Pacific Northwest Region United States Department of Agriculture Wilderness Air Quality Plan

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Region

June 2012

View from Twin Lakes in Glacier Peak Wilderness, eastern WA Cascades

Introduction ...... 1 Wilderness Stewardship Challenge ...... 1 Regional Air Quality Management Approach ...... 2 Objectives of the Region 6 Wilderness Air Quality Plan ...... 3 Laws, Policy and Other Guidance ...... 4 Federal Laws ...... 4 State Air Pollution Laws...... 9 Forest Service Policy and Other Guidance ...... 9 Wilderness Areas ...... 14 Class I and Class II Areas ...... 14 Ecoregions ...... 17 Wilderness Characteristics ...... 24 Air Pollutants ...... 26 Pollutants of Interest to Wilderness in the Pacific Northwest ...... 26 Emission Rates ...... 30 Regional Sources of Air Pollution ...... 32 Source Locations ...... 34 Deposition, Concentration and Distribution ...... 36 Future Air Pollution Emissions ...... 44 Wilderness Air Quality Values and Sensitive Receptors ...... 47 Visibility ...... 49 Flora ...... 49 Soils ...... 53 Water ...... 54 Fauna ...... 55 Cultural Resources...... 56 Priority Sensitive Receptors and Indicators ...... 57 Establishing a Baseline ...... 58 Wilderness AQRV Monitoring in R6...... 60 Visibility ...... 60 Flora: Lichens...... 66 Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants ...... 69 Water: Lake Chemistry ...... 71 Fauna: Mercury in Fish ...... 80

Wilderness Air Quality Monitoring Strategy for R6 ...... 81 Visibility Monitoring ...... 81 Flora: Lichen Bio-monitoring ...... 82 Flora: Ozone Injury Surveys for Sensitive Plants ...... 82 Water: Wilderness Lake Chemistry Monitoring ...... 83 Fauna: Mercury in Fish Tissue Analysis ...... 83 Example – Roaring River Wilderness ...... 84 Appendix A: 10-YWSC Wilderness Scoring ...... 87 Visibility ...... 87 Flora: Lichen ...... 87 Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants ...... 88 Water: Lake Chemistry ...... 88 Fauna: Mercury in Fish ...... 89 Summary of Scoring for Each Wilderness ...... 90 Appendix B: Summary WAQRV Data ...... 92 Appendix C: References ...... 94

List of Tables Table 2-1. NAAQs for Six Principal Pollutants, October 2011 ...... 6 Table 3-1. Class I Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington ...... 16 Table 3-2. Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington ...... 16 Table 3-3. Wilderness Characteristics That May Be Affected by Air Quality ...... 25 Table 4-1. Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds ...... 29 Table 4-2. Hazardous Air Pollutants Released into the Atmosphere in 2010 in tons/year ...... 32 Table 4-3. Sources of NOx, SO2, PM2.5, NH3, and VOCs ...... 33 Table 4-4. Regional Sources of Greenhouse Gases ...... 33 Table 5-1. Potential Effects of Air Pollution on Wilderness Air Quality Values ...... 48 Table 5-2. Ozone Sensitive Plant Species used as Bio-indicators ...... 52 Table 5-3. Ozone Exposure Metrics Associated with Injury or Reduced Growth ...... 52 Table 5-4. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators for Water ...... 55 Table 5-5. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators of Air Pollution Effects in Fauna ...... 56 Table 5-6. Priority WAQVs, Sensitive Receptors and Indicators ...... 57 Table 5-7. Temporal and Spatial Criteria for Establishing WAQV Baselines ...... 58 Table 6-1. Sources of Haze Components Measured on the IMPROVE Monitors ...... 61 Table 6-2. IMPROVE Visibility Monitors in Region 6 ...... 63 Table 6-3. Representative IMPROVE Monitors ...... 64 Table 6-4. Wilderness Lichen Plot Sampling Dates ...... 68 Table 6-5. Ozone Injury to Vegetation Surveys in R6 Wilderness ...... 70 Table 7-1. IMPROVE Monitoring Laboratory and Operating Costs ...... 81 Table A-1. Counting Instructions...... 87 Table A-2. Lichen Biomonitoring Scoring ...... 88 Table A-3. Overall Scoring for Each Wilderness ...... 90

List of Figures Figure 3-1. Class I and Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington ...... 15 Figure 3-2. USFS Region 6 Wilderness Areas and Level III Ecoregions...... 18 Figure 4-1. Emissions Rates of, SO2, NOx, NH3, PM2.5 and VOCs in Washington and Oregon ...... 30 Figure 4-2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by State and Sector ...... 31 Figure 4-3. Air Pollution Sources and Public Lands in the Pacific Northwest ...... 35 Figure 4-4. Average Annual Use of Endosulfan in 2002 ...... 36 Figure 4-5. Model-Predicted Total Nitrogen Deposition Rates for the Pacific Northwest ...... 37 Figure 4-6. Model-estimated Total Sulfur Deposition in the Pacific Northwest ...... 38 Figure 4-7. W126 Ozone exposure in 2008 for the Pacific Northwest ...... 40 Figure 4-8. N100 Ozone Values in 2008 ...... 41 Figure 4-9. IMPROVE (Rural) 2005–2008 PM2.5 ...... 42 Figure 4-10. Mercury Deposition ...... 43 Figure 4-11. Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory ...... 44 Figure 6-1. IMPROVE Monitoring and Wilderness Locations in Region 6 ...... 62 Figure 6-2. Best and Worst 20 % and Annual Average Visibility at Mount Hood ...... 65 Figure 6-3. Visibility Trends at the Mt. Hood IMPROVE Monitor ...... 66 Figure 6-4. Lichen Bio-monitoring Plot Locations ...... 67 Figure 6-5. Wilderness Scale Sensitivity Classification ...... 73 Figure 6-6. Water Chemistry Monitoring in Wilderness Lakes ...... 76 Figure 6-7. Location of Four Study Lakes ...... 78 PNW Wilderness Air Quality Plan

CHAPTER 1 Introduction The purpose of this Wilderness Air Quality Plan is to provide a strategy for monitoring air quality in wilderness in Region 6 (R6). It is based on the goals of the 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge. The audience includes wilderness managers, air quality specialists and others, including stakeholders who are interested in the management and stewardship of wilderness. Wilderness Stewardship Challenge The 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge (10-YWSC) was developed by the USDA Forest Service Chief’s Wilderness Advisory Group (WAG) as a quantifiable measurement of the Forest Service’s success in wilderness stewardship. The goal identified by the Wilderness Advisory Group, and endorsed by the Chief, is to bring each and every wilderness under Forest Service management to a minimum stewardship level by the 50th Anniversary of the Wilderness Act in 2014. The first year of the Challenge was Fiscal Year 2005.i

Wilderness encompasses nearly 20 percent of the land area of the National Forest System. The Wilderness Act of 1964 states that wilderness “. . .shall be administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use as wilderness, and so as to provide for the protection of these areas, the preservation of their wilderness character, and for the gathering and dissemination of information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness.” Yet, with improving technologies and ever increasing pressure from a growing population, wilderness program responsibilities and complexities have increased while an available wilderness workforce has decreased. Consequently, concerns exist at multiple levels of the agency regarding our ability to implement protections to assure the perpetuation of wilderness.

An assessment of critical wilderness stewardship tasks was applied nationally in 2002 and wildernesses did not fare well. An earlier attempt to quantify wilderness management duties identified over 200 individual tasks. The Wilderness Information Management Steering Group distilled these 200 individual tasks down to 10 comprehensive elements in an effort to simplify the measurement of wilderness stewardship. A “minimum stewardship level” is defined in the Challenge as meeting six out of these 10 elements.

To move forward with the Challenge each USDA Forest Service Region has identified specific strategies.1 Through the development of these strategies it is clear that the Challenge cannot be met by utilizing resources in wilderness and recreation alone. An interdisciplinary approach is necessary. Support is needed from specialists in air quality, aquatics, botany, fire, and wildlife. Leadership and field managers need to work closely with these programs to successfully meet the Challenge.

The ten elements identified in the Challenge represent only a small portion of the difficult task of wilderness stewardship. It’s important to remember that the elements are not to be regarded simply as

1 Region strategies are available on the 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge Web Site, http://fsweb.wo.fs.fed.us/rhwr/wilderness/10ywsc/index_10ywsc.html.

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a checklist. Attainment of each element is a stepping-stone to ensure that each wilderness retains its wilderness character into the future.

This report addresses Element #3 of the 10 listed elements2-- air quality. In order to meet the minimum level of stewardship for air quality, the Wilderness Advisory Group identified the following goal and desired outcome:

• Goal: Monitoring of wilderness air quality values is conducted and a baseline is established for each wilderness. • Outcome: The baseline condition of at least one sensitive receptor will be determined for each wilderness, which can be used to evaluate air pollution-caused change over time. Regional Air Quality Management Approach Shortly after the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act, the Forest Service established an Air Resource Management (ARM) program to address the potential adverse impacts of air quality on all national forests. The Region 6 Air Resource Management (ARM) program was initiated in 1981 to specifically focus on air quality issues in the national forests in Oregon and Washington. Since then, a great deal of work has been conducted to examine air quality in the national forests and wilderness areas of Region 6.

Air quality related values (AQRVs), sensitive receptors, and indicators have already been established for each of the region’s 16 Class I wilderness areas. Regional managers help protect these designated areas from the adverse impacts of air pollution by reviewing and providing comments on proposed, new or modified, industrial and power generation facilities. When an existing source is found to cause visibility impairment, the ARM staff will work with state air pollution control agencies to reduce the emissions from the identified source. Regional vegetation and fuels management programs also work with ARM to reduce smoke impacts from prescribed burning activities on national forests.

In collaboration with wilderness managers and forest inventory and analysis staff, ARM has also conducted extensive regional air quality monitoring activities beyond Class I areas. These region-wide activities include:

1. Monitoring lichens as bio-indicators of air pollution 2. Conducting synoptic surveys of sensitive lakes to identify baseline values of lake chemistry and to monitor for changes due to acid deposition 3. Installing a region-wide visibility monitoring system which has been operating since 2000 4. Monitoring ozone injury to vegetation (by the Forest Inventory and Analysis group)

Available information from all regional air quality monitoring efforts is presented in this document. Applicable credit towards the monitoring requirements put forth by the Challenge is given to each wilderness for which monitoring has been conducted.3

2 A definition of the Wilderness Stewardship Challenge Element #3—Air Quality is available online at http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=toolboxes&sec=air.

3 Specific wilderness stewardship scores related to the Challenge for Region 6 are located in Appendix A.

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Objectives of the Region 6 Wilderness Air Quality Plan Rather than create 65 individual wilderness air quality plans with duplicate information, this strategy continues to build on the current regional approach to air quality management. This document provides available regional air quality information and outlines the relevant details and the monitoring needs of each individual wilderness area. The regional information common to all wilderness areas includes sources of air pollution, monitoring locations, and results. Scoring and recommended monitoring strategies are presented for each individual wilderness area in the appendices to this report. Appendix A contains the scoring for each wilderness in relation to the Challenge, and Appendix B contains individual air quality plans for each wilderness in the region.

The Region 6 Wilderness Air Quality Plan has the following objectives:

1. Establish AQRVs, sensitive receptors and indicators for all Class II wilderness areas in the region (AQRVs are already established for Class I areas) 2. Obtain credit for previous and existing monitoring as scored by the current 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge (10YWSC) for air element #3 for each wilderness area 3. Create a wilderness air quality value monitoring plan for each wilderness

These objectives are designed to help Region 6 conduct and establish baseline values and determine trends, assess if the air quality in each wilderness is getting better or worse and develop regional strategies for improvement.

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CHAPTER 2 Laws, Policy and Other Guidance Laws, regulations, directives, and policies define our authority, responsibilities and limits. The following sections describe applicable legislative acts, regulations and Forest Service policy related to implementing air quality programs in the Pacific Northwest Region. Federal Laws Forest Service Organic Act of 1897 The basic authority to protect national forest lands was delegated to the Forest Service by the Organic Act of 1897. Unlike the national parks, which were created primarily to preserve natural beauty and unique outdoor recreation opportunities, the founders of early national forests envisioned them as working forests with multiple objectives. The Organic Administration Act of 1897, under which most national forests were established, states: “No national forest shall be established, except to improve and protect the forest within the boundaries, or for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flows, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States…” Multiple-Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960 In the Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 (16 USC 528), Congress established that the national forests shall be administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed and wildlife and fish purposes. Wilderness Act of 1964 The 1964 Wilderness Act (16 USC 1131) establishes a wilderness preservation system of federally-owned lands where “earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” The Forest Service is charged to preserve the wilderness character of such areas under its jurisdiction and to protect them from man-caused degradations not specifically allowed by the law. The Wilderness Act gives the Forest Service the ability to take action against sources of air pollution affecting a wilderness, but most likely only after measurable impact has been detected. Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 The basic authority to protect national forests was enhanced by the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource Planning Act of 1974, as amended by the National Forest Management Act (16 USC 1602) of 1976. This act directs the Forest Service to “…recognize the fundamental need to protect and, where appropriate, improve the quality of soil, water, and air resources…” (16 USC 1602(5)(C)). Additionally, the Act, as amended on Dec. 31, 2000, calls for an assessment every 10 years, which includes:

• An analysis of the potential effects of global climate change on the condition of renewable resources on the forests and rangelands of the United States • An analysis of the rural and urban forestry opportunities to mitigate the buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide and reduce the risk of global climate change

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This section of the Act also calls for a report from the Secretary of Agriculture that accounts for the effects of global climate change on:

• “Forest and rangeland conditions, including potential effects on the geographic ranges of species, and on forest and rangeland products.” National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), as amended (42 USC 4321) established the EPA along with national environmental policies and goals to protect, maintain, and enhance the environment. NEPA requires federal agencies to integrate environmental values into their decision making processes by considering the environmental impacts of their proposed actions and reasonable alternatives to those actions. To meet this requirement, federal agencies prepare a detailed statement known as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Clean Air Act of 1970, with Amendments The purpose of the Clean Air Act (CAA) is to enhance the quality of the nation's air resources and to protect public health and welfare. It is one of the most complex pieces of legislation ever crafted by Congress and even more complex in its implementation through regulation and enforcement. There are six titles of the CAA: Title I – Air Pollution Prevention and Control; Title II – Emission Standards for Moving Sources; Title III – General; Title IV – Acid Deposition Control; Title V – Permits, and Title VI – Stratospheric Ozone Protection.

Roles and Responsibilities under the CAA The CAA authorizes the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and enforce regulations to achieve the stated objectives of the CAA. The CAA also gave states primary responsibility for air quality management. States carry out this responsibility through their preparation of a State Implementation Plan (SIP) which must be approved by the EPA. The SIP outlines how a state will achieve and maintain applicable federal and state standards. The states must involve the public and industries through hearings and opportunities to comment on the development of each state plan.

The Forest Service has two roles under the CAA, one of protection of AQRVs in Class I Wilderness areas, and another when activities on national forests emit air pollution. The Forest Service role of protection AQRVs in Class I areas is described under the New Source Review section below. The role of the Forest Service in terms of complying with air pollution laws and standards when activities on National Forests emit air pollution is described both under NEPA and under the Conformity Rules.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) The CAA requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for widespread pollutants from numerous and diverse sources considered harmful to public health and the environment. The CAA established two types of national air quality standards. Primary standards set limits to protect public health, including the health of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly. Secondary standards set limits to protect public welfare, including protection against visibility impairment, and damage to animals, crops, vegetation and buildings. The Clean Air Act requires periodic review of the science upon which the standards are based and the standards themselves.

The EPA has set NAAQS for six principal pollutants, which are called "criteria" pollutants, which include: ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and lead. For each pollutant, the standards are expressed in units of parts per million (ppm) by volume, parts per billion (ppb) by

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volume, and micrograms per cubic meter of air (µg/m3). 4 Each standard has a specific averaging period associated with it and is expressed in a particular form (e.g., not to be exceeded more than once per year, annual mean, etc.). Table 2-1 presents the current NAAQS for the six criteria pollutants. NAAQ standards are periodically reviewed and revised. For the most current information visit: http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html.

Table 2-1. NAAQs for Six Principal Pollutants, October 2011 Averaging Pollutant Primary/Secondary Level Form Time Carbon 8-hour 9 ppm Primary Not to exceed more than once/year Monoxide 1-hour 35 ppm Rolling 3 Lead Primary/Secondary month 0.15 μg/m3 (1) Not to exceed average Nitrogen Primary 1-hour 100 ppb 98th percentile averaged over 3 years Dioxide Primary/S eco ndary Annual 53 ppb (2) Annual Mean Annual fourth-highest daily maximum 8- Ozone Primary/Secondary 8-hour 0.075 ppm (3) hour concentration, averaged over 3 years Particle Annual 15 μg/m3 Annual mean, averaged over 3 years Pollution Primary/Secondary 24-hour 35 μg/m3 98th percentile, averaged over 3 years (PM 2.5) Particle Not to exceed more than once/ year, on Pollution Primary/Secondary 24-hour 150 μg/m3 average over 3 years (PM 10) 99th percentile of 1-hour daily maximum Sulfur Primary 1-hour 75 ppb (4) concentrations, averaged over 3 years Dioxide Secondary 3-hour 0.5 ppm Not to exceed more than once/year (1) Final rule signed October 15, 2008. The 1978 lead standard (1.5 µg/m3 as a quarterly average) remains in effect until one year after an area is designated for the 2008 standard, except in areas designated nonattainment, the 1978 standard remains in effect until implementation plans to attain or maintain the 2008 standard are approved. (2) The official level of the annual NO2 standard is 0.053 ppm, equal to 53 ppb, which is shown here for the purpose of clearer comparison to the 1-hour standard. (3) Final rule signed March 12, 2008. The 1997 ozone standard (0.08 ppm, annual fourth-highest daily maximum 8- hour concentration, averaged over 3 years) and related implementation rules remain in place. In 1997, EPA revoked the 1-hour ozone standard (0.12 ppm, not to be exceeded more than once per year) in all areas, although some areas have continued obligations under that standard (“anti-backsliding”). The 1-hour ozone standard is attained when the expected number of days per calendar year with maximum hourly average concentrations above 0.12 ppm is less than or equal to 1. (4) Final rule signed June 2, 2010. The 1971 annual and 24-hour SO2 standards were revoked in that same rulemaking. However, these standards remain in effect until one year after an area is designated for the 2010 standard, except in areas designated nonattainment for the 1971 standards, where the 1971 standards remain in effect until implementation plans to attain or maintain the 2010 standard are approved.

4 Description taken from the EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html.

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Forest Service Conformity under NAAQS Under the Clean Air Act, any area that violates the NAAQS for any of the six criteria pollutants is designated as a non-attainment area. A maintenance area is a non-attainment area that has been re- designated to attainment status subject to submission and approval of a maintenance plan. If a state has a non-attainment or maintenance area, it must develop a SIP that describes how the state will achieve and maintain federal and state standards.

The conformity rule of the CAA pertains to specific projects that are proposed in a non-attainment or maintenance area. The rule states: “No department, agency, or instrumentality of the federal government shall engage in, support in any way or provide financial assistance for, license or permit, or approve any activity which does not conform to an implementation plan…” (Sec. 176, 42 USC 7506).

As it pertains to the Forest Service, the rule requires that the agency demonstrate that its actions, or actions of those who occupy and use National Forest system lands under Forest Service authorization, will not impede the SIP’s ability to attain or maintain the ambient air quality standard. When applicable, activities on national forests that may require a review for conformity include: fuel treatments including prescribed fire and harvest activities; road, trail, or building construction; and land use and special use permit decisions such as ski or winter sports area, mining, oil and gas development and landfills.

Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality (PSD) When major stationary sources of air pollution are proposed to be built or modified, they must go through a review process to ensure the new or modified facility or emission source will comply with all applicable regulations. A major stationary source is defined as one which would emit 100 or 250 tons per year of a regulated pollutant depending upon the type of source. If the source is located in an area which is in attainment with the NAAQS, the facility must demonstrate that the emissions from the source won’t deteriorate the air quality to just below the NAAQS. Thus, the facility may only degrade the air an incremental amount. The allowable increment to be consumed is smaller for Class I areas than for Class II areas. This regulation is referred to as the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) program (Sec. 160-169, 42 USC 7470 et seq., 40 CFR 51.166).

The PSD provisions categorize every region in the country as Class I, II or III with allowable levels of air quality deterioration for each class. Class I areas were originally designated as national parks over 6,000 acres, national wilderness areas and national memorial parks over 5,000 acres and international parks that were in existence as of August 7, 1977. The list of all Class I areas can be found in 40 CFR 81.406. All remaining lands, public and private, outside of those listed are Class II areas. Currently, there are no Class III designations in the nation. Any re-designation from a Class II to Class I area can only be accomplished by individual states. The Spokane Indian Reservations was reclassified from Class II to Class I in 19915. The NAAQS must be met in both Class I and Class II areas.

One of the goals of the CAA is to preserve, protect, and enhance the air quality in national parks, national wilderness areas, national monuments, national seashores, and other areas of special national or regional natural, recreational or historic value. Section 165 (d)(2)(B) of the CAA states that the Federal Land Manager (FLM) has: “…an affirmative responsibility to protect the air quality related values (including visibility) of any such lands within a Class I area.” In Region 6, the FLM role has been delegated to the Regional Forester. It is the responsibility of the FLM to consult with EPA in the statutory process

5 EPA redesignated this land based on a request from the Spokane Tribal Council. See 40 CFR 52.2497 and 56 FR 14862, April 12, 1991, for details.

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required for the approval of a Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permit application for a major source (42 USC 7475 (d)(2)(B)).

The role of the Forest Service in the PSD permitting process is to review an application for an air polluting activity, determine if the additional pollution will impact air quality related values (AQRVs) in Class I wilderness areas, and make recommendations to state and federal permitting agencies before a permit is issued. It also requires that the EPA and states consider recommendations of the FLM. It is up to the state regulatory agency to grant or deny the permit.

To help determine any potential negative impacts of air pollution, it is important that the Forest Service conduct an inventory of AQRVs and collect monitoring data to assess human-caused change and/or model future impacts. Steps to protect AQRVs include:

1. Determine what components should be protected 2. Measure the existing conditions of those components 3. Analyze whether pollution is impacting components 4. Establish and maintain long term monitoring of components to identify and predict future impacts 5. Establish and maintain a database for use in the air regulatory process

Best Available Control Technology Review for New or Modified Pollutant Sources One key part of an air permit application is the review of proposed air pollution control technology for each new or modified emission unit at a facility. Air quality regulations recognize that it is most cost effective to require pollution control upgrades at the time new sources are built or modified, thereby allowing plant owners to plan for these costs as part of the construction of a new plant or an overall plant upgrade.

In general, the review of air pollution control technology involves analyzing what types of control technologies are possible for each regulated pollutant, including greenhouse gases, from each emission unit at the facility. The best performing option is selected unless it is deemed to be too expensive or causes other adverse environmental impacts. This process of ensuring that the best available control technology (BACT) is applied to industrial sources reduces air emissions to the lowest possible amount and minimizes air pollution impacts.

Visibility Protection and Regional Haze Rule Regional haze is visibility impairment caused by cumulative air pollutant emissions from numerous sources over a wide geographic area. Through the 1977 amendments to the CAA, Congress set a national goal for visibility as “the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I federal areas which impairment results from manmade air pollution” (Sec. 169A, 42 USC 7491). The amendments required the EPA to promulgate regulations to help states develop emission limits, schedules of compliance and other measures as necessary to make reasonable progress toward meeting the national goal.

