INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE IMMERSION EDUCATION:
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESOURCES FOR TE KOHANGA REO
ANDPUNANALEO
A PLAN B SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I AT MANOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
IN
PACIFIC ISLAND STUDIES
DECEMBER 2005
By
Krissy Kahikina
Committee: Terence Wesley-Smith, Chairperson Karen Peacock 11
We certify that we have read this plan B and that, in our opinion, it is satisfactory in scope and quality as a plan B for the degree ofMaster ofArts in Pacific Island Studies.
PLAN B COMMITTEE
Chairperson 111
Table ofContents
Sources and scope ofbibliography 1
Introduction 3
Education in the Pacific: a shift towards Western education 7
Establishment ofMaori and Hawaiian language immersion schools 10
Early forms ofeducation: early forms oflanguage immersion programs 24
Selected annotated bibliography regarding indigenous language education .30
Indigenous language immersion education in Aotearoa-New Zealand 33
Selected annotated bibliography: Aotearoa New Zealand 40
The status ofHawaiian language immersion education .49
Selected annotated bibliography: Hawai'i 55
Tahitian language and education 64
Selected annotated bibliography: Tahiti 71
Conclusion 75
References 79 1 Sources and scope of bibliography
This annotated bibliography covers materials that address and provide information regarding the indigenous language education programs Te Kohanga Reo in
Aotearoa-New Zealand, Piinana Leo in Hawai'i, as well as information on Tahitian language use. The sources searched and utilized to assemble the bibliography included the University of Hawai'i at Manoa Library's Hawai'i Voyager Library Catalog and
Electronic Resources, East-West Center library known as Research Information Services,
New Zealand catalog, and the internet primarily though wwvi,google.com. Included are articles, books, chapters, newsletters, and other materials.
The primary resources were databases accessed through the electronic resources from the Library's website. Academic Search Premier through EBSCOHost and the various ERIC databases (ERIC via CSA Illumina, EBSCOHost, and US DOE) were two databases heavily searched for resources about indigenous language education and immersion. There were full-text articles and citations with abstracts that were accessible from both databases. For citations that did not provide the complete articles, I was able to acquire copies through interlibrary loan and some were found through an internet search. Other articles were retrieved through journals that were found in the Hamilton,
Hawaiian, and Pacific Collections at the Library from searches in the online catalog.
Additional articles were found through the Hawai'i Pacific Journal Index database.
For books and other printed resources such as studies or statistics, I searched through the Hawai'i Voyager Library Catalog. There were numerous books and reprints of articles that focused on the immersion schools and programs as well as education. In 2 the Library catalog there were resources for studies and reports on the Maori Te
Kohanga Reo and Hawaiian Punana Leo programs.
In order gather as many resources as possible, there were a number of search terms that were used and combined with others. Some ofthe terms included: PUNANA
LEO, KOHANGA REO, MAORI, LANGUAGE EDUCATION, IMMERSION
EDUCATION, HAWAIIAN IMMERSION, EDUCATION, HAWAIl, NEW
ZEALAND, MAORI LANGUAGE, MAORI IMMERSION, HAWAIIIAN
LANGUAGE and so forth. When searching the internet and databases, the same search terms and various combinations were used. However, searching and results also led to addressing the issue of bilingualism for language immersion students and not just questioning the success or failure of the immersion programs or the education of the students. 3 Introduction
Language assimilation was an important component of the colonization process, as it forced the indigenous people to basically abandon their native tongue for the colonizer's language that corresponded to the colonizing power. By reason of being
"civilized," Western colonizers assumed a superior, all-knowing disposition toward the indigenous people, rather than being guests on foreign land. In order to maintain this new Western hierarchy, it was in the foreigners' best interest and assurances to have the indigenous people adapt and learn the colonial language that better suited outside powers and their agenda for changes and to gain control. Both the schools and educational systems were the primary agencies for disseminating the colonial culture and language, which aimed to acculturate the people into a wider mainstream Western society. The shift away from the indigenous languages toward the colonial language altered much of the language demographics in addition to its overall utilization.
Settlement patterns and geographic diversity are factors that played a role in the evolution of languages and their respective dialects. Linguistic evolution parallels the geographic migration of colonizing populations as they moved across the Pacific at varying intervals. In addition, there are numerous pidgin and Creole languages that have developed due to Western contact and the need for two sides to communicate with one another. These pidgin and Creole languages, such as the Melanesian Pidgin, have evolved into a definite language that".. .large numbers of people came to rely on...more and more in their daily lives... [which] many ofthem speak it as their first and sometimes only language..." (Mugler and Lynch 1996). Extensive contact with Western colonizers 4 and missionaries changed many indigenous languages in the Pacific. In some areas, the indigenous languages were given a certain amount ofregard and some official status, but were not really a part of government or official operations of the territory. The colonial language became a vehicle of social, economic, political, and educational mobility. The more prevalent modernization became and gained a foothold in many of the Pacific island nations, the more the indigenous political and educational systems were displaced and colonizers imposed their power and control in those aspects. Although the local governments were given some autonomy for a short time, colonizers established the
Western model of government and held much of the authority in decision making and overall power ofthe colony. France Mugler and John Lynch note that "the metropolitan i.e. the former colonial languages - give much greater regional and international access than does any Pacific language" (Mugler and Lynch 1996).
As a result of foreigner arrivals to the island nations III the Pacific, colonial languages such as English and French spread rapidly and became very widespread throughout Aotearoa-New Zealand, Hawai'i, and Tahiti. While colonialists gained more power, both politically and economically, the more influential they were and the more significant were the effects of language colonization on the indigenous languages.
According to Mugler and Lynch, language of the colonizers became the language of power and a means of advancement in political and social status. Colonization of the
Pacific corrupted the way of life and endangered the survival ofmany indigenous Pacific languages. For indigenous people of the Pacific, language was the foundation of their oral tradition of using language in order to pass down information to the next generation as well as future generations. It was a way in which indigenous people recorded their 5 history, culture, genealogy, traditions, and knowledge that would survIVe from generation to generation. Language colonization changed the way indigenous people educated their children and succeeding generations regarding the aforementioned information and knowledge. The move away from indigenous languages toward the
Western colonial languages as a means of conducting business and general communication severely altered how the government was administered and how children were educated. The impact on the indigenous languages of the Pacific were substantial enough that many indigenous languages like Maori in Aotearoa-New Zealand and
Hawaiian in Hawai'i were just as endangered as native plants and animals and wavered on the brink ofextinction in its overall use in addition to education ofchildren.
Due to enforcement by colonial powers to have indigenous children be educated in the colonial language of English, there was a decline and loss of native speakers of indigenous languages that would continue in to the succeeding generations. There were less or no native speakers in the younger generations ofstudents and adults speaking their indigenous languages at home or at school. As children and students, in what became a very Western system ofeducation, the generation ofelders who were native speakers was punished for speaking their indigenous language in school and was compelled to believe that speaking English was imperative. Indigenous people were strongly encouraged to learn, speak, read, and write only English to assure greater assimilation to British and
American culture. It would be a familiar phenomenon that occurred throughout the
Pacific under colonizers like Spain, Germany, Japan, Australia, Britain, the United States, and France who occupied and controlled Pacific island nations at one time or another and enforced the utilization oftheir languages on the people they colonized. This was evident 6 in the education and schooling system instituted by Western government officials and
businesses that only employed the colonial language. The indigenous elders who spoke
Maori or Hawaiian to each other did not speak or teach their children and grandchildren their indigenous languages because they were made to believe that it would impede their success and advancement in what was quickly becoming a very Western society of economics and politics.
While indigenous people of Aotearoa-New Zealand and Hawai'i were restricted from speaking their indigenous languages of Maori and Hawaiian respectively, little could be done to completely control or implement the use of English especially in the rural areas as opposed to the centers of business and governing towns. Preservation of almost all indigenous Pacific languages can be attributed to the arrival of Christian missionaries in the Pacific. Although the purpose of their mission in the Pacific islands was primarily religious conversion of the indigenous population to Christianity, they are the ones who recognized how advantageous the use of the indigenous peoples own languages could be in working to fulfill their goals.
The missionaries' preference for using the indigenous languages in their teaching and preaching of Christianity"...so as to better to reach the hearts and minds of the people..." helped in the acceleration of religious conversion (Mugler and Lynch 1996).
Whereas the missionaries viewed the indigenous languages as an aid in religious conversion from native religions to Christianity, the colonial administrators perceived the indigenous languages as hindrances for what they wanted to accomplish. Consequently, there was a shift away from the Pacific way of educating countless generations over a span of hundreds of years as previously mentioned to a very formal book style schooling 7 of the Western world. Many parents doggedly abandoned speaking and teaching their children in their indigenous languages and chose to utilize whatever minute knowledge they had of the colonial language in hopes of providing them with better access and opportunities to education and Western advancements. For example, the choice of parents to only speak French to their children, as in the case ofTahiti, was made based on the assumption that the children would "naturally" speak Tahitian with their plaYmates and therefore they would learn the language (Levy 1970). This was not an uncommon occurrence in the main ports of Aotearoa-New Zealand and Hawai'i or other island nations. From the time that Western colonization arrived in the Pacific, the role of indigenous languages, which occupied the lands for hundreds of years prior, ultimately changed. This conversion away from traditional culture and language, which included the abandonment of indigenous languages, changed the way in which indigenous Pacific islanders educated their children; nevertheless it would later lay the groundwork for language revitalization.
Education in the Pacific: a shift towards Western education
Knowledge was passed down from one generation to another through watching, listening, and doing as skilled and knowledgeable elders showed or instructed children or apprentices. This was the educational system of the Pacific. The acceptance for formal
Western education was welcomed in many Pacific Islands societies for the reasons of opportunities and vanous advancements as previously indicated. Colonial administrations established Western educational systems that greatly differed from traditional education of oral teaching and learning that was continuously performed 8 throughout the Pacific during the hundreds ofyears ofsettlement. Indigenous languages have always been the foundation for the transmission of history, genealogies, religion, myths and legends, occupations, values, practices, culture, and overall knowledge of society for generations prior to Western arrival and colonization.
Traditional education in the Pacific never consisted of a formal classroom enclosed within four walls, a teacher lecturing at the front of the room, nor pens and paper. Instead, the entire surroundings and the communities of extended families became the classroom and teachers. The formats of instruction were far from direct lecturing, as it is in many contemporary classrooms. Rather, successful instruction of a skill or knowledge being taught to students or apprentices at the time or the above aforementioned cultural traits and traditions depended largely on oral transmissions of knowledge. Instruction by the trade experts who carefully selected the apprentices to whom they would entrust their knowledge was conducted in their indigenous languages.
In turn, students were expected to listen, observe, and understand without speaking or asking questions, but rather by doing what they were taught. Although it appears to be quite a simplistic method of education, it worked well and was quite effective for their needs. However, Western colonization altered this traditional form of education by moving away from the community based traditional education.
Missionaries were at the forefront of the movement in establishing Western style schools for the purpose of civilizing the indigenous people. Successful religious conversion depended greatly on the utilization of each respective indigenous language in civilizing the populace and teaching Christianity. The Bible and hymn books were translated into the indigenous languages and promoted literacy. The church services 9 were perfonned in the indigenous language rather than the Western language. This accounts for "... pastors and Protestant reverends [having] the reputation for speaking
Tahitian the best," (Coppenrath 1975). The church evolved into an excellent place for people to go to learn how to read in their own languages and to extend their knowledge of their ancestral language, but more importantly to learn to speak the language with elegance and impeccable clarity. In further encouragement of literacy and civilization through religious conversion, indigenous people were recruited to become missionaries and ministers to spread the word of God and Christianity in their own communities and abroad. Therefore, colonial administrations were able to gain greater control. As colonial influence increased, Western education became more established and desired throughout the Pacific. The transfonnation into the Western world gradually caused the erosion and collapse ofmany traditional practices and use ofthe indigenous languages.
English and French colonial languages are the two main colonial languages that have dominated the Pacific region. Prohibition of the use of indigenous languages in overseas colonies under Britain, the United States and France caused Hawaiian, Maori, and Tahitian to suffer great decline. Consequently, language oppression was the foremost factor in the deterioration of traditional education. Language colonization was one of the many fonns of suppression of indigenous people and caused some of the greatest damage. Nevertheless, recent efforts have been made to reverse the effects of indigenous language prohibition and decline in the number ofnative speakers. 10 Establishment of Maori and Hawaiian language immersion schools
As the colonial government and administrators became more influential in the
Pacific islands, the indigenous languages gave way to colonial languages as is the case in education. Endangerment of losing their indigenous languages for further generations distressed the indigenous people. The indigenous Maori of Aotearoa-New Zealand started the formation of indigenous language immersion schools. This program and educational school system later became the model through which native Hawaiians established their own immersion schools. Thus far, the success of these indigenous language immersion schools and their students is not fully known due to the relatively short time the program has been in place. However, whatever success the program has achieved so far can stand as a model for other indigenous Pacific languages. Whether such a program and education system is viable or desired by other Pacific islanders remains in their hands. Perhaps it would be better to first understand the how modern language immersion schools came to be.
The 1867 Native Schools Act in Aotearoa-New Zealand is part of the foundation ofthe Maori language immersion program, which began approximately twenty years ago.
This Act called for the "... formal replacement of mission schools and Maori language teaching by State [funding the] secular schools based on the English village day-schools where teaching was in English, and the curriculum was that of ordinary English primary level schools of England," (Hohepa 1984). It would not be until the early 1980s that the indigenous Maori of Aotearoa-New Zealand established Te Kohanga Reo Maori language immersion program as a responsive resolution for the survival of the Maori 11 language and against the shift toward English language based Western education.
Although some communities resisted the formal Western style education, which was taught in English, there were often others who readily accepted this system of schooling as a natural process because it was believed that the language of the pakeha should be learned in school and the community around it (Benton 1996). World War II brought urbanization to many developing countries and island nations which attracted more and more of Maori people away from the marae in the rural districts. This contributed to the drop in the number of indigenous Maori who were able to speak Maori since those who had migrated to the urban centers were unable to establish Maori speaking communities and to speak the language. Moreover, adults as well as students who did speak the Maori language were discouraged from speaking it by the government and teachers in the schools who would punish students caught speaking Maori (Hohepa 1984). The Maori culture and language consequently suffered low esteem and remained absent from a substantial part ofeducation in the twentieth century in New Zealand.
In 1982, one year after its conception, the first K6hanga Reo immersion school opened. Yet, only after the recognition of the RUatoki School in the Bay of Plenty through official designated as a bilingual school six years prior in 1976 was Maori taken into consideration as the language of instruction (Benton 1996). Emphasis on the indigenous language as the medium of instruction intended to reverse the downhill slide of the language, the number of native speakers, and the cultural significance for Maori existence. Through the immersion program, there was a revitalization of traditional oral transmission of knowledge as well as every day use from one generation to another utilizing the indigenous language of the Maori. The foundation of the family or group 12 that live within the marae once again emerged through the formation ofthe immersion schools. This has allowed more Maori children success in their schooling, ability to live within both the Maori and pakeha worlds, and also a sense of cultural pride and identity.
What the program and the students have accomplished so far is relatively successful and has surpassed the initial hopes ofthe Maori language immersion developers.
According to Richard Benton, there have been a steady number of schools that were re-designated as bilingual schools or the like with approximately five schools being approved per year. Aside from the indigenous people taking control of what they need and want, the most important historical factors are claims made under the Treaty of
Waitangi that states that the Crown had an obligation to protect the language as a treasure. The 1986 result of complaints regarding the status of the Maori language by claimants to the Waitangi Tribunal board in fact found in favor ofthe Maori organization.
The Tribunal called for the Crown to take action on the recommendations that the
Tribunal had made in reference to the indigenous language of New Zealand. The colonial government rectified the situation on at least some of the recommendations with the passage of the Maori Language Act of 1987. Further promotion of the language included schools and education with Maori as the medium of instruction or with Maori included in the curriculum.
No official language policy exists with regard to goals and strategies on how to accomplish those goals under the government nor has a ministry of language policy been established. Progress of the Maori language, in some respect, has been slow, yet progressively successful in education, schools, acceptance and unseen personal pride and accomplishment. The success of the Kohanga Reo Maori language immersion program 13 has met and exceeded the initial goals of increasing the number of native Maori speakers and once again educating the next generations of Maori through the Maori language.
