closed by the construction of a shClpS and restaurants were in financial causeway from the southern tip of the trouble. The labor force on Swan Island, island to the east bank of the river. largely made up of workers on hourly Dredge spoil was used to quadruple wages was not attracted to the gift the island's size to about 250 acres and shops, boutiques and stores selling to raise the overall elevation to 32 feet, importec;i pipes and tobacco. One rest­ reducing the danger of floods. aurant survives; the shops are all gone, In 1926 the Port of Portland decided having been replaced by offices (Lord to use the island for an airport. The and LeBlanc, 1977). first plane landed on July 14, 1927. In The Bridges December Charles Lindberg landed in the "Spirit of St. Louis" to dedicate the Portland has often been called the field (Polhemus, 1928). city of bridges. Today, a centu!Y after In 1935 the Bureau of Air Commerce construction of the first span across the notified- the port that it would not Willamette, 10 vehicular bridges cross approve operation of larger aircraft at the river within the metropolitan area Swan Island. The small size of the (Figure 3.1). landing field and the bluffs to the east The city's land use in large part exp­ were considered hazardous for larger lains the importance .of the bridges aircraft. The site of the present Portland (West Shore, 1887). The downtown area Airport was selected in 1935 and Swan west of the river occupies a small level Island was largely vacated. area hemmed in by the west hills. Because During World War II the entire island of high construction costs in the li.il1s was leased to the U.S. Maritime and large areas of unstable· , the Commission for construction of a major area has never supported a large resi­ shipyard built and operated by the dential population (an exception is an Henry J. Kaiser Company. Following area of northwest Portland between the the war, the island was returned to the hills and the warehouse district which Port of Portland. The wartime improve­ has the highest residential population ments included docks, buildings and density in the city). On the other hand, cranes. The Port added a dry dock and east of the river there is expansive ship repair facilities on the northern gently rolling land and residential con­ end of the island. struction WqS easy and inexpensive. One of the "last areas filled with People -lived on the east side and dredge spoil is between N. Going and worked on the west side. As the popu­ N. Channel streets and the river. The lation grew the number of bridges in­ Port thought this area was perfect for a creased (Table 3.1). diversified d'evelopment project called In the 27 years starting in 1887 and the "Window on the Willamette" since ending -in 1914, nine bridges were built access to the river was not blocked by in Portland. The first was the Morrison, railroads and highways as it was 1887, (West Shore, 1887) (replaced 1905). '1""'1 Il')

cu ~ tf..I .....> Table 3.1: Portland Bridges. Bridges: Year built, type and year rebuilt. Those shown in Figure 3.1 are designated by lower case ~ letters (Oregon Historical Society). bO -st Bridge Year Built Type Year Rebl!ilt Type Year Rebuilt Type =: ,.s::,('(I Morrison 1887 1905 Drawbridge 1958 Drawbridge U (a) ~ Steel 1888 Drawbridge 1914 Drawbridge ] (b) ('(I 13 Hawthorne 1891 1900 1910 Drawbridge Q (c) ~ Burnside 1894 Drawbridge 1926 Drawbridge (d) Broadway 1913 Drawbridge (e) Sellwood 19~5 High Bridge Ross Island 1926 High Bridge (f) St. Johns 1931 Suspension M?Iquam 1966 High ,Bridge (g) Fremont 1973 High Bridge. "(h) 52 Portland's Changing Riverscape

It was followed by the Steel Bridge in There had been no new construction in 1888 (repl~ced 1914). In 1891 the years. However, people still com­ Hawthorne Bridge was completed plained about the bridge congestion. (replaced in 1900 and 1910). The last When the bridges opened for two bridges in this period were the of ships, cars were backed up for Burnside in 1894 and the Broadway in blocks. Bridge ramps were built and 1913 (Table 3.1). The prodigious move­ rebuilt in the 1960's to speed up traffic. ment of people back and forth across The construction of the interstate high­ the river caused the rapid deterioration way system made the truck a favored of the first bridges, Hawthorne and mode of transportation. To