These regulations were promulgated in 1980 to address visibility impairment that is “reasonably attributable” to one or a small group of sources. The EPA deferred action on regional haze regulations until monitoring, modeling, and scientific knowledge about the relationship between pollutants and visibility effects improved. In 1999, EPA announced a major effort to improve air quality in national parks and wilderness areas. The Regional Haze Rule (40 CFR 51) calls for state and federal agencies to work together to improve visibility in 156 national parks and wilderness areas. The rule requires the

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states, in coordination with the EPA, the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Forest Service, and other interested parties, to develop and implement air quality protection plans to reduce pollution causing visibility impairment. The Forest Service and other agencies have been monitoring visibility in national parks and wilderness areas since 1988. A consistent methodology to monitor visibility in these Federal Class I areas was developed, known as the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE). State Air Pollution Laws Both Oregon and Washington are required to notify federal land management units of proposed major pollution sources or modifications which may potentially affect visibility and air quality related values in Class I areas. Washington Administrative Code (WAC) 173-400-111 General Regulations for Air Pollution Sources is online at http://www.ecy.wa.gov/pubs/wac173400.pdf; the Oregon Administrative Code 222, 223, 224, and 225 is online at http://www.deq.state.or.us/regulations/rules.htm.

The Forest Service Region 6 ARM program staff act as the point of contact to receive and review state applications for potential pollution sources/modifications and provides comments back to the state agency. Unless an issue arises, individual national forests are typically not responsible for state level air quality applications processes. The region receives approximately 12 permit applications annually and provides air quality analysis to determine if proposed actions are likely to cause, or significantly contribute to, an adverse impact to visibility or other AQRVs within regional wilderness areas.

Additionally, the Forest Service has agreed to cooperate with State Smoke Management Programs. Prior to burning being conducted on Forest Service lands, the Forest Service submits burn plans to the State Smoke Management Programs. These programs evaluate the cumulative impacts from all the proposed burns for a given day along with weather forecasts. The State then determines which burns will be allowed for the next day. More information about the Washington State Smoke Management Plan may be found at: www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/rp_burn_smptoc.pdf.

The Oregon State Smoke Management Plan is similar to Washington’s, but provides for additional protection of Class I areas. These areas are referred to as smoke sensitive areas. More information about the Oregon Smoke Management plan may be found at www.oregon.gov/ODF/FIRE/SMP/smokemgt_onthe_web.shtml. Forest Service Policy and Other Guidance The primary objective of the Forest Service management program is to ensure that national forests are managed in an ecologically sustainable manner. The national forests were originally envisioned as working forests with multiple objectives to improve and protect the forest, to secure favorable watershed conditions, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use of citizens of the United States. Forest management objectives have since expanded and evolved to include ecological restoration and protection, research and product development, fire hazard reduction, and the maintenance of healthy forests.

The role of the Forest Service in air quality management is to coordinate national forest activities with state and federal air quality control efforts. This is done by properly managing and/or mitigating the sources of air pollution created by Forest Service activities, such as prescribed fire, the construction and use of roads and the operation of various facilities. The Forest Service establishes pollution impact monitoring efforts in wilderness areas to understand the condition of resources of concern, such as lichen or sensitive lakes. The Forest Service is dedicated to its stewardship role under the Organic Act

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and to its responsibility under the CAA’s PSD provisions to protect and enhance AQRVs in designated Class I wilderness areas. Forest Service Manual (FSM) The Forest Service policy for air resource management in wilderness is set forth in the Forest Service Manual (http://www.fs.fed.us/im/directives/).

Section 2300, Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, established the general criteria for wilderness management under authority of the CAA. The objectives set forth in Section 2320.2 include direction to “gather information and carry out research in a manner compatible with preserving the wilderness environment to increase understanding of wilderness ecology, wilderness uses, management opportunities, and visitor behavior.”

Specific policies are outlined in Section 2323.6, Management of Air Resources:

2323.61 - Objectives

1. Protect air quality and related values, including visibility, on wilderness land designated Class I by the Clean Air Act as amended in 1977 (FSM 2120). 2. Protect air quality in wilderness areas not qualifying as Class I under the same objectives as those for other National Forest System lands (FSM 2120).

2323.62 - Policy

1. Define air quality related values (AQRV) and initiate action to protect those values. 2. For each AQRV, select sensitive indicators, monitor, and establish the acceptable level of protection needed to prevent adverse impacts (FSM 2120). 3. Determine the potential impacts of proposed facilities in coordination with state air quality management agencies. Make appropriate recommendations in the permitting process following established Prevention of Significant Deterioration application review procedures for major emission sources. Requests to air quality management agencies for consideration of Class II values in the permit process are appropriate (FSM 2120). 4. Manage smoke from management ignited prescribed fires occurring in or adjacent to Class I wilderness areas in a manner that causes the least impact on AQRVs (FSM 2324).

Section 2580, Air Resource Management, provides further direction:

2580.2 – Objectives

1. Protect AQRVs within Class I areas, as described in 42 U.S.C. 7475(d)(2)(B) and (C) and section 2580.5. 2. Control and minimize air pollutant impact from land management activities. 3. Cooperate with air regulatory authorities to prevent significant adverse effects of air pollutants and atmospheric deposition on forest and rangeland resources.

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2580.3 - Policy

1. Integrate air resource management objectives into all resource planning and management activities. 2. Use cost effective methods of achieving resource management objectives.

2580.43 - Regional Foresters shall:

1. Protect current condition of air quality related values within Class I areas. 2. Monitor the effects of air pollution and atmospheric deposition on forest resources. Monitor air pollutants when Forest Service goals and objectives are at risk and adequate data are not available. Class I and Class II Wildernesses The main distinction between Class I and Class II areas for Forest Service air quality management is that Class I areas are protected through the Clean Air Act and air quality related values (AQRVs) are already established. Although the responsibility of the Forest Service to protect air quality values in wilderness is the same, regardless of whether areas are Class I or Class II, it is our ability to affect change and the process that is used in Class I areas that is different. FLAG: Federal Land Managers' Air Quality Related Values Work Group The FLMs’ (AQRVs) Work Group (FLAG) was formed at the request of industry to FLMs to develop a consistent approach to evaluate air pollution effects on federally managed resources during the PSD process. FLAG members include representatives from agencies that manage Class I wilderness areas: the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USDA/FS), the National Park Service (NPS), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS).

The goals of FLAG have been to provide consistent policies and processes both for identifying air quality related values (AQRVs) and for evaluating the effects of air pollution on AQRVs, primarily those in federal Class I air quality areas, but in some instances, in Class II wilderness areas. The FLAG Phase I Report (December 2000) consolidates the results of the FLAG visibility, ozone, and deposition subgroups. The chapters prepared by these subgroups contain issue-specific technical and policy analyses, and recommendations for evaluating AQRVs (http://www.fs.fed.us/air/documents/flag.pdf). This document is currently under revision (http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/Permits/flag/index.cfm). Strategic Framework for Responding to Climate Change The Strategic Framework for Responding to Climate Changeii provides a structure for the Forest Service to guide current and future actions to meet the challenges related to climate change. It incorporates the actions included in Chief Gail Kimbell’s letter to the National Leadership Council of February 15, 2008.

This document states that Forest Service policies to address climate change must encompass two major components: 1) Facilitated adaptation, which refers to actions to adjust to and reduce the negative impacts of climate change on ecological, economic, and social systems; and 2) Mitigation, which refers to actions to reduce emissions and enhance sinks of greenhouse gases, so as to decrease inputs to climate warming in the short term and reduce the effects of climate change in the long run.

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Seven key goals outlined in this framework are designed to help the Forest Service carry out the mission of sustaining forests and grasslands for present and future generations under a changing climate. The first key goal listed below holds implications for air quality monitoring and management.

• Science: Advance our understanding of the environmental, economic and social implications of climate change and related adaptation and mitigation activities on forests and grasslands.

The goal of advancing our understanding of science incorporates the translation of relevant science into land management applications, using enhanced monitoring systems, predictive models, decision support tools and databases. These tools will aid resource managers by monitoring trends and predicting future changes. Climate Change Roadmap and Scorecard Forest Service Chief Tom Tidwell emphasized that every program and unit in the Forest Service has a role to play in responding to climate change. The new USDA Strategic Plan for 2010-2015 sets a departmental goal to “ensure our national forests and private working lands are conserved, restored, and made more resilient to climate change, while enhancing our water resources.” As a measure of this goal, all national forests are to come into compliance with a climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy. To guide the Forest Service in achieving this goal, the Climat Change Roadmap and Scorecard was developed. The Roadmap integrates land management outreach, and sustainable operations accounting. It focuses on three kinds of activities: assessing current risks, vulnerabilities, policies and gaps in knowledge; engaging partners in seeking solutions and learning from as well as educating the public and employees on climate change issues; and managing for resilience in ecosystems as well as in human communities, through adaptation, mitigation and sustainable consumption strategies. The roadmap directs forest managers to: • Expand observation networks, intensify sampling in some cases and integrate monitoring systems across jurisdictions. • Monitor the status and trends of key ecosystem characteristics, focusing on threats and stressors that may affect the diversity of plant and animal communities and ecological sustainability. Link the results to adaptation and genetic conservation efforts.

A Performance Scorecard was implemented to help measure national progress. The scorecard includes measures of steps forward made by each national forest and grassland, supported by the regional offices, stations and national programs. The scorecard will address agency capacity (training and program guidance); partnerships (alliances, integrating science and management); adaptation (assessing and monitoring key resource vulnerabilities and priorities); and mitigation (assessing and managing carbon stocks and flows, reducing the environmental footprint of the Forest Service).6

6 Information about the National Roadmap for Responding to Climate Change and associated Scorecard can be found online at the Office of the Climate Change Advisor, http://www.fs.fed.us/climatechange/advisor/products.htmlS-957b.

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Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers (WWSR) Strategy, 2010-2014 The Forest Service Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers (WWSR) Strategy 2010-2014iii outlines an approach for Wilderness and Wild and Scenic River management in the face of new environmental and societal challenges. It states “without full and meaningful engagement in the central national issues of our day: mitigation and adaptation to climate change, husbandry of water resources, engagement of all Americans in the out-of-doors, opportunities for people to sustain a nation healthy in body and mind, wilderness areas and wild and scenic rivers may come to be seen as “museums” rather than as relevant, contemporary conservation tools central to the agency’s mission…”. The document emphasizes a three part strategy: 1) Promote effective stewardship in the face of rapid change, 2) Build capacity for stewardship of Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers, and 3) Develop strong external and internal constituencies for wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers.

The goals and objectives of part 1 of the Strategy: “Promote effective stewardship in the face of rapid change” holds immediate implications for wilderness air quality management. Top level goals for and objectives wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers include:

• Manage to prescribed standards (this includes the 10- year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge.) • Conduct periodic monitoring of key indicators of resource health to establish baseline conditions and monitor trends over time. • Use monitoring information and adaptive management to modify stewardship direction in forest plans. • Provide support to newly designated wildernesses and wild and scenic rivers. • Provide international leadership on protected areas and river resources.

Along with the goals and objectives, the principles guiding the implementation of this strategy hold implications for managing climate change related impacts to wilderness. One of the guiding principles for implementation of the WWSR Strategy is that the wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers programs be positioned to be responsive and play key roles in some of the most critical issues in our national forests.

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CHAPTER 3 Wilderness Areas Currently, there are 65 wildernesses managed by the Forest Service in the Pacific Northwest. Of these, 40 are located in Oregon, 24 are located in Washington, comprising a total of 4, 948,419 acres. Together, they feature most of the major Pacific Northwest ecosystems including coast and coast range, low- and mid-elevation temperate rain forest, alpine, Cascade crest, east slope lodge pole and ponderosa pine forest, high desert sage-steppe, and western juniper woodlands.

A majority of Pacific Northwest wilderness areas are located in the Cascade Mountains. Some of these protect volcanic peaks such as Three Sisters, Mt. Adams, Mt. Hood, Mt. Baker, and Glacier Peak. Others surround high country chains of lakes such as Alpine Lakes Wilderness in Central Washington and Mountain Lakes Wilderness in Southern Oregon. Still others, like the Kalmiopsis Wilderness, Olympic Wilderness, or the Opal Creek Wilderness, protect unique biological ecosystems and old growth forests in the region.

This collection of protected areas contains a remarkable array of essential resources. These areas are a source of clean air and fresh water and sustain multiple plant, animal, and fish species. These landscapes also reflect human prehistory and history, and contain significant ancestral and cultural resources. They also offer vital opportunities for challenge, solitude, and a deep connection with nature that help keep our lives and perspectives in balance. Class I and Class II Areas Sixteen of the 65 wildernesses in the region are Class I areas7 and cover a total land area of approximately 1.2 million hectares (Figure 3-1 and Table 3-1). Twelve of the 16 distinct areas are located in the Cascade Range, 3 are located in northeast Oregon, and 1 area is located in the Oregon coast lowlands. All remaining 49 wilderness areas managed by the Forest Service in Region 6 are designated as Class II areas (Figure 3-1 and Table 3-2). A characterization of each wilderness is provided in Appendix B.

7Class I areas have more protections under the Clean Air Act (CAA). Specifically, the allowable increment to be consumed is smaller for Class I areas than for Class II areas--as defined within the CAA Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) program. (Sec. 160-169, 42 USC 7470 et seq., 40 CFR 51.166).

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Figure 3-1. Class I and Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington

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Table 3-1. Class I Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington Class I Wilderness State Class I Wilderness State Pasayten WA Mount Hood OR Glacier Peak WA Mount Washington OR Alpine Lakes WA Mount Jefferson OR Mount Adams WA Three Sisters OR Goat Rocks WA Diamond Peak OR Eagle Cap OR Gearhart Mountain OR Hells Canyon OR Mountain Lakes OR Strawberry Mountain OR Kalmiopsis OR

Table 3-2. Class II Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington Class II Wilderness State Class II Wilderness State Boulder River WA Bull of the Woods OR Buckhorn WA Clackamas OR Clearwater WA Copper Salmon OR Colonel Bob WA Cummins Creek OR Glacier View WA Drift Creek OR Henry M. Jackson WA Grassy Knob OR Indian Heaven WA Lower White River OR Lake Chelan-Sawtooth WA Mark O. Hatfield OR Mount Baker WA Menagerie OR Mount Skokomish WA Middle Santiam OR Noisy-Diobsud WA Mill Creek OR Norse Peak WA Monument Rock OR Salmo-Priest WA Mount Thielsen OR Tatoosh WA North Fork John Day OR The Brothers WA North Fork Umatilla OR Trapper Creek WA Opal Creek OR Wild Sky WA Red Buttes OR/CA William O. Douglas WA Roaring River OR Wonder Mountain WA Rock Creek OR Wenaha-Tucannon OR/WA Rogue-Umpqua Divide OR Badger Creek OR Salmon-Huckleberry OR Black Canyon OR Sky Lakes OR Boulder Creek OR Waldo Lake OR Bridge Creek OR Wild Rogue OR

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Ecoregions In addition to understanding area classifications, as defined by the Clean Air Act, it’s helpful to characterize wilderness areas by the abiotic and biotic factors which determine ecosystem response to air pollution. For example, bedrock type has been found to be a significant factor in determining the buffering capacity of surface waters against acidification (Nanus, 2004).iv Vegetation type and soil moisture are also significant factors in determining the injury caused by ozone (Kohut 2007).v Classifying the landscape using these determining factors helps resource managers assess which geographic areas in the region are likely to respond to air pollution in a similar manner. This information is useful in verifying whether monitoring in one area may be reasonably representative of another area. Ecological characterization also helps prioritize regional monitoring strategies.

The US EPA divides North America into geographical areas called ecoregions which are identified and mapped according to their specific abiotic and biotic factors. These factors include: geology, physical geography, vegetation, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, and hydrology (Omernick, 1995)vi. Ecoregions in North America have been classified at different spatial resolutions, where level 1 is the most course, and level IV is the finest . The level III ecoregions within Washington and Oregon are shown in Figure 3-2. A brief description is provided below for each Level III ecological classification in Oregon or Washington that contains a wilderness area8.

8 More detailed explanations that outline the methods used to define the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Ecoregions (http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm) are given in Omernik 1995, 2004, and Omernik et al. 2000. The applications of the ecoregions are explained in Bryce et al. 1999 and in reports and publications from the state and regional projects (e.g., Griffith et al. 2007, Griffith. et al. 1994, and Omernik et al. 2000).

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Figure 3-2. USFS Region 6 Wilderness Areas and Level III Ecoregions (Omerick)

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Ecoregion Descriptions

Blue Mountains • Location: Located primarily in northeastern Oregon with small areas extending into southeastern Washington and western Idaho. • Wilderness Areas included: Mill Creek, Bridge Creek, Black Canyon, Strawberry Mountain, Monument Rock, North Fork of the John Day, North Fork of the Umatilla, Wenaha-Tucannon, Eagle Cap, and Hells Canyon. • Climate: A severe mid latitude climate, with both continental and Mediterranean influences, characterizes this region. It is marked by warm dry summers and cold winters. The mean annual temperature ranges from approximately -1°C to 10°C. The frost-free period ranges from 30 to 160 days. As with temperature, the mean annual precipitation ranges widely depending upon elevation, ranging from about 220 mm in low valleys to over 2050 mm at high elevations; 558 mm is the regional mean value. • Vegetation: At low elevations, grasslands of bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, basin big sagebrush, mountain big sagebrush, and juniper woodlands thrive. In forested areas, ponderosa pine is common along with some Douglas-fir and grand fir. At higher elevations, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, whitebark pine, and lodgepole pine--all with krummholz--are present. Alpine meadows are found in the alpine zone. • Hydrology: Perennial stream density varies by elevation and substrate. Some areas contain few perennial streams. Springs are scattered throughout the region and alpine lakes exist in the high elevation areas. A few large reservoirs are located in this vicinity. Large rivers that cross the region include the Deschutes and Snake. • Terrain: Distinguished from the neighboring Cascades and Northern Rockies ecoregions because the Blue Mountains are generally not as high and are the forests are considerably more open. Like the Cascades, but unlike the Northern Rockies, the region is mostly volcanic in origin. Only the few higher ranges, particularly the Wallowa and Elkhorn Mountains, consist of intrusive rocks that rise above the dissected lava surface of the region. Elevations range from 305 m to over 3000 m. Soil temperature regimes are mostly frigid, but include some mesic in warmer areas, and cryic at high elevations. Andisols and Mollisols are common, with mostly xeric and udic soil moisture regimes. Most soils in this area are influenced by volcanic ash deposits. • Wildlife: Rocky Mountain elk, mule deer, black-tailed deer, black bear, bighorn sheep, cougar, bobcat, coyote, beaver, racoon, golden eagle, chukar, sage thrasher, pileated woodpecker, nuthatches, chickadees, bluebirds, chinook and coho salmon, rainbow trout, bull trout, and brook trout. • Land Use/Human Activities: Forestry and recreation. Unlike the bulk of the Cascades and Northern Rockies, much of this ecoregion is grazed by cattle. Some public lands. Areas of irrigated agriculture for alfalfa and pasture, winter wheat, potatoes, mint, onions, garlic, grass seed are established in this terrain. Larger cities include Madras, Redmond, Prineville, La Grande, Baker City, and Enterprise (OR).

North Cascades • Location: Located in the Northern end of Cascade Range in northwest Washington and southern British Columbia. It also includes a disjunct area enclosing the high Olympic Mountains to the west of the Puget Lowland

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• Wilderness Areas included: Pasayten, Mount Baker, Noisy-Diobsud, Boulder River, Lake Chelan- Sawtooth, Glacier Peak, Alpine Lakes, Henry M. Jackson, Wild Sky, Buckhorn (partial), The Brothers (partial), and Mt. Skokomish (partial). • Climate: A variety of climatic zones exist in this area. Dry warm summers and mild to cold wet winters mark this region. A dry continental climate occurs in the east and mild, maritime, rainforest conditions are found in the west. High elevations receive abundant snowfall. The mean annual temperature varies from approximately 0°C at high elevations to 9°C in low western valleys; the mean summer temperature is 16°C; and the mean winter temperature is - 1°C. The frost-free period ranges from 40 to 200 days. The mean annual precipitation is 1761 mm, and ranges from 300 mm in the lower east, to more than 6000 mm on the High Olympics in the west. • Vegetation: Lower western forests include western hemlock, western red cedar, and Douglas- fir. Subalpine forests include Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and lodgepole pine. Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir grow in the east, along with a few pine grass parklands. • Hydrology: A high density of high-gradient perennial streams and numerous glacial lakes exist along with a few reservoirs. • Terrain: High, rugged mountains and glaciated peaks with a few U-shaped valleys define this region which contain the greatest concentration of active alpine glaciers in the conterminous United States. It is underlain by sedimentary and metamorphic rock in contrast to the adjoining Cascades which are composed of volcanics. Andisols, Inceptisols, and Spodosols are common, with mesic, frigid, and cryic soil temperature regimes and xeric or udic soil moisture regimes. • Wildlife: Black bear, bighorn sheep, mountain goat, black-tailed deer, mule deer, cougar, coyote, bobcat, beaver, fisher, marten, osprey, bald eagle, grouse, pileated woodpecker, mountain chickadee, salmon, and steelhead. • Land Use/Human Activities: Recreation, tourism, forestry, and woodland grazing. This area is also a water source for lower, drier adjacent ecoregions. Much of the region is in public national forest and wilderness or provincial and national parks. Larger settlements include Keremeos and Hedley (Canada), and Concrete, Rockport, Winthrop, Twisp, and Leavenworth (WA).

Cascades • Location: Stretches from the central portion of western Washington and through the spine of Oregon. It includes a disjunct area around Mt. Shasta in northern California. • Wilderness Areas included: Clearwater, Norse Peak (partial), William O. Douglas (partial), Tatoosh, Glacier View, Goat Rocks, Mount Adams, Indian Heaven, Trapper Creek, Mark O. Hatfield, Mount Hood, Salmon-Huckleberry, Badger Creek (partial), Bull of the Woods, Clackamas, Roaring River, Opal Creek, Mount Jefferson, Middle Santiam, Menagerie, Mount Washington, Three Sisters, Waldo Lake, Diamond Peak, Boulder Creek, Rogue-Umpqua Divide, Mount Thielsen (partial), Sky Lakes, and Mountain Lakes. • Climate: Marked by a mild to severe mid-latitude climate, varying by elevation, this region has mostly dry warm summers and relatively mild to cool very wet winters. The mean annual temperature ranges from approximately -1°C to 11°C. The frost-free period ranges widely from 5 to 180 days depending on elevation and latitude. The mean annual precipitation is 1824 mm, ranging from 1150 mm to 3600 mm. • Vegetation: Extensive and highly productive coniferous forests are found here. At lower elevations, Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, big leaf maple, and red alder are dominant. At higher elevations, Pacific silver fir, mountain hemlock, subalpine fir, noble fir, and

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lodgepole pine are established. To the south, Shasta red fir, and white fir are found. Subalpine meadows and rocky alpine zones occur at the highest elevations. • Hydrology: Contains many intermittent and perennial streams in a dense drainage network along with multiple alpine lakes. At lower elevations a few large reservoirs exist. Water quality is high. • Terrain: This mountainous terrain is underlain by Cenozoic volcanics and has been affected by alpine glaciations. It is characterized by steep ridges and river valleys in the west, a high plateau in the east, and both active and dormant volcanoes. Elevations range from about 250 meters upwards to 4,390 meters. Soils are mostly cryic and frigid temperature regimes, with some mesic at low elevations and in the south. Andisols and Inceptisols are common. • Wildlife: Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, black bear, mountain goats in the north, cougar, coyote, beaver, river otter, mountain quail, pileated woodpecker, northern goshawk, mountain chickadee, northern spotted owl, chinook salmon, steelhead trout, and bull trout. • Land Use/Human Activities: Forestry and recreation are common activities. This territory also supplies water for urban and agricultural areas in adjacent lowland ecoregions. A few areas support ranching and livestock grazing. Large areas are designated as public lands--national forests or parks--and human population density is relatively low. No cities occur within the Cascades ecoregion. Larger towns include Stevenson (WA)and Cascade Locks and Oakridge (OR).