At another point in the Polynesian triangle, the indigenous people of Hawai 'i and the Hawaiian language lost much more. The quantity of language lost was quite significant when Western colonization arrived on the shores of Hawai'i. In an effort to preserve what little remained and to reverse the effect of language deterioration that
Hawai'i had been experiencing for many years, people in the Hawaiian community looked to the Maori language immersion program for guidance. The accomplishments of the Maori language immersion program inspired the Hawaiian community of 'Aha
Punana Leo to develop the Punana Leo Hawaiian immersion school and program based on the Maori model.
The impact of colonialism in Hawai'i caused a great deal of damage to every aspect of Hawaiian culture, language, and traditions. more so than in many of the other
Pacific islands. Whereas a majority of the indigenous people had their native languages oppressed in various ways, there was not an official prohibition against the indigenous languages. It was the people themselves who consciously decided to make the effort to learn the language of the colonizers and their Western ways that would afford them opportunities in the Western world for further advancement. In contrast, the history of
Hawai'i and the Hawaiian language status was quite extreme as compared to other
Pacific languages. Generally, many Pacific islanders saw indigenous languages as a vital part in the lives of the people and continued to use it as before, after and during the colonial administration to a certain extent. Unfortunately, Hawai'i cannot boast such a 14 history because for a language that was used in the government and in instruction in the school system up to the late 1800s, it was later prohibited from being spoken by the
Republic of Hawai'i government led by Sanford B. Dole. The use of Hawaiian had reached the churches, the people of different ethnic groups, legislature, government and so forth was no longer permitted which would assure that assimilation into the Western ways as a smooth transition leading to annexation. A hundred years passed before the
Hawaiian language was officially recognized as an official language alongside English in
1978.
Nevertheless, the official recognition did not change the suppression that could still be felt because there were people outside and within the Hawaiian community who did not approve of the support that was being shown for the Hawaiian language. As the
Hawaiian renaissance got under way in the late 1970s, the traditional navigation methods, traditions, culture, and the language were aspects of the Hawaiian culture that were beginning to be revitalized in many ways. Years of language suppression were altered when there was renewed interest in the aforementioned cultural practices and especially in the language, which found the Hawaiian language immersion program as one of the most important steps to be taken. The immersion program became the future for the survival of the Hawaiian language and ensured that there would be an increase in the number of native speakers hopeful that the language would be protected from the fate of extinction that it once faced.
Other than the declaration that acknowledges the Hawaiian language as an official language, there is no other fornlal policy in regards to the language. The'Aha Punana
Leo group is responsible for the planning of the program, format and curriculum that 15 meets the equivalent standards of public schools where English is the medium of instruction. Since the beginning of the Hawaiian language immersion program in 1984, there has been tremendous criticism and included in that group of critics were educators themselves. Critics of the program concentrated their efforts on the negative effect that being educated in only the Hawaiian language would have on the lives of the students and their possible inability to function outside of the Hawaiian language immersion school environment in an English speaking society. However, criticisms that the programs received have not deterred the efforts of the Hawaiian community to continue support and further expand the Hawaiian immersion program.
There is an unexpected and remarkable parallel of events between Aotearoa-New
Zealand and Hawai'i in regard to their indigenous languages. What transpired in both island nations to the indigenous people concerning and their languages can be attributed to British and American imperialism when they colonized Aotearoa-New Zealand and
Hawai'i, respectively. The lasting effects oftheir influence continue to be felt and fought everyday through education and subsequent creation and establishment of Te Kohanga
Reo and POnana Leo. The following list chronicles the parallel experiences of Maori and
Hawaiian languages that were traumatized by British and American colonizers. 16
Aotearoa New Zealand - Maori Hawai'i - Hawaiian
AD Settlement ofNew Zealand. 1778 Hawaiian population estimated 1000 to be 800,000. Next Several mutually intelligible 1820 American missionaries arrive. 1000 dialects ofMaori developed years throughout the country.
1642 Initial contact by Europeans- 1826 Basic Hawaiian orthography arrival ofAbel Tasman. developed, which provided literacy to adults and children via missionary schools. Late Several voyages by James 1830 85,000 Hawaiians were literate. 1700s Cook to New Zealand; Maori population-approximately 100,000. 1800 European whalers, sealers, 1839 First English medium school, on missionaries begin to arrive; Royal School, founded for Maori was the language of children ofthe Hawaiian royal trade and exchange ofideas family. between the two cultures. 1830's Teaching of reading and 1840 Kamehameha III established a writing in Maori at the mission constitutional monarchy at the schools reached its peak. time Hawaiian was the primary language ofgovernment and 1840 Signing ofthe Treaty of provided for the first Waitangi; Maori is the government funded public predominant language. schools or common schools.
1840s Arrival ofmore English 1848 Great Mahele - division of land; on settlers; establishment ofa Hawaiians shift from self- colonial government and sufficiency to a cash economy. infrastructure; Maori remained the language of communication. 99% of631 common schools 1842 First Maori language were taught through the newspaper is published. medium ofthe Hawaiian language. 17 1850s Pakeha population surpasses 1850 Literacy among Hawaiians said the Maori population and to be universal. Maori becomes a minority language. 1854- 2,084 letters written by Maori 1854 English was first introduced in 1937 and government officials. government-funded schools.
1858 Census recorded a total Maori Missionaries, long supporters population of56,00o-until and Hawaiian for Hawaiians, just before the tum ofthe began to advocate that century and introduction of Hawaiians [should] learn Western diseases and warfare English to deal wit the outside reduced the Maori population world. to 42,000.
1867 Native Schools Act: Made 1860 to Hawaiian language newspaper English the language of end of flourished. literacy in schools--the Maori century language was virtually outlawed in schools; many 1870s Official government documents Maori school children over the written in English and translated succeeding generations were to Hawaiian. punished for speaking the language oftheir home. 1885 Accelerated decrease in the use 1878 Only 47,500 Hawaiians still ofMaori language. remained. 1900 Maori still the language of the 1893 Overthrow ofQueen home and community with an Lili'uokalani and the Hawaiian estimated 45,000 Maori being Kingdom. speakers ofthe Maori language. The Republic ofHawai'i mandated that English was to be 1905 More letters were being the medium ofinstruction in written in English than Maori. schools; required all oralcy and literacy be in English.
1913 99% ofMaori school children 1898 Annexation ofHawai'i. native speakers. 18 1920 Sir Apirana Ngata urges Maori 1900 Organic Act signed into law and communities to continue using mandated that all government Maori language in the home, business be conducted in while also promoting English English. language education for Maori in school.
1930s Depression cause language Organic Act and subsequent shift from Maori to English at laws ofthe U.S. Territory of home and in various Hawai'i required that English communities but still only be the medium of predominant. instruction for not less than 50% ofthe school day. 1940s Urban drift, introduction of Early Although Hawaiians began to television. 1900s relinquish the Hawaiian language in the early 1900s, they did not acquire English as their first language. Since Maori taught in secondary 1950s A major dictionary of30,000 1945 schools. words was completed by Mary Kawena poku'i and Dr. Samuel Elbert.
1950s Maori families living in 1959 Hawai'i becomes the 50th state predominantly Pakeha suburbs in the United States ofAmerica. which affect the use ofMaori language. Since Maori taught at the university. Late Cultural revolution occurred 1951 1960 amongst young Hawaiians- primarily through Hawaiian music and dance that focused on traditional Hawaiian music, 1961 The Hunn report describes songs and dance that led to the Maori language as a relic of Hawaiian renaissance in ancient Maori life. Hawaiian language and culture.
1970s Maori was used more on the 1978 Constitutional Convention: marae and at church. May Hawaiian language designated Maori language initiatives as one ofthe two-English developed. being the other one-official language-for the State that resulted in a State mandate to promote Hawaiian language, 19 1975 Ngati Raukawa tribal culture and history. confederation launched Whakatipuranga Rua Mano - a A separate law designated tribal development program Hawaiian as the official native that emphasized Maori language ofthe State ofHawaii. language revitalization.
Mid About 70,000 fluent speakers Late Height ofHawaiian renaissance 1970s ofMaori - only 18-20% ofthe 1970s - especially at the University of Maori population and they Hawaii. Resulted in more were 50 years old and older. interest in Hawaiian language and Hawaiian language classes being offered. It produced second language speakers who would become Hawaiian language educators. 1977 First bilingual school opened 1982 Awareness that for Hawaiians at Ruatoki in the Bay of to survive as living language, Plenty. there has to be a generation of native Hawaiian speakers. Late Te Ataarangi movement 1983 'Aha Punana Leo, a nonprofit 1970s developed by Katerina Mataira educational organization, was and Ngoi Pewhairangi focused established by Hawaiian on language development for language educators. adults to learn Maori using the "silent method" with Maori as the language ofinstruction. 1979 Department ofMaori Affairs 1984 September 4 - the first PUnana on holds yearly meetings. At one Leo center opened on Kekaha, ofthese meetings, the Kaua'i by 'Aha PUnana Leo. inception ofTe Kohanga Reo is born. Early Te Kohanga Reo was launched 1985 April 2 - two more PUnana Leo 1980s followed by Kura Kaupapa schools opened in Hilo, Hawaii Maori. and Kalihi, Oahu.
1981 Te Wananga 0 Raukawa, a 1987 Proclaimed the year ofthe university, was established in Hawaiian. Otaki to provide degree courses in management and Maori language. 20 1981 Hu Whakatauira meeting held Kula Kaiapuni implemented by and the concept and name of State ofHawai'i Department of Kohanga Reo was developed. Education as a pilot program at he request ofthe Hawaiian community, parents and teachers.
1981 First Kohanga Reo began at September 4 - A pilot program Pukeatua. for kindergartners and first graders start at two sites, Waiau Elementary, O'ahu and Keaukaha Elementary, Hawai'i. 1982 Kohanga Reo National Trust 1989 Board ofEducation approved was established and formalized the Hawaiian Language as a charitable trust in 1983. Immersion Program as a limited K-6 program with transition to English during he upper elementary grades. March The first Kohanga Reo 1990 Board ofEducation approved 1982 officially opened in Wellington the delay of fOffilal English with funding from the instruction to grade 5. Department ofMaori Affairs. 1985 Successful claim to the 1992 February - Board ofEducation Wai tangi Tribunal concerning approve ofthe motions to (1) the Maori language resulted in provide 1 hour ofEnglish some radio frequencies being instruction per day or grade 6 set aside for Maori use with classes; (2) extending the government funding made program to grades 7 and 8 for available for the development 1993 and 1994; (3) provide 1 and delivery of iwi (tribal) hour ofEnglish instruction per stations. day for grades 7 and 8; (4) The first Kura Kaupapa Maori extend the Hawaiian Language began in Auckland alongside a Immersion Program from Kohanga Reo on Hoani Waititi kindergarten through grade 12 marae. at two sites-one on Oahu and one on Hawai'i. 1986 First radio station set up for iwi stations. September - Board of Education approve the 21 By There were nine bilingual extension ofthe Hawaiian 1987 schools established. Language Immersion Program to grade 12 with 1 hour of English instruction per day at each grade level beginning at grade 5. 1987 Maori Language Act-made 1993 Only six Pl1nana Leo opened Maori an official language of versus 600+ Kohanga Reo New Zealand and established Maori in Aotearoa-New rules for its limited use in Zealand that were already courts. established.
1987 The Maori Language 1995 'Aha Pl1nana Leo selected to Commission (Te Taura Whiri receive approximately $4 Te Reo Maori) with one ofits million per year in federal funds functions being advising on from the Native Hawaiian Maori language issues. The Education Act. Commission also certifies interpreters, coins, new 1996 The centenary ofthe total ban vocabulary and promotes on Hawaiian as a medium of excellence in language through instruction in Hawai'i schools. regular Wananga Reo (language camps) for those who teach in Maori.
By Over 500 Kohanga Reo were 1997 Federal funding money is 1988 providing education for increased to $7 million. approximately 8,000 Maori children under five. 1990 17 bilingual schools opened. 1998 University ofHawaii at Manoa 616 Kohanga Reo on Hoani (UHM) established the first Waititi marae. teacher preparation program specifically aimed at preparing Kula Kaiapuni teachers-ajoint effort between the College of Responsibility for Kohanga Education, Hawaiian language Reo was transferred from the faculty ofthe Department of Department ofMaori Affairs Hawaiian and Indo-Pacific to the Ministry ofEducation. languages at UHM and Kula Kaiapuni '0 Anuenue ofthe Department ofEducation. 22 1993 Maori Broadcasting funding 1998- Kula Kaiapuni 0 'Anuenue agency, Te Mangai Paho, is 1999 became the first and only Kula established to promote Maori Kaiapuni program that serves language and culture. children from birth through grade 12. 23 state funded Kura were operating with 11 private Kura set up but waiting for state funding.
1995 Maori Language Commission 1999 Federal funding money is designates 1995 the Maori increased to $18 million. Language Year (Te Tau 0 te Reo Maori). National Maori Language Survey found 10,000-20,000 fluent speakers ofMaori-4% oftotal Maori population 16 years and older.
By 23 radio stations throughout 1999 11 Pfinana Leo schools served 1995 the country broadcasting in a 209 children-3 schools on mix ofMaori and English. Hawai'i (Hilo. Waimea, Kona), 2 schools on Maui (Wailuku 1996 New Zealand census had a and Lahainaluna); 1 school on question about language use in Moloka'i (Ho'olehua), 4 the home and found 153,669 schools on O'ahu (Kalihi, Maori indicated they knew Wai'anae, Kawaiaha'o, enough Maori to hold an Ko'olauloa) and 1 school on everyday conversation. Kaua'i (Puhi).
1996 Aotearoa television network First students educated entirely broadcasts a trial free to-air in Hawaiian graduated. television service in Auckland area. First 15 teachers graduate from the UHM teacher preparation program for Hawaiian language .. ImmerSIOn. 1997 Nine institutions around New Zealand offering teacher 2001 The next 15 teachers graduated training for immersion from the UHM teacher teachers. preparation program for Hawaiian language immersion. 23 A total of675 Te K6hanga Reo, 54 Kura Kaupapa and 3 Wananga operating around Aotearoa.
1998 60 Kura Kaupapa Maori received state funding. Government announces funding for Maori television channel and increased funding for Te Mangai Paho.
'Aha Pilnana Leo. 'Aha Pilnana Leo - Our Language. "Hawaiian language nest movement." Available at: http://www.ahapunanalco.org/OL.htm.
Christchurch City Libraries - Nga kete wananga-o-Otautahi. "He manawa 0 te reo: the heart ofthe language - a summary ofthe history ofthe Maori language." Available at: http://librarv.christchurch.org.nz/lfcManawaihistorv of the Maori langu;tge.a.w.
King. J. (2001) "Te K6hanga Reo - Maori language revitalization." In The greenbook of language revitalization in practice." Academic Press: San Diego 119-128.
Schweitzer, V.S. "'Olelo Hawai'i." Available at: http://www.coffeetimes.com/Ianguage.htm.
Te K6hanga Reo - ko te reo te maui te mana Maori. "Te K6hanga reo - about us." Available at: http://www.kohan~a.ac.nz/aboutus.html.
Te reo Maori in libraries. "He punataunaki - ko te reo te mauri 0 te mana Maori." Available at: http://www.trw.org.nz/He-Puna/one.htm.
Warner, S. L.N. "The movement to revitalize Hawaiian language and culture." In The greenbook of language revitalization in practice. Academic Press: San Diego 133 144. 24 As exhibited through the list, the usage ofMaori and Hawaiian rapidly declined from their prominence as the primary language for trade, business and education.
Proclamations prohibiting the use of Maori and Hawaiian languages set off a distress call from indigenous Maori and Hawaiian for some type of preservation of their respective languages, especially when surveys and studies showed that those who were native speakers of Maori and Hawaiian were primarily na kOpuna, the elders. The number of native speakers was slim to none, from baby to children and adults (sixteen years old and older) was virtually nonexistent. There were very few native Hawaiian language speakers at the time, and most ofthem were concentrated in the kopuna generation.
