An Interview Medications to Landmark Report A Roadmap to With NAE’s Treat Opioid Use Celebrates 10 Years Cutting Child New President Disorder Save Lives of Impact Poverty in Half THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Summer 2019
Reproducibility & Replicability IMPROVING UPON THE HALLMARKS OF GOOD SCIENCE
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RECENT RELEASES
3 In the Struggle Against Addiction, Medications to Treat Opioid Use Disorder Save Lives
6 Child Poverty in the United States A roadmap to cutting child poverty in half
6 8 Biotech Trees Weighing a new weapon against forest pests
10 New Study Confirms Classification of Red Wolf and Mexican Gray Wolf
12 Reproducibility and Replicability in Research 8 15 The Future of the Interstates Investing in a modernized Interstate Highway System
17 Time for Encryption to Take a Quantum Leap Preparing for a future with quantum computing
10 OTHER NEWS
19 Interview John L. Anderson Discusses His New Role as the National Academy of Engineering’s President
21 20/20 Landmark Report on Forensic Science Celebrates 10 Years of Impact 15 O SUMMER 2019 1 24 International Collaborations THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES The Urgent Need for a Global Framework to Guide Clinical Use of Heritable Genome Editing National Academy of Sciences Marcia McNutt, President 26 Community Outreach Diane E. Griffin, Vice President The National Academies Host Family Science Day Bruce Darling, Executive Officer James Hinchman, Deputy Executive 28 Celebrating Excellence in Science Officer NAS Honors 10 U.S. Nobel and Kavli Prize Kenneth R. Fulton, Executive Director Laureates National Academy of Engineering Gordon R. England, Chair 31 Moving From Evidence to Action John L. Anderson, President New Action Collaborative Formed to Spur Corale L. Brierley, Vice President Systemic Change to Prevent Sexual Harassment Alton D. Romig Jr., Executive Officer
National Academy of Medicine Victor J. Dzau, President J. Michael McGinnis, Leonard D. Schaeffer Executive Officer
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In Focus is prepared by the Office of News and Public Information.
Executive Director: William Kearney In Focus Editor: Valerie Chase
Staff Writers: Sara Frueh, Molly Galvin, Dana Korsen, Stephanie Miceli, Andrew Robinson, Kacey Templin Design: Anne Rogers O2 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS In the Struggle Against Addiction, MEDICATIONS to Treat Opioid Use Disorder SAVE LIVES
he U.S. is grappling with a devastating crisis in which opioid addiction and overdose are Tdestroying individual lives and eroding the health and prosperity of entire families and communities. More than 2 million people in the United States are estimated to have opioid use disorder (OUD), a life-threatening condition associated with a twentyfold greater risk of death due to overdose, infectious disease, trauma, or suicide. In 2017, 47,000 people in the United States died as a result of opioid overdoses.
SUMMER 2019 3 OUD is a chronic brain disease resulting Patients who receive medications to from changes in neural structure and func- treat OUD are less likely to die from over- tion that are caused over time by repeated dose or other causes related to their addic- use of prescription opioids or illicit opi- tion, have higher treatment retention rates oids such as heroin. While stopping opi- and better long-term outcomes, and are oid misuse is extremely difficult, there also less likely to inject drugs and transmit are medications that can help normalize or contract infectious diseases. Risk of brain structure and function. Methadone, death is cut in half for people with OUD buprenorphine, and extended-release nal- who are treated long term with methadone trexone — all approved by the FDA to or buprenorphine. treat OUD — work by alleviating with- A recent National Academies report says drawal symptoms, reducing opioid crav- that although these medications are safe ings, or decreasing the response and effective, most people who could ben- to future drug use. efit from these treatments do not receive them, and access is inequitable, especially among certain groups of users. “The United States is experiencing a public health crisis of almost unprec- edented scale — an epidemic of opioid use disorder and related overdose deaths,” said Alan Leshner, chief executive officer emeritus of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and chair of the committee that conducted the study. “The fac- tors impeding full use of FDA- approved medications to treat OUD must be addressed, “Curbing the epidemic will require an ‘all including stigma surround- ing both addiction and hands on deck’ strategy across every sector the medications used to treat it, as well as coun- — health care, criminal justice, people terproductive ideologies that consider addiction with OUD and their family members, and simply a failure of will or a moral weakness as beyond — in order to make meaningful opposed to understanding that opioid use disorder is a progress in resolving this crisis.” chronic disease of the brain that requires medical treat- ment. Curbing the epidemic
4 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS will require an ‘all hands on deck’ strategy centers, emergency departments, and other across every sector — health care, criminal care settings provide opportunities to justice, people with OUD and their family engage people with OUD and connect them members, and beyond — in order to make with effective care, the report says. meaningful progress in resolving this crisis.” Despite the large and increasing num- As the number of people with OUD bers of people with OUD entering the U.S. surges, the need for treatment far exceeds criminal justice system, medications are the rates at which people receive it. Major often withheld or only provided on a limited barriers to the use of medications to treat basis for medically supervised withdrawal. opioid use disorder include inadequate As a result, few people with OUD receive education and training of the professionals medication while incarcerated or under responsible for working with people with the supervision of drug courts, OUD; a fragmented system of care; and and frequently those who do current financing and payment policies. receive medication for OUD Moreover, regulations around methadone are not connected with and buprenorphine, such as waiver policies, care upon their release, patient limits, restrictions on treatment set- leading to treatment tings, and other policies that are not sup- discontinuation and ported by evidence or employed for other the associated risks of medical disorders, obstruct the use of these overdose and death. medications. To more widely address the In addition, access to medication-based opioid crisis, additional research treatment is inequitable among certain will be needed on differences in the subpopulations — for example, adolescents nature of OUD in subgroups, as well and young adults, people in rural areas, as determining behavioral therapies and racial and ethnic minority groups that can help maximize positive outcomes. — even though evidence supports the — Dana Korsen effectiveness of treating OUD with medica- tion in all populations, including adoles- cents, pregnant women, and people with Medications for Opioid Use Disorder Save comorbidities. Lives (2019, 174 pp., ISBN 978-0-309-48648-4) is available from the National Academies In terms of treatment settings, metha- Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $55.00 plus $7.50 done can only be administered in the shipping for single copies; also on the Internet U.S. through federally approved opioid at