Eastern Cascade Slopes and Foothills • Location: In the rain shadow of the Cascade Mountains stretching from central Washington to northern California. • Wilderness Areas included: Norse Peak (partial), William O. Douglas (partial), Badger Creek (partial), Lower White River, and Gearhart Mountain. • Climate: A more continental climate than in ecoregions to the west, with greater temperature extremes and less precipitation. It has warm dry summers and cold winters. The mean annual temperature ranges from 2°C to 11°C, varying greatly due to elevation and latitude. The frost- free period ranges from 10 to 140 days. The mean annual precipitation is 649 mm, but ranges from 500 mm to over 3500 mm on high peaks. • Vegetation: Open forests of ponderosa pine and some lodgepole pine distinguish this region from the higher ecoregions to the west where fir and hemlock forests are common and lower dryer regions to the east where shrubs and grasslands are predominant. The vegetation is adapted to the prevailing dry continental climate and is highly susceptible to wildfire. Higher elevations have Douglas-fir and other fir species such as grand fir and white fir. Lowest elevations grade to sagebrush steppe vegetation. • Hydrology: Stream densities are variable, generally higher in the north, but fewer streams in some of the pumice areas. High, medium, and low gradient streams occur. A few large lakes and reservoirs exist in this region. • Terrain: Gently to steeply sloping mountains and high plateaus mark this area. Volcanic cones and buttes are common in much of the region, some young lava flows exist. More glacial features are found in the north. Elevations range from 300 m to over 2500 m. Geology is mostly Pleistocene, Pliocene, and Miocene basalt, andesite, and tuffaceous rock. Deposits of volcanic ash, pumice, and cinders are thick in some areas. Soils are mostly xeric Andisols and Mollisols and include mesic, frigid, and cryic temperature regimes. • Wildlife: Black bear, black-tailed and mule deer, cougar, wolverine, coyote, yellow bellied marmot, bald eagle, golden eagle, Cooper’s hawk, osprey, coho, chinook, chum, and pink salmon, rainbow trout, and bull trout.

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• Land Use/Human Activities: Forestry, recreation, hunting and fishing, and livestock grazing. Much of the region is in national forest or other public land and some tribal land is located in this region. Larger cities include Hood River, Bend, Klamath Falls, and Lakeview (OR).

Klamath Mountains • Location: Between the Cascades and the Coast Range in northwestern California and southwestern Oregon. • Wilderness Areas included: Kalmiopsis, Wild Rogue, and Red Buttes. • Climate: A mild, mid-latitude Mediterranean climate, marked by warm summers with a lengthy summer drought period and mild winters is found here. The mean annual temperature ranges from approximately 5°C at higher elevations to 14°C in valleys and in southern parts of the region. The frost-free period ranges from 90 days at high elevations to 240 days or more in lower, warmer areas. The mean annual precipitation is 1438 mm, ranging from about 500 mm in low dry areas to over 3000 mm on the wetter high mountains. • Vegetation: Vegetal mix of northern Californian and Pacific Northwest conifers and hardwoods. Mixed conifer forests are common and include Douglas-fir, white fir, incense cedar, tanoak, Jeffrey pine, Shasta red fir, sugar pine, ponderosa pine, chinkapin, and canyon live oak. In some lower elevation areas, chaparral and western juniper are common. Oregon oak woodland with Oregon white oak, madrone, California black oak, ponderosa pine, and grasslands are also found. • Hydrology: A high density of moderate to high-gradient streams and rivers exists in this region. Rivers are often deeply incised in canyons; most flow westward. Major rivers include the Umpqua, Rogue, Illinois, and Klamath. Some glacial lakes are found at high elevations in the California portion. • Terrain: Rugged, highly dissected and deeply dissected, mountainous terrain with steep slopes defines this ecoregion. Along with the folded mountains, foothills, terraces, and floodplains also occur. Elevations range from about 120 m to over 2600 m. The region contains diverse and complex geology and soils. Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine sandstones and shales, granodiorite, gabbro, and other intrusive rocks, and volcanic rocks occur. Ultramafic parent material and soils with scattered areas of serpentinitic soils occur and influence vegetation patterns in some areas. Inceptisols and Alfisols are common, with mesic and frigid soil temperature regimes and xeric and some udic moisture regimes. • Wildlife: Black bear, Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, cougar, bobcat, coyote, river otter, beaver, California ground squirrel, peregrine falcon, osprey, red-tailed hawk, northern spotted owl, California quail, anadromous fish, reptiles, various salamanders and other amphibians. • Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include forestry, recreation and tourism, along with some ranching and grazing. Hay, pasture, and some truck crops are also found in valley areas. A few mining areas exist. This region contains large areas of national forest land or other public land. Larger cities and towns include Roseburg, Grants Pass, Medford, and Ashland (OR) and Yreka and Weaverville (CA).

Coast Range • Location: Coastal mountains of western Washington, western Oregon, and northwestern California. • Wilderness Areas included: Colonel Bob, Wonder Mountain, Mount Skokomish (partial), The Brothers (partial), Buckhorn (partial), Drift Creek, Cummins Creek, Rock Creek, Copper Salmon, and Grassy Knob.

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• Climate: A marine west coast and Mediterranean-type climates, with warm, relatively dry summers and mild, but very wet winters, define this landscape. The mean annual temperature ranges from approximately 7°C to 14°C depending upon elevation and latitude. The frost-free period ranges from 100 to 280 days. The mean annual precipitation is 2149 mm, ranging from about 1000 mm to over 5000 mm. • Vegetation: Coniferous forests are abundant. Sitka spruce forests and coastal redwood forests to the south originally dominated the fog-shrouded coast, while a mosaic of western red cedar, western hemlock, and seral Douglas-fir blanketed inland areas. Today Douglas-fir plantations are prevalent on the intensively logged and managed landscape. Other species include red alder, big leaf maple, vine maple, rhododendron, salal, salmonberry, and Oregon grape. • Hydrology: A high density of perennial streams with mostly high to medium gradient. Dendritic drainages are dominant. Some coastal lakes are found, along with numerous bays and estuaries. • Terrain: Moderately to steeply sloping dissected mountains outline this terrain with some hills and low mountains. This ecoregion contains coastal headlands, high and low marine terraces, sand dunes, and beaches. Elevations range from sea level to over 1200 m. Quaternary colluvium covers much of the Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks or Tertiary volcanic basalts that are most typical rock types. Soils are typically Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Andisols, with a mesic temperature, some isomesic along the coast, and some frigid soils at high elevations. Landslides and debris slides are common. • Wildlife: Black-tailed deer, Roosevelt elk, black bear, cougar, coyote, bobcat, beaver, Townsend’s mole, northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, shorebirds and waterfowl, chinook and coho salmon, and steelhead. • Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include forestry and forest product gathering; recreation and tourism; fishing and hunting, as well as commercial fish and mollusk processing. Larger cities include Aberdeen (WA) and Astoria, Seaside, Tillamook, Newport, Coos Bay, and Crescent City (CA).

Northern Rockies • Location: Covers the “Interior Wet Belt” of British Columbia, from the Caribou Mountains in the north, the Columbia Mountains, Selkirk Mountains, and the Northern Rocky Mountains of eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and northwest Montana. • Wilderness Areas included: Salmo-Priest. • Climate: Severe mid-latitude climate and is more humid to the north. It is marked by relatively dry, warm summers and cold, snowy winters. The mean annual temperature ranges from approximately 0°C to 9°C; the mean summer temperature is 15°C; and the mean winter temperature is -4°C. The mean annual precipitation is around 1000 mm, ranging from 400 mm in low, drier valleys to over 2000 mm on high mountains that capture Pacific moisture. Frost free period ranges from about 30 days to 160 days. • Vegetation: Forests have some maritime influence. Pacific indicators such as western hemlock, western red cedar, mountain hemlock, and grand fir occur. Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, Englemann spruce, western larch, lodgepole pine, and ponderosa pine are also typical. • Hydrology: Numerous high gradient perennial streams and rivers are found. Some areas of small glacial lakes exist and in lower elevation areas there are some large lakes and reservoirs. • Terrain: Rugged topography defines this region with high and low mountains, narrow valleys and deep canyons. Some high peaks are over 3000 m. Variety of ages and types of igneous and metamorphic rocks, and some folded sedimentary strata are typical. Inceptisols, Andisols, and

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Alfisols are common. Soil temperature regimes include mesic, frigid and cryic. Soil moisture regimes are typically xeric or udic. • Wildlife: Grizzly bear, black bear, moose, elk, woodland caribou, mountain goat, mule deer, white-tailed deer, bobcat, cougar, snowshoe hare, grouse, osprey, bald eagle, boreal owl, Stellar’s jay, gray jay, common raven, mountain bluebird, spotted frog, Pacific tree frog, trout and salmon. • Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include forestry, recreation and tourism, wildlife habitat, mining, livestock grazing, and some minor farming in valleys. Large areas are in public lands of national forests or provincial and national parks. Some tribal land exists. Larger cities include Revelstoke and Nelson (Canada), and Creston, Colville, and Spokane (WA) and Sandpoint, Coeur d’ Alene, Wallace, Orofino and Kellogg (ID) and Libby, Kalispell, and Polson (MT).

Puget Lowland • Location: Located on eastern Vancouver Island and lands adjacent to Strait of Georgia in British Columbia and along Puget Sound in Washington. • Wilderness Areas included: Buckhorn. • Climate: A mild mid-latitude maritime climate marked by warm dry summers and mild wet winters. The mean annual temperature is 9°C; the mean summer temperature is 15°C; and the mean winter temperature is 4°C. The mean annual precipitation is 1223 mm and ranges from 300 mm to over 2500 mm. Frost free period ranges from 150 to 220 days. • Vegetation: Mostly coniferous forests are found here and contain Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, grand fir, red alder, and bigleaf maple. Understories contain salal, Oregon grape, and moss. Some small areas of oak woodlands exist. • Hydrology: Numerous perennial streams that are mostly low to moderate gradient exist. A few large lakes are in this region. • Terrain: Mostly broad rolling lowlands, some plains with low mountains define this region. It occupies a continental glacial trough and is composed of many islands, peninsulas, and bays along the Strait of Georgia and in the Puget Sound area. Pleistocene glacial drift, Tertiary continental and marine sediments are found over older volcanics. Inceptisols, Spodosols, and Andisols are common with mesic soil temperature and xeric and udic soil moisture regimes. • Wildlife: Black-tailed deer, elk, red fox, beaver, otter, bald eagle, turkey vulture, wood duck, mallard, western sandpiper and other shorebirds, chinook salmon, and steelhead. • Land Use/Human Activities: Human related activities include large urban, suburban, and rural residential populations, forestry, fishing, recreation and tourism, and some diversified agriculture. Larger cities include Nanaimo, Victoria and Vancouver (Canada), Bellingham, Mt. Vernon, Everett, Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Centralia (WA). Wilderness Characteristics Table 3-3 presents a summary of the wilderness characteristics which may be affected by air quality. Six categories of wilderness characteristics are shown including views, flora, fauna, water, soils, and cultural resources. Most wildernesses describe scenic views, plants, wildlife, fish, lakes or streams as an important characteristic (indicated by a check mark). Unique soils are also identified in some wildernesses while cultural resources were not described in any wilderness. A brief description of each wilderness is also provided on www.wilderness.net.

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Table 3-3. Wilderness Characteristics Which May Be Affected by Air Quality

Wilderness Name Wilderness Name Soils Soils Flora Flora Views Views Fauna Fauna Water Water Cultural Cultural Cultural Resources Resources

Alpine Lakes x x x x Mount Adams x x

Badger Creek x x x Mount Baker x x x

Black Canyon x x x Mount Hood x x x

Boulder Creek x x x Mount Jefferson x x x

Boulder River x x x x Mount Skokomish x x x x

Bridge Creek x x x Mount Thielsen x x x

Buckhorn x x Mount Washington x x x x

Bull of the Woods x x x Mountain Lakes x x x

Clackamas x x Noisy-Diobsud x x x

Clearwater x x x x Norse Peak x x

Colonel Bob North Fork John x x x x Day Copper Salmon x x x North Fork Umatilla x x

Cummins Creek x x x x Opal Creek x x x

Diamond Peak x x x x Pasayten x x x x

Drift Creek x x x x Red Buttes x x x x

Eagle Cap x x x x Roaring River x x x

Gearhart Mountain x x x Rock Creek x x x

Glacier Peak Rogue-Umpqua x x x x x x x x Divide Glacier View x x x x Salmon-Huckleberry x x x

Goat Rocks x x x x Salmo-Priest x x x

Grassy Knob x x x Sky Lakes x x x x

Hells Canyon Strawberry x x x x x x x Mountain Henry M. Jackson x x x Tatoosh x x x x

Indian Heaven x x x The Brothers x x

Kalmiopsis x x x Three Sisters x x x x

Lake Chelan-Sawtooth x x x x Trapper Creek x x x x

Lower White River x Waldo Lake x x x x

Mark O. Hatfield x x x Wenaha-Tucannon x x x x

Menagerie x Wild Rogue x x x x

Middle Santiam x x x Wild Sky x x x x

Mill Creek x x x William O. Douglas x x x x

Monument Rock x x x Wonder Mountain x x x x

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CHAPTER 4 Air Pollutants Designing a region-specific wilderness air quality monitoring plan requires an understanding of the types, amounts, sources of, and expected near future trends. Different pollutants have different effects on wilderness. For example, ozone may cause injury to trees and vegetation, whereas sulfur may cause acidification of soils and streams, and Greenhouse gases can cause changes in climate. However, the amount of pollutants emitted factor into the dose-response relationship between the pollutant and the receptors. Source location, in combination with meteorological factors determines where the pollutants will be transported, dispersed, and deposited. Finally, an understanding of the sources of these pollutants helps air resource managers communicate concerns to the owners and regulatory agencies, which have the capability or authority to limit emission rates, respectively. Pollutants of Interest to Wilderness in the Pacific Northwest There are hundreds of chemicals emitted into the atmosphere which are potentially harmful to wilderness. Air pollutants may adversely impact wilderness by causing acidification of waters, decreasing biodiversity, injuring vegetation, reducing growth, reducing visibility, and poisoning food webs. Additionally, indirect effects of climate-forcing pollutants such as greenhouse gases may substantially alter ecosystems. Air resource specialists working in the Pacific Northwest have identified those air pollutants which are likely to have the greatest adverse effect on wilderness areas in this region. The air pollutants of greatest regional concern to wilderness are nitrogen, sulfur, ozone (O3), particulate matter (PM), toxics (metals, organic pollutants), and greenhouse gases (GHGs). Each of these pollutants is discussed below, including their sources, rates of emissions, source locations, and future trends.

Nitrogen containing compounds are a group of highly reactive gasses which include nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3). NOx is emitted from cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road equipment. Ammonia is emitted from dairy farms, fertilizer application, and decomposition of biological waste. Excess nitrogen may cause acidification of surface waters, unwanted fertilization resulting in shifts in community groups and ultimately loss of biodiversity. Furthermore, it reacts with other chemicals in the atmosphere to form ozone, fine particulates, and haze.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as “oxides of sulfur.” The largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at power plants and other industrial facilities. Smaller sources of SO2 emissions include industrial processes such as extracting metal from ore, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and non-road equipment. SO2 causes acidification of surface waters, damages sensitive vegetation which can decrease biodiversity, and when combined with NH3 contributes to the formation of haze.

Ozone (O3) is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at ground-level is created by a chemical reaction between NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Ozone occurs both in the lower atmosphere where it is considered harmful, and in the stratosphere, where it acts to reduce ultraviolet radiation arriving at the earth’s surface. Motor vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents, as well as natural sources emit NOx and VOC that help form ozone. Ground-level ozone is the primary constituent of smog. Sunlight and hot weather are favorable to the formation of ozone, but recently, high levels of ozone have been found in rural areas of

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the inter-mountain west during winter. Many urban areas tend to have high levels of ozone, but even rural areas are subject to increased ozone levels because wind carries ozone and pollutants that form it hundreds of miles away from their original sources.

Particulate matter (PM) is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets. Particle pollution is made up of a number of components, including acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles. PM is hazardous to human health when inhaled and diminishes views by scattering light. It also is a climate forcing pollutant n the form of “black carbon” it alters the reflectivity of earth’s surface and accelerates the melting rate of glaciers. PM is commonly grouped into two categories:

• Coarse particles, such as those found near roadways and dusty industries, are larger than 2.5 to 10 micrometers in diameter. • Fine particles, such as those found in smoke and haze, are 2.5 micrometers in diameter and smaller. These particles can be directly emitted from sources such as forest fires, or they can form when gases emitted from power plants, industries, and automobiles react in the air.

Greenhouse Gases (GHG) are those gases which trap heat in the atmosphere. Some greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide are emitted to the atmosphere through both natural processes and human activities. Other greenhouse gases (e.g., fluorinated gases) are created and emitted solely through human activities. Greenhouse gases are of concern, not because of the direct effects of these pollutants, but because the indirect effects will cause changes to climate which will cause species to shift north and to higher elevations and fundamentally rearrange U.S. Ecosystemsvii (EPA, 2009). Currently these effects are realized as extreme whether events, lower accumulation of snowpack, increased rate of retreat of glaciers, increases in frequency and severity of drought, rising sea levels, planetary shifts in vegetation and increasing loss of biodiversity. As such, GHGs pose the largest concern of all air pollutants.

The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere because of human activities are:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of other chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is also removed from the atmosphere (or “sequestered”) when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle.

• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills. Because CH4 has 25 times the global warming potential as CO2, and huge reserves of CH4 are being released from melting of the tundra, it could negate any benefit gained by CO2 off sets.

• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste. • Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are powerful synthetic greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances (i.e., CFCs, HCFCs, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases (High GWP gases).

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Toxic air pollutants: This category of pollutants includes hazardous air pollutants, heavy metals, and semi-volatile organic compounds.

• Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) are known or suspected to cause serious health and/or adverse environmental effects. Examples of HAPs include benzene, which is found in gasoline; perchlorethlyene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities; and methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number of industries. Most air toxics originate from human-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g., cars, trucks, buses) and stationary sources (e.g., factories, refineries, power plants), as well as indoor sources (e.g., building materials and activities such as cleaning). The original 189 HAPs identified by EPA are listed at EPA’s website: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/orig189.html. The list has been modified since its origin; modifications may also be found on the EPA’s website. • Trace metals such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), and zinc (Zn) can deposit onto soils or surface waters, where they are absorbed by plants and ingested by animals. As a result, people and other animals at the top of the food chain that eat contaminated fish or meat are exposed to concentrations that are much higher than the concentrations in the water, air, or soil. Like humans, animals may experience health problems if exposed to sufficient quantities of toxic metals over time. Most trace metals are emitted from mining and smelting activities and from the burning of coal and oil. • Semi-volatile organic compounds (SOCs), as referred to in this document, are those chemicals which persist in the environment, bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment. These substances have been shown to experience long-range transport to regions where they have never been used or produced, and consequently they pose threats to the environment of the whole globe. They include current and historic use herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, products of their degradation, combustion byproducts, industrial use chemicals, and flame retardants. Table 4-1 presents the list of SOCs which have been detected in air, lichens, conifer needles, water, snow, fish, or sediments in 20 national parks of the western United Statesviii9. The table also identifies if currently used SOCs and their common applications. Because many of the wilderness areas in Region 6 are located near national parks, SOCs are of concern to wilderness.

9 http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/studies/air_toxics/wacap.cfm

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Table 4-1. Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds Currently SOC Use Application Used? Apples, potatoes, tomatoes and Endosulfans Insecticide Yes cotton Fruit and vegetable crops (including seed treatment), tobacco, greenhouse vegetables and Hexachlorocyclohexanes Insecticide Yes ornamentals, forestry (including (HCHs) Christmas tree plantations), farm animal premises, pharmaceutical treatment of scabies and head lice10 Dacthal Herbicide Yes Weed control11 Polycyclic aromatic Combustion Yes Byproduct of combustion hydrocarbons (PAHs) byproduct Insecticide and Cotton, corn, almonds, and fruit Chloropyrifos degradation Yes trees, including oranges and apples product Dieldrin Insecticide No Agricultural operations Used as a chemical intermediate and Hexachlrobenzene Fungicide No a solvent for pesticides Sold in the U.S. until 1983 as an Chlordanes Insecticide No insecticide for crops like corn and citrus and on lawns and gardens Used in a wide array of products, including building materials, Polybrominated dephenyl Flame retardant Yes electronics, furnishings, motor ethers (PBDEs) vehicles, airplanes, plastics, polyurethane foams, and textiles Widely used as dielectric and Polychlorinated biphenyls Industrial use No coolant fluids, e.g. in transformers, (PCBs) capacitors, and electric motors Yes, limited Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroet to disease Insecticide Spraying for mosquitoes hane (DDTs) vector control

10 http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=754&tid=138#bookmark09

11 http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/ccl/pdfs/reg_determine2/healthadvisory_ccl2- reg2_dacthaldegradates_summary.pdf

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Emission Rates Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ozone, and Particulate Matter

Figure 4- 1 presents a summary of SO2, NOx, NH3, PM2.5, and VOCs (a precursor to ozone) emissions in Washington and Oregon, as reported for 2008. Emission rates were obtained from the US EPA National Emission Inventory reporting system. NOx and VOCs (i.e., precursors to ozone) were emitted in the greatest amounts, whereas SO2 was emitted in the smallest amount. All pollutants, except PM2.5, were emitted in greater amounts in Washington than Oregon.

Figure 4-1. Emissions Rates of, SO2, NOx, NH3, PM2.5 and VOCs in Washington and Oregon

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission rates were obtained from State GHG reports for the period from 1990- 2008. GHG emissions are reported in units of million metric tons per year of CO2 equivalent (MMtCO2e). Figure 4-2 illustrates the total GHG emissions in Washington and Oregon, and the contribution from the major sectors (transportation, residential and commercial, industrial, and agricultural). In 2008, Washington emitted approximately 101.1 MMtCO2e, with the largest amount emitted by the transportation sector. During the same period, Oregon emitted 66.2 MMtCO2e, with the largest contribution from the transportation sector as well. The agricultural sector contributed the smallest amount of GHG emissions from the four major sectors.

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Figure 4-2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by State and Sector

Air Toxics Table 4-2 lists the HAPs emitted in Washington and Oregon in 2010. Only those HAPs with quantities greater than 10 tons per year (tpy) per state12 are shown. The HAPs emitted in the largest quantities (greater than 1,000 tpy in a state) are ammonia, certain glycol ethers, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen fluoride, methanol, methyl isobutyl ketone, nitric acid, phenol, styrene, toluene, and xylene. More than 74,000 tpy of HAPs were released into the air in each state in 2010 (not including non-reporting sources.

Currently, there are no comprehensive records of SOC emissions within the region. In 2007, Oregon required reporting of pesticide use under the Pesticide Use and Reporting (PURS) program. According to the 2007 PURS data, approximately 5,732 pesticide applicators filed 284,984 reports of pesticide use.

12 Ten tons/year represents the minimum emission threshold for a single listed HAP per federal operating permit conditions. Source: EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory http://www.epa.gov/tri/. The TRI includes emissions from the following sources: manufacturing, metal mining, coal mining, electrical utilities which combust coal or oil, hazardous waste treatment and disposal facilities, chemical wholesalers, petroleum terminals and build stations, solvent recovery facilities, and federal facilities which manufacture or process large quantities of chemicals.

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This report identified 20,237 tons) of active ingredient pesticides used in Oregon. This included approximately 551 active ingredients. The top five active ingredients, by pounds, for the entire state were: metam-sodium (42%), glyphosate (9%), copper naphthenate (7%) [wood preservative], 1,3- dichloropropene (5%), and aliphatic petroleum hydrocarbons (4%).