facilitate Morrison, which were constructed of traffic around the congested core areas wood. The new bridges were built of inner and outer distribution loops were steel and three of these buil t before planned for the interstate system. The 1914 still stand. They are the Hawthorne inner distribution loop in Portland 1910, Broadway 1913, and Steel 1914 required two new bridges. The Marquam, (Table 3.1). the first of these, was opened in 1966. No l?ridges were constructed after It is a multilane double deck bridge 1914 until the was whose eastward bound top deck provides finished in 1925. In 1926 the Ross Island a unequalled view of the river, the sea­ Bridge opened and the new Burnside wall, Governor Tom Mc~all Waterfront Bridge was completed. By 1930 the Park and downtown Portland. It was city's population, had increased to almost universally reviled as being 301,815, almost 100,000 more than extremely ugly (Gohs, 1963). Critics twenty years earlier (U. S. Department insisted that the second bridge, the of Commerce, 1931). Much of this Fremont, have a more pleasing appear­ growth had taken place in southeast ance. T~e Fremont's design has been Portland which was served by the widely acclaimed but when completed Sellwood and Ross Island Bridges in 1973 its cost of 82 million dollars (Laurgaard, 1922). No more bridges was five times more than that of the were built in the core area until the Marquam (Federman, 1968). Like the Morrison in 1958 replaced the 1905 Marquam; its multi-lane double deck span. design, with the top westward bound The 32-year hiatus in downtown deck, also provides a good view of the bridge building from 1926 to 1958 was river. Both bridges carry large volumes' mainly due to the fact that suburbaniza­ of vehicular traffic at speeds which pre­ tion had begun and downtown was vent the driver from spending much not the only destination for traffic time reflecting on the view. The bridges (Throop, 1948). In 1930 'Portland's popu­ are high above the river and have no lation was 301,815 and Multnomah effect on river navigation. county was 338,241. By 1960, two years The bridge approaches on both sides after the new Morrison Bridge was of the river are elevated to avoid opened, Portland had increased in bottlenecks from cross traffic by either population to 372,289 but Multnomah highway or railroad. On the west side County had grown to 522,813 (U. S. they were raised to clear Harbor Drive. Department of Commerce, 1960). On the east the purpose was to achieve' The population was more dispersed grade separation with the Southern and the downtown area had stagnated. Pacific Railroad. While achieving this Portland's Changing,Riuerscape 53 purpose, they also tend to isolate areas General Eleetric donated land on, the near the river. This is no longer true on east side of the river south of the the west side where Tom McCall Water­ Marquam Bridge to the Oregon Museum front Park has been made accessib1e to of Science and Industry for neW facili­ pedestrians from the core area. In con­ ties (Figure 3.1). When built, the, museum trast the narrow noisy east bank park will attract large numbers of visitors 1;>orders on warehouses' and parking who will become acquainted with .. the spaces under the freeway. river area and perhaps consider it as ,a place to live. Of course, increased CONCLUSION popularity usually means higher land For most of Portland's history, its values. If what appears to 1,Je a renais­ riverscape has been dominated by sance along the river is to continue to transportation and industrial uses. appeal to those on middle incomes, Other uses, such as recreation and future developments will require sub­ housing were inhibited by water pollu­ sidies. In any event, a fresh new look tion and high land prices. Railroads is -replacing the remnants of a bygone and highways closely paralleling the era along the river. Portland's river­ river made public access difficult or scape is becoming a vital and attractive impossible. By the time river cleanup focal point within the city. began (1952) and freeways liberated industry and transportation from close REFERENCES proximity to the river front (1966-1973) suburbanization had drawn people away Bartholomew and Associates, 1932, Report on from downtown. People with mobility Proposect System of Major Streets and Development of Waterfront, St. Loui~, provided