Socioeconomic benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry

In what way does a region of popula on decline benefi t from investment in the leisure industry: Case of the Eemsdelta

Dirk van de Ven Master thesis Human Geography, Urban and Cultural Geography School of Management Radboud University Nijmegen II Socioeconomic benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry

In what way does a region of popula on decline benefi t from investment in the leisure industry: Case of the Eemsdelta

Dirk van de Ven S4635604 June 2018

Master thesis Human Geography, Urban and Cultural Geography School of Management Radboud University Nijmegen

Supervisor Radboud University Nijmegen: prof. dr. Huib Ernste Supervisor Hanze University of Applied Sciences Groningen: dr. Elles Bulder

III IV Preface

This Master’s thesis is about the socioeconomic benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta. This research is the fi nal task of my studies in Human Geography before I graduate from the Radboud University in Nijmegen. The Bachelor’s thesis I wrote last year was about the consump on and preserva on of cultural heritage by local communi es in Indonesia. This increased my interest in tourism and its impact on local communi es and the environment. Bureau NoorderRuimte, a research ins tute from the Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen, off ered an opportunity to link these subjects to the contemporary “tendency”: popula on decline. This is an interes ng topic as the Eemsdelta provides a new perspec ve on this discourse. Furthermore, looking at the opportuni es off ered by popula on decline to the leisure industry, and how the industry mi gates the associated problems, was also interes ng to me.

Working on this thesis took a considerable amount of me and eff ort. I want to thank my supervisors: Huib Ernste (Radboud University) and Elles Bulder (Hanze University of Applied Science). Both supervisors gave useful feedback and supervised me throughout the process. I would also like to thank the interviewees, all of whom were very open, gave nice insights and showed their perspec ve very well. It was a nice experience and hopefully this thesis is also valuable to them.

Dirk van de Ven Den Dungen, June 2018

V Summary

The Eemsdelta is a region in the northern Netherlands that consists of four municipali es: Delfzijl, Eemsmond, Appingedam and Loppersum. The region is one of nine in the Netherlands facing popula on decline, which is the reduc on of the popula on over me in a certain region. This is not a new phenomenon, but the structural aspect makes it new and cri cal. In the Eemsdelta, popula on decline is accompanied by dejuvena on and ageing. The demographic transi on is seen as a threat to the region as it is associated with high vacancy rates, deteriora on and reduced ac vity. Research on popula on decline generally focuses on a rac ng new residents and on the construc on of houses. Some studies show that regions of popula on decline off er opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry and that the consequences of popula on decline can therefore be mi gated. In studies where tourism is addressed as a “solu on” for popula on decline the focus lies upon a rac ve and/or touris c regions. However, the Eemsdelta is not seen as an a rac ve region and its touris c industry is limited. Because the Eemsdelta diff ers from the discussed a rac ve/touris c regions, it could be ques oned whether these opportuni es also apply to the Eemsdelta. Moreover, the ma er of whether the aforemen oned investment mi gates the consequences of popula on decline can also be ques oned. The goal of this research is therefore to determine if opportuni es for entrepreneurs exist in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta and to examine how the region benefi ts from investment. To demonstrate which opportuni es are available for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry and to see how the region benefi ts from investment, two no ons are used: “economies of scale” and “a rac veness.” Economies of scale refer to the advantages that accrue in an agglomera on, and the concept is used to examine the economic benefi ts. A large agglomera on off ers more opportuni es for entrepreneurs to make profi t, which makes larger agglomera ons more a rac ve. Furthermore, both consumers and suppliers profi t from proximity to each other. Regions of popula on decline encounter a vicious circle as the agglomera on becomes smaller, and as argued by Myrdal tendencies can reinforce themselves through a feedback loop. In this context, new investments have a posi ve impact as they contribute to the agglomera on. The general idea is that economic ac vity leads to new investments and in turn those investments might mi gate the consequences by breaking the vicious circle. The necessity of these new investments also arises from the idea of a global-local paradox, where locality appears to become more important during a me of globaliza on. Marshall men ons several external economies of scale that companies have in such clusters, which include: be er matches between employees and employers; local supplier linkages; and the transac on of knowledge occurs more quickly, which facilitates innova on. The second no on, “a rac veness,” discusses social benefi ts for the region resul ng from investment in the leisure industry. Even though investments are o en made with an economic mindset, they posi vely impact various social aspects. In our consumer city as Marlet terms it, the importance of a rac ons and facili es has increased. Investments in the leisure industry also include facili es that residents can make use of, and o en lead to enhanced ac vity as awareness of this investment grows. However, as tourists have a higher economic value in this context the focus o en lies on them rather than on local recrea onal visitors. As tourists are viewed diff erently to the residents of a region, its residents are not always able to socially benefi t from these investments. This research begins with a literature review, to obtain a clear idea of the current situa on regarding regions of popula on decline. All depopula ng regions diff er, which makes interviews with professionals and policy makers on these topics very valuable; here they provide an idea of the situa on in the Eemsdelta. To illustrate the concrete benefi ts of investment, nine cases are examined. Actors invest in facili es to serve visitors in rela on to the two central quali es of the Eemsdelta: its landscape and culture. Mul ple actors are involved in the leisure industry, and to show the various benefi ts for the region this research makes use of four selected actors: government (public interests), organiza ons (group-specifi c interests), large entrepreneurs (commercial interests) and small entrepreneurs (social interests). Interviews with the actors iden fy their interests and eff ec vely demonstrate the economic aspect, while interviews with residents indicate how they perceive the investments. All interviews are coded and analyzed to determine these perspec ves and how the region might benefi t from the considered investment. Several studies claim that depopula ng regions off er opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry. It is considered whether this also applies for the Eemsdelta as it is viewed as an una rac ve region and has an underdeveloped tourism industry. This research indicates that the aforemen oned opportuni es apply to a lesser extent to the Eemsdelta, while the risks are evident. This results from the combina on of selec ve spa al processes, earthquake issues and limited touris c poten al in the region. Consequently, inves ng in this region is rela vely risky. Nevertheless, opportuni es do exist for entrepreneurs to make

VI a profi t. Many investors focus on mul ple assets and thus combine diverse actors. This approach is risk reducing and makes it possible to focus on region-specifi c opportuni es, such as increasing employment in the Eemshaven. The diff erences between non-profi t investors and profi t-oriented investors are very clear, as entrepreneurs focus on making profi t while non-profi t organiza ons want to develop the region and s mulate new investment. Overall, the economic benefi ts of investment in the local economy are very limited as investments are generally rather small and located outside the center. Moreover, this is also related to the fact that the leisure industry is a service-based industry and not a product-based industry. Even though the economic benefi ts for the region are limited, investment in the leisure industry is s ll highly valuable as it posi vely impacts various elements of a rac veness in diff erent ways, including employment, quality of living, environment, commo on, quality of nature and quality of culture. However, the no on of a rac veness appears insuffi cient as other social benefi ts arise. Investment has a posi ve impact on the image of the region, and in combina on with cultural values this raises awareness and respect towards others. Successful investment by the government could also lead to more confi dence in the government, and could for instance make people prouder of the region. Thus, opportuni es are available for entrepreneurs in the Eemsdelta leisure industry, but these are limited. Inves ng has a limited impact on the economic situa on, but the social aspects indicate that inves ng does pay off (albeit fi gura vely). This research is focused on the Eemsdelta in general, which contains depopula ng villages in addi on to villages experiencing popula on growth. These growing or stable villages are more a rac ve, and investments in these villages might therefore be inapplicable to truly depopula ng regions. Furthermore, the fact that the “limited absorp on capacity” is evident increases the challenge of fi nding appropriate investments. However, this thesis off ers a new perspec ve on opportuni es for and benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry in depopula ng regions. It would be interes ng to observe the diff erences between the Eemsdelta and other depopula ng regions, as this could verify the conclusions of this research. On the other hand, it is also interes ng to view diff erences within the Eemsdelta. The Eemsdelta is examined as a single unit, although it consists of four diff erent municipali es with diff erent policies and many villages within these municipali es.

VII Table of Contents

Preface...... V Summary...... VI Table of contents...... VIII List of tables and fi gures...... IX Chapter 1. Introduc on...... 1 Chapter 2. Theory...... 4 2.1 Economies of scale...... 4 2.1.1 Economies of scale for investors...... 4 2.1.2 Economies of scale for residents...... 5 2.2 A rac veness of the region...... 5 2.2.1 A rac veness for residents...... 5 2.2.2 A rac veness for tourists...... 6 2.3 Popula on decline...... 7 2.3.1 Popula on decline in the Eemsdelta...... 9 2.3.2 Popula on decline and economies of scale...... 10 2.3.3 Popula on decline and a rac veness...... 11 2.4 Leisure industry...... 11 2.4.1 Investments in the leisure industry and economies of scale...... 16 2.4.2 Investments in the leisure industry and a rac veness...... 17 2.5 Conceptual model...... 17 Chapter 3. Methodology...... 20 3.1 Research strategy...... 20 3.2 Research material and method...... 21 3.3 Analysis...... 23 Chapter 4. Analysis...... 24 4.1 Eff ects of popula on decline for the leisure industry...... 24 4.1.1 Threats...... 24 4.1.2 Opportuni es...... 28 4.1.3 Conclusion...... 32 4.2. Investments in the leisure industry...... 32 4.2.1 Fields of investment...... 33 4.2.2 Investors...... 34 4.2.3 Investments...... 35 4.2.4 Conclusion...... 41 4.3 Economic benefi ts of investments...... 42 4.3.1 Employment...... 42 4.3.2 Agglomera on...... 43 4.3.3 Tourists...... 45 4.3.4 Conclusion...... 45 4.4 Social benefi ts of investments...... 46 4.4.1 Employment...... 46 4.4.2 Facili es...... 47 4.4.3 Housing and the surrounding area...... 48 4.4.4 Regional development...... 48 4.4.4 More tourists...... 50 4.4.5 Conclusion...... 52 Chapter 5. Conclusion...... 56 References...... 60 Appendices...... 70 1. History and region’s quali es...... 71 2. Leisure industry...... 77 3. Interview guides...... 83 4. Codes analyzed (Cherita Meijer)...... 86

VIII List of tables and fi gures Figures Front page: Moluccan church under development. Source: own fi gure, 2017 Figure 1. Loca on of the Eemsdelta. Source: own fi gure, 2017 Figure 2. Popula on decline in the Eemsdelta. Source: own fi gure based on data from Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving, 2016 Figure 3. Agglomera ons (normal). Source: Marlet and Van Woerkens, 2013 Figure 4. Agglomera ons (near a country border). Source: Marlet and Van Woerkens, 2013 Figure 5. ING tourism index. Sources: ING Economic Bureau, 2016 Figure 6. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c facili es. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012 Figure 7. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c facili es per region of popula on decline. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012 Figure 8. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c jobs. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012 Figure 9. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c jobs per region of popula on decline. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012 Figure 10. Conceptual model. Source: own fi gure Figure 11. Migra on paterns. Source: PBL, 2015 Figure 12. Menkemaborg. Source: own fi gure Figure 13. Basic image of Groningen. Source: own fi gure Figure 14. Apprecia on of peat districts. Source: Rijnks and Strijker, 2011 Figure 15. Vacant building in Delfzijl. Source: own fi gure Figure 16. Wadden Sea. Source: own fi gure Figure 17. Exis ng beach. Source: own fi gure Figure 18. Moluccan church. Source: own fi gure Figure 19. Boertel Lentemaheerd. Source: own fi gure Figure 20. Hotel Termunterzijl. Source: own fi gure Figure 21. De Vijgenhof. Source: own fi gure Figure 22. Camping de Breede. Source: own fi gure Figure 23. Vispaleis Westerhuis. Source: own fi gure Figure 24. Swimming pool at Camping de Breede. Source: own fi gure Figure 25. Synagogue. Source: own fi gure Figure 26. Fes val ‘Terug naar het Begin’. Source: Eemskrant, 2016. From h ps://www.eemskrant.nl/ groningse-rapforma e-wat-aans-laat-leermens-trillen-met-de-trilploat- jdens-keetpop/

Figures in appendices Figure 1.1. Hanging kitchens. Source: own fi gure Figure 1.2. Flood defense in Termunterzijl. Source: own fi gure Figure 1.3. Church Source: own fi gure Figure 1.4. Mill. Source: own fi gure

Figure 2.1. Style segmenta on. Source: own fi gure based on NBTC Holland (2008) Figure 2.2. Recrea onal segmenta on. own fi gure based on RECRON, 2010

Figure 4.1. Open coding. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.2. Families. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.3. Families: number of tourists. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.4. Families: popula on decline. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.5. Families: economic benefi ts. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.6. Families: social benefi ts. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.7. Families: opportuni es. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.8. Families: investment. Source: own fi gure

IX Tables Table 1. Depopula on in regions of popula on decline since peak year: Source (Derks, 2016) Table 2. Number of domes c vaca ons in 2002 and 2015. Data based on CVO, NBTC-NIPO Research Table 3. Supply of sleeping accommoda ons in 2016. Data based on CBS, 2016 Table 4. Number of guests and overnight stays per province and origin in 2015. Data based on CBS, 2016 Table 5. The city of Groningen compared to the rest of the province and the Netherlands concerning visi ng tourists in 2010. Data based on Con nuVakan eOnderzoek 2010-2011, 2011 Table 6. Economic ac vity, indicated by the number of jobs in 2010 and 2015. Data based on CBS, 2016 Table 7. Research cases wih n the Eemsdelta. Source: own table Table 8. Organiza onal interviewees. Source: own table Table 9. Governmental interviewees. Source: own table Table 10. Professional Interviewees. Source: own table Table 11. Percentage of employed popula on. Source: CBS, 2014 Table 12. Research cases: diff erent investments in the Eemsdelta. Source: own table Table 13. Economic benefi ts from investments by the government. Source: own table Table 14. Economic benefi ts from investments by an organiza on. Source: own table Table 15. Economic benefi ts from investments by large entrepreneurs. Source: own table Table 16. Economic benefi ts from investments by small entrepreneurs. Source: own table Table 17. Social benefi ts from investments by the government. Source: own table Table 18. Social benefi ts from investments by an organiza on. Source: own table Table 19. Social benefi ts from investments by an organiza on. Source: own table Table 20. Social benefi ts from investments by small entrepreneurs. Source: own table

Table 2.1. Kinds of tourism (website analysis). Sources are men oned in the table

X Chapter 1. Introduc on The Eemsdelta is one of nine regions in the Netherlands facing popula on decline (Rijksoverheid, 2017). The Eemsdelta is a region in the north of the country that consists of four municipali es: Delfzijl, Eemsmond, Appingedam and Loppersum. Individually, these municipali es are experiencing certain consequences of popula on decline, which is accompanied by dejuvena on, for instance brain drain and ageing, which is having major impacts on the region. Popula on decline has a nega ve connota on as it is o en associated with the disappearance of facili es and employment (Remijn, 2015). In contrast, RECRON (2011) argues that popula on decline creates opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry. This proposi on is replicated by other researchers, thus crea ng the idea that tourism and recrea on could mi gate the consequences of depopula on. This research examines what investments in the leisure industry could imply for the Eemsdelta. Depopula on or popula on decline is the reduc on of the popula on over me in a certain region. Although depopula on has o en occurred in history, historically the decline was not structural as it currently is in most developed countries. The UN even expects the global popula on to begin declining in 2075 (Derks, Hovens, & Klinkers, 2006). Popula on decline diff ers between regions, which makes it diffi cult to discuss in general. The idea that demographic transi on off ers opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry is not proven to apply to the Eemsdelta. S ll the na onal and provincial government of Groningen are inves ng a considerable amount of (public) money in regions of popula on decline. This money is partly directed to the leisure industry. The province of Groningen speaks of its great touris c poten al and of inves ng during the coming years in entrepreneurship, rou ng and marke ng (Provincie Groningen, 2016). By doing so, they want to posi vely infl uence the local economy. However, earthquake issues are currently reinforcing the tendencies of popula on decline and making investment in the Eemsdelta riskier. Today, earthquakes in northern Groningen resul ng from natural gas extrac on are a hot topic. The media is giving a lot of a en on to this region, but the eff ects for the leisure industry are doub ul. This thesis aims to further knowledge about the benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta. People view the leisure industry as an opportunity to mi gate current and future circumstances. However, because the Eemsdelta is not seen as an a rac ve touris c region (Sweco, 2016) the economic benefi ts of investment could be disappoin ng. Nevertheless, as it could have social benefi ts for local communi es, this investment could s ll be valuable. Hence the goal is to iden fy the benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry, which leads to the following research ques on:

“What are the socioeconomic benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta?”

The thesis also a empts to answer the following sub-ques ons: 1. What are the eff ects of popula on decline for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta? 2. How do investors in the Eemsdelta make use of the demographic transi on and other tendencies? 3. What are the economic benefi ts resul ng from investment in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta? 4. What are the social benefi ts resul ng from investment in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta?

The focus of the study lies on investment in the Eemsdelta (Figure 1) that relates to tourism and recrea on. This qualita ve research applies the percep ons of professionals, entrepreneurs, (governmental) organiza ons and residents, and both economic and social benefi ts are subsequently examined from this perspec ve. A literature review and interviews are central in obtaining informa on. A large amount of knowledge is available about popula on decline and the leisure industry, and interviews with experts place this broad array of informa on in a local perspec ve. The no ons of economies of scale (economic benefi ts) and a rac veness (social benefi ts) are used to analyze the benefi ts, which are clearly presented as interviews are coded and organized into families based on the sub-ques ons.

Societal relevance Popula on decline is a growing phenomenon, as the global popula on will decrease for the fi rst me in history – with the excep on of wars and epidemics – in 2075. Europe and other western countries like Japan are already facing depopula on as result of a decreasing or delayed fer lity (Derks, Hovens, & Klinkers, 2006). Some regions, especially peripheral regions, have already experienced popula on decline for a longer period of me (Haartsen & Venhorst, 2010). In some regions within the Netherlands, demographic changes can be no ced very clearly as delayed or declining fer lity, in combina on with the rise of life expectancy,

1 Figure 1. Loca on of the Eemsdelta. Source: own fi gure results in an ageing popula on. Addi onally, young people are leaving peripheral regions to study or work in the city (Bulder, 2017). These trends are interconnected and are therefore diffi cult to observe separately. This transi on is generally seen as a threat for the region (Dalen, 2008), because it is associated with a high vacancy rate, deteriora on, an elderly popula on and places with li le ac vity (Dam, Verwest, & Groot, 2008; Dalen, 2008). Demographic transi on therefore has major impacts on a resident’s life. In many studies, a focus on the leisure industry is considered a strategy to mi gate the consequences of popula on decline. Faulkner and Tideswell (1997) argue that local communi es experience consequences, both posi ve and nega ve, from a growth in tourism. Hence municipali es aim to a ract tourists in order to create and improve economic prospects for local entrepreneurs. In this way, recrea onal func ons and the quality of living in the region are simultaneously improved, both of which local residents benefi t from. Between 2014 and 2018 the Economic Board Groningen (EBG) will have invested 97.5 million euro in northern Groningen (i.e., in the nine municipali es dealing with earthquakes) to give the economy a “new impulse” (Economic Board Groningen, 2017). The general opinion is currently that the leisure industry can mi gate the consequences of popula on decline and that new possibili es will arise in those regions. The provincial government of Groningen speaks of its great touris c poten al, while the House of Representa ves sees economic poten al for the leisure industry in regions of depopula on and Kees Verhoeven (D66, Social Liberal Party) wanted to encourage the industry through inves ng in culture and nature (RECRON, 2011). Currently, approximately 75% of municipali es in the Netherlands have city and regional marke ng plans and largely focus on a rac ng tourists (Hospers, Verheul, & Boekema, 2011). They market themselves as products or goods which they try to sell to companies, residents and tourists. Many previous interna onal campaigns have been highly successful and resulted in economic development (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990), which explains the interest in this sector. Municipali es in the Eemsdelta are also focusing on tourists in order to profi t from the growing tourism industry. The municipali es of Appingedam and Delfzijl produced a report about the development of their region up to 2030, with tourism and recrea on as one of the

2 focal points. These municipali es view the region as an area with many possibili es and opportuni es for the leisure industry, for example by extending the current off erings (Vliet & Dijkstra, 2009). However, it can be ques oned whether the government should focus on tourists, because the tourism industry is very limited in Groningen (NBTC, 2012; CBS, 2010). This can be traced back to the number of tourists going to the region; data from both CBS (2010), the Central Agency for Sta s cs in the Netherlands, and NBTC (2012), the agency responsible for marke ng the Netherlands, reveal that the share of tourists visi ng the province of Groningen is the lowest in the Netherlands, followed by Flevoland and Utrecht. Another remarkable result is that most tourists in Groningen are from the province of Groningen itself. The touris c poten al of northern Groningen is even more uncertain (Remijn, 2015). The greatest a rac ons for tourism in northern Groningen (Bourtange, Blauwestad, Nieuweschans health resort and Lauwersmeer) are not located in the Eemsdelta, so the touris c poten al of the Eemsdelta could be assessed as low. Although the overall economic impact of investment in the region could be disappoin ng, it could s ll be valuable. Most studies consider the economic aspect of investment, but in the case of a region experiencing popula on decline the social aspect is equally important. The case of the Eemsdelta is therefore very useful, because the tourism industry is rela vely small and has li le poten al, so results from other regions cannot be generalized. Un l now no clear connec ons have been made between popula on decline and benefi ts from investment in the leisure industry. Furthermore, confl ic ng informa on exists concerning the opportuni es and benefi ts resul ng from this investment, due to the complex nature of popula on decline and the unique situa on of the Eemsdelta. Consequently, this research could help current policy makers in the Eemsdelta in their decision to invest in the leisure industry and how to do so.

ScienƟ fi c relevance Un l recently, research in the fi eld of popula on decline was dominated by the a rac on of new residents to stabilize popula on size. Although the discourse surrounding demographic transi on remains dominated by research about the physical environment and how to deal with depopula on, some literature addresses other fi elds of research; for instance, the infl uence of culture and sociological aspects (Verwest, Sorel, & Buitelaar, 2008; Dam, Verwest, & Groot, 2008; Haartsen & Venhorst, 2010; Gardenier, 2012). This research contributes a new outlook to the dialog on popula on decline. Some scholars have proposed a rela on between popula on decline and the leisure industry. Several of these researchers have examined whether the leisure industry can mi gate the consequences of popula on decline in a region (Remijn, 2015) and the possibili es for investors in the leisure industry in these regions (Kuhlman, et al., 2012). These researchers generally examine economic benefi ts and give less a en on to the social aspects. By examining both economic and social benefi ts, this research contributes to the literature by adding a new perspec ve. Exis ng studies focus on a rac ve and more developed touris c regions; Bijker and Haartsen (2012) already suggested that northern Groningen is less a rac ve. Moreover, every depopula ng region is diff erent and the results cannot be generalized. Un l now no research has considered tourism in the Eemsdelta or the benefi ts and implica ons of investment in this sector for the region. In doing so, this research also fi lls a gap in the literature.