Early forms of education: early forms of language immersion programs
The first fonn of indigenous language education was through the oral tradition of speaking, observing, and learning. In regards to a Western type of education system, the foremost indigenous language education was an attempt by native Hawaiian scholars in
1932 to create a means for native Hawaiians to learn their ancestry and history of their ancestor when they first became aware of the fact "that a very large percentage of the
Hawaiians and part-Hawaiians of [that day could not] speak and pronounce pure
Hawaiian" (Thrum 1932). They wanted to create a type of reassurance that Hawaiian knowledge and traditions would be remembered and preserved. The mission schools established throughout the Pacific are some of the first Western style schools that taught in the indigenous language of the people. Some places only had Western schools that would incorporate a bit of culture and history as written by westerns to educate students, but never by the indigenous people let alone in their native tongues. 25 Where indigenous languages fit in each Pacific Island country's educational system varied from place to place and people to people. The importance of instruction in indigenous languages or the language as a subject is significant for indigenous people. In
Hawai'i and New Zealand, the revival of teaching in Hawaiian and Maori languages, respectively, in language immersion schools has contributed to a reawakening of cultural pride. The language allowed for a link to connect with the ancestors and traditions.
Language education, therefore, has played quite a significant role in the lives of the indigenous people.
Language immersion programs in concept follow traditional education that has occurred in the Pacific for hundreds of years by using the indigenous language as the language medium of instruction. Both the Maori and Hawaiian people wanted to rejuvenate Maori and Hawaiian languages through language immersion that fit into the
Western education system. In spite of the fact that culture and reconnection to the culture and traditions is more of the emphasis in immersion schools through the indigenous languages, students are given more than the basic tools that will empower them to compete in the Western world. Rather than view their ability to speak in the mother tongue of their ancestors or be bilingual as a handicap, education through immersion programs has presented them with the competence to exceed expectations.
Although there are critics of the entire immersion concept and programs who are educators, others in the communities have also been critical in regards to the program.
Their main concern is the small amount of education that the students receive in English.
People who do not understand how the program is structured or who are not involved within the community believe that the limited amount of English in the schools that does 26 not begin until the fifth grade (in Hawaiian immersion schools) and sparingly thereafter through high school is insufficient (Dunford 1991). Consequently, those critics feel that this negatively impacts the future of the students who may not be able to fit well into the English speaking society that we live in because "... [it is of no benefit to the child] to retreat to the past. The program would better serve the children were it to supplement rather than replace the standard of English curriculum," (Dunford 1991).
However, whatever reservations there were regarding the amount of English that immersion students are taught should cease. William Wilson, who is a teacher at Ka
Haka 'Ula 0 Ke'elikolani, along with his wife, Kauanoe Kamana, speak only Hawaiian at home, and says that his children's English-speaking skills are strong because "we have an
English teacher working in our house. It's called a TV," (Dunford 1991). Other
"teachers" ofEnglish include reading materials that are only published in English and not translated and also radio and music ofpop culture that surrounds the students.
Through the immersion program, students are taught more than just the language of their ancestors. As students are able to learn about their culture and history, they are able to formulate an identity, which fosters self-confidence and self-esteem. There are certain things that teachers cannot teach and students cannot learn. The school environment enables teachers and students to communicate with the indigenous language, both inside and outside of the classroom. While students are at play, just talking story with friends, or discussing subjects, students often choose to and prefer speaking Maori or Hawaiian rather than English. Immersion language teachers utilize their knowledge and abilities of the language in their teaching, which reinforces the objective of language immersion education. The programs lack many competent and qualified teachers for all 27 subjects and grade levels as additional grades and schools are added to the immersion
program.
Materials and resources to fulfill the curriculum in order to meet the Western
based education standards are difficult to obtain. There was a rush to create, translate and
distribute materials for each new class and subject, which put additional stress on the
language (Hawkins 1991). In addition to the stress placed on the language when creating material, what should be taken into consideration also is the fact that many of those who
are immersion teachers (with the exception of teachers who are natives of Ni'ihau) are
second language speakers. The language proficiency of those who have learned
Hawaiian as a second language varies and that is passed on to the students who are just learning. Accordingly, the children's speech also changes and they somewhat unconsciously made grammatical alterations in their speech that they have been exposed to from the teachers and aids within the immersion environment (Hawkins 1991). The
Maori Language Commission and the 'Aha Punana Leo presented the important task of acting as guardians of the indigenous languages for the future.
Revitalization of indigenous languages united communities and tied those in the present to the elders and ancestors of the past and for generations of the future. It has proven to be a wonderful combination that has been quite successful in the perpetuation of indigenous languages that until recently were depleted in the number of native speakers and a fleeting way of life and traditional education. The students who were educated through and have graduated from the immersion programs have moved forth in pursuing degrees at the tertiary level of education. Ifindigenous language immersion has hindered students in an English speaking society or in education, then it is not evident 28 from studies that focus on tracking graduates and their college test scores (such as the
SAT in the United States) and their capability to advance comfortably into higher education. Achievements that indigenous language students and the program reached have refuted the criticisms that they received at its conception through the growth and development ofthe entire immersion program in New Zealand and Hawai'i.
Indigenous language education in writing began with the missionaries in striving to convert the indigenous people from pagan lifestyles to the world of Christianity and
Western society. It would be decades before some indigenous people of the Pacific would revert back to education through the medium of the indigenous languages. The first notable representation started with the Kohanga Reo Maori and Kura Kaupapa Maori language immersion schools followed by the Punana Leo and Kula Kaiapuni Hawaiian immersion schools. However, the extent to which other Pacific islands have experienced the impact of colonization on their indigenous languages have not been as drastic as the aforementioned Polynesian languages. The force of colonization in French Polynesia has been continuous through the twentieth century. Yet, the French colonial government has attended to the needs ofthe indigenous people, culturally and linguistically. Inclusion of indigenous languages as the medium of instruction in the education system of French
Polynesia was somewhat tolerated, but carefully watched.
The first schools that were instituted throughout the Pacific and French Polynesia were mission schools by mainly Protestant missionaries. Matters changed with the arrival of the French Catholic missionaries in the 1830s and 1840s, replacing the British
London Missionary Society. The principal goal for which they established these schools was religious conversion, but also included other secular subjects (Douglas 1994, Mugler 29 and Lynch 1996). Although leaving the operation and decision-making up to the
missions themselves would be easier, the French government felt that they were at least
partly responsible for education in the territory. Education began as a minor concern for
the government at the time that the French first annexed and gained control over the
French Polynesian region and was quite evident in the quality of teaching and teachers
who were poorly trained (Douglas 1994). Composition of the teaching staff would play
an important role in future language education.
In spite of the fact that mission schools were the first schools establish which
conducted classes in indigenous languages of the Pacific, not many of them have
survived due to the prohibition of utilization of those language by colonial governments
in Hawai'i and New Zealand. Although the Tahitian language was prohibited for some
time from the beginning of the century to around the early 1960s, the severity of near
extinction that the previous two indigenous languages had to endure did not occur in
French Polynesia. Tahitian was declared the second official language along with French in 1977 and the existence of a law known as the Deixonne law was uncovered (Pukoki
1996). The Deixonne law of 1951 pennitted the instruction of teaching in the Tahitian language by way of the curriculum of the school (Coppemath 1975). Private religious schools under the churches have dedicated themselves from their first settlement to teaching in the indigenous languages of French Polynesia such as Tahitian as well as the other Polynesian languages. According to Henri Lavondes, missionary established church schools continue to be committed to both the teaching in the indigenous languages and conducting religious services. The missionaries sought to convert the native population to Christianity and they reasoned that this would be best accomplished 30 through the use of the indigenous language. Language policies for the church mission schools greatly differ from the territorial government policies.
Selected annotated bibliography regarding indigenous language education
~Oiai e niinii mai ana no nii maka.
While the eyes still, look around.
'Olelo No 'eau (Piiku'i, # 2381 p.260)
The underlying meaning to the above 'olelo no'eau as Mary Kawena Poku'i states, "While a person is living, treat him kindly and learn what you can from him,"
(Poku'i, 1983). This is what has taken place with the creation of indigenous language immersion education like the Maori Te Kohanga Reo and Hawaiian POnana Leo programs. It is while the Maori and Hawaiian languages were still alive, utilized and spoken with older adults and elderly that the indigenous people treated them kindly and become the students of Maori and Hawaiian languages, as second language or through immersion schools, learned all they could. The na makua (the adults) and na kOpuna (the elders) would be the primary resources in the immersion programs from whom new generations of indigenous children would be able to hear and learn the language of their ancestors and how it is supposed to be spoken. While there were people around to learn the Maori or Hawaiian language from, they treasure them and hold them in high esteem, seeking to learn what you can before that special resource is no longer there to tum to.
Ties that bind the indigenous Maori in Aotearoa-New Zealand and indigenous
Hawaiians in Hawai'i go beyond the close linguistic connection as a Polynesian language 31 under the Austronesian language family. The journey that the Maori and Hawaiian languages endured was extremely similar in history. Both languages would play an important role in indigenous language revitalization and education in their respective homelands. What was at stake for both peoples was the decline and possibly complete loss of the indigenous language should the last native speakers, now older adults and elderly, die without fostering young indigenous Maori and Hawaiians to be native speakers oftheir ancestral language.
After learning how to read and write, many Maori and Hawaiian people were literate and extensively used the writing as a means of communication, composition, and recording histories. Consequently, there was a shift from being a nation based in oral traditions to record and pass down from generation to generation the history of their ancestors, culture, traditions, chants, songs and genealogies to a written one. British and
American colonizers as well as the missionaries strongly encouraged the indigenous people to assimilate to Western culture and government in many ways and the vehicle they used was the English language. Outlawing the use of the Maori and Hawaiian languages by each respective colonial power caused the indigenous people extreme grief and sorrow. Children growing up in the early 1900s experienced punishment or embarrassment for speaking in their native tongue when it was prohibited at schools.
English was declared the primary language of government and schools.
Since speaking Maori or Hawaiian was prohibited, future generations only learned to speak English. It was not until the 1970s and 1980s that there was awareness amongst the indigenous people that the only people speaking Maori and Hawaiian were the older makua and kupuna. This triggered indigenous language revitalization in 32 Aotearoa-New Zealand, with the creation and establishment of Te Kohanga Reo, the language nest, which in tum inspired their Hawaiian counterparts to start language nests oftheir own, known as Punana Leo.
The following sections consist of selected resources on the subject of Maori and
Hawaiian language immersion in an annotated bibliography. The first section is of
Aotearoa-New Zealand primarily because the Maori are the ones who began indigenous language revitalization for what is known in Polynesia as the language immersion program. Due to their beginning of Te Kohanga Reo, the Hawaiian equivalent, Punana
Leo, owe gratitude to them for inspiring its creation. Therefore, the subsequent section is focused on Hawai'i and resources for information about or relating to the Hawaiian language immersion programs. The last section is a brief look at the status of the
Tahitian language and language education there. This is not a comprehensive bibliography of everything published on indigenous language immersion education programs such as Kohanga Reo and Punana Leo. It is a selection of resources that are relevant to the aforementioned programs and educating indigenous students immersed in indigenous language education as well as learning to be bilingual. It includes resources that address the issues of indigenous language immersion education as well as some historical information on language immersion education.
Although the Tahitian language has continued to be spoken through continuous generations and has not reached the endangered state that Maori or Hawaiian languages did prior to the creation ofthe language immersion programs, it is not utilized or heard as much as French is in Tahiti. Nevertheless, a very French government was established to govern Tahiti and majority of government affairs, business transactions, and education. 33 Tahitian children may know Tahitian or understand the language, but not readily use it
or be able to speak it. The situations are different concerning Maori and Hawaiian
indigenous languages as opposed to Tahitian, but the threat of Tahitian being lost is
always there.
Indigenous language immersion education in Aotearoa-New Zealand
Language revitalization in Aotearoa-New Zealand started in the early 1980s.
Prior to that time, the Maori language was primarily spoken in more rural areas, on the
marae, and in some places among families or tribes. But students attending school were
taught in English as decreed by law. In the late 1970s, Katerina Mataira and Ngoi
Pewhairangi began a movement known as Te Ataarangi that focused on language
development for adults as a way for them to learn Maori as a second language (King
2001). The Maori language has born witness to tremendous growth in almost thirty years.
As with other indigenous languages, the Maori language was at one time the only
language spoken prior to foreign Western arrival. After contact, Maori remained the primary language of communication for government and business as well as the most effective for missionaries to educate the indigenous people on religion and Christianity.
The indigenous Maori people took to education, reading and writing at the mission schools so much so that it has been said that there were more literate Maori in Maori than there were English people in English (King 2001). Literacy and writing were the conduit
for the Maori people to record their history, mythology and poetry in their ancestral
language and also to publish newspapers and periodicals. Although a colonial 34 government was established and their language of communication was English, they
still used Maori as it was necessary to translate official documents for the Maori
population (King 2001).
The Native School Act that was passed in 1867 by the New Zealand government
officially made the English language the language of literacy in school and the principal
language between the Maori and British (King 2001). The result of the passage of the
Native School Act essentially prohibited the Maori language in schools and the children
who did speak Maori in schools were punished. Consequently, many people switched to
speaking and writing in English so that by 1885, the decline ofpeople speaking or writing
in the Maori language was immense. The language of power in Aotearoa-New Zealand
then became English and it was no longer Maori.
After two world wars, the 1930s depression, urban migration and introduction of
television, English was more prevalent in society and in some homes primarily in the
cities and towns (King 2001). With everything that was happening in the world and in
the urban centers, there were Maori parents "... who believed that a good knowledge of
English was essential to their children's ability to obtain work and status within the now
dominant and pervasive Pakeha community" (King 2001). Therefore, Maori parents
personally chose not to speak or teach their children Maori at home. By the 1970s, the
Maori language could be mainly heard on the marae. However, it was at that time the
initial movement for Maori language revitalization began and to percolate in the young
Maori people who wanted Maori to be taught in schools.
Since 1945, the Maori language was taught in secondary schools and at the
university since 1951. It was then followed by the first bilingual school opening at 35 RUatoki in 1977 that taught in Maori, the language of literacy for Maori children (King
2001). There was also the Ngati Raukawa tribal confederation that started Whakati
Puranga Rua Mano in 1975 that emphasized Maori language revitalization and was the
forerunner for Te Wananga 0 Raukawa, established in Otaki in 1981 where degree
courses in management and the Maori language were offered (King 2001). As Maori
language focused programs started to emerge and establish themselves, the move toward
education in the indigenous language accelerated. At the forefront of indigenous
language education in Maori was Te Kohanga Reo.
The concept for Te Kohanga Reo, the language nest, was formulated at a meeting
organized by the government's Department of Maori Affairs from 1979 and it was at the
Hui Whakatauira in 1981 that the name and concept were fully formulated (King 2001).
The first Kohanga Reo opened in 1982 in Wellington with the goal of the program
focusing on raising children as native speakers of Maori "... in a whanau environment which will 'affirm Maori culture'," (King 2001). In order to fuse Maori language and
culture together to educate the children who were in the immersion programs, there needed to be a way that allowed the young and very young generations to learn from the older adults and elders in a setting that fostered language and culturally learning.
Typically, the best suited place was on a marae.
A key component to accomplishing what Kohanga Reo strived for, to create a
young and future generations of Maori children growing up and learning to speak the
language of their ancestors as well as learning and knowing their cultural heritage, only
Maori was pern1itted to be spoken at the Kohanga Reo site. In order to achieve this, they
had to be surrounded with people who knew and could speak Maori, from those in the 36 whanau, administrative staff members and teachers. On the flip side, parents also had to be committed to the program by providing an environment where the children could hear and speak Maori, not just at school but at home, with elders and other community members. Given the fact that total immersion in the Maori language was a priority and to ensure that the children would also know the culture, emphasis was placed on whakapapa
(genealogy), whanaugatanga (group relationships and support) and tuakana/teina (the role of older to younger) that would teach the children the cultural aspects of their Maori heritage and learning Maori. Yet, there were other factors like schools for higher grades, qualified teachers and funding needed as support the program and students to help them succeed.
Success of students in the Kohanga Reo program forced parents and educators to see the necessity for students to continue in Maori language immersion for upper grades rather than at bilingual or English only schools as they witnessed students losing the language skills and knowledge they previously acquired. The Kohanga Reo language immersion program grew to upper grade levels and created schools known as Kura
Kaupapa Maori that also focused on total language immersion education where all instruction and curriculum are in Maori. The first Kura Kaupapa Maori opened In
Auckland in 1985 on Hoani Waititi marae. Immersion students, who chose not to continue through the Maori language immersion program, were able to opt for mainstream schools and bilingual classes.