by automobiles and highways, Missouri, (Portland ,$tate University found an abundance of water related Library), pp. 407-444, 461 pp. residential and recreation sites outside Carter, Jeffrey G., 1983, A History of the of Portland: They had little interest in Portlahd Waterfront between S: W: Clay and the Willamette River downtown. S. W. Wilshington'Streets: Its Land Use and Legal Problems. M.A. Thesis, History Recent developments along the river, Departmerit, IPortland State University, however, have provided an alternative 108 pp. to residence in the suburbs. McCormick CH2M liill, 1973, Johns Landing Macadam Pier and RiverPlace are examples. Investors, Oregon Ltd., Environmental Increases in downtown employment Impact. Statement, Portland, Oregon, pp.' 2-7. during the last two decades have created Federman, Stan, 1968, "Design Changes a demand for housing from those who Hike Bridge Complex Cost to be Final want to live close to their work. Finally Link in P6rtland"s Inner Core Freeway there have been changes in individual System," Oregonian, MarGh 29, p. ?S. lifestyles. Some prefer to live close to Gleeson, George W., 1936, "A Sanitary Survey of the Willamette River from the the shopping and recreational amenities Sellwood Bridge to the Columbia RiVer," offered by downtown. Bulletin Series #6, Engineering Experi­ There is evidence to suggest that the ment Station, -Oregon State Agricultural success of one project tends to encourage College, Corvallis, pp. 29-30. other development. McCormick Pier Gohs, earl, 1963, Porthpl? Reporter, '/~rt Commission Oppo~es Marquam Bridge was a pioneer effort to provide middle Design," August 12, 1963, p. 10. income housing downtown. It was Laugaard, 0., 1922, "Burnside and Ross followed by RiverPlace. Recently Portland Island Bridges and their 'Relation to Traffic," 54 Portland's Changing Riverscape

Western America, November, VoL 1, No. 1962, C-ensus oft Population: .1960, 2, p" 12. Volume I, Characteristics of the Population, Lord and LeBlanc, 1977, Disposition Alterna­Part A Num1:Jer of Inhabitants, Govetnment tives for Swan Island Port Center Sites, pre­ Printing Office, Washington, D. c., p. pared for the Port of Portland, Oregon, 39-16. pp.2-10. West Shore, 1887, "Willamette River Bridge, Moses, Robert, 1943, Portland Improvement, at Portland/' Volume 13, #1, ,anuary New York, (Portl;;md State University 1887, pp. 19-22. Lib.rary) pp. ~5. Willamette Week, 1981, liThe NaHos Go For It Oregonian, 1926, "Swan Island Dike Ap­ Downtown/' July 6, p. 4. proval Sought," November 13, p. 10. Wolff, Zimmer, Gunsul, Frasca Partnership, 1936, "Water Dedared Without Portland, Oregon and Ro;rston, Oxygen/' August 7, p. 12. Hanamoto, Beck and Abey, San Francisco, __.....'_" 1978, "Water Quality of California, 1975, Final Report, Downtown Willamette Wins Praise," July 8, A12. Waterfront Park, City of Portland, Oregon, ___,I 1987, "Vacancy Rate Dips in­ pp.6-9: Central Business District/' January 26, D15. Oregon Journal, 1923, ~Old Water· Tower/' July 5, Sec. 7, p. 7. ___, 1980, "River Front Apart:rl:}ents Plan Barely Clears Major Hurdle/' April 10, p. 9. ___, 1980, "Work Begins on McCormack Pier Project," October 9, p. 34. Pin tarich , Paul, 1971, Oregonian, "Riverside Project UnveiJed," December 30, p. 1. Polhemus, James H., 1928, Th~ Airport in Portland HarlJor, Port of Portland, p. 10. Portl,anp Mqgazine{ 1986, IIRiverPlace, Downtown's WqterfrQnt Neigh'!:?o,rhood," August, p. 9. Running, Jim, 196t "East Side Freeway to Offer View - Mile Long Park," Oregon Journal, June 25, p. 3. Schulz, Blaine, 1971, Oregonian, "Port Approves Swan'Island Lease for Rshe,rIl)aIl's Wharf Type Center-Port Center Village Corporation," February 11, 1971, Section 3, p. 7. . , Staniford, C. W., O'Shaunnessy, M. M. and Stevens, J. C., 1924, Report on the First f.1nit. of tli? Proposed Waterfront Develop­ ment by the Board of Consulting Engineers, Portland, Oregon, PI'.. 2-10. Strong and MacNaughton Trust Co. Portland, Oregon, 1929, Newsletter,No. 52, pp. 1-2. Throop, Vincent M., 1948, The Suburban Zone of Portland, Oregon. Ph.D. Disserta­ tion, University of Chi~go, .Chicago, Dlihois, pp.244. U. S. DepartmeI').t .~f Comrperce, Bblreau of the Census, 1931, .Fifteenth Cen,sus of the United $tates:-1930, Populatjon Volume 1. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., p. 921.