3 Chapter 2. Theory

The leisure industry can be used to mi gate the consequences of popula on decline. This chapter discusses theories and concepts applied to iden fy the benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry. Addi onally, popula on decline and the leisure industry are discussed and linked to the relevant theories. The conceptual model that follows shows how these theories are related and how the research is put into use. 2.1 Economies of scale Investment in the leisure industry impacts the economic situa on. The concept of economies of scale is used to determine the mo ves of entrepreneurs to invest in a region and how a region benefi ts from investment. Economies of scale are advantages that accrue in an agglomera on. Consumers and suppliers both profi t from proximity to one another (Investopedia, 2017). Therefore, it is a rac ve to invest and to live in a city, because an urban agglomera on off ers more opportuni es to gain profi t. This has consequences for peripheral regions. 2.1.1 Economies of scale to investors In the concept of cumula ve causa on, Myrdal (1957) acknowledges that suppliers achieve economies of scale when they concentrate in a bounded area. He uses the no ons of vicious and virtuous circles to explain that an event or ac on can reinforce itself through a certain feedback loop. The impact of such an event can be posi ve (virtuous) or nega ve (vicious). A large agglomera on carries out more economic ac vi es and therefore has a compe ve edge compared to neighboring regions, which creates a certain imbalance (Fujita, 2007). The region with an advantage thus becomes a more interes ng place to invest due to economies of scale. Centers therefore con nue to grow at the expense of periphery. In his book “The Rise of the Crea ve Class” Richard Florida writes about the crea ve class as the motor for economic development. He argues that a higher number of residents results in higher employment rates (Florida, 2003). This is based on the idea that companies prefer to be located in a large agglomera on. This idea has been cri cized by the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency [Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving], which suggests that this assump on is Randstad-oriented. The Dutch research agency argues that a higher number of residents does not necessarily lead to more employment when the situa on is located outside the Randstad. Instead, people outside the Randstad choose a favorable residen al area, because housing op ons are less scarce (De Graaff , Van Oort, & Boschman, 2008). There are several economies of scale that make being located in a large agglomera on interes ng for suppliers. Globaliza on has increased compe on among suppliers and a large agglomera on results in a be er compe ve posi on in the global economy (Van Oort, 2013). This global compe on has par cularly increased the importance of specifi c regions or hubs. Michael Porter speaks of a global-local paradox, while Edward Glaeser argues in “Triumph of the City” that the city has gained importance not in spite of but thanks to globaliza on (Raspe, 2012). These clusters are profi table for produc vity; as stated by Glaeser (2014): “Produc vity per capita goes up about 15 percent when the popula on size of a metropolitan area doubles — that’s just a sta s cal rela onship” (p. 9). Alfred Marshall is a well-known Bri sh economist from the early 20th century. In his book “Principles of Economics” he refers to internal and external economies of scale. Internal economies of scale are the advantages occurring within a company when it expands, while external economies of scale are advantages for the whole industry. External economies of scale are useful in this thesis (Marshall, 1895). Labor market pooling is an external economy of scale, and refers to “advantages for workers and fi rms deriving from sharing a labor market that is territorially limited to a small area: the local labor market” (Andini, De Blasio, Duranton, & Strange, 2013, p. 1008). Localiza on of companies is of interest for both employers and employees. In a popula on with skilled employees, fi rms are able to fi ll their job vacancies more quickly, while employees have more op ons to be employed. In terms of skills, experiences and aspira ons increased supply and demand also results in be er matches between employers and employees. Besides, the experiences and skills obtained by an employee in one company can be of use in another company, a concept known as learning spillover. Moreover, compe on among companies to fi ll vacancies could also lead to higher wages for employees (Andini, De Blasio, Duranton, & Strange, 2013; Raspe, 2012). A second external economy of scale is input sharing, which refers to a large choice of input suppliers. Proximity of related industries off ering the required input is cost reducing, and leads to innova on in products and services. Likewise, suppliers can benefi t from a large market of upstream companies purchasing the

4 off ered products and services. This also reduces transport costs in a broad sense, including the exchange of goods, people and ideas. Even though the costs of transport have already decreased enormously, the importance of locality remains (Henderson & Thisse, 2004; Raspe, 2012). The third external economy of scale is knowledge spillover. Marshall (1895) uses this idea to show that companies benefi t from both intended and unintended knowledge transfer. Even though the exchange of informa on is generally unintended, it facilitates innova on (Helsley & Strange, 2002). Clustering leads to quicker transac on of knowledge which makes ci es innova ve hotspots (Raspe, 2012). Marshall argues that “most important spillovers occur within industries, and therefore encourage the forma on of specialized industrial clusters” (Helsley & Strange, 2002, p. 25-26). However, Marshall’s point of view about where the most important spillovers take place contrasts with Jane Jacobs’ view. Jacobs (1969) stresses that “most important spillovers occur between rather than within industries, and this in turn may suggest a link between knowledge spillovers and diversity” (p. 26). Even though Jacobs and Marshall have diff erent opinions about the ideal nature of the city - diversity versus uniformity - they agree upon the fact that a large agglomera on has advantages regarding knowledge exchange. This thought is founded on the concept that our knowledge is based on ideas from the people around us (Gleaser, 2010). Nevertheless, knowledge spillovers are diffi cult to iden fy and to qualify. Unlike input sharing, for instance, knowledge cannot generally be measured and is neither bought nor sold (Henderson & Thisse, 2004). 2.1.2 Economies of scale to residents Alongside advantages rela ng to produc on and knowledge of an agglomera on, Raspe (2012) argues that residents might also profi t from the concentra on of suppliers. With the no on of a “consumer city” Glaeser, Kolko and Saiz (2001) claim that residents of larger agglomera ons profi t from urban-specifi c consump on opportuni es. These consump on occasions, such as a museum, event, opera or sport club “need large audiences to be successful” (p. 9). A diverse supply of shops and restaurants is also an advantage, as restaurants, for instance, may specialize in a wide range of cuisines. Certainly in a me where companies are footloose and mobile, “the success of ci es hinges more and more on ci es’ role as centers of consump on” (p. 1). Raspe (2012) also men ons the “home market” as an advantage. In a large agglomera on, companies can produce their products more cheaply as result of rela vely large-scale produc on. This makes it more a rac ve for companies to establish themselves in such regions, and residents benefi t from the increased choice of products and services. Nelson (1958) uses the theory of cumula ve a rac on to explain that consumers want to compare products before deciding which to buy. The driving idea is that consumers act in a “risk reducing” fashion. Accordingly, residents benefi t from the clustering of suppliers. Furthermore, Bolt (1995) argues that economic ac vity leads to a more a rac ve business loca on for new ac vi es. 2.2 A rac veness of the region Investment in the leisure industry is generally made to gain money, and might also lead to a more a rac ve region. However, this does not necessarily mean that residents benefi t from this more a rac ve region. Rajinder (2000) conducted research on the diff erences between the percep on of Simla, a hill sta on in northern India, by tourists and residents. He argues that residents perceive their living area in a diff erent way to tourists. Residents appreciate intangible characteris cs, while tourists look to tangible elements. Tourists want to see “things” while residents have a greater apprecia on for the atmosphere. 2.2.1 A rac veness for residents Municipali es have an obsession for growth, and in order to grow ci es need to be a rac ve (Hospers, Verheul, & Boekema, 2011). A rac veness is challenging to quan fy and a broad variety of ideas exist about what is a rac ve. These ideas can o en be derived from an author’s background; for instance, economist Edward Glaeser claims that a city’s a rac veness is related to employment. “The reality of urban life throughout most of history is that people didn’t come to ci es for their pleasure” (Glaeser, 2015, p. 3). S ll, ci es a racted people from the suburbs, which might indicate the economic strength of these clusters. A er a period of suburbaniza on, which denoted the popula on shi from urban centers into rural areas as result of increased prosperity and car ownership, re-urbaniza on took place. Ci es became safer and became places of pleasure, and people who believed they could also make money outside the city underes mated the social network within it. “We are a social species that gets smarter by being around other smart people, and that’s why ci es thrive” (p. 21). The choice to live in the city is therefore o en economically mo vated. This is also why higher wages help to a ract people to a certain region (Glaeser, 2007).

5 In American literature, scholars argue that correla on exists between an increase in popula on and the a rac veness of a city. In the Netherlands, this correla on is diffi cult to observe because policies of the Dutch na onal government signifi cantly infl uence the a rac on of new residents. For example, the government “created” Nieuwegein, Zoetermeer and Almere [groeikernen] to reduce the pressure on a rac ve regions like Amsterdam and Utrecht (Marlet, 2009). An a rac ve, successful city is a city in which people like to reside and where companies like to be located, and has possibili es for everyone (Marlet, 2015). There is a diff erence between being successful and being a rac ve - success rests on economic aspects like employment, growth and produc vity, while a rac veness is based on natural surroundings, recrea on and urban a rac ons - but Marlet combines the two no ons. In his book “De Aantrekkelijke Stad” Marlet analyzes success factors of Dutch ci es and uses an a rac veness index to reveal why some ci es are performing be er than others. He acknowledges the economic aspects of being successful and hence uses a rac veness and success. Unlike Glaeser, Marlet examines specifi c city a rac ons which impact a rac veness separately from economic factors. City a rac ons are features that residents take into account when choosing a place to live. He divides these a rac ons into three categories: “housing and the surrounding area,” “urban area” and “city’s surrounding area.” The fi rst is related to the quality of housing on off er and of the surroundings, which are spaces where children play and people walk their dogs. Safety and the presence of schools and local parks are at the forefront of this perspec ve. Second, the urban area encompasses specifi c urban a rac ons such as musicals, museums, fes vals and a diverse supply of shops. The presence of a historical city and a football club also make a city a rac ve. In the wider region, recrea onal ac vi es and natural areas are essen al. However, not every aspect infl uences the behavior of poten al house buyers. According to Marlet, the following a rac ons correlate with the behavior of residents: variety of performing arts, culinary quality of restaurants, presence of a historical inner city, accessibility of nature, presence of a successful football team and a rela vely low occurrence of violent crime. Other factors like shops, sport fi elds and cafes are essen al, but not dis nc ve from other ci es. The reason that fes vals, musicals and museums are less important is that local residents are not their exclusive audience. The importance of these a rac ons for the “living behavior” of residents indicates the change from a produc on city to a consumer city (Marlet, 2009; Vroege, 2010). In his book Marlet also men ons the importance of culture in luring the crea ve class, as introduced by Richard Florida. The crea ve class not only includes crea ve minds, but also highly educated individuals working in science, IT and law fi rms, among others. However, inves ng in culture does not always lead to a rac ng the crea ve class. Small and diverse investments aimed towards local residents increase the a rac veness of the city for residents. Cultural events such as museums, musicals and fes vals do contribute to the cultural life of the city, but have no infl uence on the a rac on of the crea ve class (Vroege, 2010; Marlet & Woerkens, 2005). Scholars typically focus on the city, while the rural also deserves a en on as there is a synergy between the urban and rural area (Marlet, 2015). Rixt Bijker wrote a disserta on about migra on to less popular rural areas, because according to her most researchers focus on popular rural areas or ci es. She demonstrates the popularity of the region using housing prices. In the Netherlands, it is more appropriate to consider a rac veness than using in-migra on numbers for the reason that policy has a considerable infl uence on popula on growth. Bijker revealed diff erences between more popular (a rac ve) and less popular regions by evalua ng landscape characteris cs, accessibility, employment in recrea on-related services, sociocultural characteris cs and future popula on development. Her research fi nds that popular rural areas are be er connected to urban centers in the central Netherlands, have a higher average income and expect household growth. Furthermore, she also confi rms that employment, cheap housing and the presence and accessibility of ameni es are crucial elements for popularity (Bijker & Haartsen, 2012). 2.2.2 A rac veness for tourists Rajinder (2000) demonstrated that tourists have a diff erent view of a des na on to locals. Tourists pay more a en on to tangible elements within a region, and especially note things that are diff erent to their homes. John Urry (2002) agrees and describes the following trend:

“the Internet has had the eff ect of diminishing the need for bodily contact between individuals. (...) co-presence, and hence travel between people and places, is necessary for the making of connec on: legal, economic, familial obliga ons; social obliga ons (for developing understanding and trust); me obliga ons (with signifi cant others), object obliga ons (for example, to sign a contract); place or event obliga ons (tourism and leisure)” (Bridge & Watson, 2010, p. 101).

6 Urry’s “The Tourist Gaze” (2002) discusses a set of expecta ons that tourists have of a des na on. The theory states that their mo va on is the search for authen c experiences and the wish to gaze upon diff erent scenes, landscapes or landmarks. The search for authen city has been discussed over the years, because local governments and local popula ons respond to this gaze by giving tourists the experience they demand, thereby strengthening the stereotypes that tourists have. Moreover, tourism is increasingly focused on “must-sees.” Tourists want to take a nice picture of the well-known a rac on of a par cular area and are less engaged in searching for an authen c experience (Urry, 2002). Tourists play their own role by con nuously collec ng and comparing hotspots, which Dean MacCannel (1984) calls the “sight sacraliza on.” The fi ve stages of naming, framing and eleva on, enshrinement, mechanical reproduc on and social reproduc on transform sites into sights and lands into landscapes (Fine & Speer, 1985). These no ons are o en described as a destruc ve process, wherein commodifi ca on has a nega ve impact on the value people a ach to the a rac on. Despite this, the gaze can also boost its iden ty by giving it more a en on (MacCannell, 1984). Commodifi ca on is a no on introduced by Karl Marx and has spread among a plurality of theore cal perspec ves. The original concept of Marx had a rather nega ve connota on related to capitalism, but the concept is now used broadly as its meaning has expanded enormously (Castree, 2003). Talking about commodifi ca on generally refers to the “conversion of a whole class of goods or services into commodi es and a resul ng stream of sales” (Leys, 2001, p. 87). The general thought that “‘the commodity status of a thing, object, idea, creature, person or what-have-you is not intrinsic to it but, rather, assigned’ is without discussion the core of Marx’s no on of commodifi ca on and is also accepted among scholars” (Castree, 2003, p. 277). Shepherd (2002) describes the no on even more briefl y as “anything that sa sfi es a human want” (p. 186). To examine the experiences of tourists visi ng a place, the visitor journey can be enlightening. This approach is intended to develop tourism strategies, but could be valuable to explain how visitors perceive a city and which aspects play a role in this. The visitor is followed through various stages, the number of which diff ers from scholar to scholar, but in essence the following stages are used: managing understanding informa on and communica on; managing the booking process; managing access to the des na on; managing the des na on experience; managing the visitor exit; and managing the quality of the visitor memory (Lane, 2007). Thus, the experience of the des na on itself is only a part of the complete experience. All the stages are part of the journey and are possible reasons to turn the journey into a nega ve experience. 2.3 Popula on decline Depopula on or popula on decline is the reduc on of popula on over me in a certain region. Depopula on has occurred frequently in history, but the decline has never been structural as it is in most developed countries today. Wars, diseases (e.g., the Black Death) or for example the bankruptcy of a major employer (e.g., the disappearance of the American auto industry in Detroit) are reasons for a temporary decline. Depopula on is a rela vely new phenomenon, but is not unique to certain regions in the Netherlands. The UN expects the global popula on to start declining in 2075 (Derks, Hovens, & Klinkers, 2006). Europe and other western countries like Japan are already facing depopula on as a result of decreasing or delayed fer lity (Derks, Hovens, & Klinkers, 2006; Consultancy.nl, 2016). Some regions, especially peripheral regions, have already been experiencing popula on decline for a longer period of me (Haartsen & Venhorst, 2010). Overall, popula on decline is a complex phenomenon because the causes, situa ons and consequences diff er from region to region.

Dutch perspecƟ ve on populaƟ on decline The popula on on a na onal level an cipates steady growth un l 2040. Between 2030 and 2040, the number of deaths will outnumber the number of births, but un l 2040 this can be compensated by migra on (De Jong & Van Duin, 2010). However, several regions in the Netherlands are already facing the consequences of depopula on. The central government has named nine regions of depopula on and 11 an cipa ng regions. The regions of depopula on face a decline of about 16% un l 2040, while the an cipa on regions “only” expect a decline of 4% un l 2040. The number of regions in the Netherlands facing popula on decline has grown and will con nue to grow in the coming years (Rijksoverheid, 2017). Table 1 shows which regions and provinces are already undergoing popula on decline.

7 Region Type Year of Number of Residents per Total popula on decline peak residents in 1/11/15 since peak *** residents peak year Parkstad Region of 1997 272,000 246,000 -9.5% Limburg depopula on Northeast Region of 2003** 236,000 222,000 -5.9% Groningen* depopula on Western Region of 1998 156,000 148,000 -5.2% Mijnstreek depopula on Zeeuws- Region of 2003 108,000 106,000 -2.4% Vlaanderen depopula on Maastricht- Region of 2001 212,000 208,000 -2.2% Mergelland depopula on Northeast Region of 2006 127,000 124,000 -2.0% Friesland depopula on Achterhoek Region of 2005 302,000 298,000 -1.5% depopula on Limburg Province 2002 1,143,000 1,117,000 -2.3% Drenthe Province 2011 491,000 489,000 -0.6% Friesland Province 2011 647,000 646,000 -0.2% Zeeland Province 2011 382,000 381,000 -0.1%

Table 1. Depopula on in regions of popula on decline since peak year: source (Derks, 2016) 1. * The regions of depopula on De Marne, East Groningen and Eemsdelta are combined in this table given the low popula on values in those regions 2. ** Northeast Groningen previously witnessed a peak year in 1981 3. *** Calculated with unrounded numbers

Table 1 presents the nine regions of depopula on (northeast Groningen is a combina on of three regions) and demonstrates that the depopula on is structural. Parkstad has lost almost 10% of its popula on since 1997, but was not the fi rst region to decline. In fact, the fi rst structural popula on decline took place in northeast Groningen in 1981 (Derks, 2016). This table also indicates that four provinces are currently dealing with a declining popula on. The city of Groningen is preven ng depopula on in the province of Groningen. Contemporary research from CBS reveals that the popula on of the province of Groningen declined by 175 in 2016 (De Haan, Janssens, & Elshof, 2016a).

Reasons for populaƟ on decline Van Dam, De Groot and Verwest (2006) argue that sociocultural reasons, such as individualiza on and emancipa on, infl uence natural popula on growth and migra on. The emancipa on of woman is related to a higher level of educa on, their will to be employed and the acceptance of contracep on. The current fer lity rate is 1.7-1.8, while a fer lity rate of 2.1 is required to maintain the current popula on (Dam, Groot, & Verwest, 2006). Having children at a later age relates to both emancipa on and individualiza on and also aff ects the number of children that couples have (Dam, Groot, & Verwest, 2006; Derks, Hovens, & Klinkers, 2006). Professor Warren Sanderson of Stony Brook University explains this phenomenon by men oning demographic transi on. Previously, death rates had to be compensated by high birth rates. However, with the signifi cant decline of the death rate in the modern age of technology, birth rates have declined simultaneously (Wise, 2013). In addi on to popula on decline, a nega ve balance is also in place concerning migra on. People generally leave peripheral regions for work- and study-related reasons. Other reasons to leave a region relate to health, marriage or divorce and the environment. However, the percentage of people leaving the periphery to study and work are above average (Feijten & Visser, 2005) ,which can be explained by economic factors and planning. The la er plays a role in migra on, because migra on is mostly caused by the a rac veness of the city. The role played by economic factors in demographic transi on is evident from research demonstra ng that economic conjuncture infl uences the birth rate. Upon the upwards movement of GDP the consumer has more confi dence in the economy, and research shows that the number of births

8 is higher during these mes. This economic development is also essen al for migra on. Furthermore, it can also be related to an ageing popula on, as increased prosperity and technological and societal developments lead to increased life expectancy.

Demographic transiƟ on In contrast to many countries in Eastern Europe, the Russian Federa on, Germany, Italy and Japan, the Netherlands is not experiencing a natural na onal decline (Coleman & Rowthorn, 2011). Popula on decline is not an isolated phenomenon. It is therefore useful to look at simultaneously occurring developments. Remarkably, popula on decline mostly aff ects border regions and peripheral areas in the Netherlands as young people leave these border and rural regions to study or work in the city. A decreasing number of young people in a region is called dejuvena on, which strongly correlates with depopula on and o en accompanies a so-called “brain drain.” Brain drain is the result of educated people going to the city, o en young people, because the city has more op ons for high-quality jobs (Van Eck, Dam, & de Groot, 2013). Popula on decline cannot be viewed apart from an ageing popula on. These two processes do not have a causal rela on, but they share a common cause: a reduced number of births (Coleman & Rowthorn, 2011). The elderly have an increased life expectancy, which indicates that ageing is not purely the result of a decreased number of births. These are all causes of the altera on of the age pyramid, but other processes also play a role, for instance dejuvena on (Dam, Groot, & Verwest, 2006). Like popula on decline, ageing is seen as a problem by the government. In Japan, for instance, the percentage of people above 60 is 28% (the highest number in the world), while the number of births is rela vely low and the country is nearly closed to immigrants. In turn, this leads to a more vulnerable economy. This economic vulnerability is also one of the fears of the Dutch government (Dalen, 2008). Depopula on, dejuvena on and an ageing popula on combine to produce “sub-replacement fer lity,” which means that the current popula on is not able to maintain its current popula on and is becoming older. In research about the housing market, scholars talk about household decline rather than popula on decline. The reason for this is that individualiza on also aff ects the housing market. Locally, a household decline, which correlates strongly with the demand for housing, leads to vacancy and the segrega on of par cular (low-income) groups (Van Eck, Dam, & de Groot, 2013). 2.3.1 Popula on decline in the Eemsdelta The Eemsdelta is located in northern Groningen. As shown in Table 1, the Eemsdelta along with two other Groningen regions comprise three of the nine regions of popula on decline. Popula on decline is structural in the Eemsdelta and the region con nues to depopulate (Derks, 2016). Where Limburg sees strong

Figure 2. Popula on decline in the Eemsdelta. Source: own fi gure based on data from Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving, 2016

Expected percentage of decline 2015-2040 Eemsmond -5.3% Loppersum -8.0% Appingedam -5.2% Delfzijl -27.9%

9 depopula on as a result of demographic developments, popula on decline in the northern part of the Netherlands is the outcome of migra on (Gardenier, 2012). In the peripheral region of Groningen, especially the Eemsdelta, young people are going to the city to study or work. Tony Fielding uses the metaphor of the escalator to show the fi gura ve steps taken by youngsters on an escalator to a ain higher educa on and employment in order to improve their socioeconomic status (Fielding, 1992). With this no on, he also argues that youngsters return as soon as they start having children and become wealthier. It seems that this fi nal stage is no longer applicable due to the increased possibili es for families to stay in the city (PBL, 2015). Even though the situa on of Appingedam can be ques oned, as some documents reveal a slight increase in the popula on, the general view is that all four municipali es within the Eemsdelta - Delfzijl, Appingedam, Eemsmond and Loppersum - face a depar ng popula on (Figure 2). With the excep on of a few years, the popula on of the whole region has been declining since 1981 (Verwest, Sorel, & Buitelaar, 2008) and this trend will con nue un l 2040. The popula on is then expected to have declined by 34% and the number households by 17% (Iersel, Schaar, & Wildt, 2010). Meanwhile, other demographic transi ons also aff ect the Eemsdelta. The number of people aged above 75 years will increase by 60%, with a rejuvena on value of about 35%. Through this combina on the working popula on will decline by 37% within 25 years (KKNN, 2012). These demographic transi ons have many nega ve consequences for the region, from closing facili es to the vacancy of houses and shops. Several plans and programs are in place to deal with popula on decline, and are not intended to stop these transi ons but to facilitate and mi gate the consequences of these phenomena. For instance, the development concept [ontwikkelingsvisie], established by the provincial government of Groningen and the four municipali es, aims to prevent depopula on from aff ec ng the livability and spa al quality of the environment (Provincie Groningen, 2013).

Earthquakes In addi on to the demographic transi ons described above, residents are also suff ering from the consequences of earthquakes. Since 1962, the Dutch state oil and gas company [Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij] has exploited the gas fi elds in Groningen. Gas extrac on opera ons cause regular earthquakes in the northern Netherlands. The combina on of demographic transi ons and earthquake issues make this region unique and complex (Economic Board Groningen, 2017). Like popula on decline, earthquakes also impact the perceived livability by residents (De Haan, Janssens, & Elshof, 2016). However, no causal rela on has yet been found between popula on decline, i.e., demographic transi ons, and earthquakes issues. 2.3.2 Popula on decline and economies of scale The discourse on economies of scale is essen ally related to urban regions and is aimed towards popula on increase. Diff erent perspec ves within this discourse emphasize the benefi ts of clustering and having a large agglomera on. However, it is crucial that these benefi ts do not stop at the borders of a city or municipality, because municipali es near a large city also profi t from the urban supply (Figure 3). Due to the fact that the willingness to travel is limited, municipali es near the city profi t more from this than peripheral regions. Meanwhile, at a country’s border the urban supply has barely any impact on neighboring municipali es. Hence these borders are juridical, social and cultural barriers for residents. Agglomera ons in border regions, in addi on to municipali es bordering the sea, are therefore much smaller than centrally located places (Figure 4). These regions are less a rac ve and more o en aff ected by popula on decline, ageing, dejuvena on, brain drain and higher unemployment rates (Marlet & Van Woerkens, 2013).

Figure 3. Agglomera ons (normal). Source: Marlet Figure 4. Agglomera ons (near a country border). and Van Woerkens, 2013 Source: Marlet and Van Woerkens, 2013

10 Hospers (2010) uses the theory of cumula ve causa on to demonstrate that growing regions will con nue to grow and that popula on decline leads to popula on decline. Instead of a virtuous circle, a region of popula on decline experiences a vicious circle and detrimental results (Elshof, 2017). This is explained through reversing the scales of economies of a large agglomera on. Isolated companies can profi t less from “input-sharing” (Henderson & Thisse, 2004); small agglomera ons more o en lead to a mismatch between employer and employee; more highly educated people leaving the region has a nega ve eff ect upon knowledge spillover. To summarize, a smaller agglomera on is less a rac ve for companies (Florida, 2003). A smaller agglomera on also has a nega ve impact on residents, as it leads to fewer employment opportuni es and city-specifi c a rac ons. Hence new investments could be essen al in this type of area, as Bolt (1995) argues that this contributes to an area with more economic ac vity. 2.3.3 Popula on decline and a rac veness As discussed in the previous paragraph, a large agglomera on a racts residents with economies of scale. Within the discourse surrounding a rac veness, it is not disputed that a rac veness impacts the increase or decrease of the popula on (De Graaff , Van Oort, & Boschman, 2008). Using the cumula ve causa on theory, it can be assumed that an una rac ve region facing the consequences of depopula on will become even less a rac ve in the future. This is based on the fact that popula on decline aff ects elements that make a city a rac ve. The approach of Marlet (2009) falls short in considering the a rac veness of rural areas. He argues that shops and sports fi elds are not essen al for a rac veness because they are located in all ci es. However, this is a problem in regions experiencing popula on decline. In contrast, Bijker’s research specifi cally focuses on una rac ve regions in the northern Netherlands, which makes Bijker’s research more useful. She qualifi es a rac veness using house prices and uses this division to look for diff erences between a rac ve and una rac ve regions. Loca on near to a large city and the accessibility of facili es are, next to employment, the most crucial elements in a rac veness (Bijker & Haartsen, 2012). Later research by Marlet confi rms the need for a connec on with the city. He uses northern Groningen to explain that poor connec vity results in a depopula ng region (Marlet, 2015). Furthermore, the elements men oned by Florida and Marlet are essen al because this indicates what people are generally interested in. Burger and Van Oort (2014) therefore argue that ci es should focus on their own strengths. 2.4 Leisure industry The second focus of this Master’s thesis is the leisure industry. Aristotle (384-322) made the connec on between happiness and leisure and said that we “labor to have leisure” (Zillmann & Vorderer, 2009, p. 8). In this line of argumenta on, these two words are the opposite of one another, which can be confi rmed by the La n transla ons of the words leisure (o um) and work (nego um). To the Romans and the Greeks, leisure was seen as “ me off work,” and as people had more money to spend and more spare me the leisure industry grew (Brotherton, 2008). The contemporary defi ni on of leisure can be traced back from the Greeks and the Romans. The Cambridge Dic onary (2017a) defi nes it as “the me when you are not working or doing other du es.” Without responsibili es or du es, people voluntarily do something that pleases them. This defi ni on includes both tourism and recrea on. A lack of clear defi ni ons for these two terms leads to confusion (Zillmann & Vorderer, 2009). Tourism is diff erent from recrea on, as tourism can be associated with work and recrea on occurs during free me. Tourism is about visi ng another place and always occurs outside the home community. The associa on between tourism and making profi t is also much stronger than in the case of recrea on. Its defi ni on, “the business of providing services such as transport, places to stay, or entertainment for people who are on holiday” (Cambridge Dic onary, 2017c) makes clear that tourism has a strong commercial aspect. In contrast, recrea on can take place near the home community and the commercial aspect is less strong, because recrea on ac vi es can be provided by the government (or other ins tu ons) for free (Zillmann & Vorderer, 2009). Moreover, the defi ni on of leisure strongly correlates with the defi ni on of recrea on: “enjoying yourself when you are not working” (Cambridge Dic onary, 2017b). The diff erence, but with some overlap, is that recrea on is about doing something for fun while tourism is about visi ng another place. In this thesis the focus is on tourism as recrea on.