SUMMER 2019 5 A Roadmap to Cutting Child Poverty in Half
well-functioning and prosperous Studies estimate that child poverty costs society rests on a foundation of a the nation roughly between $800 billion capable, responsible, and healthy and $1.1 trillion annually in terms of lost population. Many studies suggest adult productivity, increased costs of crime, that a lack of adequate resources and increased health expenditures. Poor Ain childhood compromises these capaci- children develop weaker language, mem- ties in adults, which makes the widespread ory, and self-regulation skills than their poverty among children in the U.S. a cause peers. When they grow up, they have lower for concern. So, are there ways to cut the earnings and income, are more dependent child poverty rate, ideally by half in the on public assistance, have more health next 10 years? A new report from the problems, and are more likely to commit National Academies offers evidence-based crimes. The report identifies two packages policy and program packages that could be of policies and programs that could reduce the answer. child poverty in the United States by half
6 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS within 10 years, at a price tag far lower than the estimated costs it bears currently from child poverty — a “means-tested sup- ports and work package” and a “universal supports and work package.” The means-tested supports and work package combines expansions of the earned income tax credit (EITC) and the child dependent care tax credit (CDCTC) with expansions of two existing income support programs: the Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program and hous- ing voucher programs. This package of programs would cost an estimated $90.7 billion per year based on the 2015 the minimum wage, and elimination of the tax law. The package is also estimated to immigrant eligibility restrictions imposed by add about 400,000 workers and generate the 1996 welfare reform. This package of $2.2 billion in annual earnings. programs is estimated to cost $108.8 billion per year based on the 2015 tax law. The net effect of this full package is to increase Both the U.S. historical employment by more than 600,000 jobs and earnings by $13.4 billion. record and the Both the U.S. historical record and the experiences of peer countries demonstrate experiences of peer that reducing child poverty is achievable. Child poverty fell by nearly half between 1970 and 2016, and government programs countries demonstrate such as the EITC and SNAP played impor- tant roles in achieving this drop. If further that reducing child reduction of child poverty is our goal, then implementing these anti-poverty programs poverty is achievable. should be a priority objective for U.S. policy, the report says. — Kacey Templin The universal supports and work pack- age is designed to enhance income security A Roadmap to Reducing Child Poverty (2019, approx. 598 and stability while also rewarding work pp., ISBN 978-0-309-48398-8) is available from the National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $85.00 plus $7.50 ship- and promoting social inclusion. The corner- ping for single copies; also on the Internet at
SUMMER 2019 7 faced an additional threat, a fungus that BIOTECH caused their roots to rot. Traditional methods for fighting back against tree pathogens, such as chemical treatments and burning, proved ineffec- TREES tive, and eventually the diseases killed nearly all mature American chestnuts. The trees’ demise was devastating to the rural communities that had depended on them, and to the forest ecosystems in which they played an integral part. Although particularly severe, the loss of Weighing a New Weapon the American chestnut is only one instance of the harm that pests and pathogens can Against Forest Pests cause to native tree species. Ash trees have been decimated by the Emerald Ash Borer n the 19th century, about 4 billion beetle, for example, and the most common American chestnut trees thrived in native tree in Hawaii, the ohi`a, has been Eastern forests stretching from Maine severely affected by a fungal disease first to Mississippi. In some regions the detected in 2015. species accounted for one out of every Smaller outbreaks of native insects and I four trees, playing a foundational role in diseases are common and can help renew forest ecosystems and providing rural com- forests, but these massive, simultaneous munities with timber, food, die-offs threaten the survival of entire tree and livestock feed. species in the landscape. And the threats But in 1904, American are unlikely to diminish. Global trade and chestnut trees at the Bronx travel have accelerated the movement of Zoo in New York City died pests and pathogens, and climate change is from infection by a fungus, expanding their geographic ranges. which had likely arrived Researchers and forest managers are now in the U.S. on Japanese considering a possible new way to respond: chestnut trees imported by genetically engineering trees to be resis- as early as 1876. In the tant to the pests and pathogens that endan- decades that followed, ger them. While no genetically engineered chestnut blight spread trees have been planted in the wild, scien- throughout the American tists are experimenting with a few species of chestnut’s entire range, slipping into the trees, which are currently in controlled field trees through small wounds in the bark, trials. One of them is the American chest- damaging the tissues that enable growth, nut, which has been engineered to include and killing the trees. Meanwhile, chestnuts a gene from wheat that would make them in the southern part of the species’ range resistant to chestnut blight.
