DOCSLIB.ORG

The Intestinal Microbiota and Its Modulation for Salmonella Control in Chickens

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Intestinal Microbiota and Its Modulation for Salmonella Control in Chickens Food Research International 44 (2011) 3149–3159 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Food Research International journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres Review The intestinal microbiota and its modulation for Salmonella control in chickens James R. Chambers, Joshua Gong ⁎ Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 5C9 article info abstract Article history: Salmonella control has been one of the major tasks in poultry production to ensure poultry food safety. Effective Received 1 December 2010 control is difficult due to the numerous potential sources of Salmonella infection and product contamination in Accepted 29 August 2011 integrated poultry enterprises. In addition, the lack of clinical symptoms of infection in poultry further increases the challenge of achieving proper control. The chicken intestinal microbiota plays an important role in the host Keywords: health and its modulation has achieved considerable success in the past to reduce Salmonella contamination at Salmonella control the farm level. The use of pro/prebiotics has been the major approach in modulating the microbiota. There is in- Microbiota and modulation Pro/prebiotics creased consumer pressure demanding the reduction of antibiotics in feed and elimination of Salmonella from Essential oils poultry and their products. Modulation of the chicken intestinal microbiota continues to offer an attractive op- Phage therapy tion for natural control and sustainable chicken production. In this article, the role of intestinal microbiota in chicken health and the progress in microbiota modulation for Salmonella control have been reviewed. Major technologies for modulating intestinal microbiota, such as the use of probiotics, prebiotics, or phytobiotics (essential oils) and phage therapy that have either receivedmuchattentioninresearchandapplicationor demonstrated promise in the development of novel techniques for Salmonella control, are discussed. The potential and drawbacks of each of these are also critically reviewed. Crown Copyright © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................. 3150 1.1. Salmonellosis .......................................................... 3150 1.2. Cause of salmonellosis ..................................................... 3150 1.3. Antimicrobial resistant Salmonella ................................................ 3150 2. Intestinal microbiota and its role in chicken health ........................................... 3151 2.1. Microbiota development .................................................... 3151 2.2. Microbiota functions ...................................................... 3151 2.2.1. Gut development ................................................... 3152 2.2.2. Competitive exclusion ................................................. 3152 2.2.3. Immune modulation .................................................. 3152 2.3. Factors affecting the intestinal microbiota ............................................ 3152 2.3.1. Age .......................................................... 3152 2.3.2. Diet .......................................................... 3152 2.3.3. Antibiotics ....................................................... 3153 2.3.4. Major stresses ..................................................... 3153 2.4. Methods for modulating microbiota ............................................... 3153 3. Probiotics ............................................................... 3153 3.1. Probiotic products for Salmonella control ............................................. 3154 3.2. Considerations for development and fabrication of probiotics ................................... 3154 4. Prebiotics ............................................................... 3155 4.1. Types and modes of action ................................................... 3155 4.2. Prebiotics for Salmonella control ................................................. 3155 5. Phytobiotics (essentail oils) ...................................................... 3155 ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 519 780 8027; fax: +1 519 829 2400. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.R. Chambers), [email protected] (J. Gong). 0963-9969/$ – see front matter Crown Copyright © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.08.017 3150 J.R. Chambers, J. Gong / Food Research International 44 (2011) 3149–3159 6. Bacteriophages ........................................................... 3156 6.1. Phage therapy by lytic phages ................................................. 3156 6.2. Application for pathogen control (including Salmonella)..................................... 3156 6.3. Challenges in application ................................................... 3157 7. Conclusions ............................................................. 3157 Acknowledgments ............................................................ 3157 References ................................................................ 