Even with the number ofMaori language immersion schools and bilingual classes in mainstream schools growing, there was the initial need for qualified Maori language speaking teachers. The really qualified native speakers at the start ofKohanga Reo were 37 largely older women who did not know how to teach and who had difficulties in sustaining their energy levels to work all day with children. There were young adults who received training, education and teacher qualifications in child care but who may have lacked the fluency in their Maori language skills as second language learners. They did, however, possess the desire to embrace and support what the Maori language immersion education programs were doing for the children and the Maori language.
Through the Te Kohanga Reo National Trust, "... forty-five training centers to teach and supervise trainees in completing the "Blue Book" training syllabus," (King 2001) were established. However, a more comprehensive training known as whakapakari was created, this training is three years long and is accredited by the New Zealand
Qualifications Authority to training kaiako in child care, language and culture in the event they choose to work in the Maori language immersion program. Those who enter the program should be proficient in Maori areas. The most important qualification would be for anyone involved or planning to be involved in the immersion program to be supportive ofthe program and the goals for the program and students.
The whanau was the foundation ofKohanga Reo's success and has grown beyond the traditional meaning ofwhanau to encompass people from other whanau. This was the foundation of support for the program but monetary support came from the government through the Te Kohanga Reo National Trust, which is a charitable organization. Other monies were obtained through fees that the Kohanga charged. The moral, emotional, and financial support as well as dedication was important for the continuance ofthe Kohanga
Reo program. 38 Continuing the Kohanga Reo program would further create new generations of native speakers of Maori who would hopefully pass it on to their children and the cycle would continue creating successive generations whose first language is Maori. Te
Kohanga Reo pushed Maori language revitalization into the consciousness of many people, the Maori, pakeha and Hawaiian alike.
The Maori language education initiative created an arena that urged and supported the education system to include Maori and educate Maori children totally in Maori or in a
bilingual setting. English is so prevalent throughout Aotearoa-New Zealand that, just as in Hawai'i with Hawaiian language immersion students, they would learn English anyway and grow up bilingual speakers. Students would also receive education in
English as a precautionary measure. Test scores have proven that Maori language immersion education has not hindered students in their education. It in fact did the exact opposite with students excelling and scoring very high on aptitude tests while taking the tests earlier in grade level than their counterparts. Learning the language of their people, culture and ancestors provided students a foundation ofwho they are and pride to live life as a Maori in a predominantly pakeha society.
By incorporating Maori culture with Maori language education, Maori children get a better sense of who they are, who their ancestors were, and their role in society. It has not only been the children who were students and learning about their Maori language and culture but so were their parents who were in the generation that missed out. The adults who were around or involved with the Maori language education initiative made a commitment to support the revitalization efforts and in the process, they were able to learn what their parents or grandparents had chosen for them not to learn. 39 Many of them have rallied around the initiative as a positive renewal of culture and heritage.
Has the indigenous language education in Maori initiative accomplished the goals that gave birth to the concept ofTe K6hanga Reo? The goal to have younger generations of Maori children speaking Maori and being educated in the Maori language after over a hundred years ofprohibition was accomplished. 40 Selected annotated bibliography: Aotearoa New Zealand
Benton, R. A. (1973). Should bilingual schooling be fostered in New Zealand? a paper read at the general meeting of the Wellington Language Teachers Association. Wellington, NZ: New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Looking at the period prior to the establishment of the Maori language immersion program, a question and discussion surfaced about whether or not bilingual education should be incorporated in the school system. They found that Maori was still being spoken, although somewhat limited in use and location, but it was still being accepted as everyday speech. It states that "the idea of Maori as a means of instruction either in place of, or together with, English is of course, no new thing in New Zealand education," but it changed with the British government administration. Revitalization in Maori language and culture began in the 1960s, but the perception that children should learn English was still the common belief. The author then poses the question as to whether there were enough Maori at the time to foster Maori speakers and education.
Benton, R.A. (1984 September). Bilingual education and the survival of the Maori language. The Journal ofthe Po~ynesian Society. 93(3): 247-266 Describes the history of bilingual education for the Maori and how the language was adversely affected. It also examines where English and Maori language were the strongest in terms ofpreferential use by the community.
Benton, R.A. (1980 December). Changes in language use in a rural Maori community 1963-1978. The Journal ofthe Po~vllesian Society. 89(4): 455-478. Conducting fieldwork research in Rl1atoki and Tawera in 1963, the author found that a majority ofthe children spoke Maori. However, by the time children were recorded speaking in 1977-78, the speech of those children changed. Due to the changes in speech and linguistics of students in the late 1970s, a comparison of the language change could be made as well as studying the effects ofbilingual schooling program. All of this factors into the language revitalizatioin efforts. It was also found that children readily borrowed or interchanged Maori and English words in their speech. Other changes occurred when both Rilatoki and Tawera schools decided to become bilingual schools and from junior levels teach only in Maori. It was found that as much as students in the 1970s groups spoke and choose to speak English, they also knew, understood, and could speak Maori with borrowings from English and in some instances preferred to speak Maori in some situations and English in others. 41 Benton, RA. (1996). The Maori language in New Zealand education and society. Pacific Languages in Education. 209-227. Provides a historical look at the indigenous Maori language of New Zealand and the cause for the establishment of the first immersion program and schools. Language policies, treaty obligations, and the position ofthe indigenous language in society and education are some of the factors that are important in the formation of language education in New Zealand.
Benton, RA. (1991, 1997). The Maori language: dying or reviving? a working paper prepared for the East-West Center Alumni-in-residence working paper series. Wellington, NZ: New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Provides an overview of New Zealand Council for Educational Research Sociolinguistic Survey of Maori Language Use that was completed in the 1970s. Addresses the state of the Maori language and decline in its use in addition to possibility ofits revival.
Bishop, R, Berryman, M., and Richardson, C. (2002). Te toi huarewa: effective teaching and learning in total immersion Maori language educational settings. Canadian Journal oJNative Education. 26(1): 44-61. Focuses on teaching and learning strategies in Maori language immersion classrooms. Thirteen teachers who created culturally appropriate environments are observed. Also examines curriculum and material used in teaching.
Carpenter, v. (1999). Neither objective nor neutral? reflecting on my subjectivity through the research process in Takiwa School. Refereed paper presented at the AARE NZARE Conference Nov/Dec 1999. Melbourne, Australia: Auckland College of Education 1-14 Presents the author's qualitative research as a neutral researcher in a K-12 school in a rural New Zealand community with Maori residents and also new arrivals to the area. A part of the study addresses the progressive and alternative learning methods.
Chrisp, S. (2005). Maori intergenerational language transmission. In H. Lotherington and R Benton (Eds.) Pacific sociolinguistics. International journal ojthe sociology of language. 172: 149-181. Examines the factors of transmitting the Maori language from one generation to another and what is useful versus what kind of hinderances there are or could be. Provides a history of Maori being passed on through communication from one generation to the next.
Cooper, G., Arago-Kemp, Y., Wylie, C. and Hodgen, E. (2004). Te rerenga a PTrere - a longitudinal study ofKohanga Reo and Kura Kaupapa Maori students. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Available at: http://www.nzer.org.nz/ Presents a study of Kohanga Reo and Kura Kaupapa Maori students. The study charts the progress ofstudents studying in their educational and social environment of 42 being immersed in the Maori language. It discusses the overall aspects of the Maori students' education from their use and competency in the language (both spoken and written) to their identity, cultural practices, and the environment in which they learn.
Edmonson, K. (1984). Pirtahi te Kohanga Reo: Maoridom in microcosm. Auckland, New Zealand: Carrington Technical Institute. Examines an organization in the beginning stages in the Western suburbs of Massey. Part of it concludes that the concept ofKohanga Reo works best when situated on the marae. It also presents daily diaries ofevents and observations as well as background information on individual children and family.
Hale, K. (200 I). Introduction to the Maori language. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, California: Academic Press 115-116. Provides a brief overview of Maori as a Polynesian language. Also chronicles the Maori literacy and the decline as well as rise of the Maori language through Te Kohanga Reo movement. It also touches upon some grammatical aspects ofMaori.
Harawira, W., Walker, R, and McGarvey, T. U. (1999). A bicultural research journey: the Poutama Pounamu Education Research Centre. New Zealand. (Report No. RC 023 643). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED467398). Accessed through EBSCOhost. Presents the work of Poutama Pounamu Education Research Centre at the New Zealand Special Education Service for bicultural and education. They work to build on and develop learning resources for parents and teachers of Maori students for language revitalization. Emphasizes the cultural knowledge of the researchers and their understanding ofthe Maori tradition and practice.
Harlow, R. (2005). Covert attitudes to Maori. In H. Lotherington and R Benton (Eds.) Pacific sociolinguistics. Internationaljournal ofthe sociology oflanguage. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter 172: 133-147. Gives a history of the Maori language from changes in the grammar of Maori to the establishment ofthe Maori immersion program. The author explores issues regarding the use and revitalization efforts to have the Maori language be spoken and especially be the medium ofinstruction in schools.
Harrison, B. (2001). Rakaumanga School, 1986-87. Collaborative programs in indigenous communities. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. 169-187. Presents the author's experiences in conducting fieldwork and working collaboratively with indigenous communities being researched. It is a narrative of what occurred from the start to the end of her research. In this chapter, the author is in New Zealand working with Robert Mahuta and his home community of Waahi Marae in Huntly. The author provides background information on the community, but focuses on the school in a Maori community. Futhermore, it covers distractions, 43 problems encurred, and lessons learned for researchers. Most importantly, the author discusses desgining collaborative programs like that with Rakaumanga school that was bilingual and wanted to develop its Maori immersion program.
Harrison, B. (1998). Te wharekura 0 Rakaumangamanga: the development of an indigenous language immersion school. Bilingual Research Journal. Available at: http://brj.asu.edu/v22234/articles/artII.html Presents a history of the indigenous language immersion school in Maori and the efforts for language revitalization. Summarizes the background of the movement, cultural aspects, and the school program. Discusses the language shift and revitalization in regards to school, curriculum, pedagogy, and performance assessment.
Hohepa, M. K. (1993). Preferred pedagogies and language interactions in Te Kohanga Reo. Auckland, New Zealand: Research Unit for Maori Education, University of Auckland. Addresses the issue of language and knowledge acquisition. Focuses on three students who experienced the Kohanga Reo setting. The concern ofthe researcher is the relationship between pedogogical frameworks and preferred learning practices in relation to the learner's needs. Discusses the Te Kohanga Reo program, language socialization, and tikariga Maori, a foundation for Maori language learning.
Hohepa, P. (1984 August). Current issues in promoting Maori language use. Language Planning Newsletter. 10(3): 1-4. Presents an abridged history ofAotearoa-New Zealand from the time ofcontact. This also includes the population of the indigenous Maori and a breakdown of the remaining ethnic groups of people such as the Europeans, Chinese, Indian and other Polynesians (from Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tonga, Tokelau, and Tahiti). Furthermore, it contains specific laws that surround the issue of the use or prohibited use ofthe Maori language in the schools and later the recognition of Maori as an official language. Hohepa addresses the teaching of Maori, the immersion program, and other outside possible use ofMaori in communication.
Katene, N. (1992). Kohanga Reo: let's celebrate. He Parelerele - Occassional publication series. Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University ofWeIlington. Describes and evaluates the impact of Kohanga Reo and bilingual education policies on children. Includes literature review of traditional Maori, overview of bilingual education, and contemporary policies in addition to methodologies and results of the study. Also includes a questionnaire sample.
King, J. (2001). Te Kohanga Reo: Maori language revitalization. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, California: Academic Press 119-128. Seeks to examine Te Kohanga Reo, the language nest. It is part of the movement by the Maori in Aotearoa as the foundation for indigenous Maori language revitalization. 44 It chronicles the history ofMaori language and literacy and also the usage ofMaori in education.
Long, D. S. (1994). Literacy in Pacific islands language in New Zealand schools Journal ofReading. International Reading Association. 39(2): 146-148. Relates Maori language immersion to the literacy of Maori children. The author not only discusses the Maori plight in preserving their language, but also addresses the issue of other Pacific islanders in New Zealand and efforts to preserve their native languages.
Meade, A. and Podmore, V. N. (2002). Early childhood education policy co-ordination under the auspices of the Department/Ministry of Education: a case study of Ne\v Zealand, Early Childhood and Family Policy Series. (Report No. PS 030 680). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 468561). United Nations Eductional, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Examines Maori history and education in New Zealand and the government services availability for Maori education. It also mentions the Maori renaissance and creation ofKohanga Reo. It further discusses child care and adminstrative integration ofearly childhood care and education.
May, S. (1998). Language and education rights for indigenous peoples. Language, Culture and Curriculum. 11(3): 272-296. Presents a look at the rights of indigenous people and focuses on international law as a means for gaining self-determination. Also focuses on indigenous language and education rights for indigenous people through international law. The Maori in Aotearoa-New Zealand are considered here in regards to indigenous rights and education through international law. A history of the colonization of New Zealand and the Treaty of Waitangi is analyzed regarding what was promised to the indigenous people in terms of education and all other human rights. It was found that Maori children were not successfully taught rather than the students not being successful in school. Hence the movement to establish Kohanga Reo and Kura Kaupapa Maori in efforts to save and preserve the language through revitalization.
Mutu, M. (2005). In search of the missing Maori links-maintaining both ethnic identity and linguistic intergrity in the revitalization of the Maori language. In H. Lotherington and R. Benton (Eds.) Pacific sociolinguistics. International journal ofthe sociology of language. 172: 133-147. Addresses the issue of being Maori and remaining a Maori in and through colonization. It not only considers who is or what a Maori is, but also a Maori person's cultural identity and self-identity tied through the person's genealogy. 45 New Zealand Education Review Office. (1993). Overview analysis: assurance of Te Kohanga Reo. Wellington, New Zealand: Education Review Office-Te tari arotake matauranga. Provides an overview analysis from eighty Kohanga Reo audits conducted from February to June 1993.
New Zealand Education Review Office. (1993). Overview analysis assurance audits of Te Kohanga Reo. Wellington, New Zealand: Education Review Office-Te tari arotake matauranga. Presents an overview analysis on the reports of 41 regular assurance audit reports on Kohanga Reo conducted from January to March 1994.
Nicholson, R. (1997). Maori total immersion courses for adults in Aoteroa-New Zealand: a personal perspective. (Record No. FL 020 992). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 354773). Offers an adult total language immersion program in Maori based on the author's own experience. It was established under Whakatupuranga Rua mano Generation 2000 tribal program that focuses on Maori people who can contribute and support the Maori language and cultural programs.
Nicholson, R. (1989). Marketing the Maori language. Tn J. Reyhner (Ed.) Teaching indigenous languages. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. 206-213. Examines how the Maori language could be marketed to encourage Maori people to learn and speak the language, celebrate the language, and spread the positive side of Maori language to Maori as well as the other ethnic groups living in New Zealand. The focus is really to elevate the language in the communities in order to revitalize the use ofit and also to promote Maori history, culture, and heritage.
Parr, C.J. (1963 September). Maori literacy 1843-1867. The Journal ofthe Polynesian. Society. Wellington, New Zealand: The Polynesian Society 72(3): 211-234. Describes the attempts in New Zealand to preserve the people's interest in reading and writing as well as a bilingual system of education. By 1857-1860, there was a shift in belief that the Maori schools and many of them desired Western education. So, while there was a rise in boarding school enrollment, there was also a decline that could be attributed to war. From the 1867 Native Schools Act emerged a bilingual education system that was later disposed ofby the government.
Parsonage, W. (1956 March). The education ofMaoris in New Zealand. The Journal of tlie PO~Yflesiafl Society. Wellington, New Zealand: The Polynesian Society 65(1): 5-1l. Focuses on what the educational needs were for the Maori students for the future (1960s and 1970s). Provides a brief background on the Maori schools from the time ofthe mission schools to government control, racial decline and rejuvenation. 46 Pere, R. (1994). Ako: concepts and learning in the Maori tradition. Wellington, New Zealand Te Kohanga Reo National Trust Board. Presents the Maori traditions of learning. The first section covers Maori history and ancestry touching upon 'te reo,' the language and its importance in and of itself, and also in kinship and tribal identity. The other two sections discuss Maori learning, education, and other topics, but puts an emphasis on Native Schools Act, multiculturalism, differences between Maori and pakeha codes and bilingualism.
Powell, G. (1955). The Maori school - a cultural dynamic? The Journal of the Polynesian Society. Wellington, New Zealand: The Polynesian Society 65(3): 259-266. Discusses the Maori school system and education and the status ofthe Maori culture. There is a historical summary of the Maori school service and cultural setting. Also examines the Maori school and the influence it has on the use ofMaori language.