8 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS The National Academies were asked to examine the potential benefits and risks of using biotechnology to protect the health of forest trees. Following a two-year study, the resulting report concludes that biotechnolo- gy has the potential to help fend off threats to forest health — but it also cautions that the approach presents challenges, and more research will be needed to meet them. The genetic changes that are needed to achieve resistance to a pest or pathogen are often not easy to identify, the report says, and they can be tricky to implement for many reasons, including trees’ long life spans and large genomes. Furthermore, it’s not enough to gauge whether a genetic Global trade and travel have change is effective at protecting the trees. The modified tree also needs to be tested to accelerated the movement of pests discern its potential impact on other species and pathogens, and climate change is in the environment and on the benefits that forests provide to humans. expanding their geographic ranges. These assessments of impacts should also take into account the people likely to be planting of biotech trees in unmanaged envi- affected. Surveys, town hall meetings, and ronments will be accompanied by uncertain- other methods that can tap into diverse ties about impacts, and so decisions should perspectives, values, and sources of knowl- be modified as knowledge is gained through edge should contribute to decision making. on-the-ground experience with the trees. And an additional framework is needed to The report cautions that biotechnology is consider forests’ intrinsic value — that is, only one of many ways to address pests, and the value they have for their own sake. it should not be pursued to the exclusion of If a decision is made to go ahead with other management practices, such as tradi- planting a biotech tree in the wild, a full tional breeding, thinning tree stands, using monitoring and assessment plan should be insecticides and fungicides, and undertaking developed so that ample learning takes place efforts to prevent the arrival of pests in the from these initial efforts, the report says. The first place. — Sara Frueh
Forest Health and Biotechnology: Possibilities and Considerations (2019, 240 pp., 978-0-309-48288-2) is available from the National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $90.00 plus $7.50 shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at
SUMMER 2019 9 New Study Confirms Classification of Red Wolf and Mexican Gray Wolf
cientists strive to develop clear how many species are recognized in each rules for taxonomy — the naming lineage, and about the relationship among and grouping of living organisms. the various populations of wolves. It’s essential for studying life on A recent National Academies report Earth and evolutionary histories, assesses whether the red wolf is a taxo- and it can influence decisions about nomically valid species and whether the Sconservation that can shape the fate of Mexican gray wolf is a taxonomically valid entire species. subspecies. Taxonomy is not a “one-and-done” pursuit. As more information becomes Mexican Gray Wolf available, taxonomists try to enhance Gray wolves are highly mobile and tend to classifications to reflect species’ associa- travel long distances. They can also adapt tions, behavior, physiology, ecology, geo- to a variety of environments, from Arctic graphic patterns, and other important traits. tundra to grasslands — lending to the emer- However, it is sometimes challenging to gence of subspecies. Currently, the Mexican answer taxonomic questions, because of gray wolf is classified as a subspecies of the the ever-evolving nature of species. gray wolf. Wolves offer one such example. The Mexican gray wolves were nearly driven earliest undisputed occurrence of a wolf in to extinction through intensive predator North America was the medium-sized Canis eradication programs. With no known wild edwardii, which appeared about 3 million populations remaining in the United States, years ago. Wolves have captivated the pub- lic imagination, symbolizing the spirit of the wilderness, and for others, they are regard- ed as troublesome threats to livestock. In recent years, the wolf population size has dwindled, so much that two species of wolves — the red wolf and the Mexican gray wolf — are listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Scientists have recognized three his- torical North American lineages of wolves, each named after one of the species in that lineage: Canis dirus (dire wolf), Canis lupus (gray wolf), and Canis rufus (red wolf). Since the discovery of the dire wolf, gray wolf, and red wolf, scientists have been revising their conclusions about what makes a wolf a wolf,
10 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS the Mexican gray wolf was listed as endan- The report concludes that available evi- gered in 1976. Twenty years ago, amid dence supports the classification of the con- much controversy, specimens bred in cap- temporary red wolf as a distinct species, but tivity were reintroduced into a small portion it remains unclear whether the captive and of their former range in the Southwestern managed populations share continuity with United States. the same red wolves that roamed North Their designation as a subspecies has America from the Pleistocene to the early been controversial, due to speculation that 1900s. Genomic DNA from historic speci- they are not physically or genetically distinct mens could help clarify this issue. enough to justify that classification. The Although the timing of the interbreed- designation has also been questioned on ing between red wolves and other canids the grounds that the current Mexican gray remains unresolved, red wolves have wolf population may include ancestry from divergent genetic ancestry that predates dogs or coyotes. European colonization, the report says. The report concludes that the Mexican gray wolf is a valid taxonomic subspecies Future Implications of the gray wolf. Since its discovery, the The taxonomy of red wolves and Mexican Mexican gray wolf’s small body size, reddish gray wolves might seem like an obscure coloration, narrow and arched skull, and pro- topic of debate. However, the outcomes pensity for arid climates have distinguished it may have implications for addressing criti- from other gray wolves. In addition to its dis- cal conservation issues in a variety of threat- tinct physical characteristics, this subspecies ened and endangered mammals. In an era has been determined to be the most geneti- marked by climate and landscape change, cally divergent wolf in North America. continued research will be critical, not only Furthermore, there is no evidence that for the wolves but also their surrounding Mexican gray wolves are derived from a ecosystem. — Stephanie Miceli & hybridization with dogs and no evidence for Sara Frueh any recent hybridization with coyotes. Red Wolf Evaluating the Taxonomic Status of the Mexican Red wolves once roamed much of the Gray Wolf and the Red Wolf (2019, 104 pp., ISBN Southeastern United States. But in the early 978-0-309-48824-2) is available from the National 20th century, like the Mexican gray wolf, red Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $65.00 wolf populations were nearly eradicated due plus $7.50 shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at
SUMMER 2019 11 Imagine giving one recipe to 10 different chefs and getting 10 completely different results. This inconsistency could be due to any number of factors — variables that cannot be controlled, omission of details, or shortcomings in design and execution.