Current situaƟ on of the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta In 2015, tourism revenue in the Dutch economy increased by 3.7%. Furthermore, the ING Economisch Bureau (2016) expects the importance of the tourism industry for the Dutch economy to grow. These revenues are unevenly distributed, as some provinces take more profi ts from this industry than others. The

11 ING Tourism Index provides a good indica on of the leisure industry in the region. The index is composed of two elements: overnight stays and the loca ons of hospitality or a rac ons. These numbers are placed alongside the number of residents and merged to produce a certain index number, which can then be compared with other provinces. Figure 5 reveals that Groningen is less represented in the tourism industry, taking into account its small popula on (ING Economisch Bureau, 2016).

Far above average Above average Beneath average Figure 5. ING tourism index. Sources: ING Economic Bureau, 2016

Tourism numbers Even though Gelderland has a nega ve ING Tourism Index, it is the most visited province of the Netherlands by Dutch people, while Groningen is by far the least visited province. In Table 2, Groningen is compared to Gelderland and neighboring provinces in the Netherlands (NRIT Media, CBS, NBTC Holland Marke ng & CELTH, 2016).

x 1,000 Long vaca on (4+ days) Short vaca on (2-4 days) 2002 2015 2002 2014 The Netherlands 9,200 7,880 9,510 9,110 Groningen 150 140 230 230 Friesland 790 580 650 620 Drenthe 850 790 710 730 Gelderland 1,540 1,440 1,450 1,490

Table 2. Number of domes c vaca ons in 2002 and 2015. Data based on CVO, NBTC-NIPO Research

Research from ING indicates that Groningen is lagging behind in terms of the number of overnight stays. In 2015, Groningen had about 1.5 million overnight stays (in days) while neighboring provinces had 5.4 million (Friesland) and 6.6 million (Drenthe). However, the growth of the leisure sector in Groningen is the fastest at 14% (ING Economisch Bureau, 2016). Also remarkable is the supply of overnight accommoda on in

12 Groningen, as shown in Table 3 (NRIT Media, CBS, NBTC Holland Marke ng & CELTH, 2016). The number of touris c facili es is growing less quickly in depopula ng regions than in the rest of the Netherlands (Figure 6). In this respect, Figure 7 shows that the Eemsdelta is far behind other regions of popula on decline. x 1,000 Total Hotels/pension/youth Campsites Holiday parks Group accommoda on accommoda on The Netherlands 1,369 261 758 594 56 Groningen 29 6 19 4 1 Friesland 102 12 62 18 9 Drenthe 110 6 70 28 5

Table 3. Supply of sleeping accommoda ons in 2016. Data based on CBS, 2016

Regions of depopula on and an cipa ng regions Remaing part of the Netherlands

Figure 6. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c facili es. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012

Figure 7. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c facili es per region of popula on decline. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012

13 Most interna onal tourists visi ng the Netherlands are from Germany, followed by the United Kingdom and Belgium. Even though most of these tourists go to the four largest ci es in the Netherlands and to seaside towns like Scheveningen (NBTC, 2012), the percentage of foreign tourists in Groningen was about 30% in 2016 (ING Economisch Bureau, 2016). Nevertheless, Groningen is the least visited province among foreigners, despite the fact that it borders the largest foreign tourism market of the Netherlands (Table 4). It is obvious that the touris c pressure per km2 is also lowest in Groningen. This is based on the number of visitors per day per km2. In 2015 the pressure index in Groningen was 1.8, 4.4 in Friesland and 6.8 in Drenthe; these values indicate low touris c pressure in comparison with the average value for the Netherlands, 8.4, with a peak in Noord-Holland of 26.3 (NRIT Media, CBS, NBTC Holland Marke ng & CELTH, 2016).

x 1,000 Total Dutch Foreign Guests Over- Average Guests Over- Average Guests Over- Average night stay night stay night stay The 37,318 103,534 2.8 22,311 66,237 3.0 15,007 37,298 2.5 Netherlands Groningen 653 1,496 2.3 454 1,050 2.3 199 446 2.2 Friesland 1,606 5,372 3.3 1,304 4,125 3.2 302 1,247 4.1 Drenthe 1,628 6,513 4.0 1,420 5,710 4.0 208 803 3.9

Table 4. Number of guests and overnight stays per province and origin in 2015. Data based on CBS, 2016

The previous values were based on the whole province, but the city of Groningen a racts a large propor on of tourists. Table 5 shows that the city of Groningen is for a large part responsible for the number of tourists in the province. This suggests that there are very few tourists or visitors in the rest of the province, the Ommelanden (Con nuVakan eOnderzoek, 2011).

Groningen Ommelanden Groningen The Netherlands (city) (province) Short vaca on 79 134 213 9,479 Long vaca on 25 155 180 8,262 Total number of vaca ons 104 289 393 17,741 Total number of overnights 315 1,402 1,717 91,707 Total costs vaca on (x 1,000) 15,707 37,666 53,373 2,754,376 Cost per vaca on per person (average) 152 130 136 155 Cost per vaca on per person per day 37.5 22.3 25.3 25.2 (average)

Table 5. The city of Groningen compared to the rest of the province and the Netherlands concerning visi ng tourists in 2010. Data based on Con nuVakan eOnderzoek 2010-2011, 2011 1. Note: numbers may diff er from study to study, but these numbers do provide a good indica on of the propor on of tourists per province/region in rela on to the Netherlands and the city of Groningen

Con nu Vakan e Onderzoek (2011) conducted research on the background and interests of tourists and visitors of Groningen (the province). Tourists visi ng the province (city excluded) went to natural areas (38%), museums (27%), buildings with cultural and historical value (26%), a certain park such as a botanical garden (19%), a beach (13%), folkloris c events (12%) and several other a rac ons. The ac vi es they do are strongly related to the addressed segments, which are associated with the rural areas of northern Groningen (Appendix 2). Walking, swimming, shopping and going out for dinner, alongside water ac vi es (fi shing and canoeing), are mostly undertaken. The age category also relates to the segments. About 32% of tourists are 65 years or older, which is 15% higher than the overall value for the Netherlands. The number of families without children above 35 years is the most common group (46%) in the Ommelanden. However, this is quite normal in the Netherlands (45%). The group of parents with younger children of 0-5 years (12%) and 6-12 years (10%) are also comparable to overall values in the Netherlands (12% and 11%). In the development concept [Ontwikkelingsvisie] for the Eemsdelta it is noted that 16% of touris c overnight stays

14 in Groningen are located in the Eemsdelta (Provincie Groningen, 2013). This would mean that approximately 225,000 overnight stays (1,402,000 (number of overnight stays in the province) x 0.16 (16%)) take place in the Eemsdelta.

Employment in the leisure industry Because the tourism industry is a great economic mo vator for the local economy, municipali es within the Eemsdelta also try to benefi t from it. Not only does the government see great economic poten al for the leisure industry in regions of popula on decline, but RECRON also iden fi es opportuni es for entrepreneurs (RECRON, 2011). This economic poten al of the region is discussed, especially because the current number of tourists in the region illustrates the poor condi on of the contemporary leisure industry in the region. This can also be seen in Figure 8, which eff ec vely shows that depopula ng regions have a much lower number of recrea onal touris c jobs on average. The percentage of employment in the tourism and recrea on industry was 8.5% in Groningen in 2009, which is more than 2% lower than for the northern provinces of Drenthe and Friesland (Gemeente Loppersum, 2012). Moreover, in the Eemsdelta only 4.7% of employment in 2014 was tourism-related (Gemeente Eemsmond, 2015). Figure 9 demonstrates that this is rela vely low, even compared to other depopula ng regions. Table 6 indicates that the number of people working in the leisure industry (including the hospitality industry, culture and recrea on) is a small propor on of all economic ac vi es (CBS, 2016). An employment survey conducted in Groningen in 2009 by the research company CAB confi rms this conclusion. In the province of Groningen, the health industry (51,157), retail and wholesale services (37,738), professional services (37,031) and energy and industry (36,449) are the largest sectors. The hospitality industry (10,320) and culture, sports and recrea on (5,167) are also minimally represented in the province according to this research. The same study predicts that the hospitality industry in the Ommelanden will decline (-1.1%) while the number of jobs in culture, sports and recrea on will increase (5.1%). Loppersum (0.3%) and Appingedam (2.5%) saw an overall increase in the number of jobs in 2009, while Delfzijl (-2.5%) and Eemsmond (-0.3%) saw an overall decrease (Westerhof, 2010).

Regions of depopula on and an cipa ng regions Remaing part of the Netherlands

Figure 8. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c jobs. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012

15 Figure 9. Development of the number of recrea onal touris c jobs per region of popula on decline. Source: Goossen, Kuhlman and Breman, 2012

Appingedam Delfzijl Eemsmond Loppersum Groningen (province) 2010 2015 2010 2015 2010 2015 2010 2015 2010 2015 All economic ac vi es 3,500 3,200 11,200 10,800 3,800 4,100 1,700 1,500 249,200 243,500 Industry and energy 600 0 3,500 2,700 1,100 1,300 300 0 42,000 35,500 Trade and transport 600 700 3,000 3,100 800 900 200 300 41,800 41,300 Hospitality industry 200 200 200 200 100 100 100 0 8,000 8,600 Professional services 300 400 1,400 1,700 200 300 100 100 39,100 41,900 Public services, 1,600 900 2,500 2,800 1,100 1,100 900 700 94,200 93,600 educa on and health care Culture, recrea on, 100 100 200 100 100 100 100 100 7,000 6,400 etc.

Table 6. Economic ac vity, indicated by the number of jobs in 2010 and 2015. Data based on CBS, 2016 1. Numbers rounded to the nearest hundred

2.4.1 Investments in the leisure industry and economies of scale With cumula ve causa on, Myrdal explains that centers expand at the expense of peripheral regions. More highly educated and younger people leaving the region is a typical backwash eff ect that can be seen in rural areas (Fujita, 2007). This human capital, which Gary Becker describes as “a set of skills that increase a worker’s produc vity,” is essen al for new investments (Acemoglu & Autor, 2011, p. 4). The amount of human capital does posi vely correlate with the a rac on of companies and the provision of a suitable habitat for new entrepreneurial fi rms (Florida, 2003). These entrepreneurs are the “promoters of new combina ons” and bring new innova ons into the market (Acs, 2008, p. 1). However, in regions of popula on decline new and innova ve entrepreneurs are expected to be scarce, according to the literature. Being located at the border (with the sea or of the country) makes the poten al market share smaller, which also applies to the tourism sector. For instance, loca on near the German border invites linguis c and accessibility problems. Besides, people have less knowledge about this region and one loves only what one knows (Marlet & Van Woerkens, 2013). The economic discourse following Marshall’s ideas argue that large agglomera ons have more advantages for companies. Companies are therefore a racted

16 to the city and away from rural areas. However, enterprises (including shops and restaurants) leaving rural areas also infl uences the tourism sector. Tourists are one of the consumers of a region and are therefore also aff ected by a decreasing supply. Demand, which is necessary to increase the supply, can be ensured by tourists. New investments to meet demand would in theory lead to new investments and thus contribute to Marshall’s external economies of scale (Andini, De Blasio, Duranton, & Strange, 2013; Bolt, 1995). Residents also benefi t from this new supply, because they have more possibili es to buy something and undertake ac vi es (Raspe, 2012). 2.4.2 Investments in the leisure industry and a rac veness An increase in employment could result from a growing tourism industry. Glaeser (2015) argues that increased employment leads to a more a rac ve region. Increased facili es also make a region more a rac ve for its residents, because they are also able to use facili es that are aimed towards tourists. Investments in the leisure industry could also increase a rac veness on a regional level, because these investments are more rurally located areas with nature and recrea onal op ons and investments may give more a en on to the periphery (Vroege, 2010). The availability, or more importantly the accessibility, of facili es is a crucial element in the a rac veness of a region. Another feature is the presence of a characteris c landscape. Regions with a characteris c landscape correlate with a rac ve municipali es. In her research, Rixt Bijker also discovered that a rac ve areas have more employment in the leisure industry (Bijker & Haartsen, 2012). Tourists perceive a loca on diff erently to residents. Tourists look with a so-called “tourist gaze,” and where they previously searched for authen c experiences, they now predominantly visit the must- sees. This goes hand-in-hand with commodifi ca on, because these must-sees receive more a en on and become valued for their economic func on (Castree, 2003). From Marlet’s research it appears that tourists and residents think diff erently about a rac veness. Marlet men ons that investments in culture make a city a rac ve for residents when they are small, diverse and intended for residents. Museums, musicals and fes vals do make a city a rac ve, but have an interregional character and focus on visitors (Vroege, 2010). Lombarts (2011) argues that events and cultural off ers do improve the image of the city. Moreover, from the visitor journey it appears that the des na on is only a part of the visitor’s journey. Investments therefore have a limited impact on a rac ng tourists and the experience they get in return. 2.5 Conceptual model Based on the previous paragraphs a conceptual model (Figure 10) is constructed. This model translates the concepts into opera onalizing terms, demonstrates how the par cular topics relate to each other, and indicates how the main ques on will be answered. Certain sociocultural economic developments in the Eemsdelta are resul ng in a declining popula on. These developments are mostly na onal, but have more impact on peripheral areas such as northern Groningen. The consequences are mostly nega ve (1) as the whole economy is based on growth. In mes of globaliza on, the importance of a cluster becomes more valuable. Large agglomera ons receive more benefi ts as companies profi t from the proximity of other companies. Large agglomera ons are also more a rac ve to residents as they can profi t from the economies of scale in a consumer city. Depopula on eff ects an agglomera on in a nega ve way; for instance, it results in a facility decline (e.g., hospitals, schools and shops). However, several organiza ons and scholars suggest that popula on decline does off er poli cal, economic and demographic opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry (2). It is up to entrepreneurs to take these opportuni es. The reason for entrepreneurs to invest is realis cally the economic prospects of tourists and other visitors (3). Municipali es try to profi t from this, because this is one of the largest economic markets. Economies of scale is a helpful concept to determine the economic benefi ts for the whole region. Meanwhile, investments in the leisure industry also aff ect social aspects of residents (4). The social aspect is opera onalized by using the no on of a rac veness. This is a broad no on that explains why people live in par cular regions and what they believe is a rac ve for the region. Researchers mostly focus on the economic benefi ts, but investments might also impact the social aspect. Popula on decline has economic and social consequences for the region (including entrepreneurs working in the leisure sector). Investments in the leisure industry are assumed to have economic and social benefi ts for the region. These benefi ts are not the answer to popula on decline, but could mi gate the problems occurring as a result of depopula on (5). For instance, residents might look more posi vely at the region, have more places for recrea on and can make use of more facili es.

17 PopulaƟ on decline (Demographic transiƟ on) 12

Problems OpportuniƟ es 2

Investments in the leisure industry 4 3

Social Economic beneĮ ts beneĮ ts 5 5

Figure 10. Conceptual model. Source: own fi gure

18 19 Chapter 3. Methodology

The previous chapters explain how this thesis contributes to the literature and which theories form the basis for the analysis. The purpose of this research is to iden fy opportuni es for and benefi ts from investments in the leisure industry in a depopula ng region. This chapter outlines which data is needed to contribute to the literature and how this data will be gathered. This concerns evalua ve and descrip ve research. To examine the benefi ts the situa on is fi rst explored and mapped (descrip ve), then the benefi ts are determined and cri cized (evalua ve) (Verschuren & Doorewaard, 2015). This research makes use of a qualita ve approach, which makes it possible to conduct an in-depth inves ga on of the cases. This involves not just simple data, but also the mo va on and the reasons behind it (Creswell, 2013). This approach is chosen because the social benefi ts are diffi cult to quan fy, as the percep on of an a rac ve region diff ers from person to person. 3.1 Research strategy The research strategy refl ects how this research is conducted, and demonstrates the approach of the researcher. This research is about the Eemsdelta, which is a region of popula on decline. A lot of knowledge has been developed about regions of popula on decline, but popula on decline diff ers from region to region. To provide legi mate answers on the research ques ons, a combina on of exis ng knowledge and ideas with experiences from this par cular situa on is preferred. This research is about the Eemsdelta, a region located in the northern Netherlands (Figure 1). It consists of four municipali es: Delfzijl, Eemsmond, Appingedam and Loppersum. The region is designated as one of the nine regions of popula on decline in the Netherlands (Rijksoverheid, 2017). This research is focused on the situa on in 2017 as Eemsmond will merge with Bedum, De Marne and Winsum to form the municipality “Het Hogeland” (Gemeente Eemsmond, 2017). This fusion is necessary to be able to deal with current challenges like demographic change (Provincie Groningen, 2017). This thesis makes use of the Eemsdelta, because these municipali es experience equal problems (to varying degrees) and have similar documents and strategies. Using a specifi c loca on makes it possible to look at the phenomenon of depopula on and to inves gate the eff ects within a bounded context (i.e., the Eemsdelta). Within the Eemsdelta, this research makes use of several cases to demonstrate concrete benefi ts (Table 7). By using diff erent actors and interests, a clear image of the benefi ts can be created. Par cular investments were chosen during the research.

Actors Non-profi tProfi t Government Organiza on/ Large Small ins tu on/associa on entrepreneurs entrepreneurs Culture Moluccan church De Vijgenhof Landscape Marconi project Mound landscape Boertel Camping de Buitendijks Lentemaheerd Breede Facili es Kiek over Diek Walking on Wadden Hotel Termunterzijl

Table 7. Research cases within the Eemsdelta. Source: own table

There are several ways to invest in a region, and this thesis is inspired by three diff erent strategies. (A) Lombarts (2011) men ons four elements to make a city a rac ve: refurbishment, improving and/or enhancing the cultural supply, organizing events and city marke ng. These strategies are intended for (larger) ci es to become dis nc ve from other ci es in the compe ve world, but could also apply for this thesis. Every actor has their own strategy to invest in their area. (B) The provincial government of Groningen sees great poten al for tourism and aims for stronger connec ons between tourism and nature, and landscape and culture. To gain benefi ts from this poten al, three tracks are defi ned: (1) promo on and marke ng, (2) route development and recrea onal sailing, and (3) entrepreneurship (Provincie Groningen, 2016). (C) Wilson, Fesenmaier, Fesenmaier and Van Es (2001) performed research on the factors of success for tourism development in a rural area. They revealed that several components are crucial for success: a rac ons, promo on, tourism infrastructure, services and hospitality.

20 Inspired by the abovemen oned strategies and the Eemsdelta’s quali es (Appendix 1), three fi elds of investments are elaborated: landscape, culture and facili es. Some fi elds - hospitality, marke ng and entrepreneurship - are not elaborated, because these fi elds are less concrete and have no physical aspect. Facili es are essen al for the tourism industry, and investments in facili es generally have both an economic and social value. Tourism infrastructure, services and route development are merged into facili es. These elements are necessary to commodify the core quali es of the Eemsdelta: landscape and culture. These elements also overlap - for instance, a farmhouse in a rural area has a func onal value; as part of the landscape it has a certain scenic value; and at the same me it is an agricultural component with a cultural value. It depends on the par cular investment under which category it falls. In addi on to facili es, investments in the landscape and cultural supply also have economic and social benefi ts. A disadvantage of using a specifi c situa on is the external validity. As this research is focused on the Eemsdelta, its general conclusions are barely applicable to other regions (Creswell, 2013). This choice is made because many studies in the fi eld of depopula on show that every case is diff erent (Kuhlman, et al., 2012; Remijn, 2015). Thus, conclusions are not able to be generalized. Moreover, the fact that northern Groningen lags behind regarding tourist numbers makes it essen al to conduct in-depth research (ING Economisch Bureau, 2016; NBTC, 2012; CBS, 2010). This disadvantage also applies to the use of cases. This is the reason why this research uses mul ple cases within diff erent categories. This should provide a broad perspec ve on the socioeconomic advantages of investments. 3.2 Research material and -method Determining the research material and method is an essen al part, because this indicates how the transi on is made from theory to empirical research. Furthermore, it establishes which informa on is relevant to answer the research ques ons and how this informa on can be gathered. The data and knowledge used in this research are derived from literature research and interviews. The research begins with a broad literature review into topics concerning this thesis. A lot of knowledge is already available to provide the theore cal background on which this research is built. Based on this in-depth literature review, appropriate interviewees are chosen - this is the approach of theore cal sampling (Creswell, 2013). Interviews are then conducted with professionals in the fi eld of leisure, popula on decline and (rural) Groningen to place the broad informa on in a local context. Interviews with policy offi cers from a governmental ins tu on provide an idea of the poli cal background and the balancing of various interests. This specifi c knowledge is combined with the experiences of people that invest in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta. Because they mainly address the economic aspect as they depend on it, residents are also interviewed. Their percep on gives an extra perspec ve because they consider the social aspects. Interviews are a valuable source of informa on, and are o en used because they rapidly provide diverse informa on about a specifi c topic. The interviews in this thesis are held with so-called experts. These experts, whether they are knowledge experts or experience experts, provide informa on that is directly useful for the research. The various interviewees are described below. Interviews with professionals on the topics of popula on decline, the leisure industry and rural Groningen are semi-structured. Beforehand, several ques ons are wri en to provide a structure during the interview. The fi rst ques ons are about the par cular company or research that the interviewee works or has worked on. Subsequently, the following research ques ons are addressed: the consequences of popula on decline (and earthquakes), what opportuni es exist for entrepreneurs, how they make use of these opportuni es and what the socioeconomic consequences are from investment in the leisure industry (Appendix 3.1 Interview guide Marcel Tap). The following professionals are interviewed.

Organiza on/work ac vi es English explana on (if necessary) Edwin van der Woude S ch ng Top van Groningen (TvG) Eemsdelta's tourist offi ce (not recorded) Heike Delfmann PhD researcher at University of Groningen, focuses on the role of entrepreneurship in regions of popula on decline Elly van der Klauw Kennisnetwerk Krimp Noord- Northern Network Demographic Change Nederland (KKNN)

21 Dirk Strijker Hoogleraar Pla elandsontwikkeling Professor Cultural Geography and Chair and Mansholtleerstoel voor Mansholtchair for Rural Development Pla elandsontwikkeling at University of Groningen Duco Schenk Economic Board Groningen (EBG) Marcel Tap RECRON Branch organiza on for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in the Netherlands

Table 8. Professional interviewees. Source: own table

The role of the government is said to be large in regions of popula on decline, as they have a signifi cant infl uence in policy regarding popula on decline and are able to spend money on projects that increase the quality of life. Besides, touris c companies and new entrepreneurs o en rely on subsidies from governmental ins tu ons. Semi-structured interviews with the four municipali es (Appingedam, Delfzijl, Eemsmond and Loppersum) and the provincial government are therefore desirable. In addi on to professionals, public offi cials also contribute to an in-depth perspec ve about the circumstances in the Eemsdelta. The structure of the interview is comparable to the interview guide for the professionals. However, the interview guide for public offi cials also addresses the role of the government, policy and the government’s perspec ve on popula on decline. The use of open-ended ques ons gives interviewees the possibility to talk freely about these subjects. In addi on, some of the ques ons are included in order to confi rm a thought or statement of a professional or another interviewee (Appendix 3.2 Interview guide Lex Geesink). The municipality of Loppersum was not prepared to be interviewed (this is quite a small municipality and has no par cular employee focusing on tourism) and the municipality of Delfzijl is hiring a new employee for tourism-related subjects. Due to a hec c period, the current employee was not prepared to talk.

Governmental Region Arjan Westerink Provincial government Groningen Lex Geesink Municipality Appingedam Antje Kazemier Municipality Eemsmond

Table 9. Governmental interviewees. Source: own table

This thesis uses several investments (Table 7) to examine the socioeconomic benefi ts for the region. Interviews with these investors in the tourism industry show how these actors are currently embedded in the region and how they perceive their investment. These semi-structured interviews give a good indica on of their investment and its contribu on for the region. In contrast to the interviews with experts, these interviews are very concrete and focused on a par cular investment in terms of the opportuni es they see, their considera ons, how they are supported by the government or EBG, how others profi t from their investment and how others are involved (Appendix 3.3 Interview guide Camping de Breede). Finally, local residents are interviewed. Alongside entrepreneurs, local residents living near the examined investments provide a concrete idea of the benefi ts. These interviews are intended to provide a mul disciplinary view and to gain subjec ve informa on about the investment. The interviewees are able to discuss how they and their community perceive the investments and what their contribu on is towards the region. These are also open-ended interviews to counter the idea that residents have a lack of knowledge. In this way the interviewees are more able to speak from their point of view. In some cases it appears that residents are not aware of the investment, making that par cular person unsuitable for this research. In the case of the mound landscape, no residents were available to interview (Godlinze, the loca on of this investment, is a village with only approximately 250 residents). Furthermore, due to me and money limita ons (i.e., driving costs) it was not possible to visit every place mul ple mes.

22 Represen ng ins tu on/organiza on Investment Interviewed (non-profi t) or func on of the residents/local interviewee (profi t) entrepreneurs X X Marconi project 3 Buitendijks Antje Kazemier* Municipality of Eemsmond Kiek over Diek 1 Chris aan Velvis S ch ng Oude Groningen Kerken Moluccan church 2** Geert Schoemakers Landschapsbeheer Groningen Mound landscape X Eric Neef ANWB Walking on Wadden 1 Anita Oos ng Owner Boertel Lentemaheerd 2 Arjan Noot Manager Hotel Termunterzijl 1 David Lamain Manager De Vijgenhof 2** Cherita Meijer Manager Camping de Breede 2

Table 10. Organiza onal interviewees. Source: own table 1. * Already men oned as a public offi cial 2. ** The same interviews 3.3 Analysis This research uses mul ple sources to achieve a broadly supported scien fi c study with in-depth informa on. Despite subjec ve input from interviewees, its comprehensiveness makes this research reliable. Nevertheless, this research cannot be generalized as each region has its own specifi c circumstances, although the results could be used as inspira on for other researchers and municipali es. A rac veness and economies of scale are the two central no ons in the analysis of the gathered data and knowledge. Elements of these no ons are used to reveal the impact of the examined investments. Economies of scale are used to reveal the consequences of the investments on employment (a er and before/ during the investment), the agglomera on (external economies of scale and commo on) and the number of tourists. Meanwhile, the no on of a rac veness indicates the impact on employment, housing and the surrounding area (quality of the living environment and commo on), regional development (landscape and culture) and the number of tourists. Within the no on of a rac veness, the tourist perspec ve is essen al because investments focus on this. The visitor journey and the tourist gaze are therefore useful in order to place oneself in the role of a tourist. This is a good way to experience the region and obtain knowledge about the tourist perspec ve. All recorded interviews are transcribed for analysis. ATLAS. appears to be the best choice to analyze the interviews, because of the capabili es this program off ers. The coding process begins with open coding, whereby labels (codes) are a ached to parts - words or sentences - of the interview. Based on the central ques ons of this thesis, families are established to organize the codes (Appendix 4). These families make the interviews more structured and create a clear view of the informa on gathered therein (Verschuren & Doorewaard, 2015). Moreover, the grouped codes give a quick overview of the codes and reveal the emphasis of a par cular interview. Thus the research ques ons are answered based on a combina on of the literature review and qualita ve interviews. The data is then analyzed using the two concepts of a rac veness and economies of scale.

