SPECIES: Scientific [common] scaphoides [bitterroot milkvetch] Forest: Salmon–Challis National Forest Forest Reviewer: Date of Review: Forest concurrence (or recommendation if new) for inclusion of species on list of potential SCC: (Enter Yes or No)

FOREST REVIEW RESULTS:

1. The Forest concurs or recommends the species for inclusion on the list of potential SCC: Yes___ No___

2. Rationale for not concurring is based on (check all that apply): Species is not native to the plan area ______Species is not known to occur in the plan area ______Species persistence in the plan area is not of substantial concern ______

FOREST REVIEW INFORMATION:

1. Is the Species Native to the Plan Area? Yes_X_ No___

If no, provide explanation and stop assessment.

2. Is the Species Known to Occur within the Planning Area? Yes_X_ No___

If no, stop assessment. Table 1. All Known Occurrences, Years, and Frequency within the Planning Area Year Number of Location of Observations (USFS Source of Information Observed Individuals District, Town, River, Road Intersection, HUC, etc.) 1919 No data Approximately 21 miles west of Element Occurrence (EO) 1 Gibbonsville off of Salmon River Rocky Mountain Herbarium. Road. Barcode: 01282513

North Fork Ranger District. 1984 30 Along the Salmon River across EO 2 from Hale Gulch circa 13 miles Herbarium: New York down from North Fork. Barcode: 01282506

North Fork Ranger District

1984 Few East-facing slope above Agency EO 3 Creek just inside Forest Service Rocky Mountain Herbarium boundary ca 10 miles east of Barcode: ID062576 Tendoy.

Leadore Ranger District 1984 Less than Morgan Creek 12 miles north of EO 4 50 Challis near West Fork. Moseley (1989)

Challis-Yankee Fork Ranger District 1989 No data Salmon River Valley between EO 5-15 North Fork and Shoup. Ten Moseley (1989) extensive populations.

North Fork Ranger District 1989 Many Lemhi Valley. Large population EO 16 hundreds above the Forest boundary on Moseley (1989) Agency Creek, East of Tendoy.

Leadore Ranger District 1989 3 Lemhi Valley. Small population at EO 17 the Forest boundary on Big Moseley (1989) Eightmile Creek, west of Leadore.

Leadore Ranger District 1989 Over Lemhi Valley. Large population EO 18 10,000 spans the Forest and BLM Moseley (1989) boundary on Hayden Creek between Rye Grass Creek and Bear Valley Creek.

Leadore Ranger District a. Are all Species Occurrences Only Accidental or Transient?

Yes___ No_X_

If yes, document source for determination and stop assessment. b. For species with known occurrences on the Forest since 1990, based on the number of observations and/or year of last observation, can the species be presumed to be established or becoming established in the plan area?

Yes__X_ No___

If no, provide explanation and stop assessment

c. For species with known occurrences on the Forest predating 1990, does the weight of evidence suggest the species still occurs in the plan area?

Yes_X_ No___

If determination is no, stop assessment d. Map 1, Bitterroot milkvetch conservation status in US and Canada (NatureServe 2018)

NatureServe. 2018. Conservation Species Report. Astragalus scaphoides. Internet website: http://explorer.natureserve.org. Accessed on January 25, 2018.

e. Map 3, Bitterroot milkvetch range in and surrounding states and provinces (NRCS 2018)

USDA. 2018. Plants Profile for Astragalus scaphoides. Internet website: https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ASSC4. Accessed on January 25, 2018.

3. Is There Substantial Concern for the Species’ Capability to persist Over the Long-term in the Plan Area Based on Best Available Scientific Information?