The same challenges apply to scientific experiments. Reproducibility & Replicability in RESEARCH
12 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS ne of the ways that scientists con- firm the validity of a new discovery is by repeating the research that produced it. When scientific results are frequently cited in textbooks Oand TED Talks, the stakes for validity are high. The stakes become even higher when the results inform policy, future scientific studies, or people’s health decisions. A new National Academies report defines reproducibility and replicability and examines the extent of non-reproducibility and non-replicability. The report also pro- vides recommendations to researchers, aca- Reproducibility is defined as obtain- demic institutions, journals, and funders on ing consistent results using the same data steps they can take to improve reproduc- and code as the original study (synony- ibility and replicability in science. mous with computational reproducibility). “It’s harder to gain recognition if your Replicability means obtaining consistent & body of work is repeating what someone results across studies aimed at answering Reproducibility Replicability the same scientific question using new data has already done, rather than explor- ing the new,” said Harvey Fineberg, or other new computational methods. president of the Gordon and Betty Moore One typically expects reproducibility in Foundation and chair of the committee computational results, but expectations that conducted the study. “Over time, our about replicability are more nuanced. A suc- hope is that when a scientist takes on or cessful replication does not guarantee that attempts replication — because the value the original scientific results of a study were of the result can outweigh cost, because correct, nor does a single failed replication a great deal weighs on scientific basis — conclusively refute the original claims. those types of papers will get recognition Several factors can contribute to non- in a scholar’s career.” reproducibility or non-replicability, includ- ing previously unknown variation or Consistent Definitions effects, inadequate recordkeeping, technol- Reproducibility and replicability are com- ogy limitations, potential biases, lack of monly used terms in the scientific com- training, institutional barriers, or even mis- munity. However, some fields use the terms conduct, in rare cases. interchangeably, or even use the terms with It is hard to quantify the extent of non- opposing definitions. The committee that reproducibility or how much of science is wrote the report said it’s important to dis- reproducible. And while reproducibility tinguish these terms to unravel the complex and replicability are important for research, issues associated with confirmation of pre- they are not the be-all and end-all, the com- vious studies. mittee emphasized.
SUMMER 2019 13 “The goal of science is not to compare Important steps researchers can take or replicate [studies], but to understand include clearly and accurately describing the overall effect of a group of studies and their methods, conveying the degree of the body of knowledge that emerges from uncertainty in their results, properly using them,” said Fineberg. statistical methods, and preventing over- hype in press releases or media coverage Responsibility Starts with Researchers about their work. Academic institutions, journals, confer- ence organizers, funders of research, and No Crisis, But No Time for policymakers can all play a role in improv- Complacency ing the reproducibility and replicability Some news articles go as far as declaring a non-reproducibility and non-replicability “crisis” in science, but the committee doesn’t necessarily agree. Occasionally, non-replicability may even be helpful. For example, the discovery of new phenomena and the collection of new insights about variability both contribute to the self-cor- recting nature of science, and should not be interpreted as a weakness. Nonetheless, improvements are needed — more transparency of code and data, for example, and more rigorous training and education in statistics and computa- tional skills. The report also recommends that jour- nals and funders of research explicitly consider replicability and reproducibility in application and submission processes. This calls for culture shift so that it is in scien- tists’ best interest to submit these types of papers — and that they become the norm. — Stephanie Miceli of research. But that responsibility begins with the researchers themselves, who Reproducibility and Replicability in Science should operate with “the highest standards (2019, approx. 218 pp., ISBN 978-0-309-48616- of integrity, care, and methodological 3) is available from the National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $60.00 plus $7.50 excellence,” Fineberg said during a May shipping for single copies; also on the 7 webinar. That responsibility extends to Internet at
14 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS The Future of the Interstates
he idea of a national network of about one-quarter of the nation’s vehicle highways had existed for decades miles traveled, including about half of the Investingina when funding for construction for miles traveled by heavy trucks. Its impor- Modernized the U.S. Interstate Highway System tance cannot be overstated. The report calls was authorized in 1956, but no for a 20-year “blueprint for action,” which Interstate one could have foreseen the sig- includes creating an “Interstate Highway nificance it has had in the nation’s System Renewal and Modernization Highway history. For more than 60 years, Program” that has a dedicated source of System the interstates have been integral to funding and a long-term plan and vision. shaping the country’s demographic, “The interstates have long been the back- economic, and social development. The bone of our country’s transportation system, Tsystem is critical to transportation, both but most of them have exceeded their design passenger and freight, within large urban lives and in many places are worn and spaces, and between metropolitan and rural overused,” said Norman Augustine, former areas. Despite the nation’s reliance on this chairman and CEO of Lockheed Martin vital infrastructure, however, a growing Corp. and chair of the committee that wrote number of structural and operational defi- the report. “These aging interstates are ciencies, as well as looming issues such as highly congested oftentimes and in need of autonomous vehicles, electric vehicles, and reconstruction. Furthermore, technological climate-related vulnerabilities, present chal- advances are offering new opportunities, lenges for the interstates. but they may also undermine a principal A new commitment must be made to source of income for the interstates, namely remedy the system’s deficiencies, says a the tax on fuel. Essentially, we need a rein- recent report from the National Academies vigoration of the federal and state partner- of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. ship that produced the Interstate Highway There is a real risk that the interstates will System in the first place.” become increasingly unreliable and con- The report recommends a coordinated gested, less safe, incompatible with evolving federal and state government effort that technology, and far more costly to maintain. focuses on goals similar in motivation to Despite constituting only about 1 percent the original Interstate Highway System of public road mileage, the interstates carry Construction Program. The proposed