23 Chapter 4. Analysis

This chapter examines the results of this research. A combina on between the literature review and the interviews is the basis for the data. The use of nine cases divided by culture, landscape and facili es helps to illustrate the concrete eff ects of popula on decline and benefi ts of investments in the leisure industry. The benefi ts are analyzed using the two concepts of a rac veness and economies of scale. The results should show which opportuni es are available for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta and how the region may benefi t. The la er is par cularly important as the consequences are signifi cant. 4.1 Eff ects of popula on decline for the leisure industry In an ar cle, RECRON (2011) claims that popula on decline off ers opportuni es for entrepreneurs who are ac ve in the leisure industry in depopula ng regions. Nevertheless, popula on decline is o en seen as a phenomenon that adversely aff ects the region. Van Dalen (2008) off ers a simple argument for this nega ve connota on: popula on growth is regarded as a posi ve development, which makes decline a nega ve development. These nega ve associa ons of popula on decline are mostly related to the built environment, which also receives the bulk of a en on within discourse about popula on decline. Li le a en on is given to sociological aspects (Gardenier, 2012), while popula on decline does aff ect the social situa on. These aspects are “diffi cult to explain (...) It is your personal perceived value and depends on several aspects” (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). As it is, a personal interpreta on is much harder to iden fy and cannot be quan fi ed. This paragraph discusses the eff ects of popula on decline on the region. The ensuing threats and opportuni es in the Eemsdelta cannot be viewed separately from other circumstances such as the demographic transi on and earthquake problems. 4.1.1 Threats Based on the discourse surrounding a rac veness and economies of scale, several topics are examined which are infl uenced by popula on decline. When studying threats it is important to know that popula on decline is a selec ve spa al process. Even in regions of popula on decline, for instance the Eemsdelta, some places con nue to grow. However, as this phenomenon is variable these contemporary growing regions could decline “tomorrow” (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). In addi on, popula on decline can be self-strengthening (Elshof, 2017).

Employment Following the theory proposed by Bolt (1995), a smaller agglomera on off ers fewer economies of scale and is therefore less interes ng for companies to be located. Furthermore, in a small agglomera on unemployment and lower income rates are generally seen more frequently in regions of popula on decline (Table 11), but this does not mean that these are outcomes of depopula on. Derks (2016) proved that popula on decline does not lead to a higher unemployment rate. The fact that the supply (i.e., employees) decreases means that the demand (i.e., employment) needs rela vely less growth to achieve the same growth rates as the na onal mean. This is measured via the “change in unemployment percentage,” which between 2003 to 2014 was 2.3 for the Eemsdelta, while the na onal mean was 2.6. Accordingly, popula on decline does not directly lead to the disappearance of jobs and high unemployment rates (Derks, 2016a). S ll, these regions have to deal with higher unemployment rates and have a rela vely low income (Table 11). Furthermore, the absence of proper employment leads to dejuvena on, because young people (especially those who are highly educated) leave the region for this reason, among others (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017).

24 Employed popula on aged Rela vely low between 18-65 for the years income (2011) 2009/2012 The Netherlands 71% 35.7% Groningen province 65% 44.1% Municipality of Appingedam 68% 47.6% Municipality of Delfzijl 64% 44.7% Municipality of Eemsmond 65% 46.7% Municipality of Loppersum 67% 40.7%

Table 11. Percentage of employed popula on. Source: CBS, 2014

AgglomeraƟ on In addi on to vacant dwellings, popula on decline is commonly related to a decreasing number of facili es and companies. This is a global trend and not necessarily a process of popula on decline (E. van der Klauw, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Reduced facili es in regions of depopula on is reasonable as the poten al market, i.e., the residents, decreases. The benefi ts for entrepreneurs and companies through economies of scale are lessened, which makes the region less a rac ve to invest in (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). Popula on decline is a threat to an agglomera on in that it creates a scarcity of employees and a “scarcity of labor in a declining popula on will inconvenience employers”(Coleman & Rowthorn, 2011, p. 17). Popula on decline in the Eemsdelta also aff ects labor market pooling, because young people leave the region to study or work in the city. The leisure industry encounters diffi cul es when fi nding people willing to work temporarily in this sector. “In Zeeland and Zeeuws-Vlaanderen (depopula ng touris c regions), they have too few youngsters for vaca on jobs” (E. van der Klauw, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Popula on decline occurs alongside selec ve migra on, which means that certain groups, o en less educated and elderly people, stay while young and more educated people and young families leave the periphery (Rijksoverheid, n.d.; Haartsen & Venhorst, 2010). This selec ve spa al process leads to fewer people with know-how, connec ons and the poten al to bring people together. This human capital, as Strijker (Personal communica on, April 13, 2017) calls it, or key persons, as Delfmann (Personal communica on, April 12, 2017) calls it, is required for (innova ve) developments. The vulnerability of a small agglomera on can be seen in Eemsmond, where several shop owners of re rement age have no successor (A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017).

FaciliƟ es As discussed before, facili es leave regions of depopula on because the poten al market is smaller, which means that certain facili es are no longer needed or profi table (Van Eck, Dam, & de Groot, 2013). Even though leaving facili es is a global phenomenon resul ng from a scale-up, it is more prevalent in regions of popula on decline located in a peripheral region, and the consequences are felt more intensely in these regions (E. van der Klauw, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Financial ins tu ons, hospitals, supermarkets, infrastructural services such as bus lines, and cultural facili es including museums and theaters leave the region, because the audience for these facili es is reduced (Rijksoverheid, n.d.; Derks, Hovens, & Klinkers, 2006). This is in contrast to the city, which is s ll able to provide the desired and needed medical, infrastructural and cultural facili es. The escalator model [Roltrapmodel] (Figure 11) explains depopula on in certain regions. Residents of small villages migrate to larger villages which are able to off er facili es for youngsters (e.g., schools) and the elderly (e.g., care homes). Subsequently, these youngsters migrate to the city of Groningen or to the Randstad for work. This model explains why certain villages in a region of popula on decline are s ll able to grow (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017); Hospers & Pen, 2011). Leaving facili es puts residents in a downwards spiral. “Even though you do not use the facility, you want to keep the facili es as others make use of it and it creates commo on” (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). This has a nega ve impact on the livability of the area as residents believe “again that something leaves.” Less mobile people, such as the elderly and women with young children, feel the consequences of this disappearance the most. They are not able to leave their villages easily and thus depend more on local ac vi es. They lose a certain part of their autonomy with this (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017), which indicates that the accessibility of facili es is essen al for a place to be a rac ve for residents.

25 Quality of living environment Livability is a broad no on covering several aspects and diff ers from person to person. In a simplifi ed way, it concerns how appropriate and a rac ve a region or community is to live and/or work in (Ensie, 2011). A low regional quality increases the possibility of popula on decline and in turn popula on decline impacts the quality of the living environment in a nega ve way. Municipali es receive less tax income and can therefore invest less in spa al quality. This demonstrates that popula on decline has a self-strengthening character (Elshof, 2017). Areas experiencing popula on decline are cri cized for their low-quality housing stock and local environment, while being rewarded for their social quality, absence of nuisance and safety. Other points of cri cism are the limited opportuni es to study or work. Real threats arise when a concentra on of social disadvantages and ageing accompany the diminishing readiness of entrepreneurs to invest. Structural vacancy, urban degrada on and a mismatch between facili es and local demands are the most common consequences. These consequences are precisely the issues faced by northern Groningen (Leidelmeijer & Marlet, 2011). The housing market is experiencing a structural vacancy, deprecia on of house and business property values and a stagna on in the housing market (Leidelmeijer & Marlet, 2011). Strijker (Personal communica on, April 13, 2017) also views una rac ve houses as a reason for popula on decline. Not only poten al residents but also current residents perceive structural vacancy as a threat (Haartsen & Venhorst, 2010). Key persons and entrepreneurs o en play a central role in the region, as they “are important for the livability” (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Residents are afraid that earthquakes strengthen the consequences of popula on decline (Simon, De Haan, Grisnich, & Ringersma, 2016). Entrepreneurs are also scared, because they have to take more risk on their investment (D. Schenk, personal communica on, April 19, 2017). Other studies confi rm this by sta ng that business owners are uncertain about the future and doubt whether they should invest in their business (Simon, De Haan, Grisnich, & Ringersma, 2016).

Presence of culture The quality of the outdoor space is adversely aff ected (E. van der Klauw, personal communica on, April 12, 2017); this includes the cultural supply. However, interviews indicate that cultural heritage receives li le a en on. Popula on decline goes along with higher vacancies of cultural heritage. “This could lead to derelic on, unsafe situa ons and a growing feeling of malaise” (De Graaf, et al., 2014, p. 2). Some of

Figure 11. Migra on paterns. Source: PBL, 2015

26 these buildings have heritage value and are important for the history, meaning or aesthe cs of a place. In addi on, heritage sites are prone to earthquakes. The Menkemaborg (Figure 12), for instance, has suff ered earthquake damage that might aff ect the future of the building. Research in northern Groningen also reveals that residents are worried about these image-determining elements (Simon, De Haan, Grisnich, & Ringersma, 2016). These nega ve infl uences also impact the tourism industry, because the tourism industry in the Eemsdelta relies substan ally on cultural tourism.

Tourist aƩ racƟ on The tourist gaze by Urry states that the image which tourists have of a region is essen al to them visi ng it. Popula on decline and earthquake issues both have a nega ve eff ect on visitors’ image (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). Furthermore, the media draws a (legi mate) rela onship between depopula on/earthquakes and nega ve situa ons, such as problems for shops in regions of popula on decline (NOS, 2016) and the decreasing value of houses in northeast Groningen as a result of earthquakes (NOS, 2016a). From Ashworth’s (2011) research it appears that an image created by the media determines a substan al part of our opinions. Municipali es expect that depopula on and earthquakes have a nega ve infl uence on the leisure industry, as indicated by the fact that municipali es in Drenthe – Emmen (earthquakes), Aa en Hunze (popula on decline) and Tynaarlo (popula on decline) – do not want to be associated with these issues. Accordingly, they refuse funds that are available for regions facing these problems in order to deny their associa on with it. They depend too much on the leisure industry and do not want to take the risk that the region will be associated with the issues, as men oned above (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). Research on the image of the province of Groningen concludes that it is mainly determined by the concepts of peace, spaciousness, the city of Groningen and currently by earthquakes, whether the image is posi ve or nega ve. The city of Groningen is the greatest a ractor of tourists, but many poten al tourists argue that there is nothing to do in Groningen and that it is simply too far away (Sweco, 2016). What appears from this research is that demographic transi on does not play a role in the image of the region. Nevertheless, it is possible that this has an indirect impact on the image, because the claims that “there is nothing to do,” it is “not a rac ve enough” and “not interes ng enough” do relate to popula on decline in a way (Figure 13). Moreover, the “preference for other regions” and being “too far away” might relate to the previous answers. Westerink (Personal communica on, May 4, 2017) says: “I believe that tourists choose a par cular des na on, they are not bothered by the fact it is a depopula ng region. If they would know.” In theory, tourists are hardly bothered by popula on decline, but in prac ce this might be diff erent as they face the direct impacts of popula on decline, because the region has fewer ac vi es to off er or fewer facili es that tourists can make use of.

Figure 12. Menkemaborg. Source: own fi gure

27 Figure 13. Basic image of Groningen. Source: own fi gure There are three diff erent perspec ves from which to see a region: that of local residents, those from neighboring villages and those from further away. The representa on of the region can be visualized with the sombrero model (Figure 14), the name of which is derived from a Mexican wide-brimmed hat. The idea of this model is that local residents generally rate their own region as a good loca on to live. In contrast, neighboring villages know a great deal about the region and associate it with the nega ve aspects. People from further away know less about the region and their points of cri cism are therefore less strong (Rijnks & Strijker, 2011). This research was carried out for Veenkoloniën, but the idea might also apply to the Eemsdelta (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). Another issue is that “the rural area of Groningen is not touris c” (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017), and “from a touris c perspec ve, the region has never been a rac ve for people from the Netherlands” (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017). Human capital is leaving the region but is essen al for new developments. This loss makes it more diffi cult to create new and innova ve ideas (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017), while these types of new and dis nc ve ideas are necessary. This is because dis nc veness and ac vi es control why people visit a region if they have the me and money (D. Schenk, personal communica on, April 19, 2017). Moreover, according to Ashworth’s (2011) research, new physical developments also determine the image people have. 4.1.2 Opportuni es In addi on to threats, there are also opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta. This chapter discusses which opportuni es are related to demographic transi on and earthquake issues. Some opportuni es also relate to na onal trends or local quali es as they are of great value for entrepreneurs.

Vacant buildings and housing price As stated in the previous paragraph, popula on decline leads to structural vacancy (Figure 15) and because the housing market is determined by supply and demand, housing prices are generally decreased. Housing prices are also the indicator used by Bijker and Haartsen (2012) to show which regions are popular and which are less popular. With the excep on of Loppersum, the Eemsdelta is seen as a less popular rural area. However, some entrepreneurs do “see opportuni es for these vacant buildings” (E. van der Klauw, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Start-ups, for instance, profi t from this as they have less money to spend (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). Delfmann (Personal communica on, April 12, 2017) argues that a rela vely large number of entrepreneurs have a start-up in regions of popula on decline. In those regions “it is about maximizing personal happiness” rather than maximizing profi t. However, this is more o en the case in popular rural areas. The Eemsdelta diff ers from these cases, because the eff ects of depopula on are more visible in daily life and the situa on is more structural.

28 (peat districts) districts) (peat on of the ‘Veenkoloniën’ Apprecia Remaing part of Remaing the Netherlands provinces Four Direct neighborhood districts Peat Direct neighborhood provinces Four part of Remaing the Netherlands

Figure 14. Apprecia on of peat districts. Source: Rijnks and Strijker, 2011

Figure 15. Vacant building in Delfzijl. Source: own fi gure

29 FaciliƟ es The disappearance of facili es is viewed as a threat, but can also be seen as an opportunity. Entrepreneurs from the region know what is needed and can respond to this disappearance. Tap (personal communica on, April 21, 2017) also sees opportuni es for the leisure industry:

“Entrepreneurs want to off er something to their guests. That is why camp sites o en have mul ple facili es (...) think of a small supermarket, catering, swimming pool, bowling alley and outdoor ac vity facili es (...). If a local swimming pool has to close its doors, a camp site could take it over. Against payment, subsidy, the entrepreneur could allow residents or a swimming club to swim.” (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017)

The ability to become successful by combining facili es and func ons strongly diff ers from region to region and from person to person (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). An example is a local supermarket that has become a local mee ng place for residents. The supermarket has a “coff ee corner” where people can meet and sit together. The concept of a coff ee corner is not diff erent from other supermarkets, but it is more frequently used and more appreciated. Furthermore, the supermarket is be er embedded within the community. It sponsors local sports clubs and arranges local fes vals, which improves the social cohesion within the region. Demographic transi ons give local governments and entrepreneurs the possibility to adapt their facili es for “specifi c groups” (E. van der Klauw, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Ageing is o en associated with an increasing demand for care. Aside from this, ageing can also be seen as a posi ve phenomenon for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry. Elderly people have free me and frequently make use of parks, museums and other facili es (PBL, 2016). Elderly people also form the segment that best fi ts the demographic profi le of the Eemsdelta (Appendix 2). Thus, investments making the region more a rac ve for the local popula on also suit the poten al market and vice versa. Companies locate themselves where they see opportuni es. For some companies the presence of other companies is crucial, while others a ach more importance to the number of poten al employees. The absence of par cular companies could also off er opportuni es. Trends indicate what a region demands in the future. One such trend is the growing number of people from the Randstad willing to go to the periphery for recrea on (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017). Entrepreneurs should therefore adapt to future developments.

Policy In many regions where the popula on is declining, the government establishes policy strategies to a ract tourists. The House of Representa ves [Tweede Kamer] sees economic poten al for the leisure industry in regions of depopula on. Kees Verhoeven (D66) wants to encourage the industry through investments in culture and nature (RECRON, 2011). Likewise, Gunn (2002) names public-private coopera on as a success factor for the tourism industry. Governmental ins tu ons and other public organiza ons own many of the cultural heritage sites that are of great value for tourism. The provincial government of Groningen connects these statements and focuses mainly on cultural and natural tourism in their development plans (Provincie Groningen, 2016). In order to develop a tourist a rac on, the (local) government invests in making a site more appealing for visitors. However, the provincial government does not focus on individual regions, which includes regions undergoing depopula on (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017). Opportuni es lie mainly with local government, whose proverbial doors are said to be more open and who are able to off er more a en on on an individual basis. The consequent feeling of being heard and of no cing a sense of benevolence could be mo vators, in addi on to being more fl exible with their zoning plan [bestemmingsplan] so that entrepreneurs have the possibility to experiment, which is an opportunity (E. van der Klauw, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Furthermore, fl exibility in the zoning plan could be cost reducing as the planning and juridical phases require less me (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017). Interviews with the municipali es also indicate that they are strongly involved. They see the essence of these companies and are eager to support them. Local residents also generally encourage these investments, which decreases possible juridical costs (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017). This might be the outcome of greater social cohesion in rural areas (Gardenier, 2012). Elshof (2017) a ributes this greater social cohesion to popula on decline.

30 Money Not only do local governments see the consequences of depopula on, but the na onal government is also aware of the contemporary situa on. As a result, money is available for the nine regions of popula on decline in the Netherlands. The Eemsdelta expects a contribu on of 1.5 million euro per year for the period of 2016-2020. (Bekkers, 2015). The provincial government also has a living and livability plan [Woon- en lee aarheidsplan] for the Eemsdelta wherein they off er 1 million euro per year un l 2020 (Provincie Groningen, 2017a). These funds are available to contribute towards a regional and integral approach to mi gate the consequences of depopula on. Furthermore, improvements in livability also contribute to a rac veness, which could be a mo vator for entrepreneurs. The Groningen provincial government’s economic policy does not considerably diff er from that of regions experiencing popula on growth. Some funds are available, but these are not especially focused on tourism or on regions of popula on decline. These funds mainly go to entrepreneurs in (already) growing regions. The provincial government aims to facilitate companies and innova ve enterprises, instead of subsidizing companies. STINAG, a former provincial fund for tourism companies, was therefore discon nued (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017). This fund was frequently used and provided many opportuni es for entrepreneurs working in the leisure industry (A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017). This supports the idea that entrepreneurs in the leisure industry are barely encouraged or facilitated. According to Schenk (Personal communica on, April 19, 2017) entrepreneurs could profi t from the previously men oned funds, the current economic de and from EBG. In the current society the economy is picking up, which creates opportuni es for entrepreneurs. Besides, EBG has been set up to boost the economy in the nine municipali es dealing with earthquakes as a result of gas extrac on. It is a fi ve-year program from 2014-2018 that provides the possibility for investors to improve the local economy. EBG has 97.5 million euro to invest and is doing so by off ering loans to investors. It also supports entrepreneurs in the leisure industry, which might result in an a rac ve des na on for both residents and tourists (Economic Board Groningen, 2017). According to Kazemier (Personal communica on, June 27, 2017) it is possible that entrepreneurs are skep cal about EBG, as it is a governmental organiza on and they feel let down by the government. This is underlined by the fact that residents of Groningen have li le faith in the na onal government (CBS, 2014).

Wadden Sea “We are missing a large a ractor” (A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017). This coincides with the idea of the tourist gaze, which says that tourists want to see and experience something. On the other hand, Schenk (Personal communica on, April 19, 2017) argues that the Eemsdelta has enough to off er. This contradicts the idea of Strijker (Personal communica on, April 13, 2017) that the Eemsdelta has a “very limited absorp on capacity.” The Wadden Sea (Figure 16) could be the a ractor and connector of the municipali es. The Wadden Sea Fund [Waddenfonds] is a fund that provides opportuni es for touris c ac vi es (A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017). It was founded in response to gas extrac on in the Wadden Sea in 2006. Un l 2026, 560 million euro is available to invest in ini a ves that enhance the ecology and sustainable economic development in the Wadden Sea region. Topics are related to nature and water, leisure and culture, energy transi on and the harbor, and agriculture and fi sheries (Province of Groningen, n.d.). Even though the Wadden Sea is o en men oned as the a ractor for the region and the Waddenfonds as a great s mulator for entrepreneurs, its uniqueness and World Heritage status makes new ini a ves more diffi cult. Furthermore, the Flora and Fauna Act and other legisla on have provoked many complaints (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017; A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017).

Other suggested opportuniƟ es The fact that Groningen is not touris c could also be an opportunity. In Drenthe, for example, many routes are established for bicycles. These routes are less suitable for visitors with an electric bike because of their narrow winding paths. In contrast, Groningen has very few biking paths and has always been seen as a region that is unsuitable for recrea onal biking because of the long distances and open windy areas. Therefore, electric bikes could be a huge opportunity in this context (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). In contradic on to Romein’s “law of the handicap of a head start,” the “law of the s mula ve arrears” could be of use. This suggests that a backlog could result in an incen ve in the long term. A growing tourism market can be seen worldwide, which can be explained by several factors.

31 Figure 16. Wadden Sea. Source: own fi gure Globaliza on leads to cheaper and more accessible travel opportuni es, which align with the investment of governments in facili es and infrastructure to improve mobility. Communica ve globaliza on increases opportuni es by providing possibili es to gain more knowledge about certain areas, which captures people’s interests and awareness. The possibility to travel and the variety of holidays has also increased in a growing compe ve market, which means that something is available for everyone. Furthermore, nowadays people have more disposable income and elderly people have more free me to travel and have new experiences (BBC, 2014). An increase of tourists creates opportuni es. For instance, people travelling from the Randstad to the periphery, in addi on to the large number of German tourists going to Borkum, is seen as an opportunity. There is not much to do in Borkum and the embarka on point is in the Eemshaven. German tourists could therefore easily extend their trip for a few days and stay in the Eemsdelta (L. Geesink, personal communica on, May 17, 2017). Addi onally, the enlargement of Groningen Airport Eelde is men oned as an opportunity (A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017). 4.1.3 Conclusion Regions of depopula on face threats and have opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry. The statement by RECRON contradicts the general idea of popula on decline that envisages regions in a downward spiral. Popula on decline in the Eemsdelta accompanies ageing and dejuvena on. In turn, this demographic transi on leads to a smaller working popula on and has a nega ve impact on the a rac veness of the region. The Eemsdelta is already seen as a less popular rural area and is therefore less a rac ve for key persons. Those - o en more highly educated - persons are needed in an area as they can fulfi ll a leading role. Besides, the situa on in the Eemsdelta must be viewed in combina on with earthquake issues and the absence of a tourist image. On the other hand, regions of popula on decline have many fi nancial, juridical, spa al and governmental mo vators. The threats of popula on decline are highly visible in the Eemsdelta, while general opportuni es for regions of popula on decline are less applicable. The situa on diff ers from region to region, which means that entrepreneurs should adapt to the opportuni es in that par cular region. In this light, the Wadden Sea region is the greatest opportunity for the Eesmdelta. 4.2. Investments in the leisure industry In regions of popula on decline there are various opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry. These opportuni es should tempt entrepreneurs to invest in the Eemsdelta. Investments are essen al

32 because innova on is a necessity in this rapidly changing market. The general thought of entrepreneurs is: “to stand s ll is to move backwards” i.e., “stagna on means decline.” This thought is derived from the evolu on theory of Darwin, with the idea that “abandoning innova on means stagna on, stagna on means decline” (Westera, 2004, p. 6). Keeping up with the market and ensuring steadier con nuity is therefore the primary reason behind inves ng (Wagemans, 2014). These investments are also necessary in regions of popula on decline, because real problems can be seen when entrepreneurs stop inves ng and innova ng. Regions will no longer be able to match local demands, which results in a lower livability (Leidelmeijer & Marlet, 2011). The leisure industry is a very valuable market and could mi gate the consequences of popula on decline. Since the fi nancial crisis of 2008, it is less self-evident that money becomes available for investment by both public and private par es. “There are enough young entrepreneurs willing to invest, but are not able to fi nance it” (Resident BL2, personal communica on, May 31, 2017). Large investments are no longer made in spa al planning, but instead small-scale investments are built upon. Investments revolve around maintaining and strengthening exis ng quali es, i.e., the redevelopment of city centers (Provincie Groningen, 2013). This chapter explains what the fi elds of investments are, who invests and how they invest. 4.2.1 Fields of investments As men oned in the methodology, this thesis makes use of three types of investment. The Eemsdelta should focus on its core quali es, landscape and culture, and facili es contribute to the development and use of these quali es.

Landscape An integral policy, whereby diff erent departments such as landscapes and economics are combined, is valuable for the development of a region. An invi ng landscape can have both social and economic benefi ts, as local residents are able to engage in recrea on in the area and it a racts tourists to the region. Investments should not only look to the economic aspect, but also deal with ecological and natural aspects in a sensible manner to preserve a sustainable future (Pietersma, Smit, Berndsen, & Gehrels, 2011). Rural areas appeal to tourists due to their “dis nct cultural, historic, ethnic and geographic characteris cs” (Wilson, Fesenmaier, Fesenmaier, & Van Es, 2001, p. 132). The increased interest of people from the Randstad in the periphery (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017) might indicate that rural and natural tourism is growing. Nevertheless, according to the tourist gaze they are more interested in sights than in sites. This corresponds to the idea that for urbanites agricultural ac vi es have less value. They do not mind which products are produced or what purpose they have, as long as they look “good” (Van der Ziel, 2006). This could be a problem for the Eemsdelta. Research by Bijker and Haartsen (2002) suggests that less popular rural areas, such as the Eemsdelta, are less valued for their landscape characteris cs. Indeed, the Eemsdelta is less appreciated for its landscape compared to other regions of popula on decline. The average grade for the landscape of the direct surroundings is 6.7 in the Eemsdelta, while Oost-Groningen (6.9), Zeeuws-Vlaanderen (7.3) and Parkstad Limburg (7.2) score more highly. The same study concludes that this grade correlates with the number of jobs in the leisure industry (Goossen, Kuhlman, & Breman, 2012). At request of the na onal government, the Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis [Sociaal Planbureau] conducted research on the economic value of the landscape and the eff ects of investments in the landscape. The Dutch landscape is to a large extent made by humans, which makes it an important “input” for the Dutch iden ty. It can be seen as an object, as a social construct (a combina on of personal values) and as a living environment. In general, people are charmed by authen c, historic, natural and small-scale landscapes. A conclusion of this research was that inves ng in the landscape does pay off . The greatest benefi ts, according to this research, are improvements to the living and working environment, the sustained inheritance of cultural landscapes and the recrea onal sector. It is also argued that investments have a posi ve impact on our level of happiness. Because landscapes are freely accessible, broad and extensive it is challenging to commodify these assets. Gaining direct profi t from them is therefore more diffi cult (Braaksma, et al., 2007).