Ratapu, R. and Hohepa, M. (1992). He kete kapu korero: a bibliography of readings on Te Kohanga Reo and Kura Kaupapa Maori. Auckland, New Zealand: Research Unit for Maori Education, University ofAuckland. Offers a bibliography of readings related to Kohanga Reo and Kura Kaupapa Maori, focusing on educational initiatives since 1982 by Maori. Covers topics such as key documents in policy terms, policies on Maori languag and education, schooling strategies and other topics associated with the Maori language immersion education.
Ritchie, J. (1994). Development of a Maori immersion childhood education diploma of teaching. New Zealand: University ofWaikato. (Record No. FL 023 380). Washington D.C.: Office ofEducational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED393291). Accessed through EBSCOhost. Observers that when the Maori language immersion schools were first created and established, there were a lack of qualified teachers who could teach in the Maori language. The Maori early childhood immersion teaching diploma program at the University of Waikato was created to allow would-be teachers in the Maori language immersion program to hone their Maori language skills as well as be able to provide a good formal education for children in the immersion program that would foster their learning in addition to teaching in the Maori culture and tradition.
Ritchie, J. E. (1956 March). Human problems and educational change in a Maori community: a case study in the dynamics of social decision. The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 65( 1): 13-34 Addresses how a Maori community faced the problem of changes in education and worked to resolve it. The community had to address the relevant factors for which the solutions would be based. 47 Roberts, M. (1999). The evolution ofMaori education in a predominantly non-Maori school. (Record No. RC 023 657). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 467411) Examines what happens when only 10% of the school's population is Maori and the other 90% is pakeha. The school was able to provide instruction in Maori culture and language when requested and also remained culturally sensitive to the Maori values. In 1982 the Forest Lake school switched over to provide bilingual education. Also discusses how the school provides for both Maori and non-Maori resources and allows greater success for all students.
Robust, T. (2002). Ko te reo te mauri 0 ta mana Maori: the language is the life essence of Maori existence. In Indigenous languages across the community. (Record No. RC 023 386). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 462232). Discusses how educational reforms recently established by the New Zealand government affect Maori community in decision making process, with a focus on Motatau Maori community. Addresses the role ofthe new board oftrustees as well as computer-based information networks linked to traditional family networks, school community issues, teachers' workload, and budget and finances.
Rubie, C. (1999). Kia kaha: improving classroom performance through developing cultural awareness. New Zealand. (Record No. RC 022 458). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 441 651). Accessed through EBSCOhost. Presents a study that took twenty-four Maori children in grades three to six to perform at a children's festival in Turkey, but the study also included Maori students who did not participate in the festival. The hypothesis ofthis study was to examine if students would have a better cultural awareness and how it would affect their self esteem. Interviews about the outcome of the experience were conducted with students, parents, teachers, and caregivers.
Shafer, S. M. (1988). Bilingual/bicultural education for Maori cultural preservation in New Zealand. Journal ofMultilingual and Multicultural Development. 9(6): 487-501. Describes the bilingual and bicultural education system in Aotearoa New Zealand for the Maori through the language immersion program. Addresses the emphasis on Maori culture in the school system and program and how it affects education.
Smith, G. H. (2003). Indigenous struggle for the transformation of education and schooling. Anchorage, Alaska: Keynote address to the Alaskan Federation of Natives (AFN) Convention. Studies the effects of the Maori people to stop or at least slow down the language shift in Aotearoa New Zealand among the indigenous people in using their indigenous language by creating the Maori language immersion education program. They took control of what they saw was occurring among the Maori community in terms of people speaking the Maori language. This speech presents how indigenous people 48 can take control and decolonize themselves away from Western educational system within the Western society that is already firmly established.
Spolsky, B. (2003). Reassessing Maori regeneration, language in society. Language in Society. 32(4): 553-578. Addresses the issue of language loss and maintenance. For the Maori, there were three decades of grassroots inspired efforts at maintenance or revival with reluctant recent support from the government. It is necessary to make up for the gradual loss ofthe language after over a century ofcontact with colonizers. The goal is to reverse the language shift that occurred from English back to Maori.
Spolsky, B. (1989). Maori bilingual education and language revitalization. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 10(2): 89-106. Revitalizing the Maori language use in the schools began in the 1970s, but it was to only be a part ofthe Western education system, to be taught in a bilingual educational setting. However, the formation ofMaori language immersion programs have pushed the efforts forward and established a number of immersion schools. With all that has been done to establish Maori language immersion schools, the question is whether or not the Maori language has a chance ofsurviving and being revitalized.
Waitangi Tribunal. (1986). Report of the Waitangi Tribunal on the te reo Maori claim. Te Reo Maori Report. Wellington, New Zealand: Waitangi Tribunal. States the nature of the claim to the Waitangi Tribunal. Provides a history of the Maori language in the past, present, and future from the colonial period through modem times. Addresses the claimants and their claim, the Treaty of Waitangi, education issues and broadcasting issues. Lastly, it addresses the role and place for Maori language in today's society.
Walker, R. J. (1985). History of Maori activism. Paper submitted to the 15th Pacific Science Congress in Dunedin 1-11 February 1983. Auckland, NZ: Center for Continuing Education, University ofAuckland. Explores the beginnings of Maori activism and the Treaty of Waitangi as a tool for correction of injustices to Maori. A part of the activism included efforts to get Maori language full recognition in the education system. 49
The status of Hawaiian language immersion education
Hawaiian language in the twenty-first century is closer to that of the 1800s than any where or time in the twentieth century within a hundred year span. The Hawaiian language was the primary language of Hawai'i and its people for politics, communication, trade and everyday life. A long history of decline and the banning of
Hawaiian ended with a renaissance that led the way for its acknowledgement as one of two official state languages in the State ofHawai'i. However, the most impact and boost for the Hawaiian language and native Hawaiians was the creation and establishment of the Hawaiian language immersion program.
'Olelo Hawai'i or Hawaiian language is the language ofHawai'i and remained so
In 1840 when Kamehameha III established a constitutional monarchy. The Hawaiian language was the primary language in which political documents, business and education material were written. From 1860 until the end of the century, Hawai'i saw Hawaiian language newspapers flourish with publications of Hawaiian genealogy, histories, legends, riddles and Hawaiian culture (Warner 2001).
The shift towards English as the medium of communication and education was just as gradual as the decline of Hawaiian language. Even though the first English medium school, Royal School, was established in 1839 for the children of the Hawaiian royal family, by 1848, the majority ofthe common or public schools were taught through the Hawaiian language (Warner, 2001).
Although credit is given to the missionaries of Hawai'i for creating a written
Hawaiian language and teaching native Hawaiian adults and children to be literate, 50 around 1854 they were encouraging to the Hawaiian people to learn English. Learning the English language was pressed upon native Hawaiians as a way for them to better live and exist with the outside world, that being the Western culture and environment. This point of view and belief was further reinforced after the 1893 overthrow of Queen
Lili'uokalani and the Hawaiian monarchy. It was after the overthrow that Western foreigners responsible for the overthrow created the Republic of Hawai 'i through which they mandated that English would be the medium of instruction in the schools. The
Organic Act of 1900 later mandated that all government business be conducted in English and further legislation as the U.S. Territory of Hawai'i established the law that required the English language to be the only medium of instruction for not less than 50% of the school day (Warner 2001). No longer was the indigenous language of Hawai'i the language ofinstruction nor the primary language ofgovernment.
For the most of the twentieth century, the Hawaiian language was primarily spoken on Ni'ihau and amongst many older Hawaiians in more rural areas. Many native
Hawaiians who spoke Hawaiian and were taught the Hawaiian language around the
1920s were either punished or humiliated at school for speaking Hawaiian and were told only to speak English (Warner 2001). The punishment coupled with pressure from teachers and society resulted in many Hawaiian parents choosing to not teach or speak to their children in Hawaiian. They may have spoken it amongst themselves or others, but not to the children because they were led to believe that their children would be better off and succeed in this new Western society ifthey spoke English.
Betvveen the time that native Hawaiians were encouraged to only learn and speak
English and the Hawaiian language revival around the 1970s, fifty years had passed and 51 Hawaiian Creole English, commonly referred to as pidgin or Hawaiian pidgin, was the language of the generations born and growing up at that time. The last native Hawaiian language speakers at the tum of the century gave way to native speakers of Hawai'i
Creole English (Warner 2001). There were no longer young Hawaiians speaking the indigenous language of their ancestors. It would later take a generation of native
Hawaiians to reach back and reclaim their Hawaiian heritage and language.
Beginning in the 1960s, there were young native Hawaiians who ignited interests in their Hawaiian language and culture beginning with dance and music. However, it is not until the 1970s when the Hawaiian renaissance truly began. This renewed interest in
Hawaiian history and culture also looked to the Hawaiian language and where it was, or in many cases, where it wasn't. The Hawaiian renaissance saw the Hawaiian language being designated as one of two official languages for Hawai'i during the 1978
Constitutional Convention and another law established Hawaiian as the official native language. The acknowledgement of Hawaiian language was only a small step to change what the laws from 1893 and 1900 had established for almost a hundred years.
The Hawaiian renaissance generation produced second language speakers of
Hawaiian who now questioned where were the native speakers. Knowing and understanding the history ofHawaiian language prompted them to realize that majority of native speakers of the Hawaiian language were older adults and elderly Hawaiians.
Hawaiian language was their second language and they looked at what could be done to save the language from dying and created a whole new generation and future generations of native speakers of the Hawaiian language. During the early 1980s, the Hawaiian community became aware of an indigenous language immersion education program 52 known as Te Kohanga Reo, or "language nest," which the Maori in Aotearoa-New
Zealand began.
Kauanoe Kamana and William H. Wilson joined with other Hawaiian speaking educators who founded 'Ana Piinana Leo, the Hawaiian equivalent to the Maori Te
Kohanga Reo, language immersion program. Piinana Leo, language nest, was set up as a total immersion preschool for children two to five years old. The first Pilnana Leo preschool opened in 1984 in Kekaha, Kaua'i and the next two followed in 1985 in Hilo,
Hawai'i, and Kalihi, O'ahu. The initial purpose of the organization was to establish and operate Piinana Leo schools with the overall goal of revitalizing and perpetuating the
Hawaiian language and culture through the creation of new generations of native
Hawaiian-speaking children," (Warner 2001). As successful as the program appeared, there were a number of problems and issues that surfaced with the creation, conception and starting the Hawaiian language programs.
The issues that needed to be addressed III starting the Hawaiian language immersion schools included infrastructure, lack of qualified teachers, funding, and relevant materials. Schools to house the Piinana Leo program and later Kula Kaiapuni had to be located. The Department of Social Services and Housing persisted in holding to all State regulations in all aspects of running Pilnana Leo-from buildings being up to code to the age and number of hours students were in school as well as certified teachers and staff who were going to work at the schools (Warner 2001).
At the start of Hawaiian language immersion preschools and subsequently Kula
Kaiapuni, the teachers who were qualified to teach under the State regulations were second language learners who graduated from the University. As each grade level up 53 through the twelfth grade was added, there was a need for more qualified Hawaiian language teachers. Native speakers of Hawaiian language were also utilized in the classroom as assistants or aides. The idea was for students in the Hawaiian immersion program to be totally immersed in the Hawaiian language starting with the teachers, resource aides, kupuna and administrative personnel as well.
Funding and support for the Hawaiian immersion schools began with the same grassroots efforts as the program itself, relying on tuition parents paid and fundraising efforts. Eventually, grants and funding to run the schools, training for staff and teacher salaries came from the Office ofHawaiian Affairs and federal funding. With the passage of the Native Hawaiian Education Act in 1995, 'Aha Piinana Leo received $4 million per year in federal funds that allowed them to "develop curriculum and various educational and teacher training programs ... and to provide scholarships for students attending universities," (Warner 2001). In the following years, federal funding monies increased.
Just as the Maori language immersion program lacked culturally relevant materials and general materials for all subjects in the school curriculum, Hawaiians also lacked school textbooks and reading books in their indigenous language. For quite some time those who were involved in the Hawaiian language immersion program were left to their own devices to translate English written books into Hawaiian. Ultimately,'Aha
Piinana Leo produced and published books and storybooks that were culturally relevant to Hawaiian students, culture, tradition and language. In a time of technology advancement and enhancement, the technological Hawaiian language immersion program has had to update and make the language even more relevant to contemporary times. 54 A living language not only continues through generations but also evolves and grows as necessary. The Lexicon Committee is responsible for developing new terms and words for such topics as computer terms and action as well as other modem and contemporary actions, objects, and even technological terminology. In order to further advance the immersion ofHawaiian language immersion students into the language, Hale
Kuamo'o of the University of Hawai'i at Hilo created "LeokL" This is the first indigenous language electronic bulletin board service that has extended the use of
Hawaiian language to technology such as computers and the internet. They have worked to change program menus and commands from English to Hawaiian so that everything on the site and program is Hawaiian to totally immerse students in the language.
Hawaiian language immersion education has seen success in graduates who completed their education through high school successfully and who have moved on to attend college. It will take time and generations of Hawaiian language immersion students continuously speaking Hawaiian to demonstrate whether the goals and intentions of the creation of Hawaiian language immersion education program were met. As educators and the Hawaiian community wait to see if new generations of native speakers of Hawaiian language are formed, the Hawaiian language program and education have evolved to encompass a graduate school major and college in addition to a living language that grows and survives. 55 Selected annotated bibliography: Hawai'i
Dunford, B. (1991). Language and heritage, a controversial language-immersion program in Hawai'i is preserving the native culture. The Executive Educator. 36-38. Discusses the controversy that surrounds the Hawaiian language immersion education program that promotes Hawaiian language and culture. Addresses the long term effects on students in the immersion programs and their English language abilities, especially to those whodo not support the Hawaiian language immersion program. It briefly touches upon the Hawaiian renaissance, and addresses the obstacles for the program, such as the need for qualified teachers, translated texts, and language needs for Hawaiian words relating to contemporary society.
(1994). Reauthorization of the Native Hawaiian Education Act. Oversight hearing on reauthorization of the Native Hawaiian Education Act to authorize and develop supplemental education programs to assist Native Hawaiians in reaching the National Education Goals(Report No. RC 019 798). Washington, D. c.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED374940). 2 231. Presents a collection of testimonies from the hearing before the Committee on Indian Affairs chaired by Senator Daniel Inouye regarding the reauthorization of the Native Hawaiian Education Act. The testimony of each person speaking is on the behalf of education for native Hawaiian children in order for them to succeed and meet national goals.
Celis, W. (1994). In school, a language may yet live on as long as children can say, e 'olelo Hawai'i wale no ma'ane'i. New York Times. New York, NY. B9. Provides a brief article on Hawaiian language immersion includes interviews with teachers and POnana leo adminstrators. Discusses some methods of teaching, need for altering English written texts and the interest generated by native people of the United States.
Duford, B. (1991 December). Language and heritage: a controversial language immersion program in Hawai'i is preserving the native culture. The Executive Educator. 38-39 Addresses the often-controversial Hawaiian language immersion program and criticisms that the program has endured. Response from individuals directly involved in addition to discussion on language, issues of the native culture are also included. The author briefly mentions the Hawaiian renaissance and obstacles the programs encountered.
Elsasser, R.A. (1995 June). Nurture in the language nest, POnana Leo preschools ride the renaissance in Hawaiian speech. Hmvaii Magazine. 67-70. Examines a POnana Leo school and how educating students in Hawaiian has evolved from punishment for speaking Hawaiian at school to complete immersed education 56 today. Reference is made to the prediction by Bruce Biggs that the Hawaiian language would be the first Polynesian language to die, but has instead florished through revitalization efforts.
Etlin, M. (1995 February). Keeping the language alive. NEA Today. Gives a brief look at the Hawaiian language immersion program. Discusses the lack ofHawaiian language material and texts as well as how to educate students following the State's curriculum with the differences being that the subjects are taught in Hawaiian and they use relevant materials and references. For example, if they are studying plant biology, then they focus on Hawaiian plants and would instead do a comparative study of Greek and Hawaiian mythology. It also addresses some funding issues and parental involvement.
Hawaiian language immersion teacher training project at the University of Hawai'i. Available at: http://www.1Iatuahine.hawaii .edll!hanaIlTTP Presents an overview of the program that began for pre- and in-service teachers who will teach in the Hawaiian immersion programs. The program is a prototype for training future language immersion teachers. Also includes brief summaries of the KUkamaile summer institute training programs.