SUMMER 2019 15 Interstate Highway System Renewal and Modernization Program would reinforce the federal and state partnership, where the federal government would provide leader- ship, vision, and the bulk of funding, and the states would prioritize and execute projects in their traditional role as owners, builders, and maintainers of the system. The interstates need an increase in fed- eral investment to between $45 billion and $70 billion annually, compared with the approximately $25 billion currently being spent annually, the report says. Raising the level of revenue needed to fix and modernize the interstates will be no small task, requiring sizable changes to the pub- lic’s perspective of how to use and update the system. Among the recommendations to raise revenue is increasing the federal fuel tax, which has not raised since 1993, allowing inflation to stifle its effectiveness. Additionally, the ban on tolling the inter- states should be lifted in order for the high- ways to raise their share of revenue and manage traffic demand in some highway segments. The Interstate Highway System has been, and will continue to be, an essential part of the country’s society and economy. The technological and environmental challenges of the future only emphasize the need to begin its renewal and modernization soon- er rather than later. — Andrew Robinson
Renewing the National Commitment to the Interstate Highway System: A Foundation for the Future (2018, 614 pp., ISBN 978-0-309-48755-9) is available from the National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $64.00 plus $7.50 shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at
16 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS Time for Encryption to Take a Quantum Leap Preparing for a Future With QUANTUM COMPUTING
uantum computing, concept of a quantum computer has been which relies on the around for decades, only recently have characteristics of quan- researchers demonstrated their fundamental tum mechanics to carry operations in real-world systems. out computations, pres- One of the calculations that a large- ents both the potential scale quantum computer could theoreti- for faster computing as cally perform would make it possible to Q well as risks to current security paradigms. break the public-key encryption that Conventional computers rely on bits with protects most of today’s private commu- binary values of 1 or 0; quantum comput- nications and stored data. Although such ers use the unique properties of quantum a system has not yet been achieved, nor is bits or qubits, which can be both 1 and one expected to be within the next decade, 0 at the same time, a principle known as a large-scale quantum computer could the- quantum superposition. This ability of oretically break this encryption in a matter a qubit to have two different values at of hours. Therefore, says a recent report the same time, when carefully harnessed, from the National Academies, work that allows for certain calculations to be per- is underway to develop and deploy algo- formed in a fraction of the time it would rithms that are resilient against an attack take a traditional computer. While the by a quantum computer is critical, because
SUMMER 2019 17 the commercial applications of near-term quantum computers — expected to be much smaller and more error-prone than those that could defeat public-key encryp- tion — is also critical for the field, the report says. Although the arrival of a general- purpose quantum computer could have a major detrimental impact on cryptography, there are also many potential benefits from pursuing advances in the field of quantum computing. Like few other foundational research areas, quantum computing has the potential to greatly speed computing for certain applications, which makes sup- porting a robust research community in the U.S. of strategic national value. Results from research in this area have already spurred progress more generally in physics replacing an established Internet protocol and computer science. generally takes over a decade. Even though technical challenges cur- Mark Horowitz, chair of the committee rently prevent quantum computers from that wrote the report and Yahoo! Founders defeating today’s security protocols, the Professor at Stanford University, said, committee stressed that developments in “There has been remarkable progress in the security and encryption need to happen field of quantum computing, and the com- soon in order to be fully implemented mittee doesn’t see a fundamental reason before the technical barriers are overcome. why a large, functional quantum computer This exciting new technology may have could not be built in principle. However, unknown potential, but it also could make many technical challenges remain to be private information more vulnerable if resolved before we reach this milestone.” cryptography does not keep pace. The report identifies significant challenges — Andrew Robinson that lie ahead for quantum computing, including correcting errors in the quantum system, itself a costly measure, and the Quantum Computing: Progress and Prospects problem of converting large amounts of (2018, 272 pp., ISBN 978-0-309-47969-1) is avail- able from the National Academies Press, tel. conventional data into a quantum state, 1-800-624-6242; $55.00 plus $7.50 shipping for for which there is no known rapid method. single copies; also on the Internet at
18 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS Interview
John L. Anderson Discusses His New Role as O the National Academy of Engineering’s President
hen John L. Anderson, presi- dent emeritus and distinguished professor of chemical engineer- ing at the Illinois Institute of Technology, was first elected W to the National Academy of Engineering almost 30 years ago, he remembers being deeply honored and excit- ed about how the recognition would help his career. But it wasn’t until a few years later, when he got more directly involved in the work of the NAE and the National Academies, that he began to appreciate that his membership could be something much more meaningful. “As I went along, I got opportunities to be involved in activities at the national level,” says Anderson, who — in addition to serving on the NAE Council and many NAE committees — also chaired National Academies’ panels on research needs for countering improvised explosive devices and on techniques to identify and respond to potential terrorist attacks that involve chem- ical explosives. “That is when I realized that maintaining the Academies’ reputation as this is much more than being a member of nonpartisan, independent advisers to the an honorific society. I might actually be able nation is critical — especially at a time to do some good for the nation.” when Washington, D.C., and the nation are Anderson, who began his six-year term often bitterly divided along partisan lines. as the 12th president of the NAE on July Fortunately, says Anderson, many issues 1, says that the NAE and the Academies’ related to science and technology tend to ability to convene the best available exper- unite, rather than divide, most Americans. tise in engineering, science, and medicine “What I’ve seen as a member of the is “our No. 1 strength.” He believes that National Science Board, and as a university