Culture Some scholars argue that interest in culture has grown, as the number of people going to museums, monuments and other heritage sites has increased (Huysmans & De Haan, 2007). However, this is discussed because the defi ni on of “culture” has broadened. It therefore does not have to be true that people are more interested in culture than before (Richards, 2001). S ll, culture is a great a ractor to en ce tourists, because tourists like to learn from other cultures (McKercher & Cros, 2003). Marlet and Poort (2011) performed research on the economic value of culture, and used fi ve societal values: prac cal value, op onal

33 value, value of existence, economic value and social value. 1. The prac cal value concerns the idea that people enjoy art and culture and it makes them happy. It is also for this reason that culture plays a role in the a rac veness of the city and why people prefer a city with a large supply of culture; 2. The op onal value assumes that people appreciate the possibility to make use of culture and art. They therefore like living in a city or region with a lot of culture; 3. As a result, housing prices in ci es with a large cultural supply are higher than in ci es with fewer cultural a racters. For example, even if you do not visit the Rijksmuseum or a local museum, you would probably dislike it if it were to close its doors. Hence, culture also has a value of existence, as its existence alone has a value and relates to a sense of pride and to people’s iden ty; 4. The cultural sector also has an economic value as it provides jobs and a racts tourists. Furthermore, the cultural supply is an asset to retain (highly educated) residents, who play an essen al role in the region’s development; 5. Finally, culture has a social value as it has a posi ve impact on health, educa on, livability and security. Overall, investments in culture are very valuable for a region from both an economic and social perspec ve.

FaciliƟ es Facili es refer to the features that facilitate visitors in their needs, and include infrastructure (e.g., walking or biking trails), restaurants and shops. The disappearance of facili es is one of the threats to depopula ng regions, although there are also opportuni es for entrepreneurs to invest. Locals benefi t from investment in facili es as they make use of these facili es. 4.2.2 Investors This research makes use of three types of investors: governments, organiza ons and entrepreneurs. The la er is divided into large and small investors, because the region has many entrepreneurs working in a “hobby atmosphere” (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017). Benefi ts of large entrepreneurs are assumed to be diff erent from those of small entrepreneurs, because their approach is diff erent. The investors are described on the basis of non-profi t organiza ons and profi t-minded entrepreneurs.

Non-profi t organizaƟ ons Governmental support and par cipa on are o en named as success factors for tourism development. Wilson, Fesenmaier, Fesenmaier and Van Es (2001) examined factors of success in rural tourism development by selec ng six communi es in three regions in Illinois, the USA. The par cipa on and support of the local government are seen as a crucial element. The local government is especially important for promo on, infrastructure, zoning and maintenance, and occupa onal support for employees in the tourism sector. Notably, all six communi es depend heavily on public funds because most residents in rural areas are not able to invest by themselves. Kazemier (Personal communica on, June 27, 2017) confi rms this by sta ng that small companies depend on governmental support. This fact makes it remarkable that the provincial government terminated funds intended for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry. Van der Klauw (Personal communica on, April 12, 2017) argues that entrepreneurs are not really facilitated or supported by the government, but that this should be the case. Moreover, Tap (personal communica on, April 21, 2017) is cri cal about contemporary policy because “the current cabinet is a Randstad Cabinet.” Furthermore, ideas by the CDA, such as a region with fewer regula ons (Benschop, 2011), o en fail because governmental ins tu ons draw a line at the boundary of their jurisdic on. The poten al risks of new ideas create fear, resul ng in less coopera on and par cipa on (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017). Furthermore, it is remarkable that the provincial government and the municipali es of Delfzijl, Eemsmond and Loppersum include tourism, recrea on and leisure within the economic por olio. With this, they project an image that may be carried over by investors. Only Appingedam combines leisure with aspects such as care, par cipa on and spa al quality. With the excep on of the governmental por olios, the interviews say a great deal about interviewees’ a tudes towards the leisure industry. Lex Geesink from Appingedam was very enthusias c and talked with pride about the leisure industry in “his” municipality. Antje Kazemier from Eemsmond was very helpful and indicated the poten al of Eemsmond and the local government’s coopera ve mindset. The municipality of Loppersum barely has a touris c a tude, which was also its reason to decline the invita on for an interview. The same applies to Delfzijl, which has li le focus on tourism. A hec c period at work withheld the contact at this municipality from responding to the interview proposal. As men oned, the provincial government of Groningen has a purely economic a tude towards tourism. The concerned deputy

34 has limited direct investments in the leisure industry, and no special policy is in place to ensure that some of this investment takes place in, for instance, the Eemsdelta. Municipali es currently have a lot of money to spend on mi ga ng the consequences of popula on decline and earthquake issues. The municipality can use these funds from the provincial and na onal government to invest in livability and, for example, in the tourism industry. Organiza ons are also able to invest in the Eemsdelta. The diff erence between the focus of the government and organiza ons is that governments serve the public interest, while organiza ons focus on a specifi c group or theme. Moreover, organiza ons more o en aim towards residents and focus less on economic aspects.

Profi t-oriented It has been said that popula on decline off ers opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry, but entrepreneurs must take up these opportuni es (Kuhlman, et al., 2012). “Demand for innova on in the tourism industry is very high and entrepreneurs know this. The demand of guests changes very quickly as they like it today and dislike it tomorrow” (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017). This thought corresponds with the general belief that stagna on means decline. Governmental support is necessary, as previously men oned, especially in regions of popula on decline where the chance of succeeding is lower. The low touris c poten al of the Eemsdelta also makes those investments more risky (M. Tap, personal communica on, April 21, 2017). Schenk (Personal communica on, April 19, 2017) is more op mis c concerning the possibili es for entrepreneurs in the Eemsdelta. His reasoning is that there are currently many mo va ons to invest, of which the EBG is one. S ll, the a endance of poten al investors at an inspira onal day organized by EBG was disappoin ng. Poten al investors from the earthquake region were invited to a end this event on the 28th March which focused on recrea on and tourism. Only 28 people registered, of which 17 were entrepreneurs represen ng diff erent companies. Even more remarkable was that only three diff erent companies were located within the Eemsdelta and two, the ANWB (Royal Dutch Touring Club) and Routebureau Groningen, represented a region that includes the Eemsdelta. This could be explained by the scarcity of entrepreneurs within the Eemsdelta. The region was an industrial region and is transi oning towards a serviced-based economy. Residents previously relied on the industry and have less experience with entrepreneurship. Dependency on subsidies, as described in “De Graanrepubliek” by Frank Westerman, may also relate to the fact that people have li le incen ve to become entrepreneurs. Even though Schenk (Personal communica on, April 19, 2017) is op mis c about the chances for entrepreneurs, he concedes that there are only a few touris c entrepreneurs with a valid business case in the Eemsdelta. This confi rms that the absorp on capacity of the region is very limited, as Strijker argues (Personal communica on, April 13, 2017). Even though a lot of money is available to spend in the region, it seems that very few entrepreneurs are capable of using it. A recent overview of investments funded by the Waddenfonds confi rms these ideas. People were able to apply for a fund between September 2016 and February 2017. In June 2017, it became clear that eight projects would receive a grant: three projects in Friesland, three in Noord-Holland and two in Groningen, none of which were located in the Eemsdelta (Gemeente Alblasserdam, 2017). An interview with Eric Neef also gave the impression that the ANWB invests less in northern Groningen. This was countered by the statement that there are various ways to interpret certain numbers: e.g., investments per province, per km2, or per capita. Companies in the Groningen tourism industry are rela vely small and less professional in comparison to the rest of the Netherlands (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017). Very few companies are 100% touris c and have secondary ac vi es (L. Geesink, personal communica on, May 17, 2017). It is therefore chosen to make a division between large entrepreneurs and small entrepreneurs. Small entrepreneurs invest to create or retain employment for themselves, while large investors create employment for other people as well. Small entrepreneurs probably have more local connec ons and aim more towards social benefi ts. This is based on the idea that start-ups in regions of popula on decline largely have social reasons to invest and want to do something for the region (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017), while large investors focus on economic benefi ts. 4.2.3 Investments This sec on combines the previous two paragraphs and discusses the nine cases central to this thesis. These investments are used to examine the socioeconomic benefi ts resul ng from investments in the leisure industry. A subdivision is made to give an idea of the possible diff erences between governments (public interests), organiza ons (specifi c interests), large entrepreneurs (commercial interests) and small entrepreneurs (social interests). The nine considered investments have diff erent interests, which could lead

35 to interes ng conclusions. Table 12 presents the investments. However, three investments are not taken into account in this study. For these cases no recent investments were suitable for this research. This could indicate that few investments are made, or that these investments have a lack of visibility. Small investors in the leisure industry were harder to fi nd, because they aim at both tourists and recrea onal users.

Non-profi tProfi t-oriented Governmental Ins tu onal/ Large investors Small investors organiza onal Culture 3) Groninger Kerken 8) Vijgenhof Landscape 1) Marconi project: 4) Groninger 6) Boertel 9) Camping de Breede Buitendijks Landschap Lentemaheerd Facili es/ 2) Kiek over Diek 5) ANWB 7) Hotel Termunterzijl ameni es

Table 12. Research cases: diff erent investments in the Eemsdelta. Source: own table

1) Marconi project: Buitendijks Delfzijl has the highest percentage of popula on decline in the Netherlands, with a 27.9% decline in the period of 2015-2040 (Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving, 2016). The Marconi project is a large project that encompasses several projects to make Delfzijl resilient to the growing fl ood risks and increase its a rac veness for people and ecology. Marconi project Buitendijks (“outside the dike”) is currently under development and focuses on the waterfront and salt marshes. Delfzijl is alienated from the harbor of Delfzijl, as a consequence of a lack of vision, coordina on and coopera on. There was limited interest in the spa al quality of the coastal area, which impacted people and nature. In response to several socio-spa al problems encountered by Delfzijl – its limited marine character, growing fl ood risks and lack of a rac veness for residents, visitors and investors - and possibili es for ecological development, the Marconi project was established. This project is a broad-scale investment and partly aims at the development of the inner city. The global goal is to make Delfzijl a harbor city again with all of the accompanying benefi ts (De Groot & Van Duin, 2013; Martens, 2017). Marconi project Buitendijks is the fi rst concrete development, with an expected cost of 10 million euro. This project mainly focuses on the mul func onal dike that will be relocated inland. Marconi project

Figure 17. Exis ng beach. Source: own fi gure

36 Buitendijks has fi ve sub-projects: (1) pioneer salt marsh, (2) salt marsh park, (3) beach, (4) new freshwater outlet and (5) Griesberg. Griesberg is a waste dump of calcareous material from soda produc on that will be removed. This indicates that not all of these sub-projects have touris c poten al. The most relevant developments of this project are: 1. An enlarged beach, from 0.7 hectares (Figure 17) to 2.3 hectares; 2. A new dike, situated inland, with a mul func onal design. It will be a waterfront with walking and biking routes in addi on to several recrea onal facili es; 3. A pedestrian and bike bridge to connect the city center with the boulevard and enlarged beach; 4. Ecological developments such as the salt marshes and an island for breeding birds. The municipality of Delfzijl, provincial government of Groningen, Department of Waterways and Public Works [Rijkswaterstaat], water boards, Groningen Seaport and Groninger Landschap are coopera ng to achieve the project goals. In 2014 the par es agreed upon a sustainable balance between ecology, spa al quality and economic development. Businesses joined the project because they see opportuni es for their own business. For instance, the Eemshotel will be located at the beach and waterfront (Gemeente Delfzijl, 2016).

2) Kiek over Diek The Dutch and German Wadden Sea has been a World Heritage site since 2009. This unique and dynamic landscape is known for its ecosystem and visible infl uences of ebb and fl ood, and changes created by the des are no ceable daily (S ch ng Werelderfgoed Nederland, 2017). These dynamics create a variety of landscapes, which is not only interes ng for fl ora and fauna but also for tourists. With “Kiek over Diek” (translated from the Groningen dialect: “look over the dike”) the provincial government, municipali es and water boards want to make the Wadden Sea more visible and accessible to tourists. These par es want to connect the Lauwersmeer to the Dollard by a 90 kilometer biking path, which is located on exis ng paths and partly on new paths built over the dike, which were completed in June 2016. Kazemier (Personal communica on, June 27, 2017) adds that this project aims to connect water to land. Alongside the pathways, some smaller plans also form part of this project. Several informa on columns, fi ve cabins [trekkershu en] in Noordpolderzijl and an artwork were placed to give tourists the possibility to stay in this region. To draw a en on to the new pathways, the event “Over de Vloed” (literally: “Over the Flood”) was organized on 3-5 June 2017. The idea was that entrepreneurs and local communi es could take over this event to promote themselves and the region (A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017).

3) SƟ chƟ ng Oude Groninger Kerken: Moluccan church S ch ng Oude Groninger Kerken (SOGK) is a non-profi t organiza on established 48 years ago to protect and preserve historic churches in Groningen. Preserva on and providing informa on have always been key issues for this ins tu on (S ch ng Oude Groninger Kerken, 2017), which also supports the re-use of churches to increase interest in the history and cultural heritage of Groningen. These buildings are essen al for the local neighborhood, because they are mostly located in the center of the villages and are an image- determining feature (C. Velvis, personal communica on, June 6, 2017). SOGK has developed itself into a successful and leading ins tu on in the restora on and re-use of cultural heritage (S ch ng Oude Groninger Kerken, 2017). The number of churches under its ownership increased from 35 in 1979 to 62 in 2009 and 85 in 2016. Even though the goal remains the same, the “objects” have diversifi ed. This organiza on not only owns Dutch Chris an churches, but also other religious buildings like a synagogue and a Chris an Moluccan church. In order to draw a en on to these heritage sites and provide income, SOGK organizes events in and around churches (Huizinga, 2016). The Moluccan church is one of SOGK’s projects (Figure 18). In 1959 the Moluccan community moved to Appingedam, where they formed the fi rst Moluccan community in the Netherlands. This community also built the fi rst Moluccan church in the country, Eben Haëzer. Even though the church was intended as a temporary church, it s ll has a high cultural value for the local community and for the Moluccan community in the Netherlands. Jet Bussemaker, the Minister of Culture, said: “the Moluccan church in Appingedam reminds us of the checkered history of the Moluccan community and stands central for the excep onal circumstances they had to deal with.” This church symbolizes the transi on from a temporary refuge to integra on in the Dutch society (Museum Maluku, 2016). A er 2014, when SOGK obtained ownership of the church, it became a na onal heritage site of the Netherlands [Rijksmonument]. The dilapidated building was eligible for several subsidies (more than 400,000 euro) which made restora on possible (C. Velvis, personal communica on, June 6, 2017).

37 Figure 18. Moluccan church. Source: own fi gure In addi on to the SOGK, the Moluccan community also plays a role. They are involved in the decision- making process and closely monitor the developments. Also involved are the provincial government and NAM, as they subsidize a large amount of money, as well as local schools and the local tourist offi ce, as they see opportuni es.

4) Landschapsbeheer Groningen: Terpen- en Wierdenland All 12 provincial governments of the Netherlands have their own non-profi t founda ons to preserve, protect and develop the provincial landscape. In addi on to these founda ons, provincial governments (except for Noord-Brabant, Overijssel and Noord-Holland) have another non-profi t founda on that deals with smaller preserva on interven ons and exchanging informa on. Their inten on is to connect people to the landscape. In coopera on with several ins tu ons, governments, volunteers and entrepreneurs they realize projects to make the landscape a rac ve, diverse and experienceable. Mounds (terpen and wierden) are one of the key iden ty markers of the northern Netherlands. Residents built these mounds to protect themselves from des. Even though they are crucial elements in the history of Groningen, these features are under intense pressure. Many of these mounds have been excavated and others are threatened by expansions of infrastructure and housing, while intensifi ca on in agriculture is leading to the disappearance of typical parceling (G. Schoemakers, personal communica on, June 1, 2017; Landschapsbeheer Groningen, 2017). Terpen- en Wierdenland is a project by Landscape Management Groningen that preserves and restores the historical landscape to keep the history alive. This project comprises fi ve elements: archaeological research, landscape recovery, providing informa on to regional residents, cultural tourism and regional marke ng. There is a budget of 2.2 million euro for the whole project which includes six pilot villages, of which two are located in the Eemsdelta: Warff um (Eemsmond) and Godlinze (Delfzijl). For each village there is a budget of circa 150,000 euro to invest in landscape recovery, which involves the removal of vegeta on on the slopes to make the mound visible again. Addi onally, the establishment of an informa on center for local residents is a concrete investment that relates to the leisure industry (G. Schoemakers, personal communica on, June 1, 2017; Landschapsbeheer Groningen, 2017). The Waddenfonds, the provincial governments of Groningen and Friesland, the six involved municipali es, Landscape Management Groningen and Landscape Management Friesland, Groningen University, mul ple entrepreneurs, residents and volunteers are part of this project and all have their own interests (G. Schoemakers, personal communica on, June 1, 2017; Landschapsbeheer Groningen, 2017).

38 5) ANWB and Landschapsbeheer Groningen: Walking on Wadden The ANWB and Landschapsbeheer Groningen completed the Waddenwandelen project at the end of 2013. The Royal Dutch Touring Club [ANWB] is the largest non-profi t associa on for travelers in the Netherlands. It is responsible for traffi c signs and trails, and publishes various routes for bikers and pedestrians (E. Neef, personal communica on, June 12, 2017). Waddenwandelen originates from the need to increase the experience and accessibility of the Wadden Sea region (WaddenZee, 2016). Together with Landschapsbeheer Groningen, the ANWB realized a network of pathways to facilitate discovery of the ancient cultural landscapes and the unique area. The 2.9 million euro was spent on new paths, various routes, collec ng regional stories and marke ng the product (WaddenZee, 2016). The contribu on of the ANWB to this project was signage and lending their name to the project (E. Neef, personal communica on, June 12, 2017). In addi on to the ANWB and Landschapsbeheer Groningen, S ch ng Landschapsbeheer Friesland and Landschap Noord- Holland were involved in the overall project. This project was fi nanced by the Waddenfonds and several governmental ins tu ons.

6) Boertel Lentemaheerd In 1986, Anita and Doeke Oos ng started living on Doeke’s parental farm (Figure 19). The farm is located in Uithuizermeeden, a village in Eemsmond. Doeke takes care of the agricultural land, while Anita started a boertel (a combina on of the words “boerderij” (farmhouse) and “hotel”) in 1994. The basic idea was to show their property and farming life to others. Ini ally the boertel had only one room, and step by step they created extra rooms and a campsite. At that me the guests were all able to eat in their living room, but the accommoda on grew and no longer fi ed within its loca on. They decided to (energy effi ciently) invest approximately half a million euro in seven extra rooms, a dining room and a recep on. To be able to invest in the boertel, they sold a large part of their agricultural land (A. Oos ng, personal communica on, May 31, 2017).

7) Hotel Termunterzijl Arie Heuvelman is probably one of the best known entrepreneurs of Delfzijl. Through investments in the port industry he became a key fi gure in the region. A er selling his company Heuvelman Ibis he concentrated on project development and poli cs. One of his projects is the construc on of a hotel in Termunterzijl (Figure 20). “A few years ago, I said that I wanted to construct a hotel in Termunterzijl.” A er saying this, Arie Heuvelman was contacted by a housing associa on which had a piece of land for sale near the sea. Heuvelman immediately bought it and plans for the hotel were subsequently drawn up. He saw opportuni es for touris c development in Termunten, because it is an interes ng area with the sea, beaches and several touris c routes. Moreover, it is located near the Eemshaven where many people from outside the region work. They are willing to stay in the region, which makes the idea of a hotel promising (Groninger Internet Courant, 2016). The hotel was fi nished in June 2016. It is a chic place and its 26 rooms are aimed towards

Figure 19. Boertel Lentemaheerd. Source: own fi gure

39 Figure 20. Hotel Termunterzijl. Source: own fi gure the higher classes. The hotel is completely adapted to the region, which can be seen in the design and interior. The use of marine products can not only be seen in the design, but the restaurant also uses local seafood. With a top chef it is dis nguished from other restaurants, resul ng in a full hotel and many people from Groningen willing to eat in that par cular restaurant. No other par es were involved in the construc on of the hotel. Of course, the municipality plays a crucial role as Heuvelman was aware of current developments in Eemshaven (A. Noot, personal communica on, June 8, 2017).

8) De Vijgenhof Appingedam is the previous capital of the Ommelanden. It has several cultural a rac ons and promotes itself as a cultural and historical city. Part of its heritage is a former synagogue, built in 1801 (Figure 21). SOGK is the current owner of the synagogue, former Jewish school and cemetery, including a house for ritual prepara on of the dead. The former Jewish school has been renovated and is now used as a heritage lodging. The Dutch Israelite Religious Community wanted to open the synagogue to the public. For SOGK the renova on and provision of informa on and awareness about Jewish society in Groningen was a key aspect of inves ng in this project. The synagogue has a permanent exhibi on about the Jewish community in Appingedam in the form of stories from former Jewish residents. The bed and Figure 21. De Vijgenhof. Source: own fi gure

40 breakfast made it aff ordable for the manager to live there and dedicate their me to the synagogue. David Lamain is the current exploiter of these components, and is required to ensure that this heritage (including the house) does not become dilapidated. He is already the fourth owner of the bed and breakfast since its renova on in 2014/2015. Lamain has only recently become the owner of the Jewish heritage site, but he is planning to expand and increase the tours and catering. For new investments he has to take into account the demands of the Jewish families and the Dutch Israelite Religious Community. They want a tangible place where the Holocaust is commemorated and where informa on can be found about the society. “It is important for Jewish people that it is a synagogue where ac vi es take place instead of a community center within a previous synagogue. That is a nuanced diff erence” (D. Lamain, personal communica on, June 7, 2017).

9) Camping de Breede Camping de Breede (Figure 22) is a campsite located in Warff um (Eemsmond). Cherita Meijer has been the campsite manager since 1993. At that me the site had only a small toilet building and a swimming pool, but has since developed greatly and currently off ers 40 diverse camping spots, an equipped mobile home and camping car spots. Play facili es for younger children, Wi-Fi and a snack bar are also available. As in every sector, Cherita is forced to invest in the campsite to keep up with current trends in the tourism industry. She manages an ongoing investment meline, which varies from large investments to smaller ones. Last year she bought a new hot water heater and before that a new chalet. This year she is inves ng in new camping car spots, as this is a growing business. The municipality of Eemsmond is an important player for the site; as well as the loan they provided when Cherita bought the campsite, they s ll own the swimming pool. Furthermore, the local tennis club, whose tennis courts are located next to the campsite, has a contract with Cherita so that camping visitors are able to play tennis for free (C. Meijer, personal communica on, May 10, 2017). 4.2.4 Conclusion There are three fi elds that investors could invest in. Landscape and culture are two key quali es, while facili es are necessary to facilitate tourism and recrea onal users. Four diff erent actors are described as investors in the Eemsdelta: governments, organiza ons, large entrepreneurs and small entrepreneurs. Based on a combina on of the fi elds of investment and actors nine investments are discussed and demonstrate how actors invest in the Eemsdelta. It appears that all investors, except for small entrepreneurs, focus (uninten onally) on mul ple assets. Furthermore, in many investments mul ple actors are involved. For instance, the synagogue was renovated by SOGK but is managed by an entrepreneur. In these cases the focus lies mainly on the specifi c investors, but the asset itself is also discussed as it is diffi cult to dissociate the two. Other notes about the investments are as follows: Camping de Breede does not directly invest in

Figure 22. Camping de Breede. Source: own fi gure

41 the landscape, but camping could play an essen al role as it is a typical land-related business and provides a clear point of view. Waddenwandelen is a four-year-old project that gives an overview of the diff erences between older and more recent investments. In addi on, the ANWB is an interes ng organiza on due to its na onwide involvement in touris c routes. The investments examined in this paragraph are not the only investments made in the Eemsdelta leisure industry, but are the most appropriate for this research. However, it was diffi cult to fi nd suitable investments. The following paragraphs provide answers to research ques ons 3 and 4 based on the results from the cases discussed in this paragraph. 4.3 Economic benefi ts of investments While the previous paragraphs dealt with the current situa on of the Eemsdelta, this paragraph examines the benefi ts resul ng from the abovemen oned investments. Investments in the leisure industry are generally made with an economic mindset. Tourism is of greater economic value than recrea on (Zillmann & Vorderer, 2009), which means that these investments are mostly focused towards tourists. Since the 1970s economic opportuni es have decreased for rural communi es, due to the farming crisis and economic structuring. This has increased the focus on tourism in rural areas. “One of the most popular nontradi onal rural development strategies has been tourism and its associated entrepreneurship opportuni es because of tourism’s ability to bring in dollars and to generate jobs and support retail growth” (Wilson, Fesenmaier, Fesenmaier, & Van Es, 2001, p. 132). This economic mode of thinking is logical because the tourism industry is one of the largest economic markets (Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997; Sta sta, n.d.) and reasons to invest are (only) in the interests of the investor, including the growth of business and staying ahead of the compe on (The Telegraph Business, 2016; Bluchic, 2016). Even though the goals of investment are “selfi sh,” as investors aim to make profi t for themselves, the region also benefi ts both directly and indirectly from their presence. In this chapter the economic benefi ts are highlighted. Ul mately the investments can be compared to iden fy which type has the largest perceived impact on the region. This indica on is based on interviews with the investors and local residents (where possible). 4.3.1 Employment The Eemsdelta has a rela vely high unemployment rate, and as a result of brain drain it also has a large group of low-skilled workers. Hence this industry suits the Eemsdelta because “you do not necessarily need highly educated people in the tourism industry” (D. Schenk, personal communica on, April 19, 2017). Furthermore, tourism is growing within the Eemsdelta and resul ng in a growing number of jobs within the sector. This aligns with the objec ve of the provincial government to increase the number of tourists, as this leads to more jobs (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017). Start-ups in regions of popula on decline generally do not have the will to grow and instead aim to maximize personal happiness (H. Delfmann, personal communica on, April 12, 2017). Furthermore, companies in the leisure industry located in the Eemsdelta are rela vely small-scale (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017). Accordingly, although investments lead to new employment, because they are mostly small they are commonly intended for self-employment. Strijker (Personal communica on, April 13, 2017) also argues that “instant employment is nice, but the aim is to create a broad development that goes further than economics alone.” An increase in employment would not lead to popula on increase (Kuhlman, et al., 2012). In addi on to low employment and low incomes, this industry has also a poor reputa on due to its seasonality (Schneijdenberg, 2010). In the Eemsdelta, which has the quali es of spaciousness, nature, small villages and cultural heritage, the seasonality of this industry is very appropriate. Natural and cultural tourists in the Eemsdelta visit to walk or cycle outdoors. In the winter or while it is raining these visitors are less keen to go to this region.