Hawkins, E. 1. (1991). Hawaiian immersion education: where will it take the language? Honolulu University ofHawai'i at Manoa, Indo-Pacific Languages. Examines the changes that have occurred in the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian language immersion program. Noted are the changes in the structure of selected sentences and pronunciation ofwords.
Hinton, L. (2001). An introduction to the Hawaiian language. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Presents a very brief introduction to the Hawaiian language and its origins in the Austronesian language family. Briefly discusses the Hawaiian language history and what led up to the revitalization efforts.
Ka'awa, M. and Hawkins, E. (1999). Incorporating technology into a Hawaiian language curriculum. In J. Reyhner (Ed.) Teaching indigenous languages. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. 151-157. Examines Hawaiian language in education and using technology as an inclusive factor in it. Provides a history ofHawaiian language from its prohibition through the establishment of the Hawaiian language immersion program. Continues with a focus on how the University of Hawai'i is contributing to the support and advancement of the Hawaiian language and immersion programs. 57 Kamana, K. and Wilson, W.H. (1996). Hawaiian language programs. In G. Cantoni (Ed.) Stabilizing indigenous languages. Flagstaff, AZ: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University 153-156. Also available at: http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/stabilize/additional/hawaiian.htm Summarizes the background on the Hawaiian language immersion programs and the history for the development ofthe programs at different levels ofeducation. Provides a brief background of the Hawaiian language and number of Native Hawaiian language speakers. It also discusses the creation of the first Hawaiian language immersion school, PUnana Leo, as well as the 'Aha PUnana Leo, a non-profit organization that supports the immersion schools. Also presents Papahana Kaiapuni Hawai'i, Hawaiian immersion program in the public school that allowed Hawaiian language preschoolers to continue their education in Hawaiian, and Hawaiian language education and classes at the university level. Mentions advancements in the Hawaiian language at the university and Hale Kuamo'o Hawaiian language center and what they do to support the Hawaiian language.
Maka'ai, 1., Shintani, J.K., Jr., Cabral, J. and Kamana Wilson, K. (2005). Four Hawaiian language autobiographies. In T.L. McCarty and O. Zepeda (Eds.) Indigenous language use and change in the Americas. International journal of the sociology of language. 132: 115-121. Tells stories from four fluent speakers of the Hawaiian language growing up with involvement in the Hawaiian language and revitalization programs and efforts. Some are native speakers ofHawaiian, another is a second language learner ofHawaiian
McCarty, T.L. and Watahomigie, LJ. (1999). Indigenous education and grassroots language planning in the USA. Practicing anthropology. Oklahoma City, OK: Society for Applied Anthropology. 20(2): 5-11. Examines the movement by indigenous people in the United States to educate children in their heritage language. It discusses language immersion and bilingual education as well as indigenous literacy for the Navajo and Hawaiians. Looks at the grassroots efforts of indigenous language speakers to establish language policies and practices to uphold the language. One of the programs that is referred to is the Hawaiian language immersion program based on the Maori Kohanga Reo model. What they find is that the grassroots efforts of the Navajo and Hawaiians stem from the decline ofthe language usage as well as native speakers. Also mentions bilingual education and literacy issues through language maintenance. Lastly, the article states what is needed to aid in linguistic selfdetermination and the future.
Office of Instructional Services/General Education Branch. Department of Education. (1994). Long-range plan for the Hawaiian language immersion program, Papahana Kaiapuni Hawai'i. Honolulu, HI: Department ofEducation. Presents the long range plan for the Hawaiian language immersion program as a list of goals they would like to accomplish as well as the needs of the program and the program's future. The goals for the program are to develop high proficiency in comprehensioin and communication in the Hawaiian language, develop a strong 58 foundation in Hawaiian culture and values, create empowered and responsible individuals of the community, and develop knowledge and skills in all areas of the curriculum. Presents steps and plans in which to accomplish the goals of the program.
Piper, P. S. (1994). Schools-within-a-school: the Kapa'a Elementary School model. (Report No. EA 026 165). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED375469). 1-6. Focuses on Kapa'a Elementary School on Kaua'i and the schools-within-a-school that they created. Discsuses problems and issues dealing with schools-within-a-school, like that of Kula Kaiapuni Hawai'i 0 Kapa'a and the problems they faced in adminstering the Hawaiian language immersion program. Also presents other programs that are also within the same school, like Enterprise (that teaches applied technology), Cosmic (that focuses on creative and critical thinking skills), Kaleidoscope (that uses the child's natural approach to learning as a way for instruction), and Excel (that is based on traditional education yet also involves the parents). Although the large size ofthe school was problematic, the benefit ofhaving schools within a school offered parent and students choices of the type of education they want. Teachers can create teams and work with their own teaching philosophies and style ofteaching.
Salkever, A. (1998 February). Hawaiian traditions attract more than just tourists. Christian Science Monitor 90, 48. Retrieved May 25, 2005 from EBSCOhost. Addresses the renewed interests ofpeople in Hawaiian culture and traditions, whether they are from Hawai'i or around the world and visitors. Provides a brief history on hula and the Hawaiian language that is discussed with a Hawaiian language teacher regarding the ban on speaking Hawaiian. This also discusses the resurgence of Hawaiian language through Hawaiian immersion schools and Hawaiian music.
Schutz, A. J. (1994). The voices of Eden: a history of Hawaiian language studies. Honolulu, HI: University ofHawai'i Press. Concerns the linguistical history of Hawaiian language. Includes the relationship of the Hawaiian language with other Polynesian language and language family. References to numerous wordlists.
Slaughter, H. (1993). Learning to read English outside the school, patterns of first language literacy acquisition of Hawaiian language immersion students. Educational Perspectives. 9-17. Provides a brief account of the process of creating the Hawaiian language immersion programs. More importantly, it addresses the issues of the Hawaiian language immersion teachers who are second language learners of Hawaiian. The article also discusses students being surrounded by English. Vignettes are also included as a means to examine selected students proficiency in English. The focus was to understand how Hawaiian language immersion students acquire literacy outside ofthe classroom, which was typically the English language. 59 Slaughter, H. B. (1997). Functions of literacy in an indigenous second language: issues and insights from an ethnographic study of Hawaiian immersion. (Report No. FL 024 694). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED41 0752). 1-13. Examines literacy in Hawaiian language that would be aided by indigenous language education programs such as Hawaiian language immersion. However, problems arise when the teachers in Hawaiian immersion are not native speakers, but rather second language learners and there are limitations to students who are not able to access native speakers. The author also explores the relationship between the Hawaiian language and local culture in Hawai'i. Provides an examination and critique of the curriculum and materials for Hawaiian language instruction due to the lack of Hawaiian language books and resources. The Hawaiian culture and traditions are a part of the education of students. Speaking Hawaiian is applied to everything they participate in from the classroom to the playground.
Slaughter, H. B. and Lai, M. K. (1995). Hawaiian language immersion: lessons from a six-year study. FLES News, National network[or early language learning. 8(3): 41-46. Presents a six-year study on the lead Hawaiian language immersion program and examines factors that affect students' success rate. It concludes that the goal of fostering children to speak fluent Hawaiian language and increasing the number of people who do speak the language fluently has not yet been accomplished, but is on its way. The study presents issues in education, curriculum, and test scores as a way to assess the students' knowledge and education compared to their English instructed counterparts and also to measure the success ofthe program.
Slaughter, H. B. and Lai, M. (1994). Indigenous language immersion as an alternative form of schooling for children of Hawaiian ancestry: lessions from a six-year study. (Report No. FL 022 474). Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproducation Service no. ED 375637).1-9. Examines and evaluates the Hawaiian language immersion program. The author assesses the program focusing on the first class ofsix graders in the cohort. Data was gathered through testing and focusing on areas such as reading assignments in Hawaiian and English students were tested in reading, writing, and math achievement. Also includes recommendations for curriculum and expansion of the program.
Slaughter, H. B., Lai, M., Bogart, L., Basham, J. L., and Bobbitt, D. U. (1993 December). Evaluation report for the first cohort to complete sixth grade in the Hawaiian language immersion program. Honolulu, HI: Department fo Education, State ofHawai'i. Considers the success of the first class of Hawaiian language immersion students to complete the sixth grade. It focuses on Keaukaha Elementary School and Waiau Elementary School which had the first kindergarten-first grade classes in the Hawaiian language immersion program. Students were assessed in English using different methods. Presents the findings of the study and achievements of the 60 students through their test scores on the Stanford Achievement Test compared to students educated with English as the medium of instruction. Finally, there are some recommendations for improving the Hawaiian language immersion programs.
Sorensen, B. (Winter 1998). A vibrant & vital language is passed down to a new generation: the PUnana Leo immersion schools in Hawai'i. Winds of Change; a magazinefor American Indians in Science and Technology. 13(1): 34-37. Discusses the beginning of PUnana Leo Hawaiian language immersion schools. Addresses the problems of finding qualified Hawaiian speaking teachers and the childrens' ability to speak English. But for the most part, although at the time of the article's publication the language immersion schools had been in operation for about ten years, the author questions the benefits of the Hawaiian language immersion programs.
Warner, S. L. (1996 May). lola ka 'olelo i na keiki: ka 'apo 'ia 'ana 0 ka 'olelo Hawai'i e na keiki rna Ke Kula Kaiapuni (Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, 1996). Honolulu, HI. Focus of this study is on the learning of Kula Kaiapuni, Hawaiian language immersion, students and the effectiveness of language immersion education. Provides background information on the Hawaiian language program from its goals to teachers, staff, parents, and the State's Department ofEducation's role in educating students completely in the Hawaiian language. Warner examines the curriculum and presents findings from the study of language acquisition of Hawaiian language through immersion education.
Warner, S. N. (1998 August). Ke a'a makalei: a planning and implementation project for Hawaiian language regenesis. Honolulu, HI: Center for Second Language Research, Department ofEnglish as a Second Language, University ofHawai'i. Addresses the Hawaiian language revitalization efforts through the establishment of Hawaiian language immersion programs. Presents a history of the Hawaiian language from the start of revitalization movement through the current status. Warner examines the number ofspeakers and their fluency in addition to use-where Hawaiian language is spoken in the community, media, writing by students (what they are producing in print and media formats), and speakers using the language outside ofthe classroom setting for example, in sports. Included is a questionnaire that researchers used.
Warner, S.L.N. (2001). The movement to revitalize Hawaiian language and culture. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, California: Academic Press. 133-144. Presents an overview of the history of Hawaiian language from usage prior to Western contact through efforts to revitalize the use of Hawaiian as the medium of instruction in the schools. Includes an analysis of social events and issues COilllected to the decline of Hawaiian being spoken, which utimately resulted in less native speakers. In regards to Hawaiian language revitalization, focuses on the early 61 movements to establish the revival efforts and follows through with the creation of the Hawaiian language immersion schools. The problems and issues that the program endured from critics are also addressed as well as other controversies about the program curriculum, adding grade levels through high school, standardized tests, and so forth.
Warschauer, M. (1998 October). Technology and indigenous language revitalization: analyzing the experience of Hawai'i. Canadian Modern Language Review. 55(1):139 160. [EBSCOhost] Presents the ethnographic research by Hawaiian educators to use online technology as a means to promote the Hawaiian language and revitalization efforts. The Hawaiian language community, specifically Hale Kuamo'o, is responsible for creating the first indigenous language bulletin board system for students, teachers, and parents as a means for them to be surrounded and immersed in the Hawaiian language. Focus is placed on how the internet can be used to promote and utilize the Hawaiian language in the same way that English is used and promotes cultural awareness and identity. Multimedia is being used as a way for students to be immersed in the Hawaiian language and to have the ability to use it everywhere in the modern world.
Warschauer, M. and Donaghy, K. (1997). LeokY: a powerful voice of Hawaiian language revitalization. Available at: http://www.gse.uci.edu/markw/leoki.html Discusses the history and revitalization of the Hawaiian language with the challenges that the language and community faced. Discusses the linguistic problems for the revitalization in terms of resources and materials that apply to the present times. However, the focus of LeokY is using the computer and technology now to communicate in Hawaiian so that students and teachers are always surrounded by and immersed in the Hawaiian language.
Warschauer, M., Kolko, B., Nakamura, L. and Rodman, G. (Eds.) (2000). Language, . identity and the internet. Race in cyberspace. New York, NY: Routledge. Also available at: http://www.gse.uci.edu/markw/lang.html Addresses the role language plays in a peoples identity. During the time of information and technological advancements, the author ties together the Hawaiian language and the internet to the identity ofthe Hawaiian people as well as revitalizing the language.
Wilson, W. H. and Kamana, K. (2001). "Mai loko mai 0 ka 'i'ini: proceeding from a dream, the 'Aha Piinana Leo connection in Hawaiian language revitalization. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 147-176. Presents a look at the Hawaiian language throughout history as a language commonly spoken, but also through education and how the people shifted to speaking English. Fmihermore, it discusses in-depth the Hawaiian immersion program and organizations associated with the program. Continues to present an in-depth analysis on issues that the total immersion program faced regarding curriculum, new schools, 62 successes, and use of English language as related to the revitalization of the Hawaiian language.
Wilson, W.H. (2005). I ka 'olelo Hawai'i ke ola, 'life is found in the Hawaiian language.' In T.L. McCarty and a.Zepeda (Eds.) Indigenous language use and change in the Americas./nternationaljournal o/the sociology o/language. 132: 123-137. Examines the issue of Hawaiian language revitalization. Provides a historical look at Hawaiian, the endangered indigenous language of Hawai'i. Discusses the changes in the Hawaiian language as well as well as its use in the school system.
Wilson, W.H. (1998). The sociopolitical context ofestablishing Hawaiian-medium education. Language. Culture. and Curriculum. Available: http://firstsearch.oc1c. org/WebZ/SageRetrieveMarkedCategories?sessionid=sp02sw12 4484... 11 (3): 325-338. Presents a history ofthe establishment ofHawaiian language education and what was involved in creating the program. The movement for language revitalization efforts began with the Hawaiian renaissance in the 1970s. Focuses on the legislation that declared Hawaiian language the other official language for the State of Hawai'i alongside English and also brought about other injustices suffered by Hawaiians. Also presents other programs that were to be included in the public education that leads up to the formation and creation of 'Aha Punana Leo based on the Maori Kohanga Reo.
Yamauchi, L. (1998). A review of indigenuous language immersion programs and a focus on Hawai'i. Equity & Excellence in Education, University of Massachusetts School ofEducation Journal. 31(1): 11-20. Addresses educational policies regarding indigenous languages in the United States and how that greatly affected the utilization of indigenous languages. Discusses the history of language loss and causes for the demise. Then examines indigenous language immersion programs and the move to bilingual education. As an example, the Hawaiian language immersion program is examined along with the policies and the current status.
Yamauchi, L. A. (2001). The sociocultural context of Hawaiian language revision and learning final report: Project 1.6 Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence. Discusses the implementation of kula kaiapuni under the Hawaiian language immersion program. The author presents the process of data collection and study participants as well as the findings and implications of indigenous language. Yamauchi also discusses the history of Hawaiian language and the establishment of the Hawaiian language immersion programs as Punana Leo and into the public schools. Presents a chronology of the program and the lack of Hawaiian language materials and qualified teachers. 63 Yamauchi, L. A, Ceppi, A K., and Lau-Smith, J. (1999). Sociohistorical influences on the development of Papahana Kaiapuni, the Hawaiian language immersion program. Journal ofEducation for Students Placed at Risk. 4(1),27-46. Analyzes the policies through history regarding the Hawaiian language and what initiated the movement towards establishing the Hawaiian language immersion program and Papahana Kaiapuni. This article follows the timeline for the Hawaiian language from the Hawaiian renaissance through Piinana Leo's creation and the Department of Education's role in Hawaiian language immersion. Addresses issues ofcurriculum, school sites, and expanding the program to secondary grades.
Yamauchi, L.A, Ceppi, AX., and Lau-Smith, J. (1998). A sociohistorical analysis of the Hawaiian language immersion program. (Report No. FL 025 261). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED419415). Discusses the Hawaiian language revitalization efforts through which the Hawaiian language immersion program, Papahana Kula Kaiapuni, evolved. In this research they gathered data through interview and document analysis. Presents the changes and evolution of the Hawaiian language through the year and the organization that supports the immersion program, 'Aha Piinana Leo, and the State Board and Department ofEducation and their responsibilities to educate Hawaiian students.