SUMMER 2019 19 president and educator, is that when it as the president of Illinois Tech from 2007 comes to science and engineering, there to 2015, and is currently a distinguished isn’t very much partisanship. That is the professor of chemical engineering at Illinois result of an appreciation — by the country Tech’s Armour College of Engineering. and by the taxpayers — that science and His past academic leadership positions engineering education, research, and include chair of biomedical engineering, innovation are really important to society.” department head of chemical engineer- As NAE president, one of Anderson’s ing, and dean of engineering at Carnegie top priorities will be to find ways for the Mellon University, as well as provost and institution to engage the business commu- executive vice president at Case Western nity in more of its work and benefit from Reserve University. its unique perspective on issues. In addi- He is also the recipient of numerous tion, Anderson says, NAE could also help awards and honors. He was a presidential bridge gaps between entrepreneurs and appointment to the National Science Board big companies. “Entrepreneurs produce in 2014 [his term expires next year], and is the new [inventions and products] and big a fellow of the American Academy of Arts companies are the ones that make them and Sciences and the American Association better and more widely available,” he for the Advancement of Science. He was says. “Innovation often begins with entre- awarded the Andreas Acrivos Award preneurs, and connecting them with big for Professional Progress in Chemical companies is a challenge of the engineer- Engineering (1989) and the National ing profession.” Engineering Award by the American The NAE will also continue to focus Association of Engineering Societies on helping the engineering profession (2012). He held a Guggenheim Fellowship bring more women and underrepresented at MIT in 1982-83. minorities to engineering. Progress has “Education is the reason I’m here,” says been made in some fields, such as envi- Anderson, who proudly notes that from ronmental engineering, chemical engineer- elementary school through university, his ing, and biomedical engineering, but not entire education was obtained at public in others. “We need to work on that as a institutions. “I really value education and profession, and NAE can help,” Anderson the importance of mentoring. I think that’s says. He intends to build on impact- my most trusted philosophical guideline.” ful NAE programs such as the Global — Molly Galvin Grand Challenges Scholars Program, EngineerGirl, and Frontiers of Engineering. In his new role, Anderson plans to draw on his long and distinguished background as administrator and educator. He served
20 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS O20/20
Landmark Report on Forensic Science Celebrates 10 Years of Impact
his year marks the 10-year anniver- in stark contrast to claims that sary of the release of the National forensic practitioners have often Academies’ Strengthening Forensic made in court, such as testifying Science in the United States: A that a bullet came from a particular Path Forward, a report that drew gun “to the exclusion of every other Tnational attention to the need for stronger firearm in the world,” or that a science in an arena where matters of vital piece of evidence — such as a hair strand importance — freedom and even lives — or fingerprint — was a “100% match” are at stake. with a particular suspect. The report found that many common The report recommended sweeping forensic science methods used in criminal reforms, including mandatory certification for investigations have not been scientifically forensic science practitioners and accredita- validated. “With the exception of nuclear tion for labs, research to gauge the reliability DNA evidence … no forensic method has and limits of various forensic methods, and been rigorously shown to have the capacity the creation of an independent entity to pro- to consistently, and with a high degree mote research and foster reforms. of certainty, demonstrate a connection “The National Academies’ report on between a piece of evidence and an Strengthening Forensic Science was the first individual or source.” The statement stands serious and objective look at the forensic
SUMMER 2019 21 and the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers to create a partnership in 2012 to re-examine cases in which micro- scopic hair analysis was conducted and used in testimony by the FBI. The review found that forensic scientists’ testimony had outstripped what the science could support in more than 90 percent of cases. After those findings emerged, the FBI and its partners in the review worked to notify those who were defendants in the cases. science evidence that had for decades been The FBI also committed to stopping the routinely received by the courts — and erroneous testimony, and to using mito- what it revealed was that too much foren- chondrial DNA hair analysis in addition to sic science did not adhere to basic scientific microscopic hair analysis. principles and was sometimes little more In some instances the report affected than guesswork,” notes Jed Rakoff, senior states’ approaches to forensic science, as judge of the U.S. District Court for the well as individual cases. “Research scien- Southern District of New York. tists who challenged foundational aspects The report had immediate impact. At the of forensic science before the NAS report American Academy of Forensic Science’s was published were often dismissed,” annual meeting the following year more than said Clifford Speigelman, University a dozen sessions explored the report’s impli- Distinguished Professor at Texas A&M cations across a range of areas, from certifi- University and statistics adviser to the cation to fingerprint and bite mark analyses. Texas Forensic Science Commission. “The Federal policymakers responded as report not only provided a critical scientific well. Several months after the report’s consensus that supported our concerns, release, the White House National Science but it is advancing science to change lives. and Technology Council chartered a In my home state of Texas, it has led to Subcommittee on Forensic Science to coordi- the courts to abandon bite mark evidence nate federal efforts to lead national activities and exonerate Steven Chaney who spent to improve the science and application of 28 years in prison for a crime he did not forensic science. The subcommittee’s work- commit.” ing groups explored the implications of the The report’s impact on judicial rulings report’s recommendations and identified pos- has reached as high as the U.S. Supreme sible approaches for implementing them. Court. In the 2009 case Melendez-Diaz v. One forensic science discipline whose Massachusetts, the Supreme Court ruled weaknesses were highlighted in the report that defendants had a right to cross- was microscopic hair analysis. New scruti- examine forensic scientists in court. Justice ny of this technique led the Federal Bureau Antonin Scalia referenced the NAS report of Investigation, the Innocence Project, in the majority opinion, in support of the