Table 4-2. Hazardous Air Pollutants Released into the Atmosphere in 2010 in tons/year Chemical Name OR WA Chemical Name OR WA Manganese 11 58 53 19 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Compounds Acetaldehyde 665 717 Mercury Compounds 10 2 Ammonia 17,444 11,368 Methanol 40,082 57,709 Barium Compounds 45 2 Methyl Isobutyl Ketone 1,479 51 Benzene 19 124 Naphthalene 21 61 Certain Glycol Ethers 145 2,481 N-Butyl Alcohol 372 764 Chlorine 54 8 N-Hexane 99 307 Chlorine Dioxide 133 5 Nickel 39 12 Chromium 36 10 Nitrate Compounds 20 99 Copper 2 18 Nitric Acid 1,056 157 N-Methyl-2- 1 21 36 48 Copper Compounds Pyrrolidone Cresol (Mixed Isomers) 64 32 Phenol 1,127 1,191 Polycyclic Aromatic 3 51 190 37 Cyclohexane Compounds Ethylbenzene 66 135 Styrene 2,479 2,823 Ethylene Glycol 14 2 Sulfuric Acid 186 467 Formaldehyde 805 714 Tetrachloroethylene 38 1 Hydrochloric Acid 3,032 5,833 Toluene 1,589 2,458 Hydrogen Fluroride 319 3,238 Trichloroethylene 242 2 Lead 24 30 Triethylamine 19 0 Lead Compounds 43 60 Xylene (Mixed Isomers) 2,492 1,372 Manganese 10 21 Zinc Compounds 64 141 Sub-Total 22,935 24,928 Sub-Total 51,693 67,721 Grand Total (OR) 74,665 Grand Total (WA) 92,679 Note: Totals include chemicals not shown in quantities less than 10 tpy Regional Sources of Air Pollution Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ozone, and Particulate Matter Emission sources are commonly categorized into source sectors or source types. Source sectors refer to different economic sectors including transportation, energy, agricultural, and waste management. Source types refer to categories of sources, such as mobile sources, stationary sources, and area sources. Mobile sources may be further divided into those which move on roads, e.g., cars and trucks, and those not on roads, such as ships and trains. Stationary sources are those sources most commonly associated with industrial smoke stack including power plants, oil refineries, and cement plants. These are also the most regulated of all the source types in which information is most readily available about pollutants emission rates. Area sources are those small but numerous sources which are best quantified over an area, rather than individually, for example, backyard barbeques and residential heating.

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The largest sources of these emissions are shown in Table 4-3 (i.e., those source categories with greater than 10,000 tpy). The main source sectors contributing to air pollution in the region are agricultural, transportation, electric power generation, residential heating with wood and solvent use.

Table 4-3. Sources of NOx, SO2, PM2.5, NH3, and VOCs Pollutant Source Sector Source Type Electrical power generation Coal combustion On-road diesel-powered heavy duty vehicles On-road gasoline-powered light duty vehicles NOx Mobile sources Locomotives Commercial marine vessels Non-road diesel-powered equipment Electrical power generation Coal combustion SO2 Mobile sources Commercial marine vessels

PM 2.5 Fuel combustion Residential wood burning Fertilizer application Agricultural NH3 Livestock waste Mobile sources On-road light duty gasoline vehicles On-road gasoline-powered light duty vehicles Mobile sources Non-road gasoline-powered equipment VOCs Solvent Consumer and commercial use Fuel combustion Residential wood burning

Greenhouse Gases Although greenhouse gases are recognized as a global problem, the US is one of the largest contributing countries. Table 4-4 presents the largest regional sources of GHGs by source sector and source type (note: only sources emitting greater than 1 million metric tons CO2 equivalent are included). The transportation, energy, and waste management sectors emit the largest amounts of GHGs in the region.

Table 4-4. Regional Sources of Greenhouse Gases Pollutant Source Sector Source Type Transportation Combustion of petroleum Residential, commercial Electricity use GHGs Industrial Electricity use Waste management Enteric fermentation

Air Toxics Industrial sources subject to state and federal permitting rules are the only sources which are required

to report their release of HAPs. Toxic metals are known to be emitted from mining, smelting, cement

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manufacturing, aluminum plants, and combustion of coal and oil. Agriculture is the largest source category of semi-volatile organic compounds. Source Locations Figure 4-3 illustrates the location of existing sources of air pollution and public lands in the Pacific Northwest.ix Most of the region’s industry is concentrated in the Puget Sound, which includes six oil refineries, three cement plants, and four pulp and paper mills. Pulp and paper mills are also located along the lower Columbia River, the Willamette Valley, along the Oregon and Washington coast, and in the eastern portion of the region in Spokane, Wallula, and Lewiston, Idaho. These facilities are typically large emitters of NOx, SO2, and PM10.

Urban areas are also known sources of air pollution due to the concentration of automobile traffic and industry. The majority of urban areas are located along the I-5 corridor between Vancouver, BC and Eugene, OR.

There are two coal-fired power plants in the region. TransAlta LLC operates two 702.5 megawatt (MW) coal-fired boilers at its Centralia, WA power plant. Portland General Electric (PGE) operates a 617 MW coal-fired power plant in Boardman, OR. These facilities historically have been the largest source of SO2, NOx, and other pollutants in the region. However, between 2001 and 2002, TransAlta installed scrubbers which reduced SO2 emissions by 90 percent. Both of these sources will cease burning coal by 2025.

Other significant sources of air pollution include the Ash Grove cement plant in Durkee, OR which is the largest single stationary source of mercury emissions in the Pacific Northwest. Ash Grove has been upgrading its facility to comply with state mercury regulations, which are stricter than the federal standards. Teck Cominco Metals LLC operates a smelter in Trail British Columbia, a known source of emissions of heavy metals.

The agricultural areas are shown in red in Figure 4-3 and are particularly prevalent in the Willamette Valley, and the interior Columbia River Basin. Figure 4-4 illustrates that these regions represent some of the highest use of Endosulfan in the country.x Endosulfan is a known endocrine disruptor, which primarily affects fish.

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Figure 4-3. Air Pollution Sources and Public Lands in the Pacific Northwest

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Figure 4-4. Average Annual Use of Endosulfan in 2002

Deposition, Concentration and Distribution Nitrogen Figure 4-5 illustrates the amount of total nitrogen deposition in the Pacific Northwest expressed in units of kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha-yr). The deposition rates were obtained from model predicted values obtained from the US EPA using emission rates from the 2002 national emissions inventory.xi The highest deposition rates (5-10 kg/ha-yr) occur near the western end of wilderness areas located nearest the Puget Sound and south along the I-5 cooridor south through Portland/Vancouver , Salem, and Eugene. Additionally, there’s a small area of high deposition on the eastern end of the Pasayten Wilderness. The lowest deposition amounts occur in southeastern Oregon.

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Figure 4-5. Model-Predicted Total Nitrogen Deposition Rates for the Pacific Northwest

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Sulfur Figure 4-6 illustrates the amount of total sulfur deposition in the Pacific Northwest expressed in units of kg/ha-yr. The deposition rates were obtained from model predicted values obtained from the US EPA using emission rates from the 2002 national emissions inventory.xii The highest deposition rates of sulfur (5-10 kg/ha-yr) occur near the western end of wilderness areas located on the crest of the Cascade Mountains, in the Olympic peninsula, and along the Oregon Coast. Sulfur deposition is much lower on the east side of the Cascades.

Figure 4-6. Model-estimated Total Sulfur Deposition in the Pacific Northwest

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Ozone Ambient ozone concentrations are used to indicate locations where exposure to ozone may exceed empirical thresholds for sensitive species. Exposure is typically characterized over the growing season, when plant stomata are open, allowing the pollutant to enter into the plant. During drought conditions, stomata close, so while a plant may be exposed to ozone, it does not necessarily imply that the plant dosage is equivalent.

Two exposure metrics are used to estimate the likelihood ozone injury and/or biomass loss to sensitive plants. These are the N100 and the W126 as defined below.

N100: the number of hours when the measured ozone concentration is greater than or equal to 0.100 parts per million (ppm).

W126: a cumulative exposure index that is biologically based, and places more weight on the higher hourly average concentrations, while retaining the mid-and lower-level values.

Experimental trials with a frequent number of peaks (hourly averages greater than or equal to 0.100 ppm) have been demonstrated to cause greater growth loss to vegetation than trials with no peaks in the exposure regime (Hogsett et al., 1985; Musselman et al., 1983; Musselman et al., 2006; and Musselman et al., 1986).

The second statistic is the seasonal ozone exposure called the W126 (Lefohn and Runeckles, 1987). The W126 was developed as a biologically meaningful way to summarize hourly average ozone data. The W126 places a greater weight on the measured values as the concentrations increase. It is possible for a high W126 value to occur with few to no hours above 0.100 ppm.

When these two metrics are combined, the information can be used, along with soil moisture data (Lefohn et al., 1997), to predict where vegetation has the greatest risk from suffering from biomass (growth) reductions. It should also be noted the lack of N100 values does not mean ozone symptoms will not be present when field surveys are conducted. The use of both the N100 and W126 is consistent with the recommendations of the Federal Land Manager Air Quality Related Values Workgroup (FLAG, 2002).

Figure 4-7 illustrates the W126 ozone metric for 2008 for the Pacific Northwest as interpolated using krigging from observations in 2008.xiii The monitoring stations are illustrated by the small dots. The figure illustrates that the wilderness areas in southern Oregon and Hells Canyon have the highest seasonal ozone exposure expressed as W126 metric.

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Figure 4-7. W126 Ozone exposure in 2008 for the Pacific Northwest

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Figure 4-8. N100 Ozone Values in 2008

Figure 4-8 illustrates N100 ozone metric for the Pacific Northwest. Highest N100 values are all less. The highest values occur near the California border in Central Oregon, south of the Gearhart wilderness, and in the wilderness areas southwest of Seattle in the Washington Cascades, and in the Oregon Cascades. Particulate Matter Figure 4-9 illustrates the spatial distribution of the annual mean fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as measured by the IMPROVE monitoring network.xiv The Pacific Northwest has some of the lowest mean PM2.5 concentrations in the US. The coastal areas and east of the Cascades have slightly higher mean PM2.5 concentrations as compared with the Cascades. Additionally, the east end of the Columbia River Gorge also has relatively higher PM2.5 concentrations than the rest of the region.

Short-term periods of very high PM2.5 concentrations often occur associated with fires. The location and timing vary greatly, thus are not shown.

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Figure 4-9. IMPROVE (Rural) 2005–2008 PM2.5 Annual Mean Gravimetric Fine Mass (FM) Concentrations (μg m-3)

Air Toxics Figure 4-10 illustrates total mercury wet deposition as measured by the National Atmospheric Deposition Program in 2010.xv The small black dots indicate the monitoring sites. There were only three monitoring sites in the Pacific Northwest from which the data were interpolated. The high resolution of the deposition rates is due to the combining of the mercury deposition measurements at individual sites with PRISM interpolated precipitation data.

Wilderness sites located in the Olympic Peninsula, the Coastal Range, the northern Oregon and Washington Cascade Mountains and the Blue Mountains all have relatively higher amounts of mercury deposition than other sites in the Pacific Northwest and at nearly the same amount as the highest deposition locations anywhere within the US.

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Figure 4-10. Mercury Deposition

Greenhouse Gases Figure 4-11 illustrates the mean CO2 concentrations measured at the Mauna Loa observatory. The carbon dioxide data (red curve) measured as the mole fraction in dry air on Mauna Loa, constitute the

longest record of direct measurements of CO2 in the atmosphere. They were started by C. David Keeling of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in March of 1958 at a facility of the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration [Keeling, 1976]. NOAA started its own CO2 measurements in May of 1974, and they have run in parallel with those made by Scripps since then [Thoning, 1989]. The black curve represents the seasonally corrected data. Data are reported as a dry mole fraction defined as the number of molecules of carbon dioxide divided by the number of molecules of dry air multiplied by one million (ppm). As of April 2012, monthly mean CO2 concentration was 394 ppm.

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Figure 4-11. Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/)

Future Air Pollution Emissions The main drivers of regional air pollution emissions are population, economic growth, technological change, land-use activities and regulations. Population growth increases air pollution rates as more people use automobiles, heat their homes and require energy for electricity. The population of Oregon and Washington has been increasing between 7 and 21 percent between 1980 and 2010 (US Census Bureau), and is expected to continue to increase. Economic growth continues to struggle in both states, thus exerting a downward pressure on emission rates. Technological changes in the energy and transportation sectors are occurring as renewable energy and biofuels are replacing fossil fuels. Land use changes in western Oregon and western Washington will most likely occur on lands closer to existing population centers and the rate of conversion will increase with the size of those population centersxvi. However, as discussed later in this section, the changes due to increases in GHGs also have a significant effect on air quality.

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Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ozone, and Particulate Matter Nitrogen, sulfur, and particulate matter are the pollutants which are most readily controlled from industrial and mobile sources. Regulatory response to scientific studies and the public’s desire for clean air is exerting continual pressure on air pollution sources to reduce their emissions. Regional emissions of these pollutants are expected to decrease in the next 15 yearsxvii. The region’s two coal-fired power plants are scheduled to shut down by 2025 or sooner. Automobile emissions of NOx are expected to xviii decrease with the new fuel standards . NOx and SO2 emissions from large ocean vessels and ships are expected to decrease to meet the International Maritime Organization standards for Emission Control Areas within 200 miles of the US Coastlinexixxx. Regional estimates of emissions have shown that sulfur is expected to continue to decrease. Nitrogen emissions are expected to decrease, but to a lesser extent than sulfur. Particulate matter is expected to increase during periods of fire, but otherwise the trend is unclear. Greenhouse Gases Surface air concentrations of air pollutants are highly sensitive to winds, temperature, humidity, and precipitation. Climate change can be expected to influence the concentration and distribution of air pollutants through a variety of direct and indirect processes, including the modification of biogenic emissions, the change in chemical reaction rates, wash-out of pollutants by precipitation, and modification of weather patterns that influence pollutant buildup. In summarizing the impact of climate change on ozone and particulate matter, the International Panel on Climate Changexxi (IPCC) states that future climate change may cause significant air quality degradation by changing the dispersion rate of pollutants, the chemical environment for ozone and PM generation via emissions from the biosphere, fires, and dust (EPA, 2009).

According to the Oregon Global Warming Commission (www.keeporegoncool.org/content/oregons- climate), scientists expect average temperatures in the Pacific Northwest to continue to rise in response to global climate change, by at least 1.5° F and as much as 2.7° F by 2030 and 5.4° F by 2050, with some areas increasing much more and others changing more slowly. These projected increases are likely to result in longer growing and fire seasons (and more fuel for fires), earlier animal and plant breeding, a longer and more intense allergy season and broad ecosystem disruption. Precipitation changes are very uncertain, but most precipitation will continue to arrive in the winter. Lower summer precipitation and earlier peak stream flow will mean less water available for summer use, the risk of higher and more intense flooding, and decreased water quality due to higher temperatures, pollutant concentration, and increased salinity in coastal areas.

According to the IPCC, it is very likely that heat waves globally will become more intense, more frequent, and longer lasting in a future warm climate, whereas cold episodes are projected to decrease significantly (Meehl, G.A. et al., 2007). Meehl et al. (2007) report on a study finding that the pattern of future changes in heat waves, with greatest intensity increases over western Europe, the Mediterranean, and the southeast and western United States, is related in part to circulation changes resulting from an increase in GHGs.

Based upon the above information, ozone and particulate matter are expected to increase with increased warming during the summer, likely during periods of heat waves. Ozone concentrations are expected to increase during these periods due to (1) temperature dependent biogenic VOC emissions, (2) thermal decomposition of peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN), which acts as a reservoir for NOx, and (3) association of high temperatures with regional air stagnation. Additionally, smoke is likely to increase as

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a result of increased fire activity. These higher PM and ozone episodes are likely to occur during summer and early autumn, when visitor frequency to wilderness areas is likely to be near maximum. Air Toxics With increased regulatory restrictions and pollution prevention efforts, emissions of air toxics are likely to decrease in the future, but because of their persistent nature, they remain of concern. The US EPA continues to develop regulations to reduce the release of HAPs through the implementation of Maximum Achievable Control Technology requirements (MACT) for new and modified sources.

Additionally, environmentally harmful persistent organic are gradually being phased out worldwide through international efforts such as the Stockholm Treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants (http://chm.pops.int )and EPA’s Pesticide Program (http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/index.htm). Nevertheless, many persistent organic compounds remain of concern, long after their elimination. The persistent organic compounds may remain in the environment for decades. Additionally, they tend to migrate towards colder climates such as north and at higher elevations where many wilderness areas are located. Because they bio-accumulate in the food web and subsequently accumulate in fatty tissue, they continue to pose a relatively unmonitored and unevaluated health risk to top predators.

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CHAPTER 5 Wilderness Air Quality Values and Sensitive Receptors The goal for demonstrating the minimum level of stewardship expected for the air quality element of the 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge is to monitor wilderness air quality values and establish a baseline.

Air pollution may cause undesired effects on several areas of forest ecosystems, including visibility, flora, soils, water, fauna, and cultural resources. These general categories of features or properties of wilderness that are affected in some way by air pollution are referred to as Wilderness Air Quality Values (WAQVs). Table 5.1 presents a summary of the potential effects of air pollutants to WAQVs.

The effect of a given air pollutant on a WAQV is dependent upon several factors, including the magnitude and duration of exposure or deposition of a pollutant, the sensitivity of a given environmental receptor, buffering capacity of the ecosystem, and other existing stresses (e.g., insects and disease). The characteristic of a WAQV that is first modified by air pollution is referred to as a sensitive receptor. A sensitive receptor indicator is a measurable quality of a sensitive receptor that responds to air pollution, thus the focus of monitoring efforts. Details about the potential effects of air pollution on each WAQV, a list of WAQV-specific sensitive receptors, and sensitive receptor indicators are presented in the following section.

The term critical load is used to describe the threshold of air pollution deposition that causes harm to sensitive resources in an ecosystem. A critical load is technically defined as “the quantitative estimate of exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant harmful effects on specified sensitive elements of the environment are not expected to occur according to present knowledge”. Critical loads are usually expressed in units of kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha-yr) of wet or total (wet + dry) deposition. Critical loads can be developed for a variety of ecosystem responses, including shifts in microscopic aquatic species, increases in invasive grass species, changes in soil chemistry, increases in invasive grass species, changes in soil chemistry affecting tree growth and lake and stream acidification to levels that can no longer support fish. When critical loads are exceeded, the environmental effects can extend over great distances. For example, excess nitrogen can change soil and surface water chemistry, which in turn can cause eutrophication of downstream estuaries. Critical loads are further discussed in the following sections. For more information about critical loads, visit http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/clean_air_water/clean_water/critical_loads/

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Table 5-1. Potential Effects of Air Pollution on Wilderness Air Quality Values Wilderness Air Quality Nitrogen Sulfur Ozone PM Toxics GHGs Value

Increases the Increase Aerosol Aerosol rate of Scatters No known formation of Visibility formation formation formation of light effects ozone during acid aerosols heat waves Visibility injury Shifts in Nutrient to distribution of enrichment Visible injury to No known Visible injury to Flora leaves/needles. vegetation & and loss of acute exposure effects acute exposure Loss of loss of biodiversity biomass biodiversity Acidification, decreased fertility, Accumulation of Alterations of Acidification increased Al No known No known metals toxic to soil moisture Soils and toxicity, effects effects soil biota and and microbial fertilization microbial plants. activity shifts, and loss of biodiversity Loss of glaciers, Alterations in Accelerated Accumulation in alterations in Increased No known Water nutrient melting of aquatic runoff, and acidity effects loading glaciers ecosystems frequency of extreme events Increased Indirect acidity effects due resulting in loss No known No known Bioaccumulation Shifts in Fauna to changes to of biodiversity effects effects of metals distribution flora of aquatic species Deterioration of Deterioration petroglyphs Increased Cultural of petroglyphs No known No known No known from acid weathering Resources from acid effects effects effects deposition rates deposition and ammonia

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Visibility Effects of Air Pollution Fine particulate pollution affects visibility by scattering light between a visitor and a landscape feature of interest. This attenuation of light out of and into the viewer’s line of sight alters the color and contrast of the spectacular views most of us expect in wilderness areas. When the source of particulate and its precursors is caused by multiple sources from distant locations, the diminished visibility is referred to as regional haze.

Nitrogen also affects visibility indirectly through the formation of secondary particles (i.e., those formed through chemical and physical transformations in the atmosphere). Nitrogen-containing pollutants such as NOx, HNO3 (nitric acid), and NH3 (ammonia) are significant contributors to winter haze, particularly east of the Cascades. The ammonium nitrate particle is hygroscopic, thus under high humidity conditions, it becomes a very efficient light scattering particle, thus very effective at causing haze.

Sulfur affects visibility through the formation of the ammonium sulfate particle. When combined with an oxidant such as ozone, sulfur dioxide (SO2) is converted to sulfuric acid (HSO4), when then combines with NH3 to form the ammonium sulfate particle, which effectively scatters light, thus causing haze. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators Diminished scenic views for wilderness visitors are the primary sensitive receptor. This may occur either due to plume blight or reduced color or contrast of a scenic vista. For additional information on plume blight or regional haze, refer to the Forest Service Air Resource Management Program website at http://www.fs.fed.us/air/source01.htm

Aerosols collected and analyzed by the IMPROVE (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments) are used to quantify the amount of visibility occurring on a given day, and also provide information on the chemical composition of the haze-causing aerosols. These monitors collect aerosols over a 24-hour period once every three days. Using a whole year of data, various statistical metrics are used to indicate the overall visibility condition of the air shed. The most commonly used metrics are the mean of the 20 percent best days, the mean of the 20 percent worst-case days, and the annual average. Statistically significant changes in these metrics are good indicators of improvement or worsening of conditions. Flora Effects of Air Pollution Plants can be impacted by air pollution either directly, through respiration, or indirectly, through the process of nutrient uptake from the soil. Some of these pollutants are naturally occurring nutrients such as nitrogen. However, when the natural cycles are altered by anthropogenic sources of air pollution, then the ecosystem is likely to respond accordingly to these alternations.

Nitrogen is a macronutrient, necessary for all plant life. But in wilderness, excess nitrogen deposition may cause shifts favoring weedy species (i.e., nitrogen-tolerant species) over natural species (some of which are less tolerant of nitrogen). Given sufficient increases in nitrogen deposition, a loss of biodiversity may eventually occur. In aquatic ecosystems, excess nitrogen deposition may cause shifts in diatoms and algal communities, potentially contributing to increases in toxic algal blooms.

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Sulfur dioxide may directly or indirectly affect flora. Direct exposure to acute concentrations of sulfur dioxide adversely affect photosynthesis in all plants by interfering with key enzymes, reducing growth rates and causing necrotic features in angiosperms.xxii Gymnosperm needles develop a water-soaked appearance and typically turn reddish-brown in color. Indirectly, sulfur dioxide may alter plant growth through nutrient leaching of soils. Acidic form of nitrogen and sulfur can also erode waxy cuticles of plants.

Ozone is one of the most toxic air pollutants to plants. It causes considerable damage to vegetation throughout the world. Plants are generally more sensitive to ozone than humans. Many native plants in natural ecosystems are sensitive to ozone. The effects of ozone range from visible injury to the leaves and needles of deciduous trees and conifers to premature leaf loss, reduced photosynthesis, and reduced growth in sensitive plant species. Other factors, such as soil moisture, presence of other air pollutants, insects or diseases, genetics, or topographical locations can lessen or magnify the extent of ozone injury. Ozone also has the potential to alter species composition and influence pest interactions, such as predisposing trees to bark beetle.xxiii

Particulate matter is not known to have any adverse impacts on plants. When deposited on the leaves of plants, it is typically removed by the next precipitation event.

There are several pollutants known to be toxic to plants. Douglas fir and ponderosa pine are relatively sensitive to fluoride, which causes foliar “tip burn.” All trace metals may be toxic to trees if present in sufficient concentrations. Trace metals identified as having especially high potential to acutely injure trees because of widespread distribution or intensive local release as a result of anthropogenic activities include cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper lead, mercury, nickel, thallium, vanadium, and zinc. Symptoms of toxicity due to trace metals include interveinal chlorosis, stunted foliage size, loss of leaf turgor, wilting, and death.

Greenhouse gases are expected to alter the distribution of native species (including local extinctions) of ecosystems of the Northwestern United States.xxiv Additionally, more frequent and intense wildfires and increase in insect pest outbreaks and invasive species are also expected. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators

Lichens Two properties make lichens useful air quality indicators: (1) They are especially sensitive to some important pollutants, and (2) they concentrate many pollutants in proportion to environmental availability.xxv The first property demonstrates that air pollution is causing environmental harm by harming sensitive lichens and warns of incipient broader ecological effects. Both properties make them useful for indicating relative pollution levels over geographic space and time. Physical and physiological characteristics of lichens explain these properties.