3157 1. Introduction specific lytic bacteriophage to lyse a particular serotype are used to dis- tinguish different strains of the same serotype. Of the 6 subspecies, only Non-typhoidal Salmonella represents a major cause of food poison- S. enterica subsp. enterica serotypes are routinely associated with dis- ing in humans around the world (Chimalizeni, Kawaza, & Molyneux, ease in warm-blooded animals (Uzzau et al., 2000). Serotypes of the 2010). It is caused by some serotypes of the bacterium, often ingested other Salmonella subspecies are usually found in poikilotherms in fecally contaminated food or water (Uzzau et al., 2000). Food of ani- (cold-blooded animals) and the environment and are less frequently mal origin represents one of the sources for this bacterium. The avian associated with human disease (CFSPH, 2005). Of the over 2500 se- species have been frequently implicated as a source of salmonellosis rotypes of Salmonella (WHO, 2005) only some cause salmonellosis (Revolledo, Ferreira, & Mead, 2006). Consequently, Salmonella control (Uzzau et al., 2000). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in food-animal production has become a high priority. (CDCP, USA) reported that in 2001, 360 different serotypes of the species, S. enterica, were observed in human cases of salmonellosis. Only three of these, Salmonella ser. Typhimurium, Salmonella ser. 1.1. Salmonellosis Enteritidis and Salmonella ser. Newport, were responsible for 50% of these cases (Porwollik et al., 2004). Of the top 10 serotypes of clin- In this review, salmonellosis refers to non-typhoidal salmonellosis ical Salmonella isolates from humans reported by the CDCP in 2005, which is most frequently associated with ‘food poisoning’. Salmonellosis six were among the top serotypes isolated from swine and poultry, is a gastrointestinal infection that often occurs following ingestion of se- namely Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella rotypes of the bacterial subspecies enterica of the species Salmonella ser. Heidelberg, Salmonella ser. Montevideo, Salmonella ser. Saintpaul enterica and is usually self limiting; however, through bacterial invasion and an unnamed serotype, Salmonella ser. I 4,[5],12:i:- (Foley, Lynne, it can progress to bacteremia. Common symptoms of the associated gas- & Nayak, 2008). troenteritis include: abdominal pain; diarrhea; nausea; vomiting; chills; Humans encounter S. enterica subsp. enterica serotypes from vari- and fever; while dehydration, headache and prostration also may occur ous sources. Generally, foodborne salmonellosis in humans originates (El-Gazzar & Marth, 1992). These usually appear about 12 to 36 h after from consumption of contaminated foods of animal origin although consumption of contaminated food. Those for the bacteremia are more other foods have also been implicated (Poppe, 2000; WHO, 2005). severe, possibly leading to death. Mortality from salmonellosis in well- Contamination with Salmonella often implies fecal contamination resourced countries, where invasive infection is rare (b5%), usually (Uzzau et al., 2000), be it direct or indirect. Consumption of contami- runs low (b2%); however, in resource-constrained countries with nated poultry products has frequently been associated with foodborne more frequent invasive disease, there is 18–24% mortality (Chimalizeni, salmonellosis, mainly owing to the ingestion of raw or undercooked Kawasa, & Molyneux, 2010). The annual incidence of non-typhoidal eggs or meat (Carter, Adams, Woodward, & La Ragione, 2009; Revolledo salmonellosis worldwide is 1.3 billion cases and approximately 3 million et al., 2006) although swine and their products have been implicated as of these die (Chimalizeni et al., 2010). well (Foley et al., 2008). Effective control is difficult due to the numer- Economic losses associated with foodborne salmonellosis are ous potential sources of Salmonella infection and product contamina- significant. Only a few countries have provided detailed estimates tion in integrated poultry enterprises (Poppe, 2000; Revolledo et al., of associated losses. In the United States of America (USA), it is es- 2006). timated that there are 1.4 million non-typhoidal salmonellosis cases annually with 168,000 visits to physicians, 15,000 hospitalizations, and 580 deaths (WHO, 2005) with a total cost of US$ 3 billion. In 1.3. Antimicrobial resistant Salmonella Denmark, the
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Us Egg Industry – Not All It's Cracked up to Be for the Welfare Of
    File: 10.03 drake JBN Macro Final.doc Created on: 4/24/2006 9:38:00 PM Last Printed: 5/8/2006 10:51:00 AM THE U.S. EGG INDUSTRY – NOT ALL IT’S CRACKED UP TO BE FOR THE WELFARE OF THE LAYING HEN: A COMPARATIVE LOOK AT UNITED STATES AND EUROPEAN UNION WELFARE LAWS Jessica Braunschweig-Norris I. Chickens Used for Food and Food Production in the United States Egg Industry: An Overview................................513 II. The Implications for Laying Hens: Plight and Protection...................515 A. Cage Systems.................................................................................515 1. The United States Cage System..............................................517 2. The EU Standards: Out with the Old, In with the New..........518 a. Unenriched Cage Systems: The End of the Traditional Battery Cage..........................518 b. Enriched Cages ................................................................519 c. Alternative Systems: The Free Range or Cage-Free System..............................520 B. Beak Trimming.............................................................................520 C. Forced Molting .............................................................................522 D. Transportation and Slaughter........................................................523 III. The Disparity: United States Welfare Law and Policy and the EU’s Progressive Legislative Vision.......................................525 A. The United States Law & Policy: Falling Behind .......................526 1. Non-Existent Federal Protection
    [Show full text]
  • Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs
    PRISONED CHICKENS, POISONED EGGS An Inside Look at the Modern Poultry Industry First published 1996. Revised Edition 2009 Book Publishing Company By Karen Davis, PhD Karen Davis, PhD, President United Poultry Concerns PO Box 150 Machipongo, VA 23405 (757) 678-7875 [email protected] 2 Table of Contents Preface to the New Edition Prologue Introduction Chapter 1 History Chapter 2 The Birth and Family Life of Chickens Chapter 3 The Life of the Battery Hen Chapter 4 The Life of the Broiler Chicken Chapter 5 The Death Chapter 6 A New Beginning References Index 3 Preface to the New Edition I wrote Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs in the mid-1990s in order to bring attention to the billions of chickens buried alive on factory farms. At the time, neither the animal rights movement nor the public at large knew very much about chickens or about how the poultry industry originated and developed in twentieth-century America to become the model for industrialized farmed-animal production around the world. Some informative articles and book chapters had appeared, but the poultry industry’s own detailed and glowing account of its transformation of the chicken, from an active outdoor bird scouring the woods and fields to a sedentary indoor meat and egg “machine,” filled with suffering, diseases, and antibiotics, remained largely unknown. The purpose of Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs was to bring this story to light in a way that would reveal the tragedy of chickens through the lens of the industry that created their tragedy without pity or guilt. The book became, as I’d hoped it would, a blueprint for people seeking a coherent picture of the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Practical Poultry Raising (May 2015 Revised Edition) Peace Corps Publication No
    PRACTICAL POULTRY RAISING (MAY 2015 REVISED EDITION) PEACE CORPS PUBLICATION NO. M0011 Knowledge and Learning Unit The Peace Corps’ Knowledge and Learning Unit (KLU), a department of the Office of Overseas Programming and Training Support, makes the strategies and technologies developed by Peace Corps Volunteers, their co-workers, and their counterparts available to development organizations and workers who might find them useful. KLU works with Peace Corps technical and training specialists to identify and develop information to support Volunteers and overseas staff. KLU also produces and distributes training guides, curricula, lesson plans, project reports, manuals, and other material. Peace Corps-generated materials are also developed in the field. Some materials are reprinted “as is”; others provide a source of field-based information for the production of manuals or for research in particular program areas. Materials submitted to KLU become part of the Peace Corps’ larger contribution to development. This publication was produced by the Peace Corps with funding from the U.S. Agency for International Development’s Bureau of Food Security. It is distributed through KLU. For further information about KLU materials (periodicals, books, videos, etc.) and information services, or for additional copies of this manual, please contact KLU and refer to the KLU catalog number that appears on the publication: Peace Corps Overseas Programming and Training Support Knowledge and Learning Unit 1111 20th Street Washington, DC 20526 Tel: 202.692.2640 Fax: 202.692.2641 Abridged Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) Number: 636.5 Share your experience! Add your experience to the Peace Corps library of resources. Send your materials to us so we can share them with other development workers.
    [Show full text]
  • We're So Glad You Are Participating in the Real Organic Project
    We’re so glad you are participating in the Real Organic Project certification program. We are a grassroots, farmer-led movement created to distinguish soil-grown and pasture-raised products under USDA organic. This application will help us learn more about your crop and livestock systems. It shouldn't take you long to fill out right now behind your computer. Certification is free and inspection is based on a farm tour, rather than paperwork. There are 9 Sections in the application, but you only have to fill out the sections that apply to your farm. SECTIONS: 1. Farm Information (All Farmers Must Complete) 2. Crops (All Farmers Must Complete) 3. Split Farm (All Farmers Must Complete) 4. Greenhouse/High Tunnel 5. Livestock 6. Ruminants 7. Poultry 8. Pigs 9. Review and Submit (All Farmers Must Complete) If you prefer, you can also print and complete it on paper and mail it to us at the address below. If there are questions that don't apply to your farm, simply type NA (Not Applicable). Please submit the form even if it is incomplete, and your inspector will get any missing answers with you in person. Questions? Call Linley at (970) 317-0309 or email her at [email protected] Optional—mail completed printed form to: Linley Dixon 31417 Highway 550 Durango, CO 81301 The full Real Organic Project Standards: https://www.realorganicproject.org/provisional-standards 1 SECTION 1: FARM INFORMATION. Farm Name: Organic Since: Certifier + Certification Number: Full Mailing Address: Farm Physical Address(es): Primary Contact First and Last Name: Primary Email: Phone (mobile or best number to arrange visit): Website: Total Stewarded Acreage: Acres in Organic Crops Production: Acres in Organic Pasture: Acres in Trees/Conservation: Acres of Non-Certified Production: Please list the crops you grow, including pasture, and approximate acreage of each (Note: If you grow more than 10 crops, OK to answer "mixed vegetables" for example.