22 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS court’s determination that forensic science In April 2019, committee co-chairs testimony should be open to challenge as a Harry T. Edwards and Constantine way to identify deficiencies in training and judgment, and because the neutrality and Gatsonis received, on behalf of the reliability of forensic evidence could not study committee, the Champions of be assured. In 2013 the U.S. Department of Justice Justice award from the Innocence and the National Institute of Standards Project in recognition of the report’s and Technology established the National effect on the criminal justice Commission on Forensic Science, an advi- sory committee whose goal was to offer system. In notifying Edwards policy guidance for improving the practice and Gatsonis about the award, and reliability of forensic science. Based the Innocence Project thanked on the commission’s recommendations, DOJ adopted a new code of professional the committee for the report, conduct for those working in its federal noting that the report “has truly laboratories, and some commission recom- transformed the state of forensic mendations were proactively adopted by some state and local crime laboratories. science and the involvement of the DOJ disbanded the commission when its research community in service of charter expired in 2017. criminal justice reform.” Despite the progress that has been made, the continued lack of an independent entity to oversee forensic science — a recom- mendation of the report — hinders further efforts, as do remaining gaps in research, said Judge Harry T. Edwards, who co- chaired the study committee that wrote the report. “Perhaps most critically, we still do not know what we do not know,” said Edwards. “We need better scientific studies and standards to shape the work of foren- sic practitioners and regulate the admission of forensic evidence. This means that more top scientists must engage in research on forensic methods and appear in court to explain the evidence. This will allow judges to better understand forensic evidence and to more clearly and accurately instruct jurors on the limits of the evidence.” — Sara Frueh
SUMMER 2019 23 The Urgent Need for a O Global Framework to Guide Clinical Use of
International Collaborations Heritable Genome Editing
hen a researcher from China W announced last November at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing the birth of twins whose healthy embryonic genomes had been edited, it generated headlines around the world and was widely condemned for violating long-standing scientific principles and ethical norms. The researcher’s work also served as a wake-up call for the sci- entific and medical communities: More work is needed to establish global agree- ment on issues surrounding heritable genome editing. To address these issues, an interna- tional commission has been convened by the U.S. National Academy of Medicine, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society of the U.K. — with the participation of science and medical academies around the world — to devel- op a framework for scientists, clinicians, and regulatory authorities to consider when assessing potential clinical applica- tions of human germline genome editing. The framework will identify a number of requirements that should be considered, and could inform the development of a potential pathway from research to clini- cal use — if society concludes that heri- table human genome editing applications are acceptable.
24 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS “These revelations at the summit in • discuss ways to assess the balance Hong Kong underscore the urgent need between potential benefits and harms of for an internationally accepted frame- germline editing applications to a child work to help scientists, medical experts, and to subsequent generations; and regulators address the complex • design appropriate protocols for scientific and medical issues surround- obtaining patient consent and ethical ing clinical use of germline genome edit- approval from review committees, and ing,” said NAM President Victor J. Dzau for satisfying requirements of regula- and Royal Society Vice President John tory authorities; Skehel, co-chairs of the commission’s international oversight board, in a joint • assess possible mechanisms for statement. “We also welcome the forma- long-term monitoring of children born tion of the World Health Organization’s with edited genomes; and Expert Advisory Committee on • outline research and clinical char- Developing Global Standards for acteristics that would form part of an Governance and Oversight of Human oversight structure, including defining Genome Editing that will operate in par- criteria for heritable genome editing, allel to our commission.” monitoring any clinical use, and bring- The U.S. National Academies and the ing forward concerns about human Royal Society will serve as secretari- experiments. ats of the commission, which includes The commission will hold public representatives from 10 nations. Kay meetings in Washington, D.C., and Davies, professor of genetics at the London and an international workshop, MDUK Oxford Neuromuscular Centre and will also issue a call for public input at the University of Oxford, England, to inform their work. The commission’s and Richard Lifton, president of the final report is expected to be issued in Rockefeller University in New York City, the spring of 2020. — Molly Galvin will co-chair the commission. The commission will: For more information, visit
SUMMER 2019 25 O Community Outreach
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES HOST Although Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein were not actually historical contemporaries, the lure of the National Academies’ first-ever Family Science Day was enough to conjure them into simultaneous existence on Saturday, April Family Science Day 13, at the National Academy of Sciences building, where we welcomed them and about 3,000 of their best science- interested friends. Staff from around the Academies worked together to create a set of fun, family-focused, hands-on activities designed to introduce children and their parents to the ways in which science and engineering can be used to make good decisions at home and in the community. Visitors also immersed themselves in DecisionTown, voting on important town issues and claiming citizenship at the Town Hall. It was a pretty great day for everyone, including all of our honorary citizens, who left knowing a little bit more about how science and engineering — and the National Academies — relate to their everyday lives. — Ann Merchant
26 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS Just a Few Stops in DecisionTown
DecisionTown was brought to the Academies’ Family Science Day through a partnership with the Institute for Genomic Biology at the University Illinois, which is directed by NAS/NAM member Gene Robinson.