Table 2. Status summary based on existing conservation assessments

Entity Status/Rank (all at species level except NatureServe Global Rank) Global Rank G3— Vulnerable (At moderate risk of extinction due to a restricted range, relatively few populations (often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other factors)1. State Rank S3—Vulnerable in the state of Idaho (Species is at moderate risk of extinction or elimination due to restricted range, few populations or occurrences, steep declines, severe threats, or other factors) Idaho State Not listed List Status

USDA Forest Region 1—Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest (Rank: Known)2 Service Region 4—Not listed3

USDI FWS Not listed as a Candidate species4 Other Idaho Native Society: Acknowledged as not ranked5 BLM: Not listed5

1. NatureServe. 2018. Conservation Species Report. Astragalus scaphoides. Internet website: http://explorer.natureserve.org. Accessed on January 25, 2018. 2. USFS Region 1. 2011. 2011 Sensitive Species List Idaho and . Website: http://fsweb.r1.fs.fed.us/wildlife/wwfrp/TESnew.htm. Accessed on January 10, 2018 3. USFS Region 4. 2016. Proposed, Endangered, Threatened, and Sensitive Species List. On file. Accessed on January 11, 2017. 4. USFWS. 2017. Candidate species believed to or known to occur in Idaho. Website: https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/reports/species-listed-by-state-report?state=ID&status=candidate. Accessed on January 12, 2018.

5. Idaho Native Plant Society. 2016. INPS Rare Plant List May 2016. https://idahonativeplants.org/rare-plants-list/. Accessed on January 10, 2018. 6. BLM. 2016. Bureau of Land Management Idaho Special Status Plants List Aug 2016. On file. Accessed on January 15, 2018.

Table 3. Status summary based on best available scientific information.

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations 1 B2 This species is known from at least 18 occurrences on the Forest Moseley, R. 1989. Field Distribution on (Moseley 1989). This species was found to be plentiful in a wide range of Investigations of Four Astragali, All Salmon–Challis habitat conditions on the Forest in the Lemhi Valley and along the Region 4 Sensitive Species, on the National Forest Salmon River between North Fork and Shoup (Moseley 1989). Salmon National Forest, With Notes on Two Others. Available online at: Habitat for this species is broadly distributed across the planning area but https://idfg.idaho.gov/ifwis/idnhp/ gaps exist within this distribution (Rank B2). Confidence in this rank is cdc_pdf/moser89g.pdf. Accessed high as all but one of the occurrences are mapped along either the on January 25, 2018. Salmon River or within the Lemhi Valley.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low 2 B This species is known to occur in Lemhi County, Idaho and Beaverhead NatureServe. 2018. NatureServe Distribution in County, Montana (NatureServe 2018). Approximately 80 occurrences of Explorer: An online encyclopedia of surrounding this species have been recorded (NatureServe 2018). Several populations life [web application]. Version 7.1. geographic area in Idaho support more than 5,000 individuals (NatureServe 2018). One NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. population about 5 miles southwest of Lemhi is comprised of over 10,000 Available online at: individuals. This species may be locally common. http://explorer.natureserve.org. Accessed on January 23, 2018. This species has a limited distribution outside the Forest (Rank B). Confidence in this rank is high as populations occur only in two counties.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low 3 B Species that are unable to disperse through large areas of unsuitable Dispersal habitat may be at greater risk of extinction than species that are able to Capability disperse across a variety of habitats. Habitat that this species may disperse through consists of ponderosa forest communities and sagebrush steppe communities from 4,000 to 7,000 feet in elevation. This

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations species is also known to occur in moderately to highly degraded pastures. The sagebrush communities and ponderosa pine communities are widespread across the Forest, but this species is likely to only disperse across areas of suitable habitat.

The life history of a plant may also influence the importance of dispersal capabilities. As a perennial species, A. scaphoides would likely be less dependent upon a successful dispersal event than an annual species. Specific methods through which this species disperses have not been studied but likely include dispersal by wind, water, animals, and gravity.

Habitat stability may also influence the dispersal capability of this species. Species with ephemeral or early successional habitats may depend upon successful dispersal events more than species that disperse into stable habitats. As sagebrush and ponderosa forest habitats are relatively stable (see Criterion 7), this species may be relatively less dependent on a successful dispersal event.