    [Show full text]
  • UPC Winter/Spring 1998 Poultry Press
    Please Hold a Vigil for Chickens This Spring UNITED POULTRY CONCERNS WILL PROVIDE LITERATURE Please volunteer to coordinate a Release to all local media is faxed, mailed, Spring Vigil for Chickens in your neighbor­ or e-mailed a week prior to the event and hood this April or May. UPC will provide should be followed up with phone calls a you with handout literature, a sample day or two ahead. News Release, Public Service Shape your announcements to suit Announcement (PSA) and Ca1Rndar of your own Vigil and contact UPC with any Events Announcement. Calendar and PSA questions you have. UPC thanks you for announcements inform the public of the helping to make a better life for chickens in event and invite them to participate. 1998. Calendar Announcements are sent to local newspapers and PSA's to local TV and radio stations 2 to 3 weeks in advance. A News Sample Banner & Poster Slogans Stick Up For Chickens! Sick Chickens Cooped in Poop Bacterial Streams of Fecal Soup Misery Is Not a Health Food Don't Just Switch from Beef to Chicken Get the Slaughterhouse Illustration by Nigel Burroughs Out of Your Kitchen Starving Hens Has Got to Stop What You Can Do: Ban Forced Molting of Laying Hens The Cruelty & Contamination Are DSeta date Linked D Invite Participants Forced Molting Causes Salmonella D Enlarge Graphic Photos at Copy Center Debeaking Causes Pain D Hold a Poster-Making Party Respect Chickens - Don't Eat Them D Contact Local News Media MlllEUJIDD1i]I lttp=A11il~li!l~i!i1!!!![1[1111•1WB"·""· .
    [Show full text]
  • The Anticruelty Statute: a Study in Animal Welfare Darian M
    College of William & Mary Law School William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository Faculty Publications Faculty and Deans 2006 The Anticruelty Statute: A Study in Animal Welfare Darian M. Ibrahim William & Mary Law School, [email protected] Repository Citation Ibrahim, Darian M., "The Anticruelty Statute: A Study in Animal Welfare" (2006). Faculty Publications. 1680. https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/1680 Copyright c 2006 by the authors. This article is brought to you by the William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository. https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs THE ANTICRUELTY STATUTE: A STUDY IN ANIMAL WELFARE DARIAN M. IBRAHIM* IN TRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 175 I. ANIMAL RIGHTS, ANIMAL WELFARE, AND THE CONCEPT OF HUMANE EXPLOITATION ................................................................. 177 II. LEGISLATURES, SOCIETAL TENSION, AND THE INEFFECTIVE ANTICRUELTY STATUTE .................................................................. 179 A . The A nticruelty Statute ............................................................. 179 B. Understanding Anticruelty Statute Exemptions ........................ 182 1. Societal Preference ............................................................. 182 2. Legislative C apture ............................................................ 184 3. Animals as Legal Property ................................................. 187 4. Efficiency and Competency ............................................... 187 C.