SUMMER 2019 27 O Celebrating Excellence in Science in Excellence Celebrating
NAS Honors 10 U.S. Nobel and Kavli Prize Laureates
n science, the small, incremental that trumps everything,” Paul Romer, win- advances matter just as much as the ner of the 2018 Nobel Prize in economics, big breakthroughs — and the Nobel said of his fellow laureate James Allison, I and Kavli prizes celebrate both on the who was awarded the 2018 Nobel Prize in world stage. medicine for pioneering immunotherapy. On April 10, the National Academy of The importance of the basic sciences Sciences honored 10 recent winners of the — such as physics, chemistry, and biology Nobel and Kavli prizes at events held on — was a recurring theme. After all, had Capitol Hill and at the NAS building. Allison not been so focused on the basic Although the honorees represent differ- biology of the T cell, he might never have ent corners of the U.S., their discoveries made discoveries that laid the foundation have rewarded people the world over. They for one of the most promising areas of can- have studied the inner workings of the ear, cer treatment. integrated the impact of climate change into During the event’s kickoff reception long-term economic analysis, and unleashed in the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol, NAS the body’s immune system to fight cancer. President Marcia McNutt applauded the “When you can show there are people laureates’ creativity, their resilience in alive because of the discovery you’ve made, the face of false starts and setbacks, and
28 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS their advancement of human knowledge. Playing a role in supporting “breathtak- “Because of the vibrant research ecosystem ing” science and technology innovations is here that supports young scientists and “part of the joy in serving in public life,” gives them the freedom to push the bound- Alexander said. Coons, who credited his aries of human understanding, they were Republican colleague for being a “true able to achieve the pinnacle of their life’s champion of science,” added that federal work in the U.S.,” she said. investment in fundamental science and Kelvin Droegemeier, director of the human capital has created numerous jobs White House Office of Science and and has ripple effects throughout Technology Policy, echoed her remarks the economy. about the importance of upholding America’s scientific tradition. “You provide a beacon of leadership in the U.S. We want [science in the United States] to be an enterprise that’s worthy of your accomplishments — because science anywhere is good for science everywhere,” he told the laureates. The reception was co-hosted by U.S. Senators Lamar Alexander (R-Tenn.) and Christopher Coons (D-Del.), who called for enduring, reliable support for scien- tific research from both sides of the aisle.
SUMMER 2019 29 The honorees were:
• Arthur Ashkin, who received one- half of the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physics
• Rainer Weiss, who shares the 2016 Kavli Prize in Astrophysics and received one-half of the 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics
• James Allison, who received one-half of the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Later that evening, Mariette DiChristina, • Robert Fettiplace and James editor-in-chief of Scientific American, Hudspeth, who share (with Christine facilitated a panel discussion with the lau- Petit) the 2018 Kavli Prize in reates at the NAS building. The laureates Neuroscience addressed several topics, from open data sharing to the many ways science creates • Frances Arnold and George Smith, “a planet worth living on,” in the words who share the 2018 Nobel Prize in of Frances Arnold, winner Chemistry (one-half and one-fourth, respectively) of the 2018 Nobel Prize in chemistry. • Jennifer Doudna, who shares the “These prizes are not 2018 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience about you. These prizes are given to science. It’s about • William Nordhaus and Paul Romer, bringing science to other who each received one-half of the 2018 Nobel Prize in Economic people and the chance to Sciences share it with the whole world,” Arnold said. Many of the laure- ates agreed the distinction comes with the responsibility to be an ambassador for sci- ence — starting in their communities and in elementary school classrooms. For those working in areas in which they may not live to see the fruits of their labor — such as climate change — there’s nothing more urgent than educating the next generation. This event, now in its second year, rec- ognizes trailblazing research and the role of science in our everyday lives. — Stephanie Miceli
30 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS OMoving to From Action Evidence
New Action Collaborative Formed to Spur Systemic Change to Prevent Sexual Harassment
new action collaborative move beyond basic legal compliance launched by the National and to implement evidence-based poli- Academies and dozens of cies and practices that both prevent all U.S. colleges, universities, forms of sexual harassment and pro- and research institutions is mote a culture of civility and respect. seeking ways to spur and The action collaborative builds on a take action to prevent sex- foundation laid by the Academies’ 2018 ual harassment in higher report Sexual Harassment of Women: education. The member Climate, Culture, and Consequences in Ainstitutions are working to Academic Sciences, Engineering, and SUMMER 2019 31 Medicine, which found high rates of Seeing this gap — and considering sexual harassment across academia. its own success in convening activi- After the report’s release, members of ties — the National Academies decided the study committee traveled to col- to partner with 28 schools to form an leges and universities around the U.S. action collaborative to support efforts to present the report’s findings. During to move the report’s recommendations these visits, they repeatedly heard and other evidence-based efforts into policy and practice. More institutions have since joined, bringing the total membership to 57 institutions. The action collaborative is designed to be an active space where colleges, universities, and research and training institutions can research and develop effective ways to address and prevent all forms of sexual harassment. Annual meetings will be held for member institutions to learn from one another and from experts. The institutions are forming four working groups to identify promising practices and find ways to address on-the-ground barri- ers to implementing changes — these groups will focus efforts on prevention, administrators, faculty, and students response, remediation, and evalua- wonder what novel approaches and tion. In addition, public workshops will promising practices other institutions engage the broader higher education were using to implement the report’s community in order to share successful recommendations and prevent and practices and innovative ideas. respond to sexual harassment. “We hope that going forward even “While there was a lot of energy more colleges, universities, and other and desire for action prompted by the organizations will follow our work, par- #MeToo movement and by the report, ticipate at our public events, and join there was no good forum where insti- us in taking action to prevent and effec- tutions could share ideas and drive tively address sexual harassment,” said the systemic changes called for in Benya. — Sara Frueh the report,” said Frazier Benya, the senior program officer at the National Academies who directed the sexual harassment study, and who directs the new action collaborative.
32 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS OSUMMER 2019 3 USPS MARKETING MAIL™ U.S. POSTAGE PAID PERMIT NO. 6426 P.O. Box 8009 WASHINGTON, DC Aston, PA 19014
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