Lichens have no protective cuticles, guard cells, or specialized tissue to serve as a barrier to or containment of atmospheric pollutants. Lacking roots, lichens, especially epiphytic lichens, largely obtain nutrients and contaminants from the atmosphere. When wetted, pollutants deposited to their surface as gases, vapors, or fine particles dissolve and are absorbed, along with the wash from canopy leaves and branches. Continued precipitation can dilute and leach the pollutants, creating a dynamic equilibrium between accumulation and leaching. For mobile elements needed for nutrients like nitrogen and sulfur, the dynamic equilibrium between accumulation and leaching is achieved over a period of weeks to months. For some metals like cadmium, lead, and chromium which bind tightly to cell walls,

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the equilibrium could take years. Lichen algal and cyanobacteria partners are especially vulnerable to pollutants like sulfur dioxide, ammonia, fluorine, and nitric and sulfuric acids. These reactive gases and acids harm essential processes like photosynthesis and respiration by altering enzyme activity, oxidizing photosynthetic pigments, and physically compromising cellular ultrastructure or membrane integrity.

The following analyses are used by the USDA Forest Service Region 6 air program and FIA program as indicators of air pollution on lichens:

1. Community analyses yield the most comprehensive ecological assessment of air pollution effects, but require sophisticated statistical techniques to separate pollution from other environmental influences on lichen community composition. Regional gradient models of the USDA FIA Lichen Indicator differentiate lichen community responses to air pollution and climate from other environmental variables. Systematically sampled survey data can be scored along air pollution and climate gradients and used to assess conditions and monitor change across forested land. Gradient models and initial assessments are complete for western Oregon and Washington and are being developed for eastern Oregon and Washington.xxvi

2. Chemical analysis of lichen thalli can be used to track virtually any element or compound that lichens absorb and the concentration of those elements or compounds. Repeat measurements of mercury in lichens can track suspected regional increases or decreases in any element. Elements typically analyzed in lichens include nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, titanium vanadium, and zinc. However, lichens have been analyzed for semi-volatile organic pollutants including pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyl, and poly-cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Declines of nitrogen-sensitive lichen species have been observed in several ecoregions within the Pacific Northwest. Sensitive lichen species of 20 - 40% were associated with critical loads of 1 – 4 and 3- 9 kg/ha-yr in wet and total deposition. CLs increased with precipitation across the landscape, presumably from dilution or leaching of depositional Nxxvii. Critical loads for lichens response to nitrogen deposition have also been identified for three Level I ecoregions within the Pacific Northwest: Marine West Coast Forest: 2.7 – 9.2 kg/ha-yr; Northwest Forested Mountains 2.5 -7.1 kg/ha-yr; and for North American Deserts: 3.0 kg/ha-yrxxviii.

Lichens are also known to be sensitive to sulfur dioxide concentrations. The most sensitive lichen species may be at risk at prologued exposure to SO2 above 5-15 ppb.xxix This is equivalent to a deposition rate of 20.64 kg SO2/ha-yr, following the IWAQM Phase I recommendations for converting concentrations to deposition rates.xxx

Ozone Sensitive Plants Plant species sensitive to ozone are useful bioindicators only with a clear description of injury symptoms and at least some measure of air pollution exposure.xxxi Symptoms of ozone injury include foliar injury, premature defoliation, and growth loss. On ponderosa pine, chlorotic mottle is evident on the needles which appear as discoloration of the needles as spots or continuous reddening under more severe exposure.

The USDA Forest Service has been monitoring ozone sensitive plant species in the Pacific Northwest since the 1990s.xxxii Table 5-2 provides a summary of ozone plant species used as bio-indicators for Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) ozone bio-monitoring in California, Oregon, and Washington.

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Table 5-2. Ozone Sensitive Plant Species used as Bio-indicators Common Name Scientific Name Blue elderberry Sambucus mexicana Presl. Evening primrose Oenotherea elata Kunth. Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi Grev. And Balf. Douglas’ sagewort Artemisia douglasiana Bess. Ex Hook. Ninebark Physocarpus malvaceus (Greene) Kuntze. Pacific ninebark Physocarpus capitatus (Pursh) Kuntze Ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson var. ponderosa. Quaking aspen Populus tremuloides Michx. Red alder Alnus rubra Bong. Red elderberry Sambucus racemosa L. Scouler’s willow Salix scouleriana Barratt ex. Hook. Skunkbush Rhus trilobata Nutt. Common Snowberry Symphoricarpos albus (L.) S.F. Blake Western wormwood Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. Thinleaf huckleberry Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl.

Ozone exposure associated with injury to plants is frequently characterized through two metrics. The W126 metric is a cumulative index of exposure that uses a sigmoidal weighting function to give added significance to higher concentrations of ozone, while retaining and giving less weight to mid and lowers concentrations. The W126 index is expressed in cumulative ppm-hr.

The N100 metric characterizes the number of hours specific location experiences ozone concentrations greater than 100 ppb during the year. Table 5-3 presents a summary of combined W126 and N100 metrics above which injury or reduced growth may occur to plant species, depending upon the sensitivity of the species, assuming stomata opening.xxxiii Ponderosa Pine and Quaking Aspen are two species considered highly sensitive to ozone.

Table 5-3. Ozone Exposure Metrics Associated with Injury or Reduced Growth Metric W126 N100 Highly Sensitive Species 5.9 ppm-hr 6 Moderately Sensitive Species 23.8 ppm-hr 51 Low Sensitivity 66.6 ppm-hr 135

Observed injury to ozone sensitive plants in combination with ambient ozone monitoring data has been used to interpolate across the landscape to assess the risk of flora to ozone damage.xxxiv

Ozone sensitive plants must be inspected at selected sites, preferably on a grid to ensure spatial for suspected ozone injury. Specimens are sent to an ozone expert for validation of the injury. A biosite index is calculated from the amount and severity of injury for each evaluated plant. Ozone exposure must also be estimated using measurements of ambient ozone measurements, interpolated across the landscape. The combination of site injury and ambient ozone concentrations may be used to create risk maps across the region.

Currently, there are very limited ozone measurements representative of wilderness. Efforts are needed to collect ambient ozone concentrations to improve the spatial representativeness of the existing datasets.

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Soils Effects of Air Pollution Forest ecosystems that are naturally sensitive to acid deposition are generally characterized by low rates of weathering and generally low quantities of available base cations (i.e., calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium).xxxv Under conditions of elevated inputs of acidic deposition and subsequent transport of sulfate and nitrate in drainage waters, nutrient cations will be displaced from available pools and leached from soil. This condition is not problematic for areas with high weathering rates and high pools of available nutrient cations. However, over the past century, acidic deposition has accelerated the loss of large amounts of available calcium and magnesium from the soil in acid-sensitive areas. Depletion occurs when base cations are displaced from the soil by acidic deposition at a rate faster than they can be replenished by the slow breakdown of rocks or the deposition of base cations from the atmosphere. This depletion of base cations fundamentally alters soil processes, compromises the nutrition of some trees, and hinders the capacity for sensitive soils to recover from inputs of acidic deposition.

Dissolved inorganic aluminum is often released from soil to soil water, vegetation, lakes, and streams, in forested regions with high acid deposition, low stores of available calcium, high soil acidity, and limited watershed retention of atmospheric inputs of sulfate and/or nitrate. High concentrations of dissolved inorganic aluminum can be toxic to plants, fish, and other organisms.

2- Acidic deposition results in the accumulation of sulfur and nitrogen in forest soils. As sulfates (SO4 ) and - 2+ 2+ nitrates (NO3 ) anions are deposited, base cations formed from the weathering of rock (e.g., Mg , Ca ) neutralizes the acids. As base cations are depleted at a greater rate than they are replenished, the acid neutralization capacity (ANC) of the ecosystem is reduced. Over sufficiently long periods of time, depletion of ANC can alter the pH of the soils and water. Additionally, if present in sufficient quantities, these anions may replace other nutrients that plants normally uptake (e.g., Al2+), thereby mobilizing this toxic compound into the environment.

Nitrogen deposition may alter soil nutrient cycling, a key component of the global nitrogen cycle. Soils act both as a source and sink of nitrogen. Forests typically require more nitrogen for growth than is available in the soil. However, in some areas, nitrogen levels are above what forests can use and retain. This condition is referred to as nitrogen saturation.

In an analysis by McNulty, critical loads for acid loads for forest soils have not been exceeded for the years 1994-2000 in the Pacific Northwest.xxxvi Sensitive Receptors and Indicators Soil chemistry has been used as an indicator of air quality. The following indicators have been used: base saturation, exchangeable calcium ion (Ca2+), exchangeable calcium plus magnesium ions (Mg2+), and the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N).

Soil solution chemistry has also been used as an indicator of air quality impacts. Specifically, three indicators have been use: (1) The molar ratio of calcium to aluminum (Ca:Al), (2) the molar ratio of [Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+]: Al, and (3) NO3- concentration.

The following potential criteria have been used to indicate adverse impacts to soils chemistry from atmospheric deposition:

• Base saturation less than 10%, which may indicate a depletion of base cations

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• Percent change over time of Ca2+ • Percent change over time of Ca2+ + Mg2+ • C:N less than 0.2

The following potential criteria have been used to indicate adverse impacts to soils solution chemistry:

• Ca:Al < 1.0 • Base cation: Al < 1.0 • NO3- > 20 µeq/L during growing season Water Effects of Air Pollution Nitrogen can both acidify and cause eutrophication of waters. Nitrate and ammonium that can be converted to nitrate within the watershed have the potential to acidify drainage waters and leach xxxvii potentially toxic aluminum from watershed soil. Nitrate (NO3), can negatively impact aquatic ecosystems by lowering the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC), which can be thought of as the water's natural acid buffering system. As the ANC decreases, the pH will eventually decrease and thus the acid levels will increase.

In addition to contributing to acidic rain, nitrogen can cause other ecosystem impacts by unnaturally fertilizing land and water. These excess inputs of nitrogen termed nutrient enrichment and eutrophication can disrupt the natural flora and fauna by allowing certain species that would not naturally occur in abundance to out compete those that thrive in pristine nitrogen limited systems. The end result is an unnatural shift in species composition for sensitive species, which may have a subsequent impact on other components of the ecosystem including eutrophication and increases in algal massxxxviii.

Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of sulfur-containing fuels (e.g., coal and oil) is transformed into sulfuric acid in the atmosphere. Sulfuric acid is deposited onto downwind landscapes where it can act to acidify water bodies. As water bodies become more acidic, acid-intolerant species of fish die off, thus causing a loss of biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems.

Toxic gases such as fluorine also may impact wilderness waters, particularly in close proximity to local sources such as aluminum processing facilities. Other atmospheric pollutants of concern with respect to toxicity include mercury (Hg) and some pesticides. A more comprehensive discussion of Hg is provided in the section discussing fauna.

Greenhouse gases and black carbon are climate forcing agents which may indirectly affect wilderness waters. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane trap heat in the earth’s atmosphere by allowing solar radiation in, but reducing outgoing radiation. The heating of the atmosphere affects wilderness waters through changes in the rate and timing of glacier snowmelt or the rate of evaporation affecting water quantity and quality, and the temperature of lakes and streams. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators There are many possible sensitive receptors and indicators of air pollution effects on wilderness waters. Sensitive waters might include the chemistry of water which could influence its suitability to support various aquatic species and life forms. ANC is an indicator of change for the sensitive receptor water

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chemistry. Nutrient ratios are also used to characterize nitrogen-limited lakes, which may be sensitive to increased inputs from atmospheric deposition. There are also biological receptors, which might reflect the suitability of the lake water for supporting aquatic organisms that might be sensitive to acidification or eutrophication. These could include, for example, specific species of fish, zooplankton, or diatoms. A sensitive receptor can be evaluated by measuring indicators of injury or ecosystem change. Table 5.4 lists the sensitive receptors and indicators for wilderness waters.

Table 5-4. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators for Water Sensitive Receptor Indicator Potential Criteria Acid neutralization Capacity (ANC) ANC < 50 µeq/L

NO3 concentration NO3 > 10 µeq/L Water Chemistry SO4 concentration Change over time < 4 N-limited DIN:TP > 12 P-limited Chlorophyll a Change over time Water productivity Clarity (lakes) Change over time Salmonid species presence Loss over time Fish Fish species richness Change over time Fish condition factor Change over time Total zooplankton richness Change over time Zooplankton (lakes) Crustacean taxonomic richness Change over time Rotifer taxonomic richness Change over time Benthic macro invertebrates Mayfly taxonomic richness Loss of sensitive taxa (streams) Index of Biotic Integrity Deviation from reference Historical change from Diatoms Community composition paleolimnological reconstruction

Conflicting information exists as to whether or not acidification has occurred in acid-sensitive waters of the Pacific Northwest. For example, in a study of sediment cores collected from 48 Cascade Mountain lakes, the diatom-inferred pH and conductivity values showed no significant changes over the previous 3150 years within the standard errors of the predictions.xxxix Whereas, the USGS found that episodic acidification may occur during the initial period of seasonal snow melt in small alpine streams in Mount Rainier National Park.xl Fauna Effects of Air Pollution Toxic air contaminants, such as mercury, can bioaccumulate and greatly biomagnify through the food chain in fish, humans and other animals. The conversion of non-organic forms of mercury to methyl mercury is initiated by sulfur-reducing bacteria in aquatic sediments. Methyl mercury is a potent neurotoxin, and has been shown to have detrimental health effects in human populations as well as behavioral and reproductive impacts to wildlife. As of 2006, 46 states have consumption advisories for certain lakes and streams warning of mercury-contaminated fish and shellfish. High concentrations of mercury are measured in sediments and fish tissue, even in remote areas of the Arctic. Recently, elevated methyl mercury loads have been monitored in upland bird species and songbirds, calling into question the traditional wisdom that methyl mercury contamination be directly linked to only aquatic systems.

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Persistent organic pollutants such as pesticides remain a concern worldwide. Many historically used pesticides have been banned; however, their persistence in the environment has allowed them to re- volatilize from their original deposit location to colder climates of northern and higher locations where they condense and are deposited. Thus, wilderness areas are susceptible to these persistent organic compounds. Current-use semi-volatile organic compounds such as Endosulfan and dactal and banned, pesticides such as dieldrin and DDT have been found to cause abnormalities in the reproductive structure of fish, and disrupt their endocrine systems. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators Fish are particularly sensitive to toxic pollutants which accumulate in aquatic ecosystems. They are commonly used in mercury studies because of potential risk to humans through frequent consumption, but also to fish-eating wildlife species such as kingfisher, mink, and otter.

Songbird feathers have also been used to assess mercury accumulation in the environment. Alteration of song has been implicated due to bioaccumulation of methyl mercury.

Woodland Caribou are subject to accumulation of toxic metals in lichens, which provide a large portion of their winter diets. Cadmium has been detected in high concentrations in the liver of Canadian Woodland Caribou, residing near smelting operations, resulting in warning people not to consume Caribou liver.

Table 5-5. Sensitive Receptors and Indicators of Air Pollution Effects in Fauna Sensitive Receptor Indicator Potential Criteria Whole fish MeHg concentration Above threshold values Fish Fish pesticide concentration Above threshold values Songbirds MeHg concentration in feathers Above threshold values Cultural Resources Effects of Air Pollution Nitrogen and sulfur may act as both an acidifying and biological agent, which can degrade cultural resources. Nitric and sulfuric acid can promote acid dissolution of stone, clay pigments, and protective coatings. Ammonia and other nitrogen and sulfur-containing pollutants can stimulate the growth of natural rock-dwelling algae, cyanobacteria and oxidizing bacteria, which in turn, can weather cultural stone through the release of nitric and sulfuric acids, or through the physical swelling and shrinking of microbial biomass with changing moisture availability.xli

Greenhouse gases can alter climate, affecting the weathering rate of stone. Microscale factors such as shading exposure, moisture, and evaporation can affect the dissolution rate of acids, causing indirect weathering of cultural resources. Extreme temperature ranges are also known to affect weathering rates of stone.xlii Sensitive Receptors and Indicators Any cultural resource located in wilderness may be subject to the adverse effects of air pollution. Such adverse effects may be indicated by changes in color, recession of surfaces, rounding of corners, and decreases in legibility of inscriptions. Aerosol deposits of black carbon may discolor stones. Surface recession occurs when weathered material is removed from rock. If one can establish where the original surface lay, then a rate of recession can be calculated.

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Inscriptions carved into stone soften over time as the sharp corners weather and recede. Similarly, carved corners become more rounded. Measurement of corner recession to estimate the exposure age on statues and natural sandstone talus blocks has been used. The method has been modified on a microscopic scale to date petroglyphs. Photographic documentation over time may be the most readily used method to assess changes to cultural resources. Priority Sensitive Receptors and Indicators Table 5-6 presents the priority AQRVs, sensitive receptors, and indicators for wilderness in the region. Of the various AQRVs (visibility, water, soils, flora, fauna, and cultural resources), only visibility, flora, fauna and water were selected as the highest priority sensitive receptors. Soil was not included in this list because the pollutant loading in wilderness areas of the Pacific NW are not sufficient to cause adverse impacts on soils. Cultural resources were not identified as priority AQRV because of lack of experience assessing these impacts, the paucity of cultural resources in Region 6 wildernesses and the relatively lower loading of acid gases.

Scenic views diminished by haze are perhaps the most obvious example of the adverse effects of air pollution to wilderness visitors. The Forest Service in Region 6 participates in the operation of the Interagency Monitoring for Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) program, which monitors regional haze and its causes around the country. The IMPROVE program has well established protocols for sampling and laboratory analysis. More details about IMPROVE monitors are provided in Chapter 6.

Lichen community composition and elemental concentrations are well established indicators of air pollution. Bio-monitoring of lichens provides information on the effects of multiple pollutants including nutrient nitrogen, air toxics, and greenhouse gases.

Visible injury to ozone sensitive plants is thought to be a potential issue in those wilderness areas which have sensitive plants with known exposure thresholds (e.g., ponderosa pine) and where W126 and N100 values are approaching or have exceeded the threshold values for sensitive plants (see Table 5-3). Monitoring techniques are well established for monitoring visible injury to ozone-sensitive plants, and ambient ozone concentrations.

Fish are well established sensitive receptors to air toxics, particularly mercury. Concentrations of methyl mercury in whole fish are useful to compare with established ecological and human health thresholds.

Water has been a high priority WAQV in the region. Since 1985 the region has conducted monitoring at numerous lakes in wilderness areas for signs of acid deposition. Only recently have nutrient nitrogen and its eutrophic effects become of interest in forest ecosystems of the Pacific Northwest. Table 5-6. Priority WAQVs, Sensitive Receptors and Indicators Priority WAQV Sensitive Receptor Sensitive Receptor Indicator Visibility Scenic Views Regional haze Lichens Changes in community composition Concentrations of N, S, P, Cd, Cr, Pb, Flora Lichens Hg, Ni, Ti, V, and Zn Ozone Visible Injury on ozone-sensitive plants Fauna Fish Concentration of Methyl mercury Water Chemistry ANC Water Water Chemistry DIN: TP Diatoms Community Composition

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The selection of any one or more of these priority AQRVs for a given wilderness is based upon case- specific factors including pollution exposure, ecosystem composition, and costs. Appendix B contains the recommendations of AQRVs, sensitive receptors, and sensitive receptor indicators for each wilderness area. Establishing a Baseline In order to establish a baseline, sufficient data must be collected to characterize the spatial and temporal condition of the wilderness air quality value. Table 5-7 presents a summary of the recommended spatial and temporal criteria for establishing a baseline for the priority sensitive receptors.

Table 5-7. Temporal and Spatial Criteria for Establishing WAQV Baselines Sensitive Receptor Priority WAQV Sensitive Receptor Baseline Criteria Indicator Visibility Scenic Views Regional haze 5 years Changes in community Lichens composition First round of visits @ Concentration of N, S, P, density of Flora Lichens Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Ni, Ti, V, 1 plot/20,000 acres and Zn Visible Injury on ozone- First round of visits on Ozone sensitive plants FIA sampling grid First round of visits: Concentration of Methyl Fauna Fish stratified random mercury sampling, 10% Water Chemistry ANC First round of visits: Water Chemistry DIN: TP stratified random Water sampling of acid sensitive Diatoms Community Composition (i.e., ANC<50) or N- limited waters, 10%

The Regional Haze Rule has established that the five-year period of 2000 -2004 shall be used as the bases for determining baseline values from all IMPROVE monitoring sites. This same period shall also be used for purposes of the Regional Wilderness Air Quality Plan in assessing baseline values for visibility at these sites.

Lichens shall be monitored at a density of at least one plot for every 20,000 acres to characterize the spatial variation of a wilderness area. This plot density was determined by balancing the likely variation in climatic, geologic, and biologic factors within a given wilderness and practical limitations of access to wilderness plots, and limitations of funds available to perform the sampling and analyses.

Since the FIA program has already sampled the Region’s forests for ozone injury at a pre-defined scale, and conducted extensive analysis of this information in combination with ambient ozone concentrations, this data will serve as the baseline value for assessing ozone injury to vegetation.

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A stratified random sampling approach should be used to establish baseline values for wilderness waters and fish. The goal is to characterize the population of surface waters and resident fish for the entire wilderness. For large wilderness areas containing many lakes, a complete census of all lakes may be impractical. Consequently, statistically based surveys using a stratified random sampling approach should be used. The surface waters should be stratified such that the lakes or streams of greatest interest are surveyed. This may be disproportionate to their frequency of occurrence in nature. Such a stratified random sampling process preserves the ability to make population-level extrapolations while maximizing the collection of data for the sites of greatest interest. For example, if the interest is evaluating whether or not atmospheric deposition is causing unwanted fertilization of wilderness waters, the surface waters should be stratified to include only N-limited waters. Of that subset, a randomized sampling approach should be conducted which forms the basis for extrapolating the results to a larger population. At a minimum, 10 percent of the stratified population should be sampled. The actual water bodies sampled will also be determined from practicalities associated with access in remote areas.

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CHAPTER 6 Wilderness AQRV Monitoring in R6 The Region (R6) Air Resource Management (ARM) program was established in 1981 to monitor and protect wilderness areas and forest resources from the adverse effects of air pollution. The ARM program staff has monitored sensitive receptors in many of the wilderness areas within the region. Monitoring has been conducted for visibility, lichens, fish, and water chemistry. Additionally, the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the Forest Service has surveyed vegetation for ozone injury and soils in the region, some of which has occurred in the wilderness areas of the region.

A discussion of the monitoring of wilderness in R6 along with baseline and trends for the inventoried AQRV’s is included below. A determination of baseline data and monitoring of trends is included in the 10YWSC and indicates a higher level of accomplishment for Element 3 - Wilderness Air Quality Monitoring (see 10YWSC Counting Instructions). Baseline data as defined in the 10YWSC is “enough data has been collected to characterize the condition of the wilderness air quality value.” Trends are established from baseline monitor data of a priority sensitive receptor over time. Trend Analysis is the practice of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern, or trend, in the information. Visibility

Description The CAA specifically identifies visibility as an AQRV in Class I wilderness areas. Visibility is also an important component in other areas popular for their scenic vistas. Important vistas can be visually impaired by pollution in three ways:

• "Uniform haze" (pollutants from one or several sources are well mixed in the atmosphere and obscure the view uniformly) • "Layered haze" (pollutants from one or several sources appear as a layer because of poor atmospheric mixing conditions) • "Plume" (pollutants appear as a continuous plume that originates from a single source)

There are a variety of monitoring techniques that document visibility conditions and make quantitative measurements of atmospheric properties that effect visibility. Region 6 has used the techniques described below:

1. Scene monitoring considers the appearance of a scene viewed through the atmosphere. Scene characteristics include observer visual range, scene contrast, color, texture, clarity, and other descriptive terms. Scene characteristics change with illumination and atmospheric composition. Photographs, video images, and digital images are effective ways to document scene characteristics. This system of monitoring was employed on in Region 6 between 1991 and 2000, but since has been replaced by Aerosol monitoring. 2. Web Cameras are used to depict air quality conditions from national forests throughout the United States. The Forest Service provides public access to near real-time and daily image archives and historical image galleries. These images can be accessed through the following web

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site: http://www.fsvisimages.com/. Currently, there are three locations in Region 6 of near real-time visibility images; these are at Mount Hood, OR, Wishram, WA (eastern end of the Columbia River Gorge), and the Pasayten Wilderness in Washington State. In addition, the historic gallery contains images of the scenes during varying range of haze conditions. 3. Aerosol monitoring looks at the physical properties of the ambient atmospheric aerosols (chemical composition, size, shape, concentration, temporal and spatial distribution, and other physical properties) through which a scene is viewed. Fine particle measurements are commonly made to quantify aerosol characteristics. The Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) program is representative of this type of monitoring. Data from IMPROVE provides a means of determining the sources of visibility impacts such as soil, soot, and sulfate. Table 6-1 presents a summary of the aerosol components measured at an IMPROVE monitor and some common anthropogenic and natural sources of air pollution.