AŌ er investment Entrepreneurs invest in the leisure industry for economic reasons. They want to expand their profi ts and create new employment by doing so. Large investments generally have more impact, but the types of investment and investor also play a role. For instance, a new and chic hotel developed by a large investor off ers employment in various ways: gardeners, cleaners, waitresses, a cook and a manager. Meijer (Camping de Breede) invests to sustain her own income and to maintain seasonal jobs. The case of the campsite demonstrates how the seasonal nature of tourism limits Meijer in hiring employees. This aspect explains why it is essen al to focus on a wider audience. A hotel is less seasonally limited and, like Lentemaheerd, profi ts from employees of the Eemshaven who stay at accommoda on in the Eemsdelta. A reason why the type of investor ma ers is the fact that the employment created by smaller investors is o en fi lled by

42 rela ves, as is the case at Vijgenhof and Camping de Breede. It is argued that the leisure industry is a sector in which mainly less educated people work. These investments confi rm this idea, because the created employment essen ally comprises cleaners, gardeners and waitresses. More highly paid jobs at the Hotel Termunterzijl are not taken by employees from the region as the managers and cooks do not live within the Eemsdelta. Even though employment for less educated people is suitable for the Eemsdelta, some investors experience the eff ects of dejuvena on as the search for young people to work in, for instance, the hotel is quite a challenge. Meanwhile, non-profi t investors do aim for economic development, but this does not directly lead to paid employment. Governmental ins tu ons want to develop the region and provide opportuni es for entrepreneurs to benefi t from this. Organiza ons aim for their specifi c goals and seek a connec on with entrepreneurs. For example, SOGK invested a lot in the Moluccan church which s mulates its economic use, because this contributes to the preserva on of its heritage.

Before/during investment The development and construc on of investments also off ers employment. For small investments like the crea on of camping car spots at the campsite, li le employment is involved. In contrast, large investments create employment in the planning and designing stages as there is a need for architects and contracts, among others. While large investments create more employment, this is not necessarily be er for the local economy. However, connectedness to the region also plays a role. Because of their connectedness with the local community, investors may search for a local company to carry out the work. For example, Boertel Lentemaheerd specifi cally demanded a local constructer for their investment. However, the more specifi c a certain job becomes, the greater the chance that the work is carried out by people or companies from outside the Eemsdelta. For instance, SOGK asked a local company to par cipate in the public tender. Because organiza ons and governmental ins tu ons have to award their plans by a public tender procedure, the work o en goes to larger companies outside the Eemsdelta. Large investments made by organiza ons or the government create many temporary jobs in construc on and other related industries. The planning stage also creates employment as many ins tu ons and organiza ons are part of the development of large governmental projects. For the Marconi project Buitendijks, the Municipality of Delfzijl, the provincial government, two water boards, Groningen Seaports, Groninger Landschap and Rijkswaterstaat are all partners. In the construc on of investments by organiza ons a large amount of work is done by volunteers or by members of the organiza on. 4.3.2 Agglomera on The general idea is that an investment contributes to the exis ng agglomera on and that companies profi t from this. Marshall’s external economies of scale explain what advantages companies have from being located in a large agglomera on. Marshall’s theory is about crea ng an agglomera on of companies within the same sector, while Jacobs emphasizes that bringing diff erent companies together from diff erent sectors leads to cross-fer liza on. In this respect agglomera ons cannot be compared with urban agglomera ons like London or the Randstad, but every new company or expansion has a posi ve impact on the local agglomera on. Other companies profi t from their proximity as new investment leads to a greater use of the products and services of other companies. This also applies to investments in the leisure industry. Geesink (Personal communica on, May 17, 2017) also sees investment in de Marne as a posi ve development, because companies in Appingedam can profi t from it. This implies that spillover eff ects are widely no ceable. A frequently noted benefi t of investments is the crea on of commo on in a posi ve way. This is arguably one of the most important benefi ts; as Strijker (Personal communica on, April 13, 2017) argues direct employment is nice, but the follow-up stages are more important. “You should put all the ideas on the table and ensure that there is a debate about it. It will always trigger someone with another idea or plan” (D. Schenk, personal communica on, April 19, 2017). This corresponds with the idea of Bolt (1995) that investments lead to new investments.

External economies of scale As previously men oned, profi t-oriented investments lead to new employment. These employees, whether they are young people or not, gain experiences which future employers can benefi t from. In a region where mul ple companies of the same industry are located, companies can profi t from an employee’s working experience at another company. For Hotel Termunterzijl, “fi nding employees is more diffi cult than in the Randstad or in the city of Groningen. There is enough poten al employees, it will only take a bit longer” (A.

43 Figure 23. Vispaleis Westerhuis. Source: own fi gure Noot, personal communica on, June 8, 2017). Already this indicates why investment in a large agglomera on is more a rac ve for investors. New investments make the region more a rac ve for other investments, but also for exis ng companies. To ensure that visitors come to your investment, it is recommended for shops to be dis nc ve and to provide the visitor with the service they want (NU.nl, 2017). The investor off ers services in their own way, from which local companies profi t. For example, Meijer (Camping de Breede) goes to the supermarket to buy sandwiches for visitors, Oos ng (Boertel Lentemaheerd) buys fl owers to decorate the rooms, and the restaurant of Hotel Termunterzijl mainly serves local products. Because tourists coming to the Eemsdelta appreciate the spaciousness and peacefulness, investments are also made in the periphery. The establishment of a crea ve hub is therefore not the case for those investments. Nevertheless, Oos ng (Personal communica on, May 31, 2017) argues that “it is some mes important to meet each other, even though you cannot benefi t from it immediately. Just talk with each other and exchange ideas.” Hotel Termunterzijl is located in the center and does contribute to the crea on of a hub from which local companies can profi t. The crea on of a center can also be seen in governmental investments, which centralize several aspects with the idea that companies can make profi t from visitors more easily.

CommoƟ on Profi t-oriented investors target economic development for themselves. Uninten onally, these investments lead to other investments. For example, Vijgenhof contributes to the cultural and historical image of Appingedam, and together with other heritage sites and galleries this makes it more a rac ve for new galleries to be located in Appingedam. Moreover, near Hotel Termunterzijl a possible new investment, Westerhuis Vispaleis (Figure 23), is planning to expand. It is not necessarily the people staying at the hotel that provokes an investment, but the investment itself could be a trigger. An investment could also give others the courage to invest (A. Oos ng, personal communica on, May 31, 2017). Non-profi t organiza ons and the government are not directly aiming to make money, but the economic aspect is necessary for a durable development. Therefore SOGK s mulates the economic use of the Moluccan church in Appingedam. Other organiza onal investments search for entrepreneurs to s mulate the local economy. Nevertheless, it is crucial that entrepreneurs or companies are located to benefi t from such an investment. Landschapsbeheer Groningen is inves ng to make the mound, which is the founda on of Godlinze, visible again. This is a touris c goal, but there is nothing to spend money on in this small village. On the other hand, Neef adds that the project “creates enthusiasm among residents as they are working on the project.” Such support among residents and companies is also crucial for governmental investment. With the Kiek over Diek project the involved governmental ins tu ons want to involve local companies, because they can iden fy economic opportuni es. The Marconi project Buitendijks also demonstrates a large government investment. Even though the plan has not yet been realized, several developments are ongoing. MuzeeAquarium and the Eemshotel are both inves ng in their proper es, which proves the impact of a large-scale investment. One comment is that over a longer period “the par cipa on of the residents decreases. So you need to keep the spirit alive” (E. Neef, personal communica on, June 12, 2017).

44 4.3.3 Tourists An increase in tourism means an increase in jobs (Van der Poel, 1999). This is the basic reason why a governmental ins tu on invests in the leisure industry. Tourists make use of typical touris c facili es to sleep, eat, drink, shop and do ac vi es. Moreover, they make use of non-touris c facili es like supermarkets, public transport and retail businesses. Typical touris c facili es could be created for tourism, but non- touris c facili es are not created for tourists (Glasson, Godfrey, & Goodey, 2000) although tourists also require these facili es to remain. More tourists could result in more facili es, whereby new employees are needed, and more ac vi es such as fes vals. Through tourist tax, municipali es also directly profi t from an increased number of tourists. 4.3.4 Conclusion The four types of investors all have their own reasons to invest in the leisure industry. The diff erence between non-profi t investors and profi t-oriented investors is visible. Profi t-minded investments want to gain money directly from their investment, while non-profi t investments provoke economic development. The economies of scale by Marshall are city oriented, which also arises in this research. Clustering is essen al to benefi t from others, but this is diffi cult to achieve in a region which tourists visit for space and peace. Investments by government ins tu ons are aligned with this idea as they create one or more clusters. The idea that investments lead to new investments, which is argued in the literature and by the interviewees, is also less appropriate in this research. Uninten onally, entrepreneurs can have a posi ve impact on the agglomera on as a successful investment could also convince others to invest. Furthermore, these investors do not aim for commo on but employment. This refers to substan al low-skilled employment, which corresponds with literature and interviewees. The idea that “employment is nice, but it is about the follow-up stages” therefore does not fi t well. This makes sense in the perspec ve of tourism development, but investments by entrepreneurs have limited impact on the follow-up stages. The benefi ts of these investments are therefore variable, as elaborated below. Moreover, the perspec ve of researchers and RECRON is probably too op mis c. They see many opportuni es for entrepreneurs working in the leisure industry in regions of popula on decline, for example in the possibility to combine facili es. In theory this creates mul ple prospects for local entrepreneurs, but in prac ce this is o en limited as the tourism industry is small and sca ered in the Eemsdelta.

Employment Agglomera on More tourists A er Before/during External Commo on investment investment economies of scale Culture Landscape +/- ++ + ++ ++ Facili es +/- ++ +/- + +

Table 13. Economic benefi ts from investments by the government. Source: own table

Employment Agglomera on More tourists A er Before/during External Commo on investment investment economies of scale Culture +++/-++ Landscape +/- + +/- + + Facili es +/- ++ +/- + +/-

Table 14. Economic benefi ts from investments by an organiza on. Source: own table

45 Employment Agglomera on More tourists A er Before/during External Commo on investment investment economies of scale Culture Landscape + ++ + +/- + Facili es ++ ++ ++ ++ ++

Table 15. Economic benefi ts from investments by large entrepreneurs. Source: own table

Employment Agglomera on More tourists A er Before/during External Commo on investment investment economies of scale Culture + + +/- + +/- Landscape + +/- +/- +/- +/- Facili es

Table 16. Economic benefi ts from investments by small entrepreneurs. Source: own table Even though investments by governmental ins tu ons do not lead to direct employment a erwards, they have a great economic impact on the region. Due to their large scale, these investments provide a lot of direct employment for local residents and the scale makes it a rac ve for companies and entrepreneurs to be affi liated. Addi onally, these investments are supposed to make the region more a rac ve and familiar for tourists. Economic benefi ts from investments by organiza onal investors can be compared with investments made by governmental ins tu ons. The diff erence between these two actors is that the scale and the economic benefi ts are less among organiza onal investments. This largely depends on the fact that governmental ins tu ons have more possibili es to invest. Profi t-oriented investors aim to make profi t. Hence their contribu on to the agglomera on is minimal, because they are o en small-scale or located outside the center. Larger investments contribute more to the agglomera on because they need more (local) products, while the created commo on also depends on their loca on. Moreover, investments in the leisure industry are o en service-based, while product-based investments would have a larger impact on the region. 4.4 Social benefi ts of investments The previous paragraphs demonstrate that there are opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in regions of popula on decline, which should tempt entrepreneurs to invest in the region. Chapter 4.3 shows that the economic benefi ts of investments in the Eemsdelta are very limited. Nevertheless, investments in the Eemsdelta could s ll be of great value for the region by means of social benefi ts. In general, investments in the tourism industry o en face a bias as the economic perspec ve is appreciated, while it has nega ve consequences for social aspects (e.g., through commodifi ca on, aliena on and disneylandifi ca on). However, the tourism industry in the Eemsdelta is much less developed than the “real tourism des na ons” where these nega ve impacts are generally seen. Tourists and investments in the leisure industry also have a posi ve social impact. Par cularly in regions of popula on decline a touris c orienta on can be of great value. These investments make a region more a rac ve for current and future residents and could mi gate threats for the Eemsdelta. These social benefi ts are described using the no on of a rac veness, because this no on reveals what residents want and determines their place of living. Ul mately, the social benefi ts are presented per investment in order to compare the investments. The indica on is based on interviews with the investors and local residents (where possible). 4.4.1 Employment The availability of jobs is essen al for a region to be a rac ve (Marlet & Woerkens, 2005). The contribu on of investments to employment and agglomera on is discussed in the previous paragraph. Profi t-oriented investments create concrete employment a er the investment, but these rela vely small investments have li le impact on local employment. Delfmann (Personal communica on, April 12, 2017) argues that many

46 start-ups and companies in regions of popula on decline are working more for their personal happiness and less for economic reasons. It is obvious that those investments lead to revenues, but maximizing personal happiness is the goal. Non-profi t investors create a good business climate (Marconi project Buitendijks, Terpen- en Wierdenland) or make the region more suitable for tourism (Wadden Wandelen, Kiek over Diek) and create opportuni es for profi t-oriented investors. However, because these investments do not lead to direct employment, they have some skep cs. A resident in Delfzijl said: “We prefer other things, like industry, because more employment means more residents” (Resident D1, personal communica on, June 29, 2017). He wants to see a direct impact of the investment and cares less about its a rac veness, as this has no direct added value for him. 4.4.2 Facili es The Eemsdelta can be characterized by the loss of facili es as a result of popula on decline and earthquake issues. The supply of facili es is related to demand, which is decreasing due to a declining popula on. These facili es are essen al for the region’s a rac veness, especially for less mobile residents. An elderly and less mobile popula on depends more on local facili es, which means that they consider the proximity of facili es to be more important than mobile residents do. Van der Klauw (Personal communica on, April 12, 2017) men ons that facili es adapt to the remaining residents. Some regions have more facili es to off er and are therefore more a rac ve to par cular groups. It is for this reason that several regional centers con nue to grow, which is termed a “selec ve spa al process.” Investments in the leisure industry contribute to a rac veness by off ering facili es. The reason behind this is that people like the idea of having the op on to make use of a restaurant, spa or other facili es (op onal value). The tourist gaze reveals that tourists look at an area diff erently to residents. Because of this diff erence, residents cannot always profi t from investments that are focused on tourists. Even though there is a diff erence in these perspec ves, residents o en perceive adjustments to improve a rac veness as a posi ve development (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). Diff erences between tourists and residents become visible in investments by profi t-oriented entrepreneurs. They aim at tourists for economic reasons and lack a local focus. For example, investments in the campsite have no infl uence on the supply of facili es, regardless of the aforemen oned opportuni es. Interviews with residents also reveal that they do not make use of the campsite. A resident near Camping de Breede states that: “The campsite is nice, but residents of Warff um are not directly involved with it. Campsites are for tourists” (Resident CB2, personal communica on, May 30, 2017). However, the campsite contributes to maintaining a swimming pool (Figure 24) in the municipality. Therefore, indirectly the campsite is of

Figure 24. Swimming pool at Camping de Breede. Source: own fi gure

47 great value. Even though locals do not make use of tourism-specifi c recrea onal investments, they view them in a posi ve way (Glasson, Godfrey, & Goodey, 2000). Residents can also directly benefi t from a new investment in terms of new supply. Hotel Termunterzijl, for instance, has a restaurant that is also used by locals. Infrastructural investments (Kiek over Diek and Waddenwandelen) may have a touris c mindset, but local residents are able to benefi t as they also carry out recrea on in the region. 4.4.3 Housing and the surrounding area Regarding the a rac veness of the city, Marlet describes several indicators that are crucial from the point of view of residents. From his report it appears that a rac veness is par ally determined by housing quality and the direct living environment (Vroege, 2010). Quality determines housing prices to a large extent, which means that lower house prices correlate with a lower perceived quality. “During the 1970s, rela vely many houses were built for minori es” (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017). On the other hand Appingedam is a much more vibrant city, where many residents are ac ve (L. Geesink, personal communica on, May 17, 2017). This connec on resul ng from their commitment makes it a more a rac ve city. The quality of the living environment and commo on are the two aspects that make this element quan fi able.

Quality of living environment With the Marconi project Buitendijks, the municipality of Delfzijl tries to improve the quality of living in Delfzijl. Part of the project is about crea ng new houses, which directly impacts the quality of the living environment. Meanwhile, the specifi c part of Marconi project Buitendijks that focuses on tourism barely aff ects the living environment. This investment is located on the edge of the city directly next to the sea, where very few residents live. In contrast, Hotel Termunterzijl is located in Termunterzijl near a residen al area. The direct neighborhood of the hotel benefi ts from its appearance. This does not apply for investments in the periphery like Camping de Breede and Boertel Lentemaheerd; those investments have minimal impact on living quality.

CommoƟ on Investments in the leisure industry lead to a type of social commo on. Governmental investments want to create vibrancy, which can lead to other investments as described in the economic benefi ts sec on. Developments surrounding the Moluccan church and synagogue contribute to the cultural and historical image of the city. These investments maintain the vibrancy within the city as they bring together local residents. This vibrancy is of great value for a city as it leads to investments, for example fes vals. “Events bring like-minded people together who are also enthusias c” (L. Geesink, personal communica on, May 17, 2017). Investments like the Moluccan church and synagogue make these events worthwhile. For profi t- oriented investments the loca on is quite important, as investments in the center create more commo on. Furthermore, large investments (Hotel Termunterzijl) and unique achievements (VeKaBo price for Boertel Lentemaheerd) arouse considerable passion and interest among residents. Commo on also depends on the informa on provided about the project. Very few residents knew about the Waddenwandelen project. Even the owner of ‘t Zielhoes knew very li le about it; “People do not know the name of the project, but everyone knows about the biking path” (Resident KD, personal communica on, July 24, 2017). People who had heard about it were not able to talk about it. Limited informa on and a lack of relevant documents are the reason why this project passed unno ced. 4.4.4 Regional development Residents perceive their living area diff erently to tourists. Rajinder (2000) studied the diff erences between how tourists and residents perceive Simla, a hill sta on in northern India. Even though this city is located in a non-western country and has a touris c image, this research is valuable for this thesis. Both the Eemsdelta and Simla are recognized for their cultural and natural quali es. The general diff erence in percep on between residents and tourists is that tourists look to physical elements, while residents appreciate intangible characteris cs and consider the physical. This is based on results from the research whereby tourists describe the region with: “mountains,” “trees” and “rou ng,” while residents men on “familiarity,” “peaceful” and “safe.” During a mee ng of the EBG, the quali es of Groningen were discussed. What arose from this session is that entrepreneurs in the EBG region appreciate Groningen for its space, peace, freedom and culture. These intangible strengths and quali es were men oned fi rst, before other values such as agriculture,

48 villages and the Wadden Sea were discussed. Even though tourists are not interviewed in this study, this could indicate that tourists prefer a visibly a rac ve region while residents want a nice atmosphere to live in where they feel at home. Despite the fact that this is an assump on, it is clear that the percep on of a region diff ers between residents and tourists. Therefore, investments in the leisure industry to make a region more a rac ve to tourists does not mean that residents take the same view. Investments in the Eemsdelta leisure industry o en see a large overlap between natural and cultural elements. Agriculture, i.e., the landscape, played a crucial role in the development of Groningen and features used in agriculture, such as mills and farms, are s ll visible in the region. Even though many of these features are present in the region, very few investments have been made to use them for leisure purposes. This could be related to the fact that a lot of human capital is leaving the Eemsdelta, but this capital is necessary for such investments as these people possess the know-how and connec ons to set up such plans (D. Strijker, personal communica on, April 13, 2017).

Landscape Boertel Lentemaheerd is an investment that uses a (former) farm for touris c ac vi es. A lot of a en on was paid to cultural and landscape aspects to ensure that the site fi ts within the landscape. Residents view this as an investment focused on tourists and therefore care very li le about the investment itself. However, the preserva on of a farm certainly contributes to the appearance of the periphery. Camping de Breede has less landscape value, despite its land-related business. The investments made by Meijer are not intended to develop nature, but “to go along with the market” (C. Meijer, personal communica on, May 10, 2017). Residents care less about this investment because it has no impact on them. In contrast, within the Marconi project Buitendijks nature development plays a crucial role. This is a large-scale investment to improve the spa al quality of Delfzijl and to contribute to ecological developments in the Wadden Sea. Governmental investments typically combine various disciplines. This is also essen al, because the Wadden Sea is probably the most valuable asset in northern Groningen. Access to this asset is therefore necessary. With investments like Wadden Wandelen and Kiek over Diek, organiza ons and governmental ins tu ons make this asset more accessible. Local residents are generally keen for these investments as they also make use of the infrastructure. Terpen- en Wierdenland exhibits another perspec ve on the social consequences of investments in the leisure industry. With this project, Landschapsbeheer Groningen wants to give more a en on to the characteris c mounds by, among other things, making them more visible. This should have a direct and posi ve impact on the perceived landscape value. However, it appears that there is some resistance among residents to these plans. This is due to the fact that they were forced to make changes to their gardens (G. Schoemakers, personal communica on, June 1, 2017).

Culture Cultural and historical objects have a special meaning for a region as these are the “relics” of historical events. Local residents see these objects as part of their iden ty and are thus bounded to them. Two cultural buildings in Appingedam are used in this research: a Moluccan church and a synagogue. Both buildings were the fi rst of their kind (the fi rst Moluccan church in the Netherlands and the fi rst synagogue in Groningen) and play a prominent role for their community in the Netherlands. Residents of Appingedam a ach more value to the Moluccan church than to the synagogue (Resident VM2). The fi rst reason is its uniqueness; residents talk with pride about Appingedam as the fi rst loca on where the Moluccans built a church and it is s ll of great na onal value. The second reason is the residents’ rela on to the par cular community. The current popula on have few connec ons to the Jewish community, because the Jewish community of Appingedam was largely murdered during the Second World War. Conversely, “there is a rela vely large Moluccan community which leads to interac on.” The residents are therefore more interested in the Moluccan community, which makes the Moluccan church more “valuable.” The third reason is the use of the building. Because most of the Jewish community in Appingedam was murdered, the synagogue was sold to the Dutch Reformed Church. This Protestant federa on is a very strict and closed community, and for this reason residents outside that federa on never visited the building. Even though the building is now more open to the public, residents know very li le about the bed and breakfast or the available Jewish informa on. Moreover, there is not much to do or to see at the synagogue (Figure 25). The Moluccan community itself came with the idea to open the church to the public, as this could contribute to acceptance and respect towards the community. Moreover, in this way they were able to share something about their lives. Thus it is not only the investment itself that is important for local residents, but a combina on between its use and its background, as it could be part of a resident’s iden ty. This illustrates how an investment contributes to the value people a ach to a building. It raises awareness by providing informa on, respect and acceptance by

49 involving residents and schools, and pride by showcasing its uniqueness. Adding an economic aspect to cultural heritage sites, for instance by making a commodity out of them, o en leads to aliena on. However, in the two cases described here this rather leads to awareness. Boertel Lentemaheerd, the Terpen- and Wierdenland project and Marconi project Buitendijks focus on the landscape, but are likewise appreciated for their cultural aspects. 4.4.4 More tourists Tourists are not men oned within the no on of a rac veness. High employment in the leisure industry, on the other hand, is one of Bijker’s elements that correlates with a popular rural area. Investments might lead to increasing tourism, which makes it useful to take the social consequences of tourism into account. Glason, Godfrey and Goodney (2000) conclude that when more people make use of a par cular place, facility or ac vity, its context and meaning change. This is linked to the commodifi ca on theory whereby people start viewing a feature as an economic object and become alienated from it. Addi onally, tourism is o en associated with disneylandifi ca on and contamina on of the environment. However, tourists can also be of great social value. More people means more ac vi es and facili es, such as restaurants, hotels, cycling and pedestrian paths and retail off erings (Glasson, Godfrey, Figure 25. Synagogue. Source: own fi gure & Goodey, 2000), which could meet the demands of residents in the Eemsdelta. In response to the earthquake issues, Groningen Social Planning Offi ce [Sociaal Planbureau Groningen] carried out research on the demands of residents to improve and restore livability. Promo ng employment, maintaining facili es, preserving cultural heritage and mobility and infrastructure are four of their six requests (Simon, De Haan, Grisnich, & Ringersma, 2016). A growing tourism industry could meet these wishes. The impact of recrea on is examined to a lesser extent, as the tourism industry has a greater impact on the local situa on. Sports and recrea on provide places where people interact with each other and where they can share their experiences. This leads to a greater acceptance of each other and a feeling of belonging. In turn, places with “high levels of social capital are safer, be er governed and more prosperous” (Smith, 2009, p. 8). Alongside this economic and social inclusion aspect, recrea on facili es also increase the percep on of the region, i.e., the pride aspect (Smith, 2009). Considering the impact of recrea on, it is mostly sociocultural impacts that make recrea on valuable.