This species only disperses through suitable habitat which (Rank B). Confidence in this rank is medium as dispersal mechanisms for this species have not been well studied.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low 4 C This species is known from 18 populations on SCNF, which support Moseley, R. 1989. Field Abundance on the upwards of 10,000 individuals (Moseley 1989). There are four centers of Investigations of Four Astragali, All Salmon–Challis distribution for this species: Lemhi Valley, Salmon River Valley between Region 4 Sensitive Species, on the National Forest North Fork and Shoup, Morgan Creek in the Salmon River Mountains, and Salmon National Forest, With Notes Morgan Creek in the Lemhi Range (Moseley 1989). The results of the on Two Others. Available online at: Mosely (1989) surveys indicated that there were several locations on the https://idfg.idaho.gov/ifwis/idnhp/ Forest that were not surveyed but were likely areas for other cdc_pdf/moser89g.pdf. Accessed

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations populations. In particular, the south side of the Salmon River between on January 25, 2018. North Fork and Shoup and the upslope areas around Morgan Creek in the Salmon River Mountains were areas likely to contain additional populations of this species.

This species is considered common and the current abundance is large enough that species persistence is not threatened by demographic stochasticity in combination with environmental variation. (Rank C). Confidence in this rank is high as there are multiple documented occurrences of this species in multiple areas on the Forest.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low 5 C The population trend for this species has not been studied. Currently, this Moseley, R. 1989. Field Population Trend species is known from 18 populations with at least one large population Investigations of Four Astragali, All on the Salmon– of approximately 10,000 individuals on the Forest. The results of a survey Region 4 Sensitive Species, on the Challis National conducted in 1989 indicate that other populations are likely to be found Salmon National Forest, With Notes Forest near those populations mapped in 1989 (Moseley 1989). on Two Others. Available online at: https://idfg.idaho.gov/ifwis/idnhp/ Demographic studies of this species over multiple years indicate that cdc_pdf/moser89g.pdf. Accessed populations of this species are likely to be increasing, even under on January 25, 2018. moderate to heavy grazing pressure (Lesica 1995). While this species has been known to occur in pastures that are heavily grazed, there does not Lesica, P. 1995. Demography of seem to be any imminent threat to this species that would suggest an Astragalus scaphoides and the impending threat to populations. A study of the demography of this effects of herbivory on population species over 8 years found that even under moderate to intense growth. Great Basin Naturalist. herbivory pressure, the populations continued to grow (Lesica 1995). 55(2): 142-150. Further, the occurrence of populations in remote sections of the Salmon River Valley suggests that effects from human disturbance are likely to be Lesica, P. 1984b. The distribution rare for those populations. and reproduction effort of the rare plant Astragalus scaphoides in

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations Populations of this species may also be impacted due to the typical Montana and Idaho. Unpublished landscape position that A. scaphoides occupies. As a species that occurs report prepared for The Nature on lower slopes above drainages, A. scaphoides may be particularly Conservancy, Big Sky Field Office, vulnerable to road construction (Lesica 1984). Helena, Montana. 14 pp. Available online at: Impacts to populations may also be incurred through herbivory during https://ia802607.us.archive.org/11 the seed production phase of A. scaphoides’ life cycle. and seed /items/scaphoidesserva00lesirich/s predation from both insects and mammals have been shown to caphoidesserva00lesirich.pdf. significantly reduce fecundity (Lesica 1995). Plants are most vulnerable to Accessed on February 7, 2018. grazing as they mature (between May 15 and July 15). As such, impacts to maturing individuals from livestock grazing may be reduced by limiting livestock access to A. scaphoides populations from mid-May to mid-June. Rest-rotation grazing regimes may allow enough recruitment to maintain stable populations, while chronic severe grazing could reduce adult vigor and lead to population decline (Lesica 1995).