Table 6-1. Sources of Haze Components Measured on the IMPROVE Monitors Anthropogenic Natural Sources of Regional Haze Pollutant Sources of Pollutant Pollutant Coal-fired power plants, diesel Sulfates Volcanoes engines, industrial boilers Organic Carbon Incineration, household heating Fire, vegetation Cars, trucks, off-road vehicles, Nitrates Soils, lightning, fire industrial boilers, agriculture Fine Soil Off-road vehicles, agriculture Wind-blown dust Elemental Carbon Soot, diesel engines Fire Fine Particulate Matter Combustion processes, roads Fire Construction, roads, woodstoves, Coarse Particulate Matter Wind-blown dust, fire fireplaces Inventory Figure 6-1 illustrates the location of the wilderness areas and IMPROVE visibility monitoring sites in Region 6. The monitoring locations were originally sited to be representative of the Class I areas.

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Figure 6-1. IMPROVE Monitoring and Wilderness Locations in Region 6

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The IMPROVE monitoring network was designed to implement an extensive long term monitoring program to establish the current visibility conditions, track changes in visibility and determine causal mechanism for the visibility impairment in the mandatory federal Class I areas. The program was initiated in 1985, but not all sites were installed until 2000. Additional “protocol” sites were added in other years, and Tribes also had the opportunity to monitor visibility conditions on tribal lands. Table 6-2 shows the year that each monitor began operating.

Note: The IMPROVE network provides valuable information for characterizing visibility conditions in our wildernesses. The intent of the Air Quality element, however, is to have our monitoring extend beyond IMPROVE visibility monitoring to evaluate other important wilderness air quality values, such as lake water sampling and lichen monitoring. Forests which have developed a wilderness air quality plan and have identified visibility as the sole wilderness air quality value will be able to claim credit for IMPROVE monitoring.

Table 6-2. IMPROVE Visibility Monitors in Region 6 Site Code State Elevation (m) Starting Year Mount Hood Wilderness MOHO1 OR 1531 2000 Kalmiopsis Wilderness KALM1 OR 80 2000 Crater Lake National Park CRLA1 OR 1996 1988 Three Sisters Wilderness THSI1 OR 885 1993 Starkey Experimental Forest STAR1 OR 1259 2000 Hells Canyon HECA1 OR 655 2000 White Pass WHPA1 WA 1827 2000 Columbia River Gorge (East End) CORI1 WA 178 1993 Columbia River Gorge (West End) COGO1 WA 230 1996 Snoqualmie Pass SNPA1 WA 1049 1993 Pasayten Wilderness PASA1 WA 1627 2000 North Cascades National Park NOCA1 WA 568 2000 Mount Rainier National Park MORA1 WA 439 1998 Olympic National Park OLYM1 WA 599 2001 Spokane Reservation SPOK1 WA 552 2001 Makah Tribe MAKA1 WA n/a 2006 Puget Sound PUSO1 WA 98 1996

The only aspect of an “inventory” needed here is to identify the representative IMPROVE monitor for each wilderness area, particularly the Class II wilderness areas. Table 6-3 identifies the most representative IMPROVE monitor for each wilderness. Note, for the Red Buttes Wilderness, the two most northern IMPROVE monitoring sites in California (Redwoods or Lava Buttes) are the most representative sites, even though these monitors are located in Region 5 (not shown in Figure 6-1).

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Table 6-3. Representative IMPROVE Monitors Representative Representative Wilderness Wilderness IMPROVE Monitor IMPROVE Monitor Alpine Lakes SNPA1 Monument Rock STAR1 Badger Creek MOHO Mt. Baker NOCA1 Black Canyon STAR1 Mt. Hood MOHO1 Boulder Creek CRLA1 Mt. Jefferson THSI1 Boulder River SNPA1 or NOCA1 Mt. Skokomish OLYM1 Bridge Creek STAR1 Mt. Thielsen CRLA1 Buckhorn OLYM1 Mt. Washington THSI1 Bull of the Woods MOHO1 Noisy-Diobsud NOCA1 Clackamas MOHO1 Norse Peak SNPA1 Clearwater SNPA1 North Fork John Day STAR1 Colonel Bob OLYM1 North Fork Umatilla STAR1 Copper Salmon KALM1 Opal Creek THSI1 Cummins Creek KALM1 Pasayten PASA1 Diamond Peak CRLA1 Red Buttes REDW1 or LABE1 Drift Creek KALM1 Roaring River MOHO1 Eagle Cap STAR1 Rock Creek KALM1 Gearhart Mountain CRLA1 Rogue-Umpqua Divide CRLA1 Glacier Peak SNPA1 Salmon-Huckleberry MOHO1 Glacier View MORA1 Salmo-Priest PASA1 or SPOK1 Goat Rocks WHPA1 Siskiyou KALM1 Grassy Knob KALM1 Sky Lakes CRLA1 Hells Canyon HECA1 Strawberry Mtn. STAR1 Henry M. Jackson SNPA1 Tatoosh MORA1 or WHP1 Indian Heaven WHPA1 The Brothers OLYM1 Kalmiopsis KALM1 Three Sisters THSI1 Lake Chelan-Sawtooth PASA1 Trapper Creek WHPA1 Lower White River MOHO1 Waldo Lake THSI1 Mark O. Hatfield COGO1 or CORI1 Wenaha-Tucannon STAR1 Menagerie THSI1 Wild Rogue KALM1 Middle Santiam THS1 Wild Sky SNPA1 Mill Creek STAR1 William O. Douglas SNPA1 Mountain Lakes CRLA1 Wonder Mountain OLYM1 Mt. Adams WHPA1 Baseline As part of the national regional haze program, all IMPROVE monitoring sites use the same period to establish baseline metrics: 2000-2004. Common metrics used to characterize baseline include: (1) annual average, (2) 20 percent worst-case days and (3) 20 percent best case days.

Visibility is quantified using one of the following metrics: standard visual range (SVR), deciviews (dv), or light extinction (Bext). SVR is the farthest distances one can see a dark object against a light background as measured in kilometers or miles; higher values are, of course, better. Conversely, each change in dv is

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roughly equivalent to a just noticeable change in visibility; higher values indicate hazier conditions while lower values are clearer. Light extinction is defined as the amount of attenuation of light due to scattering and absorption as it passes through the atmosphere, for example between the viewing object -1 and your eye. Bext is commonly expressed in units of inverse megameters (Mm ); higher values indicate more haze.

Figure 6-2 illustrates an example of baseline metrics and aerosol composition, as measured at the Mt. Hood IMPROVE monitoring site for the baseline period of 2000-2004. The pie chart on the far left shows that during the best days, visibility is only 2.5 Mm-1, and ammonium sulfate comprises 48% of the aerosol composition on these days. The pie chart in the middle illustrates that during the 20% worst- case days, visibility degrades to 37.5 Mm-1, and organic carbon and ammonium sulfate are the largest contributing aerosols. The pie chart on the left illustrates the mean annual light extinction is 15.1 Mm-1, when ammonium sulfate and organic carbon are the largest contributing aerosols to haze. Refer to Table 1 for common sources of these aerosols.

State air quality agencies have summarized baseline conditions as measured at each IMPROVE monitor in their State Regional Haze State Implementation Plans (SIPs), which may be found on their websites. Additionally readers may also obtain and create their own graphics and data from the Federal Land Managers Environmental Database (FEDs) at http://views.cira.colostate.edu/fed/.

Figure 6-2. Best and Worst 20 % and Annual Average Visibility at Mount Hood

Trends The Regional Haze Rule established a uniform rate of progress, also called a glide slope, for each Class I area to characterize the rate of improvement needed to achieve natural conditions by 2064. Trends are determined every five years and compared with the uniform rate of progress as a guide for ensuring the State plans to reduce haze are working as expected.

Figure 6-3 illustrates the trends at the Mt. Hood IMPROVE monitor since the baseline period, for the 20 percent best days, 20 percent worst-case days, and the annual average. The figures illustrates that the best days have not gotten worse, the worst-days are highly variable (the annual beyond 2003, was unable to plot).

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State air quality divisions will track the trends at each IMPROVE monitoring site every five years. Updates to these graphs should be provided on the State Air Quality Department shortly after the State review of these trends. Additionally readers may also obtain and create their own graphics and data from the Federal Land Managers Environmental Database (FEDs) at http://views.cira.colostate.edu/fed.

Figure 6-3. Visibility Trends at the Mt. Hood IMPROVE Monitor

Flora: Lichens Description The Pacific Northwest Region of the USDA Forest Service began monitoring lichens as indicators of air quality in 1993. Each year, trained sampling crews travel to wilderness areas in the region to survey and collect lichens. The monitoring follows established FIA and regional protocols for field sampling and laboratory analysis.xliii Sampling and analysis is conducted to characterize (1) the concentration of nitrogen, sulfur, and elemental metals in the lichen thalli, and (2) community composition of lichen plots, which shifts with changes in air pollution and climate. Inventory Figure 6-4 illustrates the locations where lichens have been collected to date in Wilderness. A yellow dot indicates locations where lichens have been collected only for elemental analyses. A blue dot indicates locations where lichens have been collected for both elemental analysis and community composition. A red dot indicates locations were repeat visits have occurred for both elemental concentrations and changes in community composition.

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Figure 6-4. Lichen Bio-monitoring Plot Locations in Wilderness

Table 6-4 presents a summary of the lichen plot visits to each wilderness area. Between 1993 and 2002 (referred to as Round 1), lichen monitoring crews established bio-monitoring plots in 28 wilderness areas. Between 2003 to 2012 (referred to as Round 2), sampling crews established lichen bio- monitoring plots in 59 wilderness areas, many of which were repeat visits to lichen plots established in Round 1. With one year left in Round 2 (2012), two wilderness areas with no lichen plots will be sampled: Cummins Creek and Lower White River.

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Table 6-4. Wilderness Lichen Plot Sampling Dates Round 1 Round 2 Round 1 Round 2 Wilderness (1993-2002) (2003-2012) Wilderness (1993-2002) (2003-2012) Years Visited Years Visited Years Visited Years Visited 2005-2009, Alpine Lakes Monument Rock 2011 2012 Badger Creek 1995-1997 2005 Mt. Baker 2005 1993-1994, Black Canyon 2011 Mt. Hood 2004, 2009 1996-1997 Boulder Creek 1999-2000 2009-2010 Mt. Jefferson 1994-1997 2004-2005 Boulder River 2007 Mt. Skokomish 2011 1996-1997, 2003, 2007, Bridge Creek 2011 Mt. Thielsen 1999-2000 2009 Buckhorn 2007 Mt. Washington 1995, 1997 2004-2005 Bull of the Woods 1996-1997 2011 Noisy-Diobsud 2005, 2007 Clackamas 1996 2006 Norse Peak 2007 North Fork John Clearwater 2011 2011 Day Colonel Bob 2007 North Fork Umatilla 2011 Copper Salmon 2011 Opal Creek 1997 2004 Cummins Creek 2012 Pasayten 2009, 2012 Diamond Peak 1994-1996 2004-2005 Red Buttes 2011 Drift Creek 1996 2011 Roaring River 1995, 1997 2005 1998-1999, Eagle Cap 2008-2009 Rock Creek 1997 2011 2000-2001 Rogue-Umpqua Gearhart Mountain 2003, 2012 1999-2000 2010 Divide 2007, 2009, Salmon- Glacier Peak 1996-1997 2011 2012 Huckleberry Glacier View 2011 Salmo-Priest 2011 Goat Rocks 1994-1995 2004 Siskiyou 2011 2003, 2007, Grassy Knob 2011 Sky Lakes 1997,2000 2010 Hells Canyon 2000 2012 Strawberry Mtn. 2008 Henry M. Jackson 2007 Tatoosh 1994-1995 2004 Indian Heaven 1997 2005 The Brothers 2007 Kalmiopsis 2008, 2012 Three Sisters 1994-1997 2004-2005 Lake Chelan- 2011 Trapper Creek 1996 2005 Sawtooth Lower White River 2012 Waldo Lake 1995-1997 2004-2005 Mark O. Hatfield 1996-1997 2006-2007 Wenaha-Tucannon 2011 Menagerie 2011 Wild Rogue 2011 Middle Santiam 1997 2011 Wild Sky 2011, 2012 Mill Creek 2011 William O. Douglas 1997 2011 2003, 2007, Mountain Lakes 1997, 1999 2009 Wonder Mountain 2011 Mt. Adams 1995-1997 2005 Baseline A baseline is considered established if there is a reasonable spatial representation of lichen collected in the wilderness area, i.e., with a density of at least one lichen plot per 20,000 acres of wilderness.

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Baseline monitoring must include lichens sampling and analysis for both elemental analysis and community composition. The blue dots in Figure 6-4 illustrate where lichen plots have been established in sufficient density for a wilderness baseline to be considered established. Trends A trend is considered established if a lichen plot has been revisited and the samples analyzed for community composition and elemental analysis, at the minimum spatial resolution (i.e., at least one plot for every 20,000 acres of wilderness). Trends are best determined and described by a qualified expert on lichens and air pollution. Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants Description Since 1928, the Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program has conducted assessments of all the Nation’s forested lands for use in economic and forest management planning. The program has been expanded in recent years to monitor several indicators of forest sustainability including:

• Conservation of biological diversity • Maintenance of productive capacity of forest ecosystems • Maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality • Conservation and maintenance of soil and water resources • Maintenance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles • Maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple socioeconomic benefits

These indicators were identified by the international Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests.xliv One of the indicators of forest ecosystem health is to monitor the area and percentage of forest lands subjected to specific air pollutants (sulfates, nitrates, and ozone). FIA began surveying the bio-monitoring sites in 2000 to identify locations where visible injury to ozone sensitive species has occurred. Bio-monitoring sites are located both within and outside wilderness. Inventory Table 6-5 shows the inventory of bio-monitoring sites in wilderness in Region 6. For each wilderness, the number of plots, size, period of sampling and the ozone sensitive species sampled is displayed.

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Table 6-5. Ozone Injury to Vegetation Surveys in R6 Wilderness Number Size Years Wilderness Ozone Sensitive Species Sampled of Plots (acres) Sampled Alnus rubra (Red Alder) Alpine Lakes 1 391,988 2000 Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry) Alnus rubra (Red Alder) Clearwater 1 14,647 2000-2009 Vaccinium membranaceum (Thin-leaved huckleberry) Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry) Alnus rubra (Red Alder) Colonel Bob 1 11,855 2002-2008 Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow) Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry) Apocynum androsaemifolium (Spreading Dogbane) Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine) Eagle Cap 1 359,991 2002-2009 Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry) Populus tremuloides (Quaking Aspen) Alnus rubra (Red Alder) Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow) Henry M. Jackson 1 103,297 2000-2009 Sambucus racemosa (Red Elderberry) Vaccinium membranaceum (Thin-leaved huckleberry) Alnus rubra (Red Alder) Mark O. Hatfield 2 65,822 2000-2009 Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow) Vaccinium membranaceum (Thin-leaved huckleberry) Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine) North Fork John Day 1 120,560 2000 Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry) Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine) Populus tremuloides (Quaking Aspen) Pasayten 1 531,539 2000-2008 Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow) Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry) Apocynum androsaemifolium (Spreading Dogbane) Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine) Sky Lakes 1 113,849 2000-2009 Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow) Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry) Alnus rubra (Red Alder) Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa Pine) William O. Douglas 1 169,081 2002-2009 Sambucus mexicana (Elderberry) Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow) Symphoricarpos spp. (Snowberry) Baseline Baseline is considered established if there is a reasonable spatial representation of locations within a wilderness where ozone sensitive vegetation has been surveyed for injury, Similar to the criteria for establishing baseline for lichen. The same criterion for spatial density is used for ozone injury as is used for lichen: at least one plot per 20,000 acres of wilderness. Following this criterion, only the Clearwater and Colonel Bob wilderness areas would meet the minimum spatial density for establishing baseline.

Preliminary baselines have been established for these wilderness areas per the data summaries presented for the period of 2000-2005.xlv As of 2005, there have been no observations of ozone injury to vegetation in the R6 wilderness areas which have been surveyed. However, there has been one location in R6 where ozone injury to vegetation has been observed – the Columbia River Gorge. The injury detected in the Gorge by the FIA ozone bio-monitoring program was a biosite a little over 120

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miles east of Portland in an irrigated area that is naturally non-forested. Although the presence of injury is atypical there, this site supports ambient data showing that ozone levels are high there and capable of causing injury to susceptible species, forest or non-forest, given favorable environmental conditions. Trends No temporal trends in ozone injury to vegetation have been established to date. Revisits to these existing plots are needed to survey and assess ozone injury. Additionally, an increase in spatial density is needed at many of these wilderness areas to meet the spatial density criteria of one plot per 20,000 acres of wilderness. Water: Lake Chemistry The Air Resource Management Program of the Forest Service has been working with Forest staff to monitor and assess changes to acid sensitive waters since the 1980s. The various sampling efforts conducted in the region’s waters are described below. Details of the individual studies may be found on the Forest Service Air Resource Management Program website at www.fs.fed.us/air, under the regional reports link, for Region 6. Description Monitoring of water chemistry as a sensitive indicator of air pollution has been primarily focused on monitoring for effects of acid deposition. Only recently has attention been shifted towards monitoring for unwanted nutrient enrichment due to atmospheric deposition.

Acidification of sensitive waters is characterized by the pH and acid neutralization capacity (ANC) of water. ANC is calculated as total cations (positively charged ions) minus total anions (negatively charged ions). Waters sensitive to chronic acidification generally have ANC < 100 µeq/L, and waters sensitive to episodic acidification generally have ANC < 50 µeq/Lxlvi are characterized as acid sensitive, in that the - - water has little capacity to buffer against acid ions (e.g., SO4 , and NO3 ).

Waters may also be characterized as nutrient-limited, where additional amounts of nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorous, may cause increased (or unwanted) growth of certain species. Nitrogen is the most common macro nutrient in the atmosphere, which may be deposited on nutrient-limited waters, potentially causing eutrophication. Nitrogen-limited waters have been identified as those with dissolved nitrogen (DiN) to total phosphorous (TP) ratio of less than 4. DiN is the sum of nitrate and ammonium ions.xlviixlviii Inventory Synoptic surveys are often used to characterize water chemistry of an area to identify the trophic state of water bodies. The time at which the water is collected during a synoptic survey can influence the resulting chemistry and the ways the data can be used. Water chemistry in lakes, particularly dilute lakes, can vary diurnally, seasonally, and annually. Therefore if the objective of the synoptic survey is to compare measurements among different lakes within the same region (spatial assessment), all sites would be ideally sampled at the same time as possible to minimize the temporal variability. Seasonal affects can be minimized by restricting the sampling to just the summer or fall.

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The EPA Western Lakes Survey The EPA Western Lakes Survey of 1985xlix was the most extensive survey of the health of our nation’s lakes in the Western United States. Sampling was conducted in September and October, 1985. The large spatial extent of the survey allowed a comparative spatial analysis that is statistically meaningful. The Western Lakes Survey developed and implemented a set of protocols for sample collection and laboratory analysis for monitoring of nutrients, anions, and cations, many of which are still used today.

Although the Western Lakes Survey was not designed to answer questions specific to temporal changes in an individual wilderness, the survey served as the benchmark to establish a baseline for water chemistry in many wildernesses which were fortunate enough to be included in the survey. The following wildernesses had lakes included as part of this study: Pasayten, Noisy Diobsud, Mt. Baker, Glacier Peak, Alpine Lakes, Boulder River, Buckhorn, Clearwater, Henry M. Jackson, William O. Douglas, Lake Chelan-Sawtooth, Indian Heaven, Goat Rocks, Hells Canyon, Diamond Peak, Eagle Cap, Mt. Hood, Mt. Jefferson, Three Sisters, Waldo Lake, and Sky Lakes.

GIS Analysis and Identification of Acid Sensitive Wilderness Lakes In 2004, the US Geological Survey used statistical relations between alkalinity concentrations and basin characteristics (primarily geology and topography) to evaluate the sensitivity of approximately 3500 un- sampled lakes in wildernesses of Oregon and Washington to atmospheric deposition.l Alkalinity concentrations that were measured at 95 lakes during the 1985 EPA Western Lakes Survey were used to calibrate the statistical models. Multiple logistic regressions were used to estimate the probability that alkalinity concentrations in individual lakes would be below the specified threshold of 100 micro- equivalents per liter (µeq/l), and, thus be sensitive to deposition. Of the explanatory variables of concern (bedrock type, mean basin sloe, mean basin aspect, mean basin elevation, lake area and basin area), only bedrock type and mean basin slope had statistically significant correlations with measured alkalinity concentrations. The results illustrated in Figure 6-5 show the relative sensitivity of the water bodies by wilderness. The red-colored wilderness areas have a high sensitivity to acidification, the faded yellow have a medium sensitivity, and the green have a low sensitivity.

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Figure 6-5. Wilderness Scale Sensitivity Classification

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R6 Summit Lake Long Term Monitoring Summit Lake, located in the Clearwater Wilderness of Washington, is one of the most studied lakes in the region. When first sampled as part of the EPA Western Lakes Survey (1985), it was one of the most dilute lakes in the region, with an ANC of 3.9 ueq/l. With essentially no buffering capacity against acid deposition, it was thought to be highly sensitive to the effects of air pollution, and a good lake to monitor. The Forest Service returned to monitor this lake several times between 1993 and 2006.li

Cascade Mountain Ecoregion, Diatom Calibration Study In order to obtain a historical perspective on how the wilderness lakes of the region may have changed over time, the Region conducted a paleo-limnological study. Lake chemistry may be inferred from the historic record of diatom shells which are deposited on the lake bottom when they die. These may be examined under a microscope to identify species richness (type and abundance) at various layers. The layer’s age is determined using radioactive dating techniques. Because diatoms are highly sensitive to changes in water chemistry, any significant changes in species richness amongst the different layers serves as an indicator of a historic change in lake chemistry. By correlating the current species richness with current water chemistry, across numerous lakes, a wide distribution of water chemistry and corresponding diatom communities is obtained. Then statistical analysis may be conducted to correlate diatom species and abundance with water chemistry. This data set may then be used to infer historic changes in water chemistry based upon the diatom species composition.

The Cascade Mountain Ecoregion Diatom Calibration Study was performed across 40 lakes in the Cascades Mountains of Oregon and Washington in June – September 1996.lii The following wilderness areas had lakes included in this study: Alpine Lakes, Clearwater, William O. Douglas, Goat Rocks, Henry M. Jackson, Indian Heaven, Mt. Hood, Mt. Jefferson, Three Sisters and Sky Lakes. Additional lakes from national forest and national park lands outside of these wildernesses were also included.

R6 Synoptic Lake Monitoring This regional sampling study was conducted at numerous wilderness lakes during the period from 1990- 2002. The intent was to expand the number of lakes sampled in many wildernesses to identify acid sensitive lakes, establish a baseline, and revisit many of the lakes originally sampled as part of the 1985 Western Lakes Survey. The following wilderness areas had lakes included in this sampling effort: Clearwater, Eagle Cap, Mark O. Hatfield, Mt. Jefferson, Rogue-Umpqua Divide, Three Sisters and Waldo Lake.

Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie NF and Okanogan-Wenatchee NF Lake Monitoring This study focused on expanding the number of lakes sampled in the Pasayten, Alpine Lakes, Glacier Peak, Clearwater, Mt. Baker, Noisy-Diobsud and William O. Douglas wildernesses. Additionally, several lakes which were sampled as part of the 1985 Western Lakes Survey were revisited as part of this monitoring effort. Monitoring of lakes in these wilderness areas occurred between 1996 and 2007.

Goat Rocks Wilderness Study As a condition of a PSD permit for the Weyerhauser Longview Fibre Mill, a study was conducted at Cedar Pond and Gertrude Lake in the Goat Rocks Wilderness.liii Samples were collected and analyzed from these two lakes in 1995 and 1996.

Eagle Cap Wilderness Reconnaissance and Mirror Lake Limnological Study A synoptic survey of the lakes of the Eagle Cap Wilderness was conducted in 1998.liv Most of the lakes sampled were limited to the Lakes Basin Management Area. In addition to water chemistry, sediment

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cores were also collected from Mirror Lake to evaluate historic changes. Repeat visits to many of these lakes occurred in 2009.

Umpqua Lakes Baseline Water Quality Inventory Nine lakes within the Umpqua National Forest were sampled in September 1990, as part of this study.lv Three of the lakes were located within the Rogue-Umpqua Divide Wilderness (i.e., Buckeye, Cliff, and Fish Lakes). Water quality samples were analyzed for major ion chemistry and related water quality parameters.

Mt. Jefferson and Hatfield Wilderness Areas Five lakes in the Mt. Jefferson Wilderness (Scout, Claggett, Davey, Cleo, and Turpentine Lakes) and one lake in the Mark O. Hatfield Wilderness (Warren Lake) were sampled in September 1999.lvi The lakes were intentionally selected to identify dilute systems based on field measurements of conductivity. The waters samples were analyzed for major ion chemistry. The surface sediment samples were analyzed for diatom community composition, to add to the diatom calibration data set for the Cascades.

Episodic Acidification In addition to chronic acidification, seasonal fluctuations in water chemistry may result in episodic acidification. Seasonal patterns in surface-water chemistry and stream flow are strongly influenced by snow pack melting, which releases large amounts of dilute, slightly acidic water to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the spring.lvii

Episodic acidification has been measured for one alpine stream in Mt. Rainier National Park, but the extent of this phenomenon is unknown. The Forest Service in Region 6 conducted a study of episodic acidification in four lakes within the Goat Rocks Wilderness of southern Washington. The researchers concluded that episodic acidification is of greater concern than chronic acidification, although the increased loading for these study lakes to cause acidification would require substantial increase in S and N deposition, above levels received in the mid-1990s.

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Figure 6-6. Water Chemistry Monitoring in Wilderness Lakes

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Cascade Mountain, Four Lake, Long Term Study An extensive study was conducted on four lakes, which occur on a north to south transect across the Cascade Mountains to determine the historic, current, and future potential of acidification effects of atmospheric deposition.lviii The lakes included in this study are Foehn Lake (Alpine Lakes Wilderness), Summit Lake (Clear Water Wildereness), Scout Lake (Mt. Jefferson Wilderness), and Lake Notasha Sky Lakes Wilderness, see Figure 6-7. Water samples were collected from these lakes annually between 1999 and 2007. Sediment cores were also collected to evaluate historic changes at these lakes. Additionally, dynamic modeling was conducted to estimate the amount of increase in acid ions necessary to cause acidification. For more information, refer to the Wilderness Lakes Final Report at www.fs.fed.us/air/regdocs.htm#r6.

In addition to evaluating water chemistry, lake sediment cores were collected and evaluated to determine whether chronic acidification has occurred in the region. Sediment cores were collected and dated and diatom taxa evaluated at several layers. Diatoms are excellent indicators of historic changes because when they die, their exoskeletons remain in the lake bottom, becoming buried over time. The exoskeletons may be examined to determine the community composition at a given layer. Over time, the sediment core creates a fossilized record of diatom taxa. Because diatoms are very sensitive to changes in water chemistry, they serve as indicators of changes in lake chemistry. An evaluation of the diatom taxa of sediment core layers dated using radioactive isotope ratios can be used infer historic changes in water chemistry. Using the diatom taxa found in 48 lake sediment cores in the Cascade Mountains, correlations were developed for the variance found in these taxa. The strongest correlations were found for pH and conductivity. Then, using these correlations, an analysis was conducted of a sediment core from Summit Lake, WA to infer historic changes in these parameters from the diatoms present. The age of the sediment layers were determined using radioactive isotope analysis. The results of this study revealed that no significant changes in pH or conductivity have occurred in the previous 3150 years (Eilers, 1998).

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Figure 6-7. Location of Four Study Lakes

The Forest Service conducted further analysis of four sensitive lakes (shown in Figure 10), along a north- south transect in the region to assess the ability of the lakes to respond to current threats (Eilers, 2009). Hydrodynamic modeling was used to evaluate two lakes in Oregon (Lake Notasha in the Sky Lakes

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Wilderness and Scout Lake in the Mount Jefferson Wilderness) and with two lakes in Washington (Summit Lake in the Clearwater Wilderness and Foehn Lake in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness).

The results of the study indicated that the two Oregon lakes: Notasha and Scout, show no evidence of acidification or other changes that could be considered harmful under current levels of deposition. Summit Lake in the Clearwater Wilderness of Washington shows evidence of already having received elevated deposition of sulfur and other compounds based on current water chemistry and analysis of the sediments. However, the naturally long-residence time of the lake water allows for considerable opportunity to neutralize inputs of sulfur and nitrogen. The northern-most lake in the study, Foehn Lake, appears to have been formed within the last 100 years. The accumulated sediment is low and the major ion chemistry indicates that this lake is already slightly acidic.

The model was also used to assess how these lakes would respond to increases in acidic deposition. The model simulations indicated that Lake Notasha, Scout Lake, and Summit Lake are highly resistant to acidification from sulfur and nitrogen deposition. These lakes would require nearly a threefold increase in sulfur deposition to deplete the buffering capacity sufficiently to realize a change in pH. Further these lakes are highly resistant to inputs of nitrogen and high loading over short durations. However, the model simulations of Foehn Lake under increasing deposition of sulfur and nitrogen show greater sensitivity than observed for the other three lakes. Factors that contribute to this greater responsiveness are its shallow bathymetry (which lead to shorter residence time), the high percentage of exposed bedrock in the lake, and its shallow sediments.

Determining Critical N Loads to Subalpine Lakes in the Pacific Northwest In July, 2008, the region conducted a nutrient enrichment study on two lakes, one of which was located in the Alpine Lakes Wilderness (Dorothy Lake).lix Sediment cores were obtained to look at historical changes in the diatoms indicative of acidification or eutrophication. Additionally, nutrients were added to small containers of the lake water to determine if increases in nitrogen would cause shifts diatom communities.

The result of the experiments and lake surveys revealed that both lakes currently have sufficient N for algal growth, and are P-limited lakes. The paleo-limnological results reveal that while some changes in the relative abundance of diatom taxa have occurred during the last century these changes do not suggest than any major shifts in pH or total phosphorous have occurred during that time.

The results also suggest that N deposition has not had detectable effects on the diatom communities in these lakes. The current water chemistry further suggests that N deposition will not have enrichment effects on these lakes. Baseline For purposes of this document, at least 10 percent of the lakes in the wilderness area must be sampled during the summer or the fall to adequately characterize the water chemistry of the wilderness. Either acidification or nutrient limitations may be identified as the indicator. The water chemistry of a lake is often characterized on the basis of a single sample, collected during the summer or fall for lakes. In general, however, it is preferable to base surface water characterization and assessment on multiple samples (either collected throughout the annual cycle or restricted to summer and fall) collected over several years. Additionally, baseline is more fully characterized by multiple samples collected throughout the year, multiple consecutive years for at least three years, and/or a paleolimnological records obtained from sediment cores.

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Trends Usually only the most sensitive lake in the population of lakes which have been surveyed is monitored. This may be the lake with the lowest ANC value, or one that considers other factors as well (e.g., short residence times, greatest amounts of atmospheric deposition, etc.). Similar considerations are given to identify the lake most vulnerable for nutrient enrichment from nitrogen deposition.

At least one repeat visit should occur at the same lake at least 10 years apart in order to characterize a trend. However, it is much more preferable to conduct multiple repeat visits during the baseline period and again ten years later at the same lake to more fully characterize trends. Fauna: Mercury in Fish Description Fish have been monitored by other federal and state agencies for years to determine if mercury concentrations in fish pose a health risk to humans who eat fish as a substantial portion of their diet. When levels have exceeded established health thresholds, the waters have been posted to warn individuals. However, wildlife may also be affected by mercury contamination, including species that eat fish as part of their diet (e.g. kingfisher, mink, otter, osprey, etc.). In 2011-2012, the Forest Service initiated efforts in the Eagle Cap Wilderness as a pilot project to determine mercury concentrations in fish. Eight lakes were sampled. Brook Trout was identified as the target species, although Rainbow and Lake Trout were also collected. Inventory Fish were sampled from five lakes in the Eagle Cap Wilderness in 2010: Aneroid, Rogers, Minam, Chimney and Laverty. The study was expanded to 25 lakes in the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, including the following additional lakes in Eagle Cap Wilderness: Mirror, Legore, Steamboat, Long, Arrow, Heart, Culver, Crater, and Looking glass. Additionally, a few lakes were sampled in Hells Canyon Wilderness, located within the Seven Devil Mountains: Ruth, Basin, Emerald, and Shelf lakes. Baseline Baseline was considered established only for the Eagle Cap and Hells Canyon Wilderness Areas as of the 2011 study. Trends Trends have not yet been established in any R6 wilderness areas for mercury contamination in fish.

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CHAPTER 7 Wilderness Air Quality Monitoring Strategy for R6 Monitoring strategies have been developed for each individual wilderness and are summarized in Appendix B. The wilderness-specific monitoring recommendations should be used with the information below to identify appropriate monitoring protocols and costs. Visibility Monitoring The regional air resource management will continue to fund the following nine IMPROVE monitoring sites into the foreseeable future. All IMPROVE monitoring and laboratory analysis follows the IMPROVE standard operating procedures (SOPs). These SOPs may be found at the IMPROVE website at http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/. Costs: The annual cost for the laboratory analysis of the filters is currently $36,000 as of 2012. The annual labor costs associated with weekly site visits varies by site, as shown in Table 7-1. Operating costs vary depending upon the travel time to each site and the pay grade of the operator.

Table 7-1. IMPROVE Monitoring Laboratory and Operating Costs Funding Laboratory Operating Wilderness or Site Code State Agency Costs ($) Costs ($) Mount Hood Wilderness MOHO1 OR USFS 36,000 16,969 Kalmiopsis Wilderness KALM1 OR USFS 36,000 6,567 Three Sisters Wilderness THSI1 OR USFS 36,000 8,842 Starkey Experimental Forest STAR1 OR USFS 36,000 10,000* Hells Canyon HECA1 OR USFS 36,000 3,741 White Pass WHPA1 WA USFS 36,000 7,624 Columbia River Gorge (East End) CORI1 WA USFS 36,000 11,146* Snoqualmie Pass SNPA1 WA USFS 36,000 14,799 Pasayten Wilderness PASA1 WA USFS 36,000 13,857 Total 324,000 93,545 *Includes operating costs for NADP site.

Not all IMPROVE monitoring sites funded by the Forest Service are representative of every wilderness area managed by the Forest Service. Thus, wilderness areas should be cognizant of the benefits received through funding of the IMPROVE monitors by other agencies.

Given the large annual costs associated with operating an IMPROVE monitoring site and the declining discretionary budgets of the Forest Service, no additional IMPROVE monitoring sites are recommended at this time. However, with any change in the future, some wilderness areas may wish to consider establishing a monitoring site at a closer distance to increase the representativeness of the monitoring data.

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Flora: Lichen Bio-monitoring Lichen bio-monitoring is arguably the most efficient and informative means of monitoring air pollution effects to flora. A region-specific manual has been developed for monitoring air quality using lichens on the national forests of the Pacific Northwest.lx The manual provides field protocols, laboratory protocols and individualized sampling strategies for nine national forests. FIA has also developed its own manual for lichen samplinglxi.

In order to conduct a systematic, annualized lichen sampling and analysis program in the region, there are multiple tasks to be conducted each year. These tasks include: planning for the field season (e.g. hiring field crews, determine where sampling will occur, scheduling, etc.), conducting the field sampling (e.g. driving to the forest, hiking to plot locations, collecting lichens, recording field information, etc.), cleaning lichen in preparation for the laboratory analysis, identifying the lichen species, conducting the laboratory analysis, entering the information into the database, performing statistical analysis to score the sites, and reporting the results. Costs: On average, it costs approximately $560 per site to monitor lichens, as described above. This is based upon an economy of scale in which 1,600 lichen plots are established and visited on a ten-year rotation (i.e. 160 plots/year) across all national forests and wilderness areas in the region (which is a density of one plot per every 20,000 acres). Flora: Ozone Injury Surveys for Sensitive Plants Monitoring for ozone injury to vegetation should continue following the baseline established by the FIA program. To date, injury has been detected at only one site in the region. Due to a changing climate, resource managers are expecting increases in ozone exposure, particularly in urban areas. Thus, the emphasis of the ozone injury monitoring is to monitor trends. The areas to be targeted should be those wilderness areas in close proximity to major metropolitan areas on the west side of the Cascades (e.g. Buckhorn, The Brothers, Clearwater, Glacier View, Tatoosh, Alpine Lakes, Boulder River, Mt. Baker, Mark O. Hatfield, Mt. Hood, Salmon-Huckleberry), and those located most south and east (i.e. Gearhart Mountain, Sky Lakes, Mountain Lakes, Kalmiopsis Wild Rogue, Grassy Knob, Red Buttes, Hells Canyon).

The FIA program has discontinued its yearly ozone monitoring program, at least on a yearly basis. It is unclear whether or not monitoring for ozone injury will occur again in the future.

As such, means for conducting surveys for ozone injury to vegetation should be made by interested wilderness managers. If monitoring has not yet occurred within the wilderness of interest, monitoring should be conducted to establish baseline. Repeat visits should be conducted once every ten years to monitor trends.

The FIA program established a protocol for monitoring ozone injury. The protocol is called the Phase 3 Field Guide – Ozone Bio-indicator Plants (combined), Version 5.1, October 2011 and may be found at FIA’s website: www.fia.fs.fed.us/library/field-guides-methods-proc/. Monitoring of ozone injury in wilderness areas should follow the regional guidance for the protocol. Costs: The mean cost for conducting monitoring for ozone injury to vegetation is $550 per site.lxii This is based upon the lowest bid received for conducting approximately 100 plots in California and Washington. This

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amount includes time for planning, training, travel, on-site monitoring, injury validation, database entry and analysis. The bulk of these costs are associated with travel. The actual time on site is approximately one hour.

As a means of saving costs, wilderness areas may wish to use lichen sampling crews to conduct monitoring for ozone injury, at the same time and locations as lichen bio-monitoring sites. Lichen survey crews consist of a trained botanist and ecologist. By conducting ozone monitoring at the same time and location as the lichen plots and adhering to the same sampling frequency and density, the travel costs would be substantially reduced, thereby reducing the overall cost per plot. Water: Wilderness Lake Chemistry Monitoring In wilderness areas in which water has been identified as a priority wilderness air quality value, consideration should be given to monitoring sensitive lakes for indications of acidification or unwanted nutrient enrichment. Wilderness managers are advised to monitor for both these effects by requesting analysis for both (1) Total Water Analysis: filtering, anions, cations, pH, ANC and conductivity and (2) total phosphorous (TP), total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC).

The Forest Service’s Air Resource Management (ARM) Program has established protocols for field sampling and analyses.lxiii Protocols are provided for field sampling, laboratory analysis, quality assurance/quality control, data analyses, field sampling for aquatic biota and transitioning from the previous protocols. These protocols should be followed when monitoring for water chemistry. Additionally, the ARM program has developed a stream-sampling video which can and should be used to train individuals on sampling methods for lake chemistry. Both the monitoring protocols and training video are available on the Forest Service ARM website: www.fs.fed.us/air. Costs: Laboratory costs for analysis of cations, anion, ANC, pH, alkalinity and conductivity is $130 per sample for FY2012, For an additional $15, samples can also be analyzed for TP, TDN and DOC, which is recommended. To see current pricing and arrange for sampling equipment and laboratory analysis of the data, please contact the ARM water laboratory at www.fs.fed.us/waterlab/index.shtml. In addition to these laboratory costs, there are costs associated with salary, vehicles, per diem, database entry, and non-laboratory analysis. Fauna: Mercury in Fish Tissue Analysis In wilderness areas where fish are identified as a priority sensitive receptor, sampling should be conducted for predator species such as trout. Sampling should focus on lakes rather than rivers because of their relatively enhanced ability to convert mercury to its toxic form of methyl mercury and because resident fish do not migrate, which increases their overall exposure. Wilderness managers should focus on lakes which are most frequently visited by fisherman to characterize the potential for human exposure. Additionally, lakes located in areas which are frequented by fish-eating wildlife species, including birds and mammals, should also be targeted.

The USGS has developed a standard operating procedure for collection of fish samples from remote lakes,lxiv which is a good reference to use for sample collection. Ideally, ten fish of the target species should be collected from each water body for individual analysis. Whole fish should be analyzed to represent what is eaten by wildlife, as opposed to using just the fillets, as typically eaten by humans. Simultaneous with the fish sampling, various water quality parameters will be measured in each lake to

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facilitate a cursory assessment of the relationship between water chemistry and mercury bioaccumulation. Specific parameters will include: pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity and temperature (a temperature profile through the water column will be measured where applicable). If additional funds become available, wilderness managers are also advised to collect a water sample for laboratory analysis of dissolved organic carbon, sulfate, sulfide and chlorophyll a.

Once transferred to the laboratory, samples should be processed for total mercury. It is unnecessary to analyze for methyl mercury because the ratio of methyl mercury to total mercury is well established. The laboratory should measure the standard length and weight of each fish and remove a scale sample, operculum and sagittal otoliths, and subsequently determine the age of each specimen if it has the capability. Each sample should be analyzed for total mercury concentration in solids following EPA method 7473lxv or an equivalent method. Costs: The cost for the laboratory mercury analysis (including sample preparation and digestion) is approximately $50/sample, based upon pricing from the USGS. Additional costs will be incurred for staff time for field collection, associated travel and equipment. Also, it is highly recommended that water quality should be sampled at the same time and location as the fish collection. Refer to the section on Water: Wilderness Lake Monitoring for associated costs and protocols for this activity Example – Roaring River Wilderness The following example is provided for the Roaring River Wilderness to demonstrate how the information in this plan may be used to craft an individual wilderness air quality plan. Step 1: Evaluate Wilderness Character and Identify Candidate WAQVs WAQVs are identified from wilderness descriptions in law, descriptions at publicly available web sites, or discussions with Forest Service staff, or from one’s own familiarity with the wilderness area. The following description of the Roaring River wilderness appears on the wilderness.net website.

Description The largest block of new wilderness designated in 2009 in Oregon is in the Roaring River Valley, a tributary of the Clackamas River. The wilderness area is named after the Roaring River that flows through the area and is a tributary of the Clackamas River. Salmon and steelhead spawn in the Roaring River and the area is thick with bears, cougars, mule deer, elk, spotted owls and pileated woodpeckers. Lupine or Indian paintbrush are common wildflowers in summer. Lakes in the area include the Rock Lakes and Serene Lake, while Cache Meadow is one of the many alpine meadows. The wilderness has five trails: Shining Lake, Shellrock Lake, Serene Lake, Grouse Point and Dry Ridge. Prior to designation, these trails were open to use by mountain bikes.

Since the description mentions the river and lakes, water is identified as a candidate WAQV. The description also mentions fish and wildlife; hence fauna is identified as a candidate WAQV. Additionally, alpine meadows and wildflowers are mentioned, thus flora is also identified as a candidate WAQV. Table 3-3 provides a summary of the wilderness characteristics for each wilderness.

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Step 2: Identify Sensitive Receptors and Indicators Table 5-6 is then reviewed to identify the appropriate sensitive receptor for each of these. From the table, lichens and ozone sensitive plants are appropriate sensitive receptors for flora. Fish are the sensitive receptor for fauna and water chemistry and diatoms are identified as the sensitive receptors for water. Step 3: Assess Regional Potential Threat from Air Pollution Refer to chapter 4 to identify the nearby upwind sources of air pollutants and the potential threat. Figure 4-3 shows that the Portland metropolitan area and the Willamette Valley agricultural areas are nearby sources of air pollution. Both are sources of nitrogen (NOx from combustion sources and ammonia from agriculture). Additionally, Figure 4-4 shows that the insecticide Endosulfan was used in relatively high amounts in 2002, the last year available information was available.

Figure 4-5 illustrates the model-predicted amount of nitrogen deposition which occurs across the region. The Roaring River Wilderness receives approximately 3.2 kg/ha-yr of N on the east side to 5-10 kg/ha-yr of nitrogen on the west side from atmospheric deposition. This is within the range where shifts in lichen community composition are estimated to occur within mixed conifer forests (Geiser, 2010) and above the threshold where changes in diatom assemblages have been observed in nitrogen-limited waters of alpine lakes in Colorado (Baron, 2006). Thus nitrogen-limited lakes may be at risk of unwanted fertilization from atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and shifts in sensitive vegetation.

Figure 4-6 illustrates the model-predicted amount of sulfur deposition which occurs in the region. The Roaring River Wilderness receives approximately 5-10 kg/ha-yr of sulfur deposition. Sensitive lichen species are not known to exhibit adverse effects below 10 kg S/ha-yr.

Figure 4-7 and 4-8 illustrate the ozone exposure within the region. The Roaring River Wilderness has a W126 value of 7 ppb, and an N100 value of 1-2 ppb. Loss of growth or injury to sensitive vegetation is not known to occur below a combined W126 value of 5.9 ppb-hr and an N100 value of 6. Thus, ozone injury is not believed to be occurring as of 2008, when the ozone observations occurred.

Figure 4-10 reveals that there is a relatively high amount of mercury deposited in the vicinity of the Roaring River Wilderness.

Based on this assessment, lichens, water chemistry (and diatoms), and fish would be sensitive receptors considered for monitoring. Step 4: Evaluate Existing Monitoring Table 6-4 indicates that baseline for nutrient/metals concentrations in lichen and for lichen community along regional eutrophication and climate gradients has been established from sampling conducted in 1995 and 1997. Repeat visits were conducted in 2005, but the data remains to be analyzed and reported. Using the lichen scoring procedure, if flora were identified as the priority sensitive receptor, six points could be obtained now and an additional four points could be obtained once the lichens from the repeat visits were analyzed and reported. Thus, the wilderness strategy is to contact the regional air quality specialist to identify when trend data will be analyzed and reported.

Figure 6-6 illustrates that none of the water bodies in the wilderness have been monitored for potential effects of acidification or nutrient enrichment. Nor has monitoring been conducted to date for mercury or SOCs in fish in this wilderness area.

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Step 5: Evaluate Cost Considerations There are no costs associated with increasing the lichen scores from six to 10 for the current trend period. Future trend monitoring for two lichen plots is $1,100.

Laboratory analysis for one water quality sample is $145, plus the labor.

The fish in the lakes could be monitored for mercury at a cost of $500/lake, assuming 10 fish are collected per lake. However, there are no readily available laboratories to analyze SOCs in fish. Step 6: Determine WAQV Monitoring Strategy In summary, lichens, water quality, and mercury in fish were identified as candidate sensitive receptors based upon the wilderness description which included mention of flora, water, and wildlife. Nitrogen and mercury were identified as the pollutants of most concern.

Monitoring for lichen should be conducted for changes in community composition as they may be caused by air pollution or climate change. Additionally, lichens should be sampled and analyzed for the concentration of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, titanium, vanadium and zinc. Lichen monitoring should occur at a density of at least one plot for every 20,000 acres of wilderness. Since the wilderness contains 36,768 acres, two lichen plots are needed to meet these criteria (rounded to the nearest whole digit).