    [Show full text]
  • High Fiber Low Energy Diet for Molt Induction in Laying
    HIGH FIBER LOW ENERGY DIET FOR MOLT INDUCTION IN LAYING HENS: THE IMPACT OF ALFALFA ON PHYSIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR A Dissertation by CLAUDIA SHARENE DUNKLEY Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2006 Major Subject: Poultry Science HIGH FIBER LOW ENERGY DIET FOR MOLT INDUCTION IN LAYING HENS: THE IMPACT OF ALFALFA ON PHYSIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR A Dissertation by CLAUDIA SHARENE DUNKLEY Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Co-Chairs of Committee, Steve C. Ricke Luc R. Berghman Committee Members, Ted Friend Leon F. Kubena Jackson L. McReynolds Head of Department, Alan Sams December 2006 Major Subject: Poultry Science iii ABSTRACT High Fiber Low Energy Diet for Molt Induction in Laying Hens: The Impact of Alfalfa on Physiology, Immunology and Behavior. (December 2006) Claudia Sharene Dunkley, B.S. Prairie View A&M University; M.S., Prairie View A&M University Co-Chairs of Advisory Committee: Dr. Steven C. Ricke Dr. Luc R. Berghman Feed withdrawal is commonly used by commercial egg producers to induce molt and stimulate multiple egg-laying cycles in their flocks. However, the practice can compromise the welfare of the birds by elevating stress, suppressing the immune response and causing abnormal behavior. An alternate molt diet was examined using alfalfa diets, and a series of experiments were conducted to evaluate the physiological, immunological and behavioral responses of laying hens fed these diets.
    [Show full text]
  • Issue 2 2007 Cover.Qxd
    Cool, Crisp Salads · A Cinco de Mayo Fiesta 2 O N , I V X X E M U L O V VEGETARIAN J O U R N A L HEALTH ECOLOGY ETHICS Fabulous Making Egg and Fantastic Replacers at Home Falafel Chickpea Falafel (page 24) $4.50 USA/$5.50 CANADA g r So, what do those o . g r v . w ‘humane’ labels on egg w w cartons really mean? NUTRITION HOTLINE QUESTION: “Are the omega-3 benefits compared to Ensure’s 9 grams of REED MANGELS, PhD, RD from flaxseeds or their oil destroyed protein per serving. by heat from baking or cooking?” Another alternative is to make P.L., via e-mail a super-smoothie by blending one of these products with some ANSWER: According to the Flax frozen fruit and either soy yogurt, Council of Canada (<www.flax soy frozen dessert, or silken tofu. council.ca/english/pdf/stor.pdf>), A little flaxseed oil can also be whole and ground flaxseed can be added to increase calories and used for baking without any signif- provide some omega-3 fatty acids. icant loss of omega-3 fatty acids. Flax oil generally should not PRODUCT WEBSITES: be used for cooking, as it is not z Whole Soy Smoothies – <www. stable at high temperatures. It is wholesoyco.com/product_ often added to foods after they smoothie.html> have been cooked. For example, z SilkLive Smoothies – <www. you can toss it with steamed veg- silksoymilk.com/Products/ etables or cooked pasta. Some SilkLive.aspx> research suggests that flaxseed oil can be used in baking without z Westsoy Shakes – <www.westsoy.
    [Show full text]
  • In Laying Hens
    antibiotics Article Effects on Intestinal Mucosal Morphology, Productive Parameters and Microbiota Composition after Supplementation with Fermented Defatted Alperujo (FDA) in Laying Hens Agustín Rebollada-Merino 1 , Carmen Bárcena 1 , María Ugarte-Ruiz 1,*, Néstor Porras 1, Francisco J. Mayoral-Alegre 1, Irene Tomé-Sánchez 1, Lucas Domínguez 1,2 and Antonio Rodríguez-Bertos 1,3 1 VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; [email protected] (A.R.-M.); [email protected] (C.B.); [email protected] (N.P.); [email protected] (F.J.M.-A.); [email protected] (I.T.-S.); [email protected] (L.D.); [email protected] (A.R.-B.) 2 Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain 3 Department of Internal Medicine and Animal Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-913944097 Received: 15 October 2019; Accepted: 7 November 2019; Published: 9 November 2019 Abstract: The olive oil sector is currently adapting its traditional function to also become a supplier of high-value by-products that possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. In this study, we evaluated the effect of the fermented defatted alperujo (FDA) on the intestinal health of laying hens. The morphology of the duodenal and cecal mucosa, the composition of the intestinal microbiota and the productivity of a batch of laying hens were evaluated after FDA supplementation. At early life stages, significant differences (p < 0.001) were observed in duodenal villi height and in crypt depth of both the duodenum and the cecum in the FDA-supplemented group, indicating improved intestinal health in this group.