The current evidence suggests that the number of documented individuals on SCNF may be increased through additional surveys and that populations are increasing (Rank C). Confidence in this rank is high as multi-year studies have confirmed the ability of populations of this species to persist and grow even under adverse conditions.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low 6 A In Idaho, this species occurs on two types of habitats. The Lemhi Valley, USFS. 2017. SCNF Data Assessment. Habitat Trend on Morgan Creek, and Salmon River Mountain populations occur in Terrestrial Ecosystems Section. – the Salmon–Challis sagebrush communities (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis or Draft. National Forest Artemisia tripartita) on gentle to steep slopes that are generally south- facing (Mosely 1989). The Salmon River populations occur in ponderosa Google Earth. 2018. Salmon–Challis pine woodlands (Pinus ponderosa) on gently sloping river terraces or National Forest, Idaho. Internet moderately steep lower slopes (Mosely 1989). This species has also been website:

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations observed in Douglas fir woodlands and in moderately to highly degraded https://www.google.com/earth/. pastures (Moseley 1989). Accessed on January 24, 2018.

Associated species in the sagebrush communities include USFS. 2016. GIS Database Pseudoroegneria spicata, Festuca idahoensis, Achnatherum hymenoides, Information. Last updated March Bromus tectorum, Ericameria nauseosa, Lithospermum ruderale, 30, 2016. Balsamorhiza sagittata, Astragalus purshii, Phlox longifolia, and Ionactis alpina (Moseley 1989). Associated species in the ponderosa pine Moseley, R. 1989. Field woodlands include Pseudoroegneria spicata (Moseley 1989). Investigations of Four Astragali, All Region 4 Sensitive Species, on the Aerial imagery of habitat at the known element occurrence was assessed Salmon National Forest, With Notes for ground disturbing activities (Google Earth 2018). A database of on Two Others. Available online at: existing grazing allotments on the Forest was also queried for allotments https://idfg.idaho.gov/ifwis/idnhp/ that overlapped the known population (USFS 2016). A database review of cdc_pdf/moser89g.pdf. Accessed known invasive plant populations was queried for populations near the on January 25, 2018. element occurrence (USFS 2016). Another database of historical wildfires in the area was queried, as wildfires may degrade habitat (USFS 2016). Notes from historical collections were also reviewed as they contain information on threats to habitat. An assessment of terrestrial ecosystems on the Forest was also reviewed (USFS 2017).

A review of current and historical aerial imagery depicts evidence of grazing (cattle trails) or roads near each of the populations outside of the Salmon River Valley. No evidence of grazing was depicted at populations in the Salmon River Valley. Aerial imagery did not show any ground disturbing activity associated with mining operations. Evidence of wildfires was not depicted at any of the populations.

A database review of active grazing allotments indicated that all populations outside of the Salmon River Valley are within active cattle

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations grazing allotments. All A. scaphoides populations occur within 0.5 miles of a road. None of the populations occur within 0.5 miles of a mine. Wildfires have been recorded at the Salmon River Valley populations (e.g., the Mustang Fire in 2012), but the mapping may not be accurate as historical aerial imagery does not depict any signs of wildfire. A database review of mapped invasive plant populations showed spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe ssp. micranthos) within 0.25 miles or closer of all occurrences of A. scaphoides (USFS 2016).

A review of the sagebrush ecosystem in the USFS (2017) Terrestrial Ecosystems report describes sagebrush communities as having a relatively high ecological integrity based on their large spatial extent, contiguous distribution, and comparatively low human footprint. The sagebrush ecosystem makes up 18 percent of the vegetation cover on the Forest (USFS 2017). The sagebrush ecosystem may be at risk however, as it shows the greatest possible decline between potential vegetation of the past and existing vegetation on the Forest. Past disturbances, both natural and anthropogenic, and the slow growing nature of sagebrush species has contributed to the conversion of sagebrush communities to non-sagebrush communities. The invasive species, cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), was estimated to occur in 23 percent of all sagebrush communities on the Forest (USFS 2017). Cheatgrass is cited as having a competitive advantage over perennial native grasses as it may use fall and early spring moisture when native plants are dormant (USFS 2017).