FaciliƟ es and events An increase in the number of tourists leads to a higher demand, which in theory leads to a greater supply. Tourists could fi ll the gap created by popula on decline in order to maintain the current facili es. According to Tap (personal communica on, April 21, 2017), “there are o en sports facili es near recrea onal companies” which suggests that those recrea onal companies could provide par cular facili es to residents. Local shopkeepers also profi t from greater demand, and an increased number of tourists mo vates entrepreneurs to invest in new or exis ng businesses. In Appingedam many yearly events take place, which are partly made possible by visitors from outside the city (Figure 26). Residents are keen to show visitors the quali es of their city, but the events themselves also have social benefi ts. “The economical aspect is important, yet again you also see that the elderly love to organize ac vi es and events. This is not only comba ng loneliness, but it is also essen al to keep pensioners ac ve” (L. Geesink, personal communica on, May 17, 2017). Hospers (2012) even argues that events are more important for livability than the facili es aspect.

Natural consequences In their ar cle, Farrell and Robert (1987) state that many “well-educated intellectuals” hold tourism

50 Figure 26. Fes val ‘Terug naar het Begin’. Source: Eemskrant, 2016 responsible for landscape changes and environmental degrada on. The management of tourism should therefore focus more on the environment. Local involvement is essen al for the ambi on of achieving a sustainable tourism industry. The physical environment (including environmental and cultural heritage) is the greatest resource, “not for what it contains but for what it expresses” (Farrell & McLellan, 1987, p. 13). “Tourism development is usually jus fi ed on the basis of economic benefi t and challenged on the grounds of social, cultural, or environmental destruc on” (Liu, Sheldon, & Var, 1987, p. 18). The eff ects of tourism are not the same everywhere. It is logical that mass tourism has a much greater impact on the environment than smaller scale tourism. In this line of argumenta on, it is impossible to speak generally of the eff ects of tourism on the environment. Cohen (1978) jus fi ably sees tourism as a diff eren ated phenomenon. Several factors infl uence the extent of its environmental impact: (1) the intensity of tourist site use and development; (2) the resilience of the ecosystem; (3) the me perspec ve of the tourist developer; and (4) the transforma onal character of tourist development (Cohen, 1978, p. 220-225). In his conclusion Cohen is much more posi ve about tourism in rela on to the environment than other researchers. Environmental delinea on is mostly seen in special areas which are a rac ve for mass tourism, so “tourism expansion can therefore not remain unlimited” (p. 234). Tourists largely make, in his opinion, a valuable contribu on to the local situa on; namely, they can help to upkeep a rac ons and preserve natural and cultural heritage. This idea is supported by Hasani, Moghavvemi and Hamzah (2016), as residents are connected to tourists and share the same facili es and services. Liu, Sheldon and Var (1987) also argue that tourism is a good way to develop a region. Beaches are designed as parks (this can be viewed both posi vely and nega vely), residents recognize the importance of cultural heritage, more a en on is given to pollu on control and the infrastructure is developed. Tourists visi ng regions with natural quali es also comes with a nega ve side. Glason, Godfrey and Goodney (2000) argue that ac ons by tourists always aff ect the natural surroundings in a nega ve way. This is based on the ideas that walking and cycling damage the soil and vegeta on, sailing leads to water pollu on and tourists leave their trash in the region. These ac ons also aff ect the animal life. As a result, tourists can have several nega ve impacts on the natural environment. In the Eemsdelta these nega ve impacts are barely seen, as “we won’t get millions of visitors” (D. Schenk, personal communica on, April 19, 2017). Moreover, tourists also posi vely impact the natural environment. The presence of tourists leads to greater apprecia on of the region by local residents and this increased a en on leads to be er protec on of natural regions. The best example is probably the Marconi project Buitendijks which, as a tourism-focused investment, aims to develop the ecology of the Wadden Sea. This subproject is also making the Wadden Sea more a rac ve for tourists. Thus from this perspec ve a focus on the tourism industry also improves the quality of the natural environment. 51 Tourist interacƟ on The arrival of tourists is a posi ve infl uence because it “a racts ‘strange’ faces to the region” (D. Schenk, personal communica on, April 19, 2017). In the literature, it is also argued that interac on with people of diff erent cultures, na onali es, tradi ons, religions and norms and values is valuable, due to the idea that people can exchange thoughts and learn from each other (Rátz, 2000; Hasani, Moghavvemi & Hamzah, 2016). Research done on the interac on between tourists and residents is generally focused on regions with mass tourism and less so on regions where tourism is only present in small propor ons. These researchers mostly produce results sta ng that residents view the presence of tourists as a disturbing aspect. This relates to the fact that tourists act diff erently to how they do at home, as in your free me you act diff erently (Van der Duim & Caalders, 2002). If tourists do not adhere to the local customs, this leads to frustra on. This is of course less signifi cant in the Eemsdelta, which experiences the presence of tourism much less than other places where tourism is booming. This is visible from the notes posted on many (maybe even all) churches, which have a mobile phone number wri en down so that visitors are able to call someone. These volunteers then bring the keys and provide extra informa on about the church. From this author’s own experience, it appears that these volunteers are very keen to give a small tour of the church and tell visitors something about it, as it sa sfi es them to see someone interested in their “jewel.” 4.4.5 Conclusion A rac veness is determined by a combina on of non-profi t aspects (presence of a historical city, accessibility of nature) and aspects with a profi table linkage (variety of performing arts, culinary quality of restaurants). Investments have a direct impact on the a rac veness of the Eemsdelta as it is perceived by residents. In theory these investments add a lot to its a rac veness. Interviews with residents provide be er insights about how investments are perceived. The word “a rac ve” is barely men oned. Residents see the investments made by profi t-oriented investors in the leisure industry as touris c investments. Accordingly, it does not concern them and they do not really care about the added “a rac ve” value for the region. Nevertheless they are very keen for the investments. They primarily view these investments as an improvement for the region, which is necessary in a depopula ng region, and they like the idea that people are interested in their region. Social benefi ts are intangible, which raises the ques on of how the benefi ts of these investments are to be measured. The tables below present an impression of the social benefi ts based on the no on of a rac veness.

Employment Living environment Regional development More tourists Quality of living Commo on Landscape Culture environment Culture Landscape +++++++++ Facili es +/- +/- + ++ +/- +

Table 17. Social benefi ts from investments by the government. Source: own table

Employment Living environment Regional development More tourists Quality of living Commo on Landscape Culture environment Culture + +/- + +/- ++ + Landscape +/- + + + + + Facili es +/- +/- + + +/- +/-

Table 18. Social benefi ts from investments by an organiza on. Source: own table

52 Employment Living environment Regional development More tourists Quality of living Commo on Landscape Culture environment Culture Landscape + +/- +/- ++ + + Facili es ++ ++ + +/- +/- ++

Table 19. Social benefi ts from investments by an organiza on. Source: own table

Employment Living environment Regional development More tourists Quality of living Commo on Landscape Culture environment Culture + +/- + +/- + +/- Landscape + +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- Facili es

Table 20. Social benefi ts from investments by small entrepreneurs. Source: own table

What appears from the tables is that commo on and regional development are the main social benefi ts arising from these investments. The impact of investments depends largely on the loca on, as an investment in the periphery has li le impact on villages. Investments should therefore take social benefi ts into account. During the research it became clear that the no on of a rac veness falls short in encompassing all the social benefi ts. Investments within the Eemsdelta reveal that residents also benefi t from the following elements.

Pride Make residents proud of their region because when they go elsewhere they will proudly talk about their region (A. Westerink, personal communica on, May 4, 2017). Becoming an ambassador is one strategy used to increase tourism (Shankman, 2014). Moreover, some entrepreneurs and volunteers feel a sense of sa sfac on when they are able to help tourists. Residents are very proud of Boertel Lentemaheerd, as it won a prize for the best VeKaBo (Associa on for Farming Accommoda on) accommoda on in the Netherlands. Resident BL2 said: “I am proud of Anita Oos ng as an entrepreneur,” and also men ons the fact that this brings more a en on to the region. These aspects are related to the image that visitors have of the region.

Image In line with being proud, Resident BL2 (Personal communica on, May 31, 2017) argues that: “More commo on in the region means more benefi ts for us. If it is doing well, it a racts a en on and we benefi t from this a en on.” Increasing a en on as a result of investment is a more commonly men oned benefi t. The current image projected by the media of the Eemsdelta is determined by earthquakes and popula on decline, while investments show the posi ve side of the region. For instance, Hotel Termunterzijl received quite a lot of a en on and gave Termunterzijl the image of a touris c region with poten al. Even small investments or small companies like Camping de Breede promote the region (Resident CB1). And because “tourists do not pay a en on to municipal borders,” Eemsmond also profi ts from investments made in Appingedam (L. Geesink, personal communica on, May 17, 2017).

Awareness and respect The Moluccan church and synagogue are both cultural heritage sites and provide knowledge about their par cular communi es, which leads to awareness. Investments in this cultural heritage not only preserve the cultural supply of a region but also contribute to the awareness of residents towards a specifi c group or culture. The Jewish community “want the Synagogue and the history of Jews in Appingedam to be accessible for visitors” (D. Lamain, personal communica on, June 7, 2017). They want to inform people about Jewish history, and this awareness might lead to mutual respect. Involvement of local stakeholders, for instance schools, leads to further respect and acceptance among diff erent cultures.

53 Confi dence in government Historically, the government in Groningen cannot be trusted, as “the government was power, and power were the rich farmers. Those farmers could not be trusted as they were focused on their own profi t” (A. Kazemier, personal communica on, June 27, 2017). Interviews with residents, especially in Delfzijl, suggest that there is some skep cism about government projects. In the past the government promised a lot, while the current situa on is not that posi ve. Research by CBS (2014a) confi rms this mindset by revealing that people from Groningen have li le confi dence (33%) in poli cs - this is a na onal problem. In another study it is stated that people facing the earthquake problems have li le to no confi dence in the government (Simon, De Haan, Grisnich, & Ringersma, 2016). The reac ons of residents to the Marconi project are diverse, as some view it as a nice development that will a ract tourists and improve the spa al quality, while others argue that employment is needed more. However, it is remarkable that li le knowledge is available about this “large” development. Nobody men oned the connec on with the harbor, while this used to be a large employer and important for iden ty of the residents. This could also be related to the fact that they do not expect much from the government. If this project ends successfully it will probably create a more a rac ve region which residents are proud of, and lead to more acceptance of Delfzijl’s history and more poli cal support. This la er benefi t is based on the idea that the residents are currently skep cal and a successful project could restore their confi dence. In Appingedam, residents “are posi ve about the government. I have heard that they were glad it became a na onal monument” (C. Velvis, personal communica on, June 6, 2017). This shows that people are glad when the government does something “good.”

ConnecƟ on to the city The involvement of local residents in ac vi es leads to a stronger connec on to the city and its residents. The stronger the connec on, the greater the chance that residents will not leave the area. Being connected not only mi gates popula on decline, it also ensures par cipa on among residents.

Courage Northern Groningen is not a touris c region, which makes inves ng in the Eemsdelta courageous. Success stories and good investments might lead to other investments. Boertel Lentemaheerd and Hotel Termunterzijl for example, create the idea that a rela vely large investment in the tourist industry is possible. Westerink also men ons that residents will gain more confi dence from such investments. Investments made by organiza ons also create “par cular condi ons in which investments could arise” (E. Neef, personal communica on, June 12, 2017).

54 55 Chapter 5. Conclusion

Diverse organiza ons and researchers assume that opportuni es exist for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in depopula ng regions. These opportuni es involve the fi nancial, poli cal and planning fi elds. Because the Eemsdelta is seen as an una rac ve region and has an underdeveloped leisure industry, it is ques oned whether these opportuni es also apply to the Eemsdelta. The goal of this research is therefore to determine to what extent the Eemsdelta benefi ts from investment in the leisure industry. The following ques on func ons as the main research ques on:

What are the socioeconomic benefi ts of investment in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta?

In order to provide an appropriate conclusion regarding this ques on, four sub-ques ons are answered. These sub-ques ons together form the structure of the thesis and can be divided into general ques ons and case-specifi c ques ons. The fi rst two ques ons give an idea of the situa on in the Eemsdelta, while the la er two examine the socioeconomic benefi ts of par cular cases.

1. Eff ect of popula on decline on the leisure industry Popula on decline diff ers from region to region, which can be explained by viewing it as a selec ve spa al process. Some regions con nue to grow, while others depopulate signifi cantly. Selec ve migra on o en occurs, which means that young people, highly educated people and young families leave the region, while elderly and less educated people stay in the region. Popula on decline in the Eemsdelta is accompanied by dejuvena on and ageing. This demographic transi on leads to a smaller working popula on and, even more importantly, a smaller agglomera on. Small agglomera ons are less interes ng for companies to be situated in as they provide lesser economies of scale. Furthermore, the human capital, key persons, those with know-how, connec ons and the poten al to bring people together all leave the region; however, they are required for new developments. In theory, popula on decline does not impact the image that tourists have of the Eemsdelta. In prac ce, it is possible that tourists see depopula on as something nega ve. This is related to the disappearance of facili es that tourists make use of. Moreover, structural vacancy and urban degrada on both have a nega ve impact on the perceived quality of the environment. Rather than the idea that this region has a poor image, a more reasonable descriptor might be a “lack of an image.” Tourists are o en not aware of its quali es or of how the region is highly rated among people who have visited it previously. Some of the abovemen oned threats could also be opportuni es for entrepreneurs. Structural vacancy can also be viewed as the availability of vacant buildings that are cheap to rent. In par cular, start- ups can profi t from this aspect as they have less money to spend. Leaving facili es also provides opportuni es for entrepreneurs as they can combine mul ple func ons. However, the ability to become successful in combining func ons diff ers from region to region. Moreover, poli cal and fi nancial opportuni es can also be iden fi ed. In depopula ng regions the government is more coopera ve and more fl exible in their policy. Such coopera on between public organiza ons and private par es is a success factor for the tourism industry. It is also argued that municipali es in the Eemsdelta have a lot of money to spend to mi gate the consequences of earthquakes and depopula on. Nevertheless, the absorp on capacity of the region is very limited and investments need to meet strict requirements. The Wadden Sea region, which could be a great a ractor for the Eemsdelta, also has its limita ons. For instance, legisla on to protect the fl ora and fauna in this region o en generate many complaints. Finally, entrepreneurs might also profi t from na onal tendencies. New biking paths for electric bikes, a growing airport, the number of German tourists going to Borkum and the growing number of employees in the Eemshaven are all developments that entrepreneurs could respond to.

2. Investment in the leisure industry It is the responsibility of investors to profi t from these opportuni es. Three fi elds of investment are expanded in this research: investments in landscape, culture and facili es. To underpin how investors make use of opportuni es, a dis nc on is made between profi t-oriented investors (large and small entrepreneurs) and non-profi t investors (governmental ins tu ons and organiza ons). It appears that all investors, except for small entrepreneurs, focus (uninten onally) on mul ple assets. Furthermore, in many investments mul ple actors are involved. A broad focus and the involvement of mul ple actors seem to be key to profi ng

56 from opportuni es. However, the limited absorp on capacity in the Eemsdelta seems to be true; barely any investment is made in the Eemsdelta leisure industry. Opportuni es resul ng from the demographic transi on therefore remain underused. These opportuni es are probably too op mis c for the Eemsdelta, as the loca on is a crucial element for the leisure industry. Every depopula ng region is diff erent and it appears that the opportuni es for depopula ng regions are not necessarily applicable to the Eemsdelta. This could also be related to the fact that key persons are leaving the region. A coopera ve municipality was seen as an opportunity for regions of popula on decline, but Delfzijl and Loppersum have li le regard for tourism. This is currently related to the small leisure industry. Furthermore, the “large amount of money” that municipali es and other organiza ons have to spend are not there for “normal” investments in the leisure industry, which probably demo vates entrepreneurs. The Wadden Sea region could be a great a ractor for the Eemsdelta. This unique inter dal zone off ers many possibili es arising from the Wadden islands, Friesland and regions in Germany. This poten al is limited to within the Eemsdelta, because in Friesland and Germany villages are located closer to the sea. The limited poten al of the region also results from investments funded by Waddenfonds; none of the 2017 investments are located in the Eemsdelta. Addi onally, the juridical opportuni es for depopula ng regions do not apply to the Wadden Sea. This is because na onal and European legisla on “takes care” of this heritage. Its lack of a touris c image, demographic transi on and earthquake issues make the Eemsdelta a unique region and make investments in the leisure industry very risky.

3. Economic benefi ts resul ng from investment The economic benefi ts are analyzed based on nine investments made in the Eemsdelta. The investments eff ec vely demonstrate that every type of investor has their own purpose with their investment. Governmental investments aim to a ract more tourists as they iden fy the economic poten al. A side- eff ect of this investment is that it creates commo on within the region, which leads to other investments. Meanwhile, organiza onal investments do not necessarily have an economic mindset and aim to improve the region based on their ideology. They search for profi t-minded actors to cooperate with in order to have a sustainable investment. These investments also generate commo on among residents and create a favorable investment climate for other investors. Entrepreneurs essen ally invest to gain money. Exis ng companies benefi t from this as their selling market increases, and they may establish new contacts with whom they can share ideas. These external economies of scale are barely seen as a result of investment in the leisure industry. A reason for this is that the majority of investments made in the leisure industry in the Eemsdelta are located outside villages or the city. The crea on of a hub is therefore less applicable. Moreover, these investments are mostly service-based, while product-based investments would have a greater impact. As a consequence the economic benefi ts from investments are very limited.

4. Social benefi ts resul ng from investment Even though the economic benefi ts of investments in the Eemsdelta are limited, investments in the Eemsdelta might s ll be of great value for the region by means of the resul ng social benefi ts. The no on of a rac veness is used to highlight these social benefi ts. Investments by the government are of great value for the region, as they have the capabili es to make larger investments that improve the living environment and specifi c quali es in a posi ve way. Nevertheless, municipali es mostly target economic aspects in the leisure industry and focus less on the social aspects. With the excep on of Appingedam, the concerned municipali es and province view tourism as an economic value and not a social value. Appingedam has another approach, which could be one reason why Appingedam is a more vibrant city with many ac vi es taking place. Organiza ons look to their ideology and contribute to that aspect. Entrepreneurs commonly have an economic focus and therefore aim towards tourists, which have a larger “economic value.” Residents also perceive this and hence care less about the investments. Albeit uninten onally, the region does benefi t from these investments in a social way. These investments and the presence of those companies are of great value as this off ers facili es, increases the commo on and enhances the a rac veness. Although not addressed in the a rac veness aspect, but probably more important, is pride towards the region. Both non-profi t and profi t-oriented investments make people proud. Residents recognize when something happens within the region and are proud of successful investments. Moreover, investments in the leisure industry improve the image of the Eemsdelta, but as can be seen in the visitor journey, these investments only have a limited impact on the complete experience. The problem is larger, so while investments are nice the follow-up stages are more important. Investment might also raise awareness and

57 respect for other communi es and cultures. Providing informa on and involving residents in par cular cultural investments leads to broader acceptance. Within Marx’s theory of commodifi ca on it is assumed that assigning an economic element to a region’s quali es leads to aliena on and other nega ve social eff ects, but in this case the opposite is true. People are more aware of the region’s quali es, which increases a en on towards it and subsequently people value it more. Thus it is possible to say that commodifi ca on does not lead to aliena on, but to apprecia on. Finally, successful projects by the government might increase confi dence in the government. Historically some skep cism exists among residents in the Eemsdelta towards the government, but successful projects could restore this.

Conclusion There are opportuni es for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in regions of popula on decline, which should a ract entrepreneurs to invest in the region. These opportuni es are less applicable in the Eemsdelta, which probably explains the number of investments. Even though the economic benefi ts resul ng from investments are very limited, investment is s ll valuable for its social benefi ts. Investors should pay more a en on to the social impacts, have a broader perspec ve and customize their investments to the available opportuni es.

Refl ec on/ recommenda on Popula on decline diff ers from region to region, which makes research on this topic challenging to generalize. This is why this thesis considers one region, the Eemsdelta. A combina on of ageing, dejuvena on and earthquake issues makes the Eemsdelta a unique case. Even though this research cannot be generalized to other cases, it can serve as inspira on. A comparable study could be valuable to obtain a be er image of the diff erences between regions. It should be taken into account that not all investments in this thesis are located in “real” depopula ng villages. Popula on decline is a selec ve spa al process, which means that some villages within a depopula ng region have a stable or growing popula on. These villages are more a rac ve and accommodate more ac vity. Moreover, this thesis focuses on the Eemsdelta as one unit, while many diff erences exist within this region. The limited number of investments in the Eemsdelta produces a certain inconsistency between the investments considered in this research. Most investments are recent, but one was made fi ve years ago while another is currently under development. This did not impact the results of the research and even gave some new insights. Another remark on the investments is that the investment was diffi cult to separate from the company itself. Most of the interviewed experts are from the Eemsdelta or Groningen. People like Marcel Tap were refreshing as they have a more objec ve view on the Eemsdelta. More interviews with experts from outside Groningen would be worthwhile. An interview with a bank employee could reveal their inclina on to provide a loan to investors in the Eemsdelta. An interview with a real estate agent could provide informa on about the economic value of a par cular investment for the region and what it does for the region’s a rac veness. In this research, it is assumed that investments made by the government have an economic mindset partly because the government has an economic mindset. It might be interes ng to fi nd out if this correlates and how the governmental focus infl uences the mindset of the investor. As addressed before, the Eemsdelta and Groningen are connected to earthquake issues. Terror tourism or disaster tourism is growing and might be a great opportunity for Groningen. A museum or similar where residents can share their story could a ract certain tourists. This could lead to more knowledge about the eff ects and greater understanding between residents and tourists.

58 59 References

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68 69 Appendices

1. History and region’s quali es 2. Leisure industry 3. Interview guides 3.1 Marcel Tap 3.2 Lex Geesink 3.3 Cherita Meijer 4. Codes analyzed (Cherita Meijer)

70 Appendix 1. History and region’s quali es History of Groningen The Netherlands can be divided into diff erent regions using the physic geographical en ty. Groningen consists of the northern peatlands, northern marine clay area and northern sand area. Southern Groningen is shaped by sand sediments, the peatlands can be found in the middle and east of Groningen while the Eemsdelta is located on marine clay. The northern marine clay area is formed by Holocene marine deposits that lays above the Pleistocene sand cover. The sandy clay area, which is very nutri ous, is especially suitable for agriculture (Berendsen, 2008). The fi rst ‘residents’ of Groningen se led around 800 B.C. on the higher grounds nearby water streams. Ini ally, they lived from hun ng and fi shery, later they also started with agriculture. Floods forced them to raise their residence with nearby grounds. These created mounds, [terpen, wierden or woerden] are s ll present and visible in the contemporary landscape. Villages as Spijk and Loppersum are examples of this. Nevertheless, many of the characteris c mounds in Groningen and Friesland are excavated, because of the high nutri ous value of the ground (Berendsen, 2008). Circa 600 B.C., the lower grounds in the province got inhabited as the land became more important for agriculture and livestock farming, sheep (Van der Ham, 2009). The residents of Groningen, and the rest of Northern Europe, were Germanic tribes, which is a linguis c no on for all Germanic languages. Under the direc on of Charles the Great, Franks concurred the North. The northern tribes, who had their own local religion, were forced to accept Chris anity as their religion (Van der Ham, 2009). Their presence lead to the building of churches and development of. At the loca on of the Mar ni church stood already a wooden church around 800 A.C. (Marke ng Groningen, 2017). Groningen had a strategic loca on, what made this place suitable to create a city. Trade and agriculture on the nutri ous substrate resulted in a strong and rich free imperial city. Another Germanic tribe were the Frisians. Historically, there were many small farming communi es in the North and no noble landowners, the Frisian Freedom. The lands in the North were cul vated to make it suitable for agriculture. The number of rich farmers in the Ommelanden increased and led to a decrease of infl uence of Appingedam (former capital of the Ommelanden) and Winsum. Where nobles in other regions inhabited castles, the prominent ci zens in Groningen built estates [borgen], which are small castles (Van den Burg, 2017). Circa 1150 was also the period of the fi rst dikes (Van der Ham, 2009). In 1536 Groningen came in the hands of Charles V, a Holy Roman Emperor. The Spanish king concurred this city in a me that the religion became less important in the communi es’ life outside the city. The emergence of Protestan sm, and especially Calvinism, was a result of an aversion of the Roman Catholic lifestyle and its customs. The Bishop of Utrecht had a lot of infl uence, but the residents wanted an own church. The aversion led to the Beeldenstorm, in 1566, were religious a ributes were destroyed. An interven on to stop a further escala on caused an accelera on of people who rejected the Roman church. This was the beginning of the eighty-year-war against Phillip II of Spain, Charles V his successor. As part of the Union of Utrecht, the Ommelanden joined sides against Catholicism in 1579. The city of Groningen joined the Spanish side what shows the dichotomy between the city and the Ommelanden. Only in 1594, the city of Groningen would join the union and this is also the fi rst me that the provincial government of Groningen is connected to the rest of the Netherlands. Most northern villages s ll have predominantly Protestan sm infl uence, what relates to the fact that the Catholic stronghold was in the southern part of the kingdom, Brussels and Leuven (Van der Ham, 2009) (Provincie Groningen, 2017). In the years a er the forma on of the seventh province of the Republic of the United Netherlands, the region grew enormously. Similarly, the demand for energy grew. The peat districts in East Groningen were an important energy provider for households in the West (Van der Ham, 2009). Export of peat made Groningen a very rich province what can be seen at the estates, like the Menkemaborg, which were built/ fl ourished in this period. The Dutch Golden Age, as this period of enormous growth is called, was to a large extent due to the monopoly on trade in mass products (De Zeeuw, 1976). In the years that followed, improvements in the agriculture and reclama on dominated the economy of Groningen. The region had specialized in rye, oats and potatoes, which is used in the starch industry, for example: Aardappelmeelfabriek, a starch producing factory in Foxhol. In this me, the demand for nutri ous soil in the agricultural industry grew, what led to the excava on of the mounds in Groningen (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010). Groningen, the only ‘large’ city and ‘Metropolis of the North’, saw a large urbaniza on and expected to grow to 500.000 inhabitants in 2000. That is why func onal, less aesthe cally a rac ve neighborhoods were built on the outskirts of the city (De Vries, 2011).