Yamauchi, L.A., Ceppi, A. K., and Lau-Smith, J. (2000). Teaching in a Hawaiian context: educator perspectives on the Hawaiian language immersion program. Bilingual Research Journal. Official journal of the National Association for Bilingual Education. 24(4). Also available at: http://bIj.asu.edu/v244/articles/ar5.html Focuses on the Hawaiian language immersion program as part of the Heritage Language Initiative, which is the only K-12 public educational program conducted entirely in the Hawaiian language in the United States. This is only part of a larger project to incorporate three planes of sociocultural analysis. Examines the results such as identity issues by teachers and the transformation of the Hawaiian identity by participants and the educational setting in the schools. Emphasis is placed on including Hawaiian culture and traditions in the curriculum and the setting of the school's environment. It is a new concept in the United States school system. 64 Tahitian language and education
Tahitians have not suffered the same destiny as their cousins in Aotearoa-New
Zealand and Hawai'i in terms of loss of native speakers or continual use as a conversational language. Tahitians were fortunate in that the colonial French government did not inflict the restrictions that British and American colonizers did on the use of indigenous languages. They, too, could set an example for indigenous people of the
Pacific to create a support system for education of their children in their indigenous language or to at least permit usage in schools and in everyday life.
The first missionaries to arrive in French Polynesia were the British Protestants
In 1830s or early 1840s (Douglas, 1944). French Catholic organizations grew into a stable governing power and changes in the economy, politics, social and academic areas were underway. At the end of the 1800s, the remnants of the British colonizers in the eastern Paci fic made way for the French to move in and further heighten their dominance.
With the establishment of the mission schools, French became the language of instruction in the French overseas territories. Utilization of indigenous languages in the education of Pacific island students in the formal western educational system was a part of the earlier mission schools given that the missionaries' primary goal in establishing their schools was religious conversion. Over time, it was beneficial for the French administration to have their subjects speak French. Consequently, French became the language of instruction in the schools.
Unlike other island nations in the Pacific, where indigenous languages were formally prohibited by the colonial administration, the Tahitian language was not 65 fonnally prohibited from schools from the tum of the century up until the early 1960s
(Pukoki 1996). There were incidences where teachers would sneak upon students during recess to check if they were speaking Tahitian. If they were, then the students were punished. As in Aotearoa-New Zealand and Hawai'i, punishment for speaking in their native language contributed to large proportions of indigenous Tahitians dropping
Tahitian and speaking only French, which would adversely affect the number of native speakers. However, it was the main sector of Tahiti and French Polynesia that witnessed the decline in Tahitian speakers which was centered in the urban areas. "[There are] certain classes of the Tahitian population, particularly [in] the urban, upward mobile, people of the island of Tahiti, are losing a good deal of their competency and fluency in
Tahitian," (Levy 1970). Thus, loss of indigenous Tahitian language speakers was induced by Tahitian desires to be as affluent as their French counterparts.
In spite of the fact that there were Tahitians wanting to be French, Tahitians, anned with their language, became colonizers themselves. If students from the
Marquesas, Mangareva, Tuamotu and other islands under the French Polynesia umbrella wanted to be well educated, then they had to attend school in Pape'ete where they were inadvertently coerced and pressured to learn Tahitian (Pukoki 1996). As there were six other indigenous Pacific languages in addition to French, some English and Hakka, knowing Tahitian was a necessity that forced students from the other islands to learn
Tahitian as a foreign language. According to Winston Pukoki, "... everyone who lives on Tahiti must know Tahitian; it's really the lingua franca here." As of 1996, when
Winston Pukoki was interviewed, it was his understanding that there was no official language policy in practice in the school system. 66 Tahitian, as the medium of instruction had its early beginnings in 1970s in the
Protestant mission schools where the English who learned Tahitian could teach. The teaching of Tahitian at the University of French Polynesia only began in the 1990s and a
Bachelor of Arts degree in Tahitian and other indigenous languages in French Polynesia is offered at the University. Tahitian has grown in French Polynesia and in 1977 the legislature recognized it as a co-official language alongside that of French (Tagupa
1979). This was significant because it guarantees that the Tahitian language would continue on through the future generations.
The schools have a bilingual system to comply with the informal policies requiring a specific number of hours to be spent using or teaching the Tahitian language.
Although the Government Council finally acknowledged that a Tahitian language academy was necessary in 1967, it was not until July 2,1974 that the first session of the
Tahitian Academy was conducted (Coppenrath 1975). L'Academic Tahitienne (Tahitian
Academy) or Fare Vana'a has been the main support for Tahitian language education.
The creation of the Academy became a driving force for people who wanted to use their native language and express their uniqueness as Tahitians. There was renewed interest by young French speaking generations to learn the language of their ancestors.
Revitalization ofinterest to learn the Tahitian language resulted in a series ofrevisions of grammar books and dictionaries.
"The first mission of the Academy is to safeguard, to maintain the language and then also enrich it [according to the resolution 194/AA adopted by the Territorial authorities on January 16, 1995], but not by imposing its terms on others," (Coppenrath
1995, Pukoki 1996). The Academy board members have the responsibility to set and 67 adhere to the standards for the Tahitian language and education where language is concerned. There are seven specific statutes approved to cover what they will oversee.
Radio-Tahiti is another entity that contributed to and influenced the language.
Broadcasts in Tahitian began in 1950 and quickly became very influential in communities still based in oral traditions and with spoken Tahitian. Everything on the radio was presented in Tahitian, the news, music, geography, history and narrated legends. Aside from the Tahitian Academy determining what is done for Tahitian or how Tahitian language evolves, it is also Radio-Tahiti as well as the community that is a part of the process ofcontributing to possible terms or ways to express concepts. As with the Maori and Hawaiian languages, Tahitian needed words to describe or name new concepts such as technology (computer, internet) and other modem ideas or material objects. In Tahiti there were people who believed that they should borrow from the French and Tahitianize the word while others favored the invention or retrospective look at Tahitian root word or other Polynesian words to better suit the language. Unlike Maori and Hawaiian, however, if the Academy creates a word and it is not liked by the community, then they may submit suggestions for a new or better word. The Maori and Hawaiian language communities, on the other hand, have a committee comprised of members who are based in education or the schools who create or formulate new words but do not present the new words to the public for approval.
The Tahitian Academy is the pnmary organization responsible for grammar, punctuation, spelling and vocabulary of the Tahitian language. They work to fulfill their mission under the statutes established by the Government Council and Territorial
Assembly and to also encourage the Tahitian people to participate in the process to assist 68 with cultivating their own indigenous language. More Tahitians are becoming active in learning and teaching the Tahitian language. Although French remains the official language used in conducting government, legislative business and media broadcast, there are organizations that strive for autonomy from French administrators led by people like
Pouvana'a a 'O'opa. When he addressed the Assembly in Tahitian, it was one event that sparked a renewed interest in the language and identity among the younger generations of
Tahitians.
Bilingualism or even multilingualism in French Polynesia permitted many indigenous languages to survive. The colonial language of the Territory has had a continual presence in government and education as well as broadcast communications where there is a limited amount of air time for indigenous languages to be heard. (Mugler and Lynch 1996). Use of the colonial language and indigenous language in every day conversations or interchanging indigenous word and phrases into the colonial speech or vice versa, exhibits how much the colonial culture and influence have become a part of the indigenous culture. Language colonization has not yet prevented Tahitian or other indigenous languages of French Polynesia from being used. There may be dialect differences between people from Tahiti, urban or rural areas, and those from the outer islands or island groups, but many communicate through French. Nevertheless, French has been the main language as is Tahitian, especially in interethnic relations in which "it has become the language of intercourse for all of the territory's Polynesian population,"
(Lavondes 1994). "Knowledge ofTahitian is an easily accessible goal, thanks to frequent contact with the small number of immigrant Tahitian officials, the relationship between the two languages and the educational influence ofRadio Tahiti (Lavondes 1944). 69 Although French has been the medium of instruction in the French Polynesian school system, classes and some instruction using the Tahitian language has continued.
In 1965 there was an awakening that caused people to think more about teaching the
Tahitian language in schools. Students entering primary schools may have known words or phrases in Tahitian but did not know the language well. Consequently, the Tahitian language as the medium of instruction, especially in the first years of primary schools, became a standard practice in some schools (Pukoki 1996). There was a 1984 law that declared "Tahitian language as an obligatory subject to be taught during normal school hours in kindergarten and primary schools," (Aldrich 1993). A number ofrequired hours per week were to be spent teaching in Tahitian and increase as students moved up in each form or grade level. The requirement for teaching or instruction in Tahitian would be difficult on students from other island groups in French Polynesia who had to go to Tahiti to finish their education after Form 4. Although there is an official policy of using the child's reo Ma'ohi or mother tongue when first starting school, those going to Tahiti from outside places like the Tuamotu islands are not taught in their indigenous language but rather in Tahitian.
The problem In French Polynesia is not so much the lack of education or instruction in Tahitian language. History indicates that Tahitian has continued as an indigenous language that has been spoken prior to, during and after colonization.
However, they have not addressed the issue of the other indigenous languages of the
Pacific in French Polynesia surviving or being included in the schools and education.
"... Everyone who lives on Tahiti must know Tahitian, it's really the lingua franca here,"
(Pukoki 1996). The use of indigenous languages in education at any level provides for 70 social stability and maintenance but also forms the primary element ofcultural identify
(Aldrich 1993, Pukoki 1996). "The Tahitian language is part of Tahitian culture and involves much ofthe pride and identity ofbeing Tahitian. It is ... a national treasure ... even though there is ... only remnants of an oral tradition [that the] language represents and 'codes' in its vocabulary and, above all, in its semantics, Tahitian experience," (Levy
1970). 71 Selected annotated bibliography: Tahiti
Coppenrath, H. (1975). L'Academie Tahitienne. Pape'ete, Tahiti: Te Fare Vana'a. Addresses the movement of the Tahitian language from the time of post-contact. Focus is on the discourse of the role and utilization of the Tahitian language at all levels in various sectors of governrnent, broadcast communication, religion, and education. History ofthe Tahitian language, establishment ofL'Academie Tahitienne (Tahitian Academy) and the future ofthe language are also discussed.
Davies, J. (1851). A Tahitian and English dictionary. Tahiti London Missionary Society's Press (Haere Po No Tahiti). Provides a useful collection of Tahitian words and the English language counterparts. It also contains general explanation of grammar and linguistics of the Tahitian language.
Henry T. (1928). Ancient Tahiti. Honolulu, HI: The Museum. Compiles material recorded by J. M. Orsmond. Included in the ethology ofTahiti are Tahitian language texts, chants and folklore. The essence of this book is the mythology ofPolynesia and the lengends ofTahiti, the Society Islands.
Jernudd, B. and Ward,.T. (1978). COLLOQUIUM: colloquium on Polynesian languages. Honolulu East-West Culture Learning Institute. Discusses Polynesian language planning conference held after the Tahitian language was recognized as an official language and movement on autonomy. At the conference, planning centered around the development of policies on the status of native languages ofthe region.
Krupa, V. (1982). Languages of Asia and Africa - volume 4: the Polynesian languages a guide. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd. Provides a brief description of the Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, which includes detailed breakdown of phonology, structure, words and phrases, rules, vocabulary and semantics.
Laurens, C. and Vareille, J. (1984). New Caledonia and the Society Islands. Schooling in the Pacific islands: colonies in transition. Elmdsord, New York: Pergamon Press 110 142. Reviews the schooling and education system in the French overseas territories ofNew Caledonia and the Society Islands which focus on the structure, administration, personnel, curriculum and instruction which also includes an overview of the sociopolitical status. 72 Lavondes, H. (1994). Language policy, language engineering and literacy in French Polynesia. Advances in Language Planning. 225-276. Discusses the position of each of the languages spoken in French Polynesia, such as Tahitian, Chinese and French in relation to literacy and demographics. History of language influence and government policies concentrated around education with French language proficiency is also examined.
Le Caill, M. (1982). A study of the roles of Tahitian, French and English in the educational system ofFrench Polynesia. Honolulu, HI: University ofHawai'i at Manoa, English as a Second Language. Discusses the role that Tahitian, French and English languages play in the educational systems of French Polynesia in educating Polynesian children and the problems that are involved. There are suggested changes in bilingual education programs and using the aforementioned languages as the language of instruction.
Levin, P. (1978). Students and teachers on Tubuai: a cultural analysis of Polynesian classroom interaction. San Diego, CA: University ofCalifornia San Diego. Analyzes schooling and education in French Polynesia on the island of Tubuai; how students are taught and their interaction, adjustments and differences in learning. It also includes how cultural differences playa part in their education within the French educational system.
Levy, R. 1. (1970). Teaching Tahitian language in the schools of French Polynesia Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes. 26(26): 79-83. Addresses the issue of teaching only the French language in the schools in French Polynesia, and explores the need for teaching in Tahitian. The benefits of teaching Tahitian in the schools with bilingualism is also addressed as well ass the social and psychological experience of the people. The author feels that this will assist in an easier transition and existence in their culture within the French system.
Perrin Y. (1978). Towards the development ofadapted educational programs in Tubua'i. New York, NY: Columbia University Teachers College. Examines the educational system of French Polynesia with concentration on the island ofTubua'i. Through research and survey, discusses the need to have culturally relative education for the students and the entire community to satisfy their needs and wants. The Western styles of educational programs need to adapt to the surrounding region and the people to be culturally sensitive and to suit their needs as developing areas.
Pollock, N. J. and Crocombe, R. (1988). French Polynesia: a book ofselected readings. Suva Institute ofPacific Studies ofthe University ofthe South Pacific Contains papers by various contributing authors that focus on the concerns, which exists throughout the Pacific. Issues that are addressed include the land, identity, the past and the future ofFrench Polynesia and its people. 73 Pukoki, W. (1996). Reo Maohi in French Polynesia. Pacific Languages in Education. Suva, Fiji: Institute ofPacific Studies 288-299. Interviews Winston Pukoki who teaches ethnolinguistics and Tahitian language at the French University ofthe Pacific covers the path ofthe Tahitian language and teaching of the language schools. Also covers the Tahitian Academy and its role as guardian of the language, and the course in which they hope to guide the Tahitian language in the primary, secondary, and tertiary schools and thereafter.
Rensch, K. H. (1990). The delayed impact: postcolonial language problems in the French overseas territory Wallis and Futuna (Central Polynesia). Language Problems and Language Planning. 14(3): 224-236. Discusses the two most outstanding events that had the greatest impact in the 1950s on the use of native languages in the French overseas Pacific territories, mass migration and conversion from a protectorate to an overseas territory.
Rogers, D. 1. (1993-1994). Langue et enseignment. Tahiti, French Polynesia Madame Louise Peltzer, Universite Francaise du Pacifique, Pape'ete (Personal Communication, October 9, 1999) Offers dated information regarding the Tahitian language and education in Tahiti, French Polynesia.
Saquet, J. L. (1997). The Tahiti handbook: te femla. Tahiti Editions Avant Et Apres, Photocomposition Polynesia. Contains a good description and chronology of events that occurred in Tahiti. There are colorful pictures, maps, illustrations that trace the paths of explorers, artifacts, drawings and samplings of what is described. Provides an overview of the history of French Polynesia, specifically Tahiti in the Society Islands. Along with a glossary of Tahitian words, included in this compact book is a look at Polynesian "civilization: of the past and present, significant historical events, the natural environment, settlement ofthe islands, and various aspects ofthe Tahitian culture.
Tagupa, W. (1973). A five-year majority: the politics of internal autonomy in French Polynesia. Honolulu, Hawai'i. Uses statistics and political movements that began after World War II to illustrate the autonomy movement in French Polynesia. Covers the political groups and elections from the mid-l 960s, and the major players in the government and movements such as Pouvana'a a 'O'opa
Tagupa, W. E. H. (Spring 1979). The Tahitian language: a historical and vernacular controversy. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Studies II(2): 144-155. Presents a brief look at the Tahitian language and argument in regards to changes that occurred in the Tahitian language. Shows statistics on the usage in certain areas of the language between the people ofFrench Polynesia. 74 Thomas, R. M. and Postlewaite, T. N. (1984). Schooling in the Pacific islands: colonies in transition. Elmsford, New York: Pergamon Press. Provides a variety of articles that focus on different island groups in the Pacific in Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Examines the school system imposed in each region as well as the curriculum and administration of the schools with some of the indigenous culture and people. 75 Conclusion
Colonization of the Pacific has altered the Pacific indigenous languages and in some instances it has led to the near extinction of some languages. Pacific Islanders understood the importance of their indigenous languages for the survival of their culture, traditions, histories and especially for themselves as a people. "For the language, for the children, for the people, it is indeed a matter of life or death" (Benton 1996). The indigenous Maori and Hawaiian people of Aotearoa-New Zealand and Hawai'i have worked hard to ensure that the vernacular languages would be preserved and continue throughout the future for the succeeding generations.