The vegetation condition class for 75 percent of the ponderosa pine savannah communities on the Forest is reported in the Terrestrial Ecosystems report as having a moderate to high (51 to 66 percent) departure from the natural fire regime (USFS 2017). The higher the

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations condition class departure, the more risk of losing key component of an ecological system if a wildland fire occurs. Ponderosa pine savannah and ponderosa pine mixed with Douglas fir make up 16 percent of the total vegetation cover on the Forest (USFS 2017). Departure from the natural fire regime may have been caused by one or more of the following activities: fire suppression, timber harvesting, livestock grazing, introduction and establishment of exotic plant species, introduced insects or diseases, or other management activities (USFS 2017).

A review of aerial imagery and existing databases indicates that there may be a decline in the quantity or quality of suitable or potential habitat (Rank A). Confidence in this rank is high as active grazing is occurring and invasive plant species are likely to occur in habitat occupied by this species.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low 7 C This species is found in two habitat types: sagebrush vegetation USFS. 2016. GIS Database Vulnerability of communities and ponderosa pine vegetation communities. Threats to Information. Last updated March Habitats on the these communities are detailed below. 30, 2016. Salmon–Challis National Forest Threats to sagebrush communities on the Forest include changes in Halofsky, J. E., D.L. Peterson, J. J. climate, direct loss of habitat, fragmentation, invasive plants, and habitat Ho, N. L. Little, L. A. Joyce, editors. degradation due to overgrazing. Changes in climate is expected to 2018. Changes in climate increase the frequency and intensity of wildfires resulting in an increase vulnerability and adaptation in the of wildfire-induced mortality to mature sagebrush (Halofsky et al. 2018). Intermountain Region. Gen. Tech. The presence of spotted knapweed within 0.25 miles of all populations Rep. RMRS-GTR-xxx. Fort Collins, suggests there may be potential for loss of habitat due to plant invasions. CO: US Department of Agriculture, Livestock grazing is expected to continue to be a dominant land use on Forest Service, Rocky Mountain the Forest into the future. Unrestricted grazing can impact A. scaphoides Research Station. Xxx p. by direct herbivory which reduces reproductive capacity, especially if

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations grazing occurs during flowering or at a high intensity (Mosely 1989). However, A. scaphoides is known from abundant populations that occur within areas that have been actively grazed for over 100 years (Moseley 1989). This species appears able to persist with current levels of predation.

Threats to ponderosa pine communities include changes in climate, timber harvesting, insects and disease, and wildfire. Changes in climate in the Middle Rockies is forecasted to first impact water resources (Halofsky et al. 2018). The effects to water resources are expected to increase the magnitude and frequency of disturbances such as drought, insect outbreaks, and wildfire (Halofsky 2018). Timber harvesting in the Middle Rockies has resulted in a ponderosa pine cover that has decreased 40 percent since 1952 (Halofsky et al. 2018). Mountain pine beetle has caused significant mortality to ponderosa pine forests with up to 90 percent mortality in some areas of the Forest (USFS 2017). The landscape-level loss of the fire-resistant ponderosa pine is projected to have adverse impacts to the forest ecosystem as fires become more frequent and intense, as is projected by changes in climate forecasts (Halofsky et al. 2018).