71 The whole economy of (northern) Groningen is for a long period been determined by the agriculture. Large scale industries have never been located in the northern part of Groningen. Industries which are located in the region can be found near the ‘larger’ ci es Delfzijl and Appingedam. Its peripheral image is not a rac ve for industries and the industrializa on had a nega ve impact on employment in the agricultural sector. Factories, specialized in processing the agricultural products, like Brinta, were no longer located in the northern peripheral region (Gardenier, 2012). In 1959 a natural gas source was found in Slochteren what made the region for large energy users like aluminum smelters an interes ng loca on. Aluminium Delfzijl (Aldel) was for a long period a great source of employment in Delfzijl what s mulated rela ng economies to establish in the region (Woestenburg, 2014). Groningen has always been an energy producer. Historically, peat was a crucial energy producer, since 1959 the province provides natural gas and it has currently a good posi on in terms of sustainable energy. The perfect posi on regarding off -shore wind energy in combina on with gas reserves and docks created the idea to become the Energy Valley Region of Europe (Economie Groningen, 2017). Region’s quality Rural areas in the Netherlands are mostly appreciated for its spacious and quietness character. These posi ve characteris cs are align with remoteness what is men oned as a nega ve aspect (Haartsen, Huigen, & Groote, 2003). Municipali es also use these quali es in their marke ng strategies to a ract visitors to their region (Hospers, Verheul, & Boekema, 2011). Like other rural regions in the Netherlands, the Eemsdelta is also valued for its peaceful and spacious landscape quali es (Kuhlman, et al., 2012). To see the importance/ values of this region, the interests and values will be analyzed on diff erent scales. Na onal value On a na onal scale the Eemsdelta is meaningful for its economic poten al. The structural concept [Structuurvisie Infrastructuur en Ruimte] of the na onal government sees the Groningen-Delfzijl region as an urban region of top sectors with a focus on energy, chemistry and water technology. The Eemsdelta is also valuable for its great wind energy poten al and the docks in Delfzijl and Eemshaven are of na onal importance. Except for these economic ‘values’ northern Groningen is of natural importance with its Wadden Sea region (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu, 2012).

Figure 1.1. Hanging kitchens. Source: own fi gure

72 Figure 1.2. Flood defense in Termunterzijl. Source: own fi gure Provincial value On a provincial level, Groningen has in coopera on with municipali es and water boards made an insigh ul interac ve map wherein the landscape values are demonstrated. This map is meant as a source of inspira on for people who are interested in landscape, culture and heritage in Groningen. This guide reveals that the Eemsdelta consists of a combina on between two landscape types: mound landscape [wierdenland] and a dike landscape. Concrete characteris cs within these landscape types are: former dikes, current dikes, fl ood defenses (Figure 1.2), characteris c waters, ar fi cial dwelling mounds, creek beds, salt marsh and dal rivers. These quali es reveal that landscape quali es in the Eemsdelta are all related to its connec on with water. Beside these landscape quali es, they also named 15 heritage icons of which three are located in the Eemsdelta region. (1) Molen Goliath near Eemshaven is the most northern located mill in the Netherlands and is built in 1897. (2) Hogelandster farm in Usquert which is a Frisian farmhouse. (3) Damsterdiep and its hanging kitchens in Appingedam (Figure 1.1), the hanging kitchens of Appingedam is the tourists a rac on of this medieval city and is currently a protected cityscape (Provincie Groningen, 2017b). In a more elaborated document from the provincial government, they add the large scale openness, characteris c villages and the view on these villages, farmhouses with its greenery, typical allotment and historic churches to the regions quali es which requires a en on when developing the area (Provincie Groningen, 2014). To promote Groningen within and outside the Netherlands, Marke ng Groningen came with the G7, the seven reasons to visit Groningen. Of these seven G’s, three are related to the Eemsdelta: churches, estates and historical mounds (Marke ng Groningen, 2017a). Overall, the region is said to be valuable for its cultural- and natural historical values (Provincie Groningen, 2016). Municipal value In its policy plan Recrea on and Tourism 2011-2015, the municipality of Eemsmond says it has a lot to off er for inhabitants, tourists and visitors. In het North, they have the Wadden Sea and onshore there are historical landscapes and water streams. The authen c small villages and historical buildings off er possibili es to a ract tourists. Eemshaven is the loca on where tourists (Germans) travel to the German Wadden island Borkum (Gemeente Eemsmond, 2011). Eemsmond has something to off er for everyone in the fi eld of culture, nature, space, peace and recrea on (Toerisme-online, n.d.). Delfzijl and Appingedam together have one development plan [Ontwikkelingsperspec ef]. In this document they write about a fast growing demand for tourists facili es, in par cular sports and recrea on,

73 Figure 1.3. Church Source: own fi gure Figure 1.4. Mill. Source: own fi gure culture, health and the hospitality sector. Delfzijl is known for its harbor and is touris c a rac ve for its rela on with the marine sector. Delfzijl is also the largest city of the Ommelanden and provides shops, restaurants, wellness etc. Another harbor is located in Termunterzijl, which is a protected townscape, because of the variety of historical heritages (Vliet & Dijkstra, 2009). Appingedam is the former capital of the Ommelanden and has s ll many historical buildings with cultural value. It is especially the hanging kitchens above the characteris c Damsterdiep which a racts tourists to the city (Vliet & Dijkstra, 2009). The municipality of Loppersum argues that landscape/ nature and culture/ art are the core quali es to visit the area. Except for peacefulness and spaciousness, the municipality has a landscape with prominent mounds and historical buildings (Gemeente Loppersum, 2012). Tourist a rac ons The quali es of the region can be traced back through the history of Groningen. Groningen is rewarded for its natural and cultural values (Provincie Groningen, 2016). Based on several sources (Toerisme-online, n.d.) (Provincie Groningen, 2017b) (RouteYou, 2017) (Marke ng Groningen, 2017b) a list of tourist a rac ons in the Eemsdelta is assembled: • Churches: A quarter of the Dutch historical churches can be found in Groningen (Figure 1.3). The reason is because in mes that the churches were built, Groningen was a rich province and when churches were modernized it was rela vely poor. Most churches are therefore from late 13th century. • Estates: There are s ll a few former country residences of ‘jonkers’ present. It used to be a safe haven for rich farmers and during the economic good mes, these residences were enlarged and embellished. Menkemaborg, Rensumaborg, Breedenborg, Landhuis Ekenstein, Borgterrein Ewsum and Rusthoven s ll show their previous prosperity. • Mills: There are many mills in the region with various ‘backgrounds’. Mills (Figure 1.4) were used to drain polders, used in processing corn, grain etc. The Goliath is the best known mill, as it is the most northern located mill in the Netherlands on mainland. • Mounds: Before dikes were built the inhabitants created higher grounds (mounds) to protect their property from fl ooding. Most ar fi cial mounds are created between 500 – 1000 A.C.

74 • Water related: Next to the Wadden Sea Region and the Wadden islands Ro umeroog and Ro umerplaat, the Eemsdelta is also known for the waterways. Various docks meet the demands for recrea onal boats and yachts. • Marine construc ons: As the Eemsdelta is located in the northern Netherlands in a region which used to be the ocean, it is obvious that there are various marine construc ons in the region. These construc ons, like dikes, pumping sta ons and drainage sluices made it possible to inhabit this region. In 1811, Noorderdijk and the drainage sluice were built in Noordpolderzijl to water out the surplus of water from the Noordpolder. From the dike you have an excellent view of the Wadden and the fi shing port. Except for the historical importance of the Eemshaven, it is contemporary a hub with a lot of technical innova ons. Near the Eemshaven, an ar st created an artwork to indicate the most northern part of the mainland of Groningen, which is called Hemelpoort (Heaven gate). • Villages: The various small authen c villages are a core quality of the region. Except for the churches, borgen and mills, these villages also posses other cultural heritages. The former capital of the Ommelanden, Appingedam, has the hanging gardens; Usquert has a house designed by Berlage; Middelstum has a gatehouse which originally stood for a demolished estate; and various other heritages.

Literature list Berendsen, H. (2008). Landschappelijk Nederland: De fysisch-geografi sche regio’s (4th ed.). Assen: Koninklijke Van Gorcum.

De Vries, F. (2011). Hoe compact is Groningen? Compacte crea viteit in het noorden van nederland. In H. Ovink, & E. Wierenga, Compacte stads: Agenda voor toekoms g beleid, onderzoek en ontwerp (p. 200-211). Ro erdam: Uitgeverij 010.

De Zeeuw, J. (1976). Peat and the Dutch Golden Age: the historical meaning of energy - a ainability. Wageningen: Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen.

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Gardenier, J. D. (2012). Rijk met Kleine Dorpen: Een sociologische studie naar het pla eland van Noord- Groningen. Assen: Van Gorcum.

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Gemeente Loppersum. (2012). Loppersum in de Schijnwerpers: Beleidsplan Recrea e en Toerisme. Loppersum: Gemeente Loppersum.

Haartsen, T., Huigen, P., & Groote, P. (2003). Rural areas in the Netherlands. Tijdschri voor Economische en Sociale Geografi e , 94 (1), 129-136.

Hospers, G.-J., Verheul, W. J., & Boekema, F. (2011). Inleiding: citymarke ng voorbij de hype. In G.-J. Hospers, W. J. Verheul, & F. Boekema, Citymarke ng voorbij de hype: Ontwikkelingen, analyse en strategie (p. 9-14). Den Haag: Boom Lemma Uitgevers.

Kuhlman, T., Agricola, H., De Blaeij, A., De Hoop, J., Michels, R., Smit, B., et al. (2012). Landbouw en recrea e in krimpregio’s: Knelpunten en kansen. Den Haag: LEI Wagening UR.

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75 Marke ng Groningen. (2017a). G7, zeven redenen om Groningen te bezoeken. Opgeroepen op April 07, 2017, van Marke ng Groningen: h ps://www.marke nggroningen.nl/pers/beeldbank/g7

Marke ng Groningen. (2017). Mar nikerk Groningen. Opgeroepen op March 31, 2017, van Er gaat niets boven Groningen: h ps://toerisme.groningen.nl/zien-doen-beleven/bezienswaardigheden- a rac es/kerken/mar nikerk-groningen/1457

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76 Appendix 2. Leisure industry Market segments and interests It is crucial to aim on a specifi c segment to be successful in a rac ng tourists. In this paragraph the diff erent kinds of tourists and recrea onal users are analyzed. Searching for diff erent types of tourists resulted in the fi ndings as shown in Table 2.1. This table shows how six websites make a dis nc on between tourists. The use of (tourist) websites is done by purpose, because these websites are mostly consulted by consumers and it gives a good overview of the diff erent kinds of tourists.

(Miskies, 2009) (Bijsterveld, (Hotel & Resort (Quora, n.d.)* (Careerigniter, (English 2016) Insider LLC, 2007) 2017) Online, n.d.) Adventure Rural tourist Incen ve tourist Cultural tourist Recrea onal Beach tourist tourist tourist Pilgrimage Industrial Medical tourist Historical Cultural Winter tourist tourist tourist tourist tourist Cultural tourist Movie tourist Business tourist Eco tourist Nature tourist Medical tourist Drugs tourist Gastronomic Educa on tourist Heritage tourist Pleasure Educa onal Diving touristtourist Adventure tourist Movie tourist tourist tourist Eco tourist Eco tourist Cultural tourist Adventure Medical Sport tourist Heritage tourist Jailoo tourist Eco-touristtourist tourist Package tourist Gamble tourist Fes val tourist Religious tourist Story tourist Sports tourist Spa tourist Medical tourist Thanatourist Sport tourist Party tourist Religious Religious Nature tourist Backpacking Backpacking Relax tourist tourist tourist Disaster touristtourist tourist Disaster/ event Adventure Eco tourist Safari tourist Space tourist Special interest tourist tourist Adventure Sex tourist Spiritual tourist Religious tourist tourist Sport tourist tourist Leisure tourist Sport tourist Social genealogy Caravan Architectural tourist tourist tourist

Table 2.1. Kinds of tourism (website analysis). Sources are men oned in the table 1. * based on circa 150 answers on a ques on-and-answer site - Quora

The diff erent segments as listed in the table show that the type of tourists strongly correlate with their interests. In this way, a cultural tourists is interested in culture, while disaster tourists search for a des na on where a disaster took place in the past. The region’s quali es should correspond with the ‘target group’. These qualifi ca ons also give an idea how the region should develop to be more a rac ve for those types of tourists. Tourist segmenta on The kinds of tourism give a clear view about the general interests of tourists in the world. However, many of these types are overlapping and remain vague because there is no clear data about percentages per type. Mo vac on, an independent market research ins tute, created in coopera on with NBTC a ‘target group segmenta on’ [doelgroepanalyse] based on lifestyle and travel mo va on of tourists (Figure 2.1). The reason for the segmenta on is that there are several specifi c groups with their own characteris cs. Countries, regions, municipali es or ci es should aim on a specifi c group to be more accurate. Based on an interna onal research, they ‘created’ fi ve unique segments of mentali es. Those mentali es are derived from tourists’ norms, values and lifestyle (NBTC Holland Marke ng, 2017). 1. Tradi onals. Predominantly over-50s are part of the tradi onals. They are ‘ending’ their working life and because of that, they have more me to spend. Most couples have older children, who are no longer living in their parents’ house. The educa onal level is below average, but as the couples are standing

77 alone they have average money to spend. Their values are tradi onally and they a ach high values to family and want a harmonious life. As they are locally oriented, passive entertainment has their main focus: think of elderly having a walking and bicycling vaca on near their home - The Netherlands, Belgium, Germany. This group is well represented in the Netherlands with 35% of the popula on. 2. Mainstreams. The mainstreams are mostly couples, 35-45 years, with children that come along on vaca on. Their educa on and money to spend is on average, but have less me to spend. Like tradi onals, mainstreams are family oriented and are locally oriented. Des na on is less important, but they expect more excitement and adventure on their vaca on to ‘forget’ their daily life for some me. However, this group, approximately 24% of the Netherlands, is interested in passive recrea on as well: think about going to the beach, fun parks, etc. 3. Upperclass qualityseekers. This group is less represented in the Netherlands with only 12% of the popula on. It consists of mainly couples between the 35-45 years with a higher educa on and more money to spend. Quality and comfort are central issues for this group and they are interested in poli cs and the history of a place. Because they have less me to spend, they prefer longer interna onal vaca ons. 4. Postmoderns. This group is represented by all ages and diff ers a lot from country to country. Their educa onal level and money to spend is above average and have rela vely more me to spend. Immaterial values are important to them and they appreciate their freedom and independence. They focus mainly on interna onal des na ons and seek for new experiences (both cultural and adventurous). This group is very open to new situa ons and enjoy going to museums, fes vals and other cultural sites. Circa 21% of the Dutch popula on falls within this group. 5. Achievers. Basically younger people (younger than 35 years) fall within this group. Their educa on level and their income are high and they are career oriented. Individualists want to get ‘everything out of life’ and search for adventure and thrill. They a ach less value to tradi onal norms and values and are

Figure 2.1. Style segmenta on. Source: own fi gure based on NBTC Holland (2008)

looking for interna onal trips to gather new experiences. The group, which is less represented in the Netherlands with only 9% of the popula on, is interested in good quality hotels and want to go to bars and clubs on their vaca on (NBTC Holland, 2008). This segmenta on gives a good overview of the types of tourists in the Netherlands. For a municipality, this kind of segmenta on is very helpful in their (marke ng) plans as is becomes clear what segments to focus on and where these groups are interested in. Recrea onal segmenta on For recrea onal visitors a similar type of segmenta on is made by RECRON. The Leisure lifestyle segmenta on provides insights in the Dutch day me recrea on and leisure accommoda on (RECRON, 2017). RECRON made a dis nc on between seven diff erent types of recreants based on four types of lifestyles. These four

78 types of lifestyles are (1) Red, searching for adventure, culture and ac vity. The key principle in this lifestyle is to gain new experiences and it is especially younger people who ‘fi t’ to this group. (2) Blue is about control and searching for a relaxing environment in a luxurious surrounding. (3) Yellow represents the group who wants to have a pleasant and harmonious me with friends and family. Consciously enjoying during a day out, like having dinner, is important for them. (4) Green concerns rest and relaxa on and these social oriented persons act tradi onal/ conserva ve. By going out, people within this group want to leave their daily rou ne (RECRON, 2010). These four lifestyles provide seven unique types of recreants, as can be seen in Figure 2.2. 1. Exuberant yellow. This social group wants an ac ve and spor ve vaca on with family or friends. Camping and bungalow parks, where they provide many ac vi es for the whole family is what this group wants. 2. Crea ve and inspiring red. With passion, this group is always searching for special places. With their stubborn and impa ent a tude they are going their own way and chasing their dreams. In this way, they can exchange experiences with enthusiasm with each other. 3. Entrepreneurial purple. Normal is not good enough for this group. They want to gain new experiences and do something diff erent in a broad sense. Staying in the wild or having a exclusive vaca on and having a lot of varia on is important for this (younger) group of persons. As these ac vi es are more exclusive and special, this group travels more o en alone. 4. Stylish and luxury blue. This group is career oriented and is a ached to their luxurious and stylish environment. They strive for success and they think they deserve a luxury vaca on with good facili es. A beach holiday or a cruise are examples of their ‘exclusive’ trips. 5. Subdued aqua. This segment wants to go back to basic. It enjoys cultural ac vi es and city trips, while they are also interested in going to a camping or bungalow park. This group mainly consists of elder people who got me for their hobbies and interests. 6. Peaceful green. The color green corresponds with green environment where these types of persons like to spend their holiday. A familiar surroundings, having some privacy and away from the rush of the city are their wishes. According to this group, there is enough to do in the Netherlands 7. Pleasant lime. Like yellow, they like conviviality and a spor ve vaca on. The diff erence is that this group

Figure 2.2. Recrea onal segmenta on. own fi gure based on RECRON, 2010 prefers a shorter and a more peaceful vaca on. This group has less money to spend and stays o en within the Netherlands. Being free and enjoying the rest, for example cycling and walking gives them the ul mate holiday feeling (RECRON, 2017).

79 Marke ng/ a ract tourists The main focus in marke ng is on tourism for economic reasons, because recrea on is less commercial (Zillmann & Vorderer, 2009). For most municipali es a city marke ng plan is high on the poli cal agenda. With new investments in events, buildings or with campaigns they are eager to a ract ci zens, companies, visitors and bright heads to their municipality (Hospers, Verheul, & Boekema, 2011). Gunn (2002) wrote a fi ve-step manual for the a rac on of tourists: 1. Values. Explore the importance of the region’s values: geography, history, culture, lifestyle, etc. These values should be complemented and preserved by visitors; 2. A rac ons. A rac ons, in a broad perspec ve, have the power to a ract visitors. This include ac vi es, culture, art, cultural heritage and its surroundings; 3. Services. All kinds of services should be cri cized, from public services (police, drainage, health control) to commercial services (lodging, entertainment, food and drinks, transporta on); 4. Marke ng. These previous aspects should be market, so visitors are aware of the values, a rac ons and services. A specifi c market segment should be chosen to have a specifi c marke ng; and 5. Organiza on. The a rac on of visitors is involved within many poli cal jurisdic ons, what makes a leading organiza on necessary. The organiza on takes care of the overall vision, goals and makes sure that the marke ng is adequate. In order to develop a city- and region marke ng plan, there should be a en on for the following topics: (1) Integra on into regional plans and des na on leadership/ organiza on. The tourism industry overlaps with many other policy and ac on programs. (2) Placeness as a fundamental and special cultural and natural resources. In a growing compe ve tourism market, a region should be dis nc ve. Visitors visit the place for a reason and its uniqueness should be elaborated. Every municipality is able to commodify their par cular cultural and natural resources. (3) Community-area poten al. The basic understanding is that it is not just about the tourist a rac on itself. The region is also involved and par cipa on by local communi es is therefore crucial. (4) Public-private coopera on. A visitor des na on becomes successful when governmental policy, public ac ons and private ac ons match to each other. As many of the cultural heritages and other sites are preserved by non-profi t organiza ons, they should also be involved. Finally, (5) environmental degrada on. As the environment plays an important role in the a rac on of visitors, the planners should regulate land use to protect the environmental and cultural resources from overdevelopment and conges on (Gunn, 2002). Hospers’ (2014) thought corresponds with Gunn’s line of argumenta on. It is a long-term strategy and it asks for a mutual alignment. The star ng point is the region’s quali es and on this basis, the profi le for a specifi c segment of tourists should be chosen. The more specifi c a profi le is, the bigger the chance to become a strong ‘product’. Marke ng is crea ng real value for consumers and explain why people should go to your place or buy your product (Kotler, 2003). Municipali es use marke ng strategies to a ract tourists. Erik Braun, a university lecturer urban economics, calls this strategy an outdated vision. S ll 49% of the policymakers see this strategy as a way to a ract visitors to their municipality. According to Braun, the vision of the strategy should be broader and should include the a rac on and maintenance of companies and residents as well. How the marke ng organiza on is integrated within the municipality or provincial government diff ers from ins tu on to ins tu on. Some municipali es have a separate organiza on within the municipality, others establashed an associa on or an organiza on (Kluis, 2016). The la er has the preference, as a governmental ins tu on should serve the public interest, while choices or, as Hospers (2014) calls it, discrimina on is necessary to be more specifi c and to have a successful marke ng strategy. Ashworth (2011) men ons three ways of how we perceive the city: (1) our own experiences of the city; (2) the representa on of the city by the media, fi lms, etc.; and through (3) physical developments. Lombarts (2011) talks about several forms of strategies to a ract tourists. (1) City marke ng is one of the strategies, which is about ‘selling’ the city. This strategy is already well described in the previous sec on of this paragraph. (2) Refurbishment is, according to Lombarts, another strategy, wherein the focus lays on renova ng, restructuring and revitalizing the region. (3) Improving and expanding cultural off erings. A good mixture between museums, theaters, cultural heritages and other cultural off ers serves to a ract tourists. Except for employment it also improves the reputa on of the city for current residents. Moreover, Lombarts sees (4) events as a way to a ract tourists. Events contribute to the local economy and, like cultural off ers, it improves the image residents have of the city. This is connected to branding, which is about the crea on of an image and therefore diff ers from marke ng which is about selling a ‘product’. Several ins tu ons are working on the marke ng of the Eemsdelta. Marke ng Holland is the na onal marke ng organiza on. Marke ng Groningen is responsible for marke ng the province of Groningen. In addi on, the four municipali es also have their own marke ng organiza on: Top van Groningen.

80 Leisure segmenta on in Eemsdelta The values of the Eemsdelta are mainly related to natural and cultural aspects. Tourists visi ng this region are therefore mostly natural or cultural (or a combina on) tourists. The natural values are self-evident, but the interests of cultural tourists are more abstract. Cultural tourists are logically interested in cultural aspects in their experience, but its defi ni on is more diffi cult than before. It is no longer only about the major a rac ons or monuments like the Eiff el Tower in Paris, Coliseum in Rome or the Pyramids of Giza in Egypt (Richards, 2001). Culture is about our ac ons - thinking, doing and making - and our crea ons from the past in a broad sense (Litrell, 1996). The learning aspect, which is playing a great role in the contemporary tourism industry (McKercher & Cros, 2003), is therefore essen al for cultural tourists (Richards, 2001). Tradi onals and mainstreams from Mo vac on’s segmenta on are the two segments which are most aligned with the Eemsdelta. Especially younger couples with children and over-50s are willing to go to the region. They both have rela vely less money to spend and a ach more value to the tradi onal values. The des na on is less important as long as they are with their family and can stay in a peaceful place with possibili es for passive recrea on. Together, the groups represented circa 60% of the Netherlands. Looking to the recrea onal segmenta on of RECRON, there are three types of segments that fi t to Eemsdelta’s quali es. Subdued aqua, peaceful green and pleasant lime are looking for a des na on which off ers peace and space, where they can walk or cycle. These kinds of tourists, segments, are in line with the focus the Eemsdelta has for its region. In their development concept, they want to enhance the tourism and recrea on sector wherein the focus lays on small-scale tourism and rural tourists. This includes cultural tourists, water tourists, industrial tourists (Delfzijl) and their own residents (Provincie Groningen, 2013).

Literature list Ashworth, G. (2011). De instrumenten van place branding: Hoe worden ze ingezet. In G.-J. Hospers, W. J. Verheul, & F. Boekema, Citymarke ng voorbij de hype: ontwikkelingen, analyse en strategie (p. 53-64). Den Haag: Boom Lemma uitgevers.

Bijsterveld, S. v. (2016, June 28). 12 bijzondere soorten toerisme – ken jij ze allemaal al? Opgeroepen op March 9, 2017, van Skyscanner: h ps://www.skyscanner.nl/nieuws/inspira e/12-bijzondere- soorten-toerisme-ken-jij-ze-allemaal-al/

Careerigniter. (2017). What Are The Diff erent Types Of Tourism? Opgeroepen op March 9, 2017, van Careerigniter: h p://www.careerigniter.com/ques ons/what-are-the-diff erent-types-of-tourism/

English Online. (n.d.). Tourism. Opgeroepen op March 9, 2017, van English Online: h p://www.english- online.at/travel/tourism/tourism.htm

Gunn, C. A. (2002). Des na on Planning Concepts. In C. A. Gunn, Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases (4th ed., p. 221-272). New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Hospers, G.-J. (2014). Citymarke ng: wat werkt wel en wat werkt niet? Vrije jdstudies, 1(32), 19-28.

Hospers, G.-J., Verheul, W. J., & Boekema, F. (2011). Inleiding: citymarke ng voorbij de hype. In G.-J. Hospers, W. J. Verheul, & F. Boekema, Citymarke ng voorbij de hype: Ontwikkelingen, analyse en strategie (p. 9-14). Den Haag: Boom Lemma Uitgevers.

Hotel & Resort Insider LLC. (2007). The diff erent types of tourists in tourism industry. Opgeroepen op March 9, 2017, van HRI: h p://www.hotelresor nsider.com/news_story.php?news_id=139465

Kluis, E. d. (2016, May 20). Citymarke ng? Leuk voor toeristen. Opgeroepen op March 16, 2017, van Binnenlands Bestuur: h p://www.binnenlandsbestuur.nl/bestuur-en-organisa e/nieuws/ citymarke ng-leuk-voor-toeristen.9536833.