    [Show full text]
  • Small Flock Poultry Health Manual Has Been Funded by Growing Forward, a Federal, Provincial, Territorial Initiative
    Small Flock Poultry Health Disease Prevention and Good Management Small Flock Poultry Health Acknowledgements: The Small Flock Poultry Health manual has been funded by Growing Forward, a federal, provincial, territorial initiative. Articles for this manual have been contributed by authors from universities, government agencies, and companies across North America and have been included here with their permission. These authors and their respective institutions are gratefully acknowledged. Legal disclaimer: This document provides a general description of management and health for keeping poultry, especially for small producers and hobby flock owners. It should not be viewed as a substitute for legal advice. All legislation identified in this guide refers to British Columbia or Canada legislation. This publication should not be viewed as a substitute for legal advice. An individual or farming operation that requires legal advice as to legal requirements or potential liability should retain a lawyer who has examined the current state of the applicable law and has acquired an understanding of the operation’s particular circumstances. Certain examples and references are provided for illustrative purposes and may not constitute a complete statement of the law. The law with respect to Animal Health and Disease Control is changing and information contained in this publication may be outdated; it was current as of January 1, 2011. British Columbia legislation can be viewed at: http://www.bclaws.ca/EPLibraries/bclaws_new/document/ID/freeside/00_96014_01 Federal legislation can be viewed at: http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/H-3.3 The materials presented in the guide, except for law, were current at the time of publication.
    [Show full text]
  • Egg Production About Chickens Scientists Have Discovered That
    Egg Production About Chickens Scientists have discovered that chickens have memory and emotions, and a keenly developed consciousness of one another and of their surroundings. Researchers are publishing findings on chicken intelligence that have challenged old notions about avian cognitive abilities. For instance, chickens clearly understand cause-and-effect relationships, an advanced comprehension skill that puts their intellect beyond that of dogs. In the book The Development of Brain and Behavior in the Chicken, Dr. Lesley Rogers, a professor of neuroscience and animal behavior, concludes, “It is now clear that birds have cognitive capacities equivalent to those of mammals, even primates.” Egg Factories Egg factory farms typically consist of a series of warehouse-like sheds, some the length of football fields, that can house 200,000 or more birds in each windowless building. Inside, hens are crammed into thousands of barren wire cages, known as battery cages, stacked several tiers high and extending in rows down the length of the building. Multiple birds are crammed into each small cage, allowing each hen about 67 square inches of space, less area than a sheet of paper. The cages, stacked one on top of another, force the chickens in lower rows to live in the excrement of those above them. The excessive manure causes ammonia burn to the chicken's eyes and sometimes leads to blindness. Manure fumes and rotting carcasses are so severe that poultry workers are forced to wear gas masks. Battery Cages Perhaps the most abused of all farm animals, nearly 280 million laying hens in the United States are confined in barren wire battery cages so restrictive the birds can't even spread their wings.
    [Show full text]
  • Animal Welfare Approved Standards for Beef Cattle and Calves©
    Animal Welfare Approved Standards for Meat Chickens The Animal Welfare Approved seal is a hard earned badge of difference and demonstrates the farmer’s commitment to the care of their animals, the land and the local community. Farmers in this program will be distinguished by a humane and conscientious attitude towards the animals in their care as evidenced by physical audit and development of detailed plans and records of farm practices. Farmers in the program agree to a minimum of one visit a year from Animal Welfare Approved staff or agents, with the possibility of additional visits if deemed necessary, to confirm compliance with the standards during various seasons and to allow observation of animals in different phases of life. Participation in the program is on an annual basis and must be renewed each year. The premise of the Animal Welfare Approved standards is that animals must be allowed to behave naturally. The following standards allow animals the opportunity to perform natural and instinctive behaviors essential to their health and well- being. Provisions are made to ensure social interaction, comfort, and physical and psychological well-being. The Animal Welfare Approved program is voluntary. The standards do not supersede national government or state legislation. Animal Welfare Approved recommends that farmers have the Guide to Understanding Our Standards and Standards and Program Definitions documents at hand while reading these standards. 1.0 OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION 1.0.1 The individual or entity seeking Animal Welfare Approved status for their livestock must own and have management control of the birds. 1.0.2 The individual or entity seeking Animal Welfare Approved status must produce a livestock product for sale or trade that is eligible to carry the Animal Welfare Approved seal.
    [Show full text]