Changes in climate and livestock grazing would result in changes similar in frequency and intensity to those expected from the natural range of variation and modern stressors are not significant (Rank C). Confidence in this rank is medium as populations of this species are known to persist under moderate to high grazing levels and under a range of climatic conditions.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations 8 C Life history factors such as lifespan, seed dispersal strategy, variation in Lesica, P. 1995. Demography of Life History and germination rates, relationship with pollination agents, and susceptibility Astragalus scaphoides and effects Demographics to herbivory are characteristics that can affect viability in plants. of herbivory on population growth. Great Basin Naturalist: Vol. 55: No. A. scaphoides is a long-lived perennial species growing 1 to 2 feet tall. In 2, Article 6. Available online at: this showy species, reproductive individuals may produce hundreds of https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/gb inch-long yellow per plant and 1-inch long inflated pods are held n/vol55/iss2/6. Accessed on erect and away from the stem, resembling a candelabra (Moseley 1989 January 30, 2018. and Lesica 1995). High levels of flower predation and seed predation have been observed in some populations (Lesica 1995). The effects of Moseley, R. 1989. Field herbivory on population growth was studied over a 7-year period and Investigations of Four Astragali, All found that the fecundity (number of seeds produced) could be reduced Region 4 Sensitive Species, on the by 50 percent from flower and seed predation (Lesica 1995). Cattle Salmon National Forest, With Notes reduced fecundity by zero to 85 percent (Lesica 1995). However, in spite on Two Others. Available online at: of the herbivory, and in spite of the relatively small contributions by https://idfg.idaho.gov/ifwis/idnhp/ recruitment, population growth still occurred. The results of the Lesica cdc_pdf/moser89g.pdf. Accessed (1995) study suggest that populations of this long-lived species depend on January 25, 2018. little on recruitment and reproduction for population growth and can persist in association with seasonal rotation livestock grazing. Crone, E. and P. Lesica. 2006. Pollen and water limitation in A. scaphoides does not reproduce vegetatively, and, like many Astragalus Astragalus scaphoides, a plant that species, is visited by a number of generalist (Bombus spp.) flowers in alternate years. and solitary bees (probably including spp. and Osmia spp.) Oecologia. 150 (1): 40-9. (Crone 2013). A. scaphoides plants emerge above ground in April and do not appear to preform buds in fall. Flowering occurs from late May to Crone. E. 2013. Responses of Social mid-June. In most years, plants dehisce seeds by mid-July. Lesica (1995) and Solitary Bees to Pulsed Floral reported an average survival rate of flowering plants of 0.88, and an Resources. The American average of 3.3 new seedlings per reproductive plant. Using data from Naturalist. Vol. 182(4): 465-473. Lesica (1995), Ehrlèn and Lehtilä (2002) calculated A. scaphoides longevity at 21 years, conditional on reaching the flowering stage. Years Ehrlèn, J. and K. Lehtilä. 2002. How

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations with high flower production are usually also years with high seed perennial are perennial plants? production in A. scaphoides (Crone and Lesica 2006), making “mast Oikos. Vol. 98(2). 308-322. seeding” an appropriate term for flower and fruit production, as well as “seeding” per se.

Further observations of A. scaphoides populations in the Lemhi Valley over a 3-year period found that populations did not appear to be declining in vigor or reproductive potential due to losses of fecundity from predation (Moseley 1989). Populations occurring in the Salmon River Valley are not subject to grazing and this species appears to be compatible with current management (Moseley 1989).

Extensive populations of this species have been documented along the Salmon River where there is little habitat disturbance. This species has been noted to be widespread and abundant in the Central Lemhi Valley where intensive livestock grazing has taken place for over a century.

This species has a low reproductive rate and is not especially susceptible to disease, predation, or competition (Rank C). Confidence in this rank is high as there are multiple long-term studies of the demographics of this species and this species has persisted and populations have grown under moderate to heavy grazing regimes.

Confidence in Rank: High, Medium, or Low Summary and recommendations: Date: January 30, 2018. This species has a Global Rank of G3 (Vulnerable) and a State Rank of S3 (Vulnerable). This species is known from 18 populations on the Forest with some populations supporting over 10,000 individuals. This species is endemic to a small area of east central Idaho and adjacent Montana. This species occupies sagebrush vegetation communities and ponderosa pine communities. Both vegetation communities where this species is found are common on the Forest. Populations of this species persist under moderate to heavy grazing and have done so in the Lemhi Valley for

Species (Scientific and Common Name): Astragalus scaphoides (bitterroot milkvetch)

Criteria Rank Rationale Literature Citations over 100 years. Populations in the Salmon River Valley are relatively secure from anthropogenic disturbance to habitat. As there are few threats to the species and populations are locally abundant, A. scaphoides is not recommended for inclusion as a Species of Conservation Concern.

Evaluator(s): Dan Morta