The Maori and Hawaiian people saw the solution to their declining language and language education situation in the indigenous language immersion schools and programs. Although indigenous language immersion programs, like Kohanga Reo and
PUnana Leo, contributed to the preservation of indigenous languages in Aotearoa-New
Zealand and Hawai'i, immersion education may not be needed nor suitable for other
Pacific Island nations. Tahiti is an example in which the indigenous language was not in as much danger of extinction as the aforementioned places, and efforts were made to safeguard the Tahitian language so that this did not occur. While the native speakers of the indigenous languages in Aotearoa-New Zealand and Hawai'i were dwindling and assimilating well to the western ways, which forced them to reject their native tongues in favor for the western colonial languages, other indigenous people in the Pacific need not be as concerned. Prohibition and punishment for use of the indigenous language is a familiar problem of the people as each colonial administration settled in the Pacific.
However, the languages were not lost in its entirety due to the fact that those who lived in 76 the rural areas away from the port towns and cities have continued to speak in their native languages.
Pressure from the colonizers and the colonial government changed the status of the indigenous languages. Many indigenous languages of the Pacific remained intact even if in small numbers. Perhaps it is presumed that through language policies fonnulated by the colonial government that those languages would be eliminated or diminished significantly. Yet, bands of indigenous people have fonnulated organizations to protect their languages. "A powerful resource for traditional identity is the national language," an import component in the perpetuation of the culture and language (Levy
1970). Consistent and persistent efforts were made to establish education in, around and about the vernacular languages of the lands. So, after the languages have been banned or prohibited, it took many years before the government officially recognized them as official languages. Nevertheless, it would take time before educational systems would include indigenous languages into the curriculum and even longer for the languages to be accepted as the medium of instruction.
It is almost thirty years since the Hawaiian language gained official status as an official language along with English and as the medium of instruction in immersion schools. In Tahiti, the L'Academie Tahitienne (Tahitian Academy) or Fare Vana'a established the direction in which Tahitian language should go, and gained a head start in taking control oftheir destiny and the destiny oftheir indigenous language. Even though there were education programs and schools that either taught in the Tahitian language such as the mission schools, or as a subject from the earliest times of the French colonial government, it was not until 1980 that the Tahitian language was given official 77 recognition. When the 1984 law was approved the Tahitian language became a mandatory division of the curriculum up to the primary grade levels. Exposure of the
Tahitian language to Tahitian and non-Tahitians alike has improved the status of the
Tahitian language.
Western colonization in the Pacific has greatly affected the vernacular languages of the region. Alterations and changes in the languages are natural occurrences in evolution of the language and cultures. However, with the influx of western arrival, colonial administration, urbanization and Christianity, the modifications in the languages have been swift and significant. Western colonization, as experienced by the indigenous people in the Pacific has also had long lasting effects on the status of the indigenous languages. The shift towards colonial languages and away from vernacular language due to colonization tested on the strength ofthe people and the language.
Indigenous language immersion schools were established with the intention of reviving and perpetuating the indigenous languages of the land as well as the culture and traditions. The indigenous languages not only provide a link to the past of the land, culture and the ancestors but also give people a sense of identity and pride. Those who have not grown up knowing or understanding their ancestors' language lack something that colonization has taken from them. Although it has worked out well for the indigenous Hawaiians and Maori, immersion schools may not necessarily be successful in Tahiti. Tahitian students indicate that a Tahitian language immersion school is somewhat desired by a small sampling of secondary school aged students. Language colonization in Polynesia has not only affected the suppression of the language but also thoughts and feelings in regard to the indigenous languages and its status. A great 78 majority of the people have assimilated and acculturated very well to western colonial administration and this has severely affected the evolution ofthe indigenous languages of the Pacific and will continue to dictate the status and the diffusion ofthe languages. 79 References
Aldrich, R. (1993). France and the South Pacific since 1940. Honolulu, HI: University ofHawai'i Press. Addresses the French presence in the Pacific from 1940. Provides the history of French territories in the Pacific and the effects ofcolonization.
Benton, R.A. (1996). The Maori language in New Zealand education and society. Pacific Languages in Education. 209-227. Provides a historical look at the indigenous Maori language of New Zealand and the cause for the establislunent of the first immersion program and schools. Language policies, treaty obligations, and the position ofthe indigenous language in society and education are some of the factors that are important in the formation of language education in New Zealand.
Cantoni, G. (Ed.) (1996). Stabilizing indigenous languages. Flagstaff, Arizona: Northern Arizona University. Includes papers from the "Stabilizing Indigenous Languages" symposium about indigenous languages such as Native American, Samoan, and Hawaiian languages and programs that were created to stabilize each respective language.
Coppenrath, H. (1975). L'Academie Tahitienne. Pape'ete, Tahiti: Te Fare Vana'a. Addresses the movement ofthe Tahitian language from the time ofpost-contact. Focus is on the discourse ofthe role and utilization ofthe Tahitian language at all levels in variious sectors ofgovernment, broadcast communication, religion, and educatio
Crowley, T. (1984). Pacific Languages: directions for the future. Language Planning Newsletter. 10(4) 1-3. Discusses the direction in which representatives of various Pacific islands would like to take the native indigenous languages. Also addresses the issue of Pacific vernacular status in the eyes ofthe native speakers.
Crowley, T. (1984 July). The future of French as a Pacific langage. Pacific Island Monthly. 55(7): 55-58. Provides a look at the educational system implemented by the French administration throughout French Polynesia, including New Caledonia and other French colonia territories. Addresses the issue of French as the official language and its transforn1ation into a "Pacific" language. As a colonial power, France has influenced those under the French Republic and performs a role in society and education. Both the English and the French have a long history in the Pacific and have become indigenized languages as well as the Pacific languages ofthe indigenous people. 80 Douglas, N. (1994). Education in the Pacific islands today - special report part 2 Pacific Magazine. 19: 43-69. Reviews the colonial educational systems in the Pacific that include American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, the Marshall Islands, the Northern Marianas, Palau and Western Samoa. (A continuation of the previous article).
Dunford, B. (1991). Language and heritage, a controversial language-immersion program in Hawai'i is preserving the native culture. The Executive Educator. 36-38. Discusses the controversy that surrounds the Hawaiian language immersion education program that promotes Hawaiian language and culture. Addresses the long term effects on students in the immersion programs and their English language abilities, especially to those whodo not support the Hawaiian language immersion program. It briefly touches upon the Hawaiian renaissance, and addresses the obstacles for the program, such as the need for qualified teachers, translated texts, and language needs for Hawaiian words relating to contemporary society.
Fishman, J. (Ed.). (2001). Can threatened languages be saved? reversing language shift, revisited: a 21 st centry perspective. Clevedon; Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters. Addresses the issue of language revitalization in regards to languages on the brink of dying out. There is a chapter that focuses on the Maori efforts to revitalize their language.
Gimes, J. E. (1995 June). Language endangerment in the Pacific. Oceanic Linguistics. 34(1): 1-12. Addresses the issue of indigenous languages in the Pacific and its survival rate in a region where modernization and western influence have played a role in the disappearance of some languages and the decline in the number of speakers of the language that exist. Utilization or lack thereof indigenous Pacific languages and Western languages can be the significant contributing factor to the level of endangerment ofPacific languages.
Greymorning, S. (1999). Running the gauntlet of an indigenous language program. In Revitalizing indigenous languages-Papers presented at the Annual Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Symposium). (Report No. RC 021 957). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 428924). Focuses on a Arapaho teacher comparing the development of indigenous language programs for education. It discusses a history of the first Arapaho instruction and obstacles that were encountered. It referred to and drew from the Maori and Hawaiian language immersion programs by implementing cultural aspects into the classroom and curriculum. 81 Hawkins, E. I. (1991). Hawaiian immersion education: where will it take the language? Honolulu University ofHawai'i at Manoa, Indo-Pacific Languages. Examines the changes that have occurred in the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian language immersion program. Noted are the changes in the structure of selected sentences and pronunciation ofwords.
Hinton, L. (2001). Federal language policy and indigenous languages in the United States. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 39-44. Focuses on language planning for indigenous language revitalization in the United States and the federal government's reaction or feelings toward indigenous languages. Addresses the issue of minority people who speak or use their indigenous languages as a threat to the government and how they govern.
Hohepa, P. (1984 August). Current issues in promoting Maori language use. Language Planning Newsletter. 10(3): 1-4. Presents an abridged history ofAotearoa-New Zealand from the time ofcontact. This also includes the population of the indigenous Maori and a breakdown of the remaining ethnic groups of people such as the Europeans, Chinese, Indian and other Polynesians (from Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tonga, Tokelau, and Tahiti). Furthermore, it contains specific laws that surround the issue of the use or prohihited use ofthe Maori language in the schools and later the recognition of Maori as an official language. Hohepa addresses the teaching of Maori, the immersion program, and other outside possible use ofMaori in communication.
King, J. (2001). Te K6hanga Reo: Maori language revitalization. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, California: Academic Press 119-128. Seeks to examine Te K6hanga Reo, the language nest. It is part of the movement by the Maori in Aotearoa as the foundation for indigenous Maori language revitalization. It chronicles the history ofMaori language and literacy and also the usage ofMaori in education.
Lavondes, H. (1994). Language policy, language engineering and literacy in French Polynesia. Advances in Language Planning. 225-276. Discusses the position of each of the languages spoken in French Polynesia, such as Tahitian, Chinese and French in relation to literacy and demographics. History of language influence and government policies concentrated around education with French language proficiency is also examined.
Levy, R. I. (1970). Teaching Tahitian language in the schools of French Polynesia Journal de la Societe des Oceanistes. 26(26): 79-83. Addresses the issue of teaching only the French language in the schools in French Polynesia, and explores the need for teaching in Tahitian. The benefits of teaching Tahitian in the schools with bilingualism is also addressed as well ass the social and 82 psychological experience of the people. The author feels that this will assist in an easier transition and existence in their culture within the French system.
Lynch, J. (1998). Pacific languages: an introduction. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. Introduces languages of the Pacific that cover the grammatical structures of Oceanic, Papuan and Australian languages. This introduction also includes historical and geographical information that present evidence for settlement in the Pacific that linguistically links Pacific languages together.
Mather, G. Education (Chapter 24). The Pacific islands. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, Pacific Island Studies 491, Spring 1999296-304. Provides an informative overview of education in the Pacific that begins with traditional education and historical impacts that have affected the language and change in curriculum. Two island groups are examined as the case study in the development ofeducational systems. A chart ofeducational institutions in the Pacific is also provided.
McCarty, T.L. and Watahomigie, L.J. (1999). Indigenous education and grassroots language planning in the USA. Practicing anthropology. 20(2): 5-11. Examines the movement by indigenous people in the United States to educate children in their heritage language. Discusses language immersion and bilingual education as well as indigenous literacy for the Navajo and Hawaiians. It examines the grassroots efforts of indigenous language speakers to establish language policies and practices to uphold the language. One of the programs that is referred to is the Hawaiian language immersion program based on the Maori Kohanga Reo model. What they find is that the grassroots efforts of the Navajo and Hawaiians stem from the decline of the language usage as well as native speakers. It also mentions bilingual education and literacy issues through language maintenance. Lastly, it states what is needed to aid in linguistic selfdetermination and the future.
Mugler, F. and Lynch, J. (1996). Language and education in the Pacific. Pacific Languages in Education. 1-9. Introduces the use of vernacular and other languages that have either been interjected or that have evolved through western dominance and influence to develop into pidgin and creole languages. Consequently, there has been a shift in the style of education and the role that languages had in the systems of education around the Pacific Islands with the philosophies that regulate them.
Pukoki, W. (1996). Reo Maohi in French Polynesia. Pacific Languages in Education. Suva, Fiji: Institute ofPacific Studies 288-299. Interviews Winston Pukoki who teaches ethnolinguistics and Tahitian language at the French University ofthe Pacific covers the path of the Tahitian language and teaching of the language schools. Also covers the Tahitian Academy and its role as guardian 83 of the language, and the course in which they hope to guide the Tahitian language in the primary, secondary, and tertiary schools and thereafter.
POku'i, M.K. (1983). 'Olelo no'eau: Hawaiian proverbs and poetical saymgs. Honolulu: HI, Bishop Museum Press. Presents Hawaiian proverbs in Hawaiian with English translations. Various topics, subjects, places, and people ofHawai'i are found in the index.
Reyhner, J. (2003). Native language immersion. (Report No. FL 027 888). Washington D.C.: Office ofEducational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 482 031). Describes the benefits of indigenous language immersion education programs and total physical response approach to immersion for students. The focus ofthe study is on the development ofthe Maori and Hawaiian language immersion programs.
Reyhner, J. (1998). Teaching indigenous languages through immersion. What's Immersion Education? From the National Foreign Language Center's symposium. Available at: http://www.llatllahinc.hawaii.cdll/hana/si98/jar/vocab.htm1 Discusses the benefits of immersion education and the different types of immersion programs. However, one issue that is addressed is immersion education versus submersion education where students are placed in regular classrooms where they do not speak the language, but are expected to sink or SWIm.
Stiles, D.B. (1997). Four successful indigenous language programs. In J. Reyhner (Ed.) Teaching indigenous languages. Also available: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/-jar/TIL_21.html Flagstaff, Arizona: Northern Arizona University 248-262. Examines four indigenous language education programs by comparing the common elements, problems, and results. The four programs include Cree Way in Quebec, Canada, Hualapai in Arizona, Te Kohanga Reo Maori in Aotearoa New Zealand, and POnana Leo in Hawai'i. Provides historical background, establishment, funding, parents and community, and academics of each program. In addition, it studies the inclusion of cultural heritage and practice, revitalization efforts, literacy, and bilingualism and bilingual education.
Tagupa, W. E. H. (Spring 1979). The Tahitian language: a historical and vernacular controversy. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Studies II(2): 144-155. Presents a brief look at the Tahitian language and argument in regards to changes that occurred in the Tahitian language. Shows statistics on the usage in certain areas of the language between the people ofFrench Polynesia. 84 Thaman, K. H. (1993). Culture and the curriculum. Comparative Education. 29(3): 249-260. Examines the usefulness and the necessity of incorporating culture into the school curriculum, especially in places such as the Pacific (specifically the South Pacific). It is a vital part in establishing where indigenous people stand and where they are going.
Thrum, T.G. (1932). Renaissance of Hawaiian life and lore. Hawaiian almanac and annual for. .. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. 40-43. Provides statistical and cultural information about and relating to Hawai'i. It addresses the issues ofHawaiian language education and Hawaiian scholars. Warner, S.L.N. (2001). The movement to revitalize Hawaiian language and culture. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, California: Academic Press. 133-144. Presents an overview of the history of Hawaiian language from usage prior to Western contact through efforts to revitalize the use of Hawaiian as the medium of instruction in the schools. Includes an analysis of social events and issues connected to the decline of Hawaiian being spoken, which utimately resulted in less native speakers. In regards to Hawaiian language revitalization, focuses on the early movements to establish the revival efforts and follows through with the creation of the Hawaiian language immersion schools. The problems and issues that the program endured from critics are also addressed as well as other controversies about the program curriculum, adding grade levels through high school, standardized tests, and so forth.
Yamane, L. (2001). New life for a lost language. In L. Hinton and K. Hale (Eds.) The green book oflanguage revitalization in practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Public law 101-477 October 30, 1990: Title I Native American Languages Act. In G. Cantoni (Ed.) Stabilizing ingi genous languages (1996). (pp. 69-72). Flagstaff, AZ: Center for Excellence in Education Monograph, Northern Arizona University. Also available at: http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/stablize/ii-policy/nala1990.htm Looks at the Native American Languages Act that passed in 1990 and then was amended in 1992. The Act is a policy to preserve, protect, and promote Native American languages. It ensures the right of Native Americans to use and practice their indigenous languages. Although primarily stated as Native Americans, but not leaving out Native Hawaiians, it helps to support Native Hawaiian rights to also promote, preserve and utilize the Hawaiian language.