A baseline for lichen community composition and chemical concentrations was established back in 1997. Repeat visits to assess changes and trends has been conducted, but the results are not yet available. Given that 10 points can be achieved in the near future for no additional costs for characterizing trends in lichen communities and elemental concentrations, lichens are identified as a priority sensitive receptor.

Monitoring lichen is sufficient to meet the maximum scoring needs associated with the wilderness challenge. However, should wilderness managers wish to increase stewardship associated with air quality, additional sampling could be conducted as described below.

Water chemistry could be monitored for changes due to acidification and nutrient enrichment. ANC and DiN:TP nutrient ratios should be sampled and quantified. The selection of which water bodies to sample may be determined from stratified random sampling, but with considerations of access and specific watershed attributes.

Additionally, fish could be sampled for mercury and levels compared with ecological and human health thresholds. The selection of the appropriate water body to obtain fish should consider numerous factors. Consult with the forest or regional air resource management specialist to help with this determination. However, it is certainly reasonable to collect fish and water chemistry from the same water body as most of the cost associated with sample collection and analysis is from travel costs to and from wilderness water bodies.

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APPENDIX A Appendix A: 10-YWSC Wilderness Scoring The supplemental information for determining accomplishments of “Wilderness Areas Managed to Minimum Stewardship Level” (Revised 06/06/2006) identifies the following counting instructions for the air quality element of the 10YWSC. The goal is stated as “monitoring of wilderness air quality values is conducted and a baseline is established for this wilderness.” The counting instructions are shown in Table A-1 below.

Table A-1. Counting Instructions Score Accomplishment Level Development of a wilderness air quality value plan, including identification of wilderness 2 air quality values, sensitive receptors and indicators Conduct inventory for a priority sensitive receptor (in addition to IMPROVE visibility 4 monitoring)1 Establish baseline for a priority sensitive receptor (in addition to IMPROVE visibility 6 monitoring)1 Monitor a priority sensitive receptor for trends from baseline (in addition to IMPROVE 10 visibility monitoring)1 1 The IMPROVE network provides valuable information for characterizing visibility conditions in our wildernesses. The intent of this element, however, is to have our monitoring extend beyond IMPROVE visibility monitoring to evaluate other important wilderness air quality values, such as lake water sampling and lichen monitoring. Forests which have developed a wilderness air quality plan and have identified visibility as the sole wilderness air quality value will be able to claim credit for IMPROVE monitoring. Visibility As presented in Table 3-3, no wilderness areas in Region 6 have identified visibility as the sole wilderness air quality value. Therefore, no wilderness can claim credit for IMPROVE monitoring. Flora: Lichen Table A-2 presents a summary of the wilderness scoring given for conducting lichen bio-monitoring in a wilderness. Two points are given if lichens are included as a sensitive receptor in the wilderness air quality monitoring plan. The remainder of the points are dependent upon the density of the lichen plots and the type of analyses conducted. To obtain a reasonable spatial representation of the wilderness area, at least one plot is needed for every 20,000 acres of wilderness. If lichen plots are established at a lower density, points may still be claimed, according to the table below. Additionally, lichens will be sampled and analyzed for both elemental analysis and community composition. Full (10) points are given if lichens are collected and analyzed for both of these, and only half the points will be given if only one of these parameters are collected and analyzed.

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Table A-2. Lichen Biomonitoring Scoring Plot Density Task Analysis Type Points (1 plot/# acres) Development of a wilderness air quality monitoring plan including 2 lichens as a sensitive receptor and indicator <20,000 2 Conduct lichen biomonitoring surveys 20,000 - 40,000 1 >40,000 0.5 <20,000 1 Elemental 20,000 - 40,000 0.5 Analysis >40,000 0.25 Establish Baseline <20,000 1 Community 20,000 - 40,000 0.5 Composition >40,000 0.25 <20,000 2 Elemental 20,000 - 40,000 1 Analysis Monitor and evaluate for trends from >40,000 0.5 baseline <20,000 2 Community 20,000 - 40,000 1 Composition >40,000 0.5 Flora: Ozone Sensitive Plants Scoring for ozone injury to vegetation is similar to lichen biomonitoring in that partial credit is given for wilderness areas where monitoring has been conducted but not at the desired plot density. Table 6-5 presents a list of the wilderness areas in Region 6 which have biomonitoring sites, the number of plots,

Baseline is considered established if there is a reasonable spatial representation of locations within a wilderness where ozone sensitive vegetation has been surveyed for injury, similar to the criteria for establishing baseline for lichen. The same criterion for spatial density is used for ozone injury as is used for lichen: at least one plot per 20,000 acres of wilderness. Temporally, baseline has been established for these wilderness areas per the data summaries presented for the period of 2000-2005.lxvi No temporal trends in ozone injury to vegetation have been established to date. Water: Lake Chemistry Wilderness areas which have water chemistry samples contained in the Forest Service Air Resource Management program’s water chemistry database are considered in the scoring. All other wilderness areas were assumed not to have identified water chemistry as a priority sensitive receptor. However, wilderness managers could determine that water chemistry is a priority sensitive receptor at any time, and utilize this plan accordingly. Two points are given if water chemistry is identified as a priority sensitive receptor for the wilderness.

Synoptic surveys are often used to characterize water chemistry of an area to identify the trophic state of water bodies. The time at which the water is collected during a synoptic survey can influence the resulting chemistry and the ways the data can be used. Water chemistry in lakes, particularly dilute lakes can vary diurnally, seasonally, and annually. Therefore if the objective of the synoptic survey is to

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compare measurements among different lakes within the same region (a spatial assessment) all sites would be ideally sampled at the same time as practically possible to minimize the temporal variability. Seasonal affects can be minimized by restricting the sampling to just the summer or fall. During the Western Lakes Survey, sampling was conducting only during September and October.

Oligotrophic lakes are considered those most susceptible to acidification and/or eutrophication effects of nitrogen deposition. Acid sensitive lakes are identified as those with an acid neutralization capacity (ANC) less than or equal to 50 microequivalents per liter (µeq/l). N-limited lakes are identified as those with a DiN:TP (dissolved inorganic nitrogen: total phosphorous) ratio of less than four.lxviilxviii Dissolved - + inorganic nitrogen is the sum of nitrate (NO3 ) and ammonium (NH4 ).

For purposes of this document, at least 10% of the lakes in the wilderness area must be sampled during the summer or the fall to adequately characterize the water chemistry of the wilderness. Thus, the two points for conducting an inventory are only given if at least ten percent of the lakes in a wilderness have been sampled for either ANC or nutrient ratios. Note, lakes are distinguished from ponds in the database used for this exercise. Either acidification or nutrient limitations may be identified as the indicator. Two additional points are given if an inventory is conducted to identify lakes sensitive to acidification, or those which are nitrogen limited.

The water chemistry of a lake is often characterized on the basis of a single sample, collected during the summer or fall for lakes. In general, however, it is preferable to base surface water characterization and assessment on multiple samples (either collected throughout the annual cycle or restricted to summer and fall) collected over several years.

Thus, partial credit (1 point) is given if baseline is only characterized by a single data collection point (e.g., that obtained during the EPA Western Lakes Survey). Full credit (2 points) is given if baseline is more fully characterized by multiple samples collected throughout the year, multiple consecutive years for at least three years, and/or a paleolimnological records obtained from sediment cores.

In conducting long-term monitoring studies for trends analysis, the most sensitive lake in the population of lakes which have been surveyed is usually monitored. This may be the lake with the lowest ANC value, or one that considers other factors (e.g., short residence times, greatest amounts of atmospheric deposition, etc.). Similar considerations are given to identify the lake must vulnerable for nutrient enrichment from nitrogen deposition.

For scoring the trends analyses, only partial credit (2 points) is given where only one repeat visit has occurred at the same lake, at least 10 years apart. Full credit (4 points) is given when multiple repeat visits have occurred in different years, at the same lake, over at least a ten year period or more. Fauna: Mercury in Fish Table A-2 presents a summary of the wilderness scoring given for monitoring mercury concentrations in fish. Two points are given if fish are included as a sensitive receptor in the wilderness air quality monitoring plan. At least a few of the lakes in a wilderness must be sampled for mercury in fish for an inventory to be considered conducted (4 points). A baseline is considered established when 10 percent or more of the lakes have been sampled and characterized for

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Summary of Scoring for Each Wilderness Table A-3. Overall Scoring for Each Wilderness Priority Monitor Wilderness Conduct Establish Wilderness Name Sensitive for Score AQ Plan Inventory Baseline Receptor Trends Alpine Lakes X W X X P 8 Badger Creek X L X X - 8 Black Canyon X L X P - 5 Boulder Creek X L X X P 8 Boulder River X W X P P 7 Bridge Creek X L X P - 8 Buckhorn X L X X - 6 Bull of the Woods X L X X P 8 Clackamas X L X X - 6 Clearwater X W X X X 10 Colonel Bob X L X X - 6 Copper Salmon X L X X - 6 Cummins Creek X L - - - 2 Diamond Peak X L X X P 8 Drift Creek X L X X P 8 Eagle Cap X W X X P 8 Gearhart Mountain X L X P - 5 Glacier Peak X W X P P 7 Glacier View X L X X - 6 Goat Rocks X L X X - 6 Grassy Knob X L X X - 6 Hells Canyon X F x x 6 Henry M. Jackson X L X X P 8 Indian Heaven X W X X P 8 Kalmiopsis X L P X - 5 Lake Chelan- X W X X P 8 Sawtooth Lower White River X L - - - 2 Mark O. Hatfield X W X X P 7 Menagerie X L X X - 6 Middle Santiam X L X X - 6 Mill Creek X L X P - 5 Monument Rock X L X P - 5 Mount Adams X L X X P 8 Mount Baker X W X X P 8

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Table A-3 Overall Scoring for Each Wilderness (Continued)

Priority Monitor Wilderness Conduct Establish Wilderness Name Sensitive for Score AQ Plan Inventory Baseline Receptor Trends Mount Hood X L X X P 8 Mount Jefferson X L X X P 8 Mount Skokomish X L X X - 6 Mount Thielsen X L X P P 7 Mount Washington X L X P P 6 Mountain Lakes X L X P P 7 Noisy-Diobsud X L X X - 6 Norse Peak X L X P - 5 North Fork John Day X L P P - 4 North Fork Umatilla X L X P - 5 Opal Creek X L X X - 6 Pasayten X W X P - 5 Red Buttes X L X X - 6 Roaring River X L X X P 8 Rock Creek X L X X P 8 Rogue-Umpqua X L X X P 8 Divide Salmon-Huckleberry X L X X P 7 Salmo-Priest X L X P - 5 Sky Lakes X W X X X 10 Strawberry Mountain X L P P - 4 Tatoosh X L X X P 8 The Brothers X L X X - 6 Three Sisters X L X X P 8 Trapper Creek X L X X P 8 Waldo Lake X L X X P 8 Wenaha-Tucannon X L P P - 4 Wild Rogue X L X X - 6 Wild Sky X L P P - 4 William O. Douglas X W X X - 8 Wonder Mountain X L X X - 6 L = lichen. W = water. F = fish. X = Completed task. Dash (-) = Not completed. P =Partially completed.

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APPENDIX Appendix B: Summary WAQRV Data Individual wilderness air quality plans are presented here. The plans are presented in a consistent summary format, as follows.

Title: Name of Wilderness

Location and Administration: • National Forest • State • County • General Location • Size (acres) • Year established • Clean Air Act Designation as Class I or Class II area

Features: • Description • Lakebed geological composition • Visitor Use • Mean annual precipitation • Elevation Range • Climate (Temperature and Precipitation) • Number of lakes and ponds • Threatened and Endangered Species (TES) present. • Ozone sensitive plants • Air Quality sensitive lichens • Cultural resources

Status and Trends: • Acid Deposition • Nutrient Enrichment • Ozone impacts

Air Quality Related Values (AQRVs): • Priority • Receptor • Indicator • Trends • Recommended Actions

Wilderness Challenge Points: • Summary for each AQRV

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Metadata associated with the databases which were queried to populate the individual plans may be found at T:\FS\NFS\R06\Program\AirResourceMgmt- 2580\WildernessAQPlan\R6_wilderness_aq_plan_metadata.xlsx

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APPENDIX Appendix C: References

i USDA Forest Service, 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge Guidebook. ii USDA Forest Service. (2008). A Strategic Framework for Responding to Climate Change. (www.fs.fed.us/climatechange/documents/strategic-framework-climate-change-1-0.pdf) iii USDA Forest Service. (March 17, 2011). U.S. Forest Service Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers Strategy – 2010-2014. iv Nanus and Clow. 2004. Sensitivity of Lakes in Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington to Atmospheric Deposition. (Unpublished) US Geological Survey, Denver, CO. v Kohut, Robert. 2007. Assessing the risk of foliar injury from ozone on vegetation in parks in the U.S. National Park Service’s Vital Signs Network. Environmental Pollution, 149, pp 348-357. vi Omernick, J.M. 1995. Ecoregions: A Spatial Framework for Environmental Management. In Biological Assessment and Criteria: Tools for Water Resource Planning and Decision Making. W.S. Davis and T.P. Simon, eds. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. pp 49-62. vii U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Technical Support Document for Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act. Climate Change Division, Office of Atmospheric Programs. Washington, DC. viii Landers, D.H., S.L. Simonich, D.A. Jaffe, L.H. Geiser, D.H. Campbell, A.R. Schwindt, C.B. Schreck, M.L. Kent, W.D. Hafner, H.E. Taylor, K.J. Hageman, S. Usenko, L.K. Ackerman, J.E. Schrlau, N.L. Rose, T.F. Blett, and M.M. Erway. 2008. The Fate, Transport, and Ecological Impacts of Airborne Contaminants in Western National Parks (USA). ix U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service, Air Resources Division. Map of Public Lands and Pollution Sources in the Pacific Northwest. December 2010. http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/studies/air_toxics/wacap/pnwWorkshop/index.cfm x US Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Quality Assessment Program. Map of Endosulfan use in 2002. http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/show_map.php?year=02&map=m6019 xi CMAQ-model predicted nitrogen deposition. Model output obtrained from Donna Schwede US EPA. http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/EcoExposure/depositionMapping.html. xii CMAQ-model predicted nitrogen deposition. Model output obtrained from Donna Schwede US EPA. http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/EcoExposure/depositionMapping.html. xiii USDA Forest Service Air Resource Management Program. www.fs.fed.us/air. xiv Spatial and Seasonal Patterns and Temporal Variability of Haze and its Constituents in the United States: IMPROVE Report V, June 2011. Report is available at http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/publications/improve_reports.htm. xv National Atmospheric Deposition Program, (NRSP-3). 2007. NADP Program Office, Illinois State Water Survey, 2204 Griffith Dr., Champaign, IL 61820. xvi Kline, Jeffrey D.; Alig, Ralph J. 2001. A spatial model of land use change for western Oregon and western Washington. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-528. Portland, OR: U.S.Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 24 p. xvii Columbia River Gorge Air Quality Study, Emissions Inventory Report. Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. January 31, 2008. xviii http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/solutions/fuels.htm xix http://www.imo.org/ourwork/environment/pollutionprevention/specialareasundermarpol/Pages/Default.aspx xx http://www.epa.gov/oms/oceanvessels.htm xxi http://www.ipcc.ch/ xxii Air Pollution and Forests, Interactions between Air Contaminants and Forest Ecosystems, 2nd Edition. William H. Smith. Springer-Verlag, New York. 1990.

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xxiii Ozone Injury in West Coast Forests: 6 Years of Monitoring. Campbell et al. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-722. June 2007. xxiv US. Environmental Protection Agency. Technical Support Document for Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act. December 7, 2009. Climate Change Division, Office of Atmospheric Programs. Washington, D.C. xxv Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Second Edition. McCune B. and L. Geiser. Oregon State University Press. 2009. xxvi Geiser L. and P. Neitlich. Air pollution and climate gradients in western Oregon and Washington indicated by epiphytic macrolichens. Environmental Pollution. 145 (2007) 203-218. xxvii Geiser LH., et al. Lichen-based critical loads for atmospheric nitrogen deposition in Western Oregon and Washington Forests, USA. Environ. Pollut. (2010), doi: 10:1016/j.envpol.2010.04.001. xxviii U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. May 2011. Assessment of Nitrogen Deposition Effects and Emperical Critical Loads of Nitrogen for Ecoregions of the United States. Northern Research Station, General Technical Report NRS-80. http://nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/38109 xxix Peterson, J. et al. Guidelines for evaluating air pollution impacts on class I wilderness areas in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep.PNw-GTR-229. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.1992. xxx Interagency Workgroup on Air Quality Modeling (IWAQM), Phase I Report. US EPA, National Park Service, USDA Forest Service, and US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. EPA-454/R-93-015. xxxi A Guide to Ozone Injury in Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest. Brace et al. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report PNW-GTR- 446. September 1999. xxxii Oregon Forest Resources, 2001-2005. Five-year Forest Inventory and Analysis Report. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report. PNW-GTR-765. November 2008. xxxiii Assessing the Risk of Foliar Injury from Ozone on Vegetation in the Upper Columbia Basin Network. National Park Service. 2004. http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/pubs/pdf/03Risk/ucbnO3RiskOct04.pdf. xxxiv Ozone Injury in West Coast Forests: 6 Years of Monitoring. Cambell, S. Wanek, R., and Coulston J. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report. PNW-GTR-722. June 2007. xxxv Acid in the Environment. Lessons Learned and Future Prospects. Visgilio and Whitelaw Editors. Springer Science + Business Media LLC. New York, NY. 2007. xxxvi McNulty, S.G., et al. Estimates of critical acid loads and exceedances for forest soils across the conterminous United States. Envion. Pollut. 149 (2007), pp. 281-292. xxxvii Aquatic Effects of Acidic Deposition. Sullivan, T. CRC Press. 2000. xxxviii Bergstrom, A. and M. Jansson. Atmospheric nitrogen deposition has caused nitrogen enrichment and eutrophication of lakes in the northern hemisphere. Global Change Biology (2006) 12, 635–643 xxxix Eilers, J.M., et. al. A Diatom Calibration Set for the Cascade Mountain Ecoregion. E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR. 1998. xl Clow D.W., and Campbell, D.H., 2008. Atmospheric Deposition and Surface-Water Chemistry in Mount Rainier and North Cascades National Parks, USA: Denver, Colorado, US Geologic Survey Scientific Investigations Report. xli Evidence of Enhanced Atmospheric Ammoniacal Nitrogen in Hells Canyon National Recreation Area: Implications for Natural and Cultural Resources. Geiser, et al. J. of Air and Waste Management Association, 58: 1223-1234. September 2008. xlii Geomorphology’s role in the study of weathering of cultural stone. Pope G., T. Meierding, and T. Paradise. Geomorphology, 47 (2002). 211-225. xliii Geiser, L. 2004. Manual for Monitoring Air Quality Using Lichens on National Forest of the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region Technical Paper R6-NR-AQ-TP-1-04. 126 pp. xliv USDA Forest Service. 1997. First approximation report for sustainable forest management: report of the United States on the criteria and indicators for sustainable management of temperate and boreal forests. Washington, D.C. xlv Campbell, Sally, J.; Wanek, Ron; Coulston, John W. 2007. Ozone injury in west coast forests: 6 years of monitoring. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-722. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 53 p.

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xlvi Sullivan. T. Aquatic Effects of Acidic Deposition. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press. 2000. xlvii Morris, D.P.; Lewis, Jr. W.M. 1988. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Colorado mountain lakes. Freshwater Biology. 20:315:327. xlviii Bergstrom, Ann-Kristen. . The use of TN:TP and DIN:TP ratios as indicators for phytoplankton nutrient limitation in oligotrophic lakes affected by N deposition. Aquatic Sciences. Published online: 03 March 2010. xlix Landers, D.H. , Eilers, J. M., Brakke, D.F., Overton, W.S., Kellar, P.E., Silverstein, M.E., Schonbrod, R.D., Crowe, R. E., Linthurst, R.A., Omernik, J.M., Teague, S.A., and Meier, E.P.: 1987: Characteristics of Lakes in the Western United States. Vol. 1: Population Descriptions and Physico-Chemical Relationships”, EPA-600/3-86/054a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. 176 pp. l Nanus L, and D. Clow. Sensitivity of Lakes in Wilderness Areas in Oregon and Washington to Atmopspheric Deposition. Prepared for the USDA, Forest Service, Region 6. Prepared by the US Geological Survey. Denver, CO 2004. li Eilers, J.M., et al. Limnology of Summit Lake, Washington – Its Acid-Base Chemistry and Paleolimnology. E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR July 3, 1988. lii Eilers. J.M., Sweets, P.R., Charles, D.F., Vache, K.B., 1998. A Diatom Calibrations Set for the Cascade Mountain Ecoregion. E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR. liii Eilers, J.M., and K. Vache. Lake Response to Atmospheric and Watershed Inputs in the Goat Rocks Wilderness, WA. E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc. Corvallis, OR December 1988. liv Eilers, J.M. et al. A limnological Reconnaissance of Selected Eagle Cap Wilderness Lakes and Paleolimnological Assessments of Mirror Lake. E&S Chemistry Inc. Corvallis, OR. August 2000. lv Eilers, J.M., and J.A. Bennet. Umpqua Lakes Baseline Water Quality Inventory. E&S Environmental Chemistry, Corvallis, OR. November 14, 1990. lvi Eilers, J.M. Sampling Deposition-Sensitive Lakes in the Mt. Jefferson and Columbia Wilderness Areas. E&S Chemistry, Corvallis, OR. August 1, 2000. lvii Clow, D.W., Campbell, D.H., 2008, Atmospheric Deposition and Surface-Water Chemistry in Mount Rainier and North Cascades National Parks, USA: Denver, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008-XXXX, XX p. lviii Eilers, J., Vache, K., Eilers, B., Sweets, R. 2009. Water Quality & Biological Response to Current and Simulated Increases in Atmospheric Deposition of Sulfur and Nitrogen to Four Lakes in the Oregon and Washington Cascade Range. MaxDepth Aquatics, Inc. Bend, OR. lix Saros, J. Determining Critical N Loads to Subalpine Lakes in the Pacific Northwest. Final Report to the USDA Forest Service. Univiersity of Maine, Climate Change Institute. September 2009. lx Geiser, L. 2004. Manual for Monitoring Air Quality Using Lichens on the National Forests of the Pacific Northwest. USDA-Forest Service Pacific Northwets Region Technical Paper, R6-NR-AQ-TP-1-04. 126 pp. lxi U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2005. Field instructions for the annual inventory of Washington, Oregon, California, and Alaska: supplement for phase 3 (FHM) indicators. Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest Research Station. 136 p. http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fia/local- resources/pdf/field_manuals/2005_annual_manual_supplement.pdf (May 3, 2007). lxii Personal Communication with Joel Thompson, Regional Coordinator for the US Forest Service West Coast Ozone Bioindicator Monitoring, USDA Forest Service, Portland Forest Sciences Laboratory. April 4, 2012. lxiii Sullivan, T.J., Editor. 2012. USDA Forest Service National Protocols for Air Pollution-Sensitive Waters. GTR-WO- xx. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. xxx p. lxiv Eagles-Smith, C. Standard Operating Procedures for the Collection of Fish Samples from Remote Lakes. U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Contaminant Ecology Program. June 2011. lxv Mercury in Solids and Solutions by Thermal Decomposition, Amalgamation, and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/7473.pdf. lxvi Campbell, Sally, J.; Wanek, Ron; Coulston, John W. 2007. Ozone injury in west coast forests: 6 years of monitoring. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-722. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 53 p. lxvii Morris, D.P.; Lewis, Jr. W.M. 1988. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Colorado mountain lakes. Freshwater Biology. 20:315:327.

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lxviii Bergstrom, Ann-Kristen. The use of TN:TP and DIN:TP ratios as indicators for phytoplankton nutrient limitation in oligotrophic lakes affected by N deposition. Aquatic Sciences. Published online: 03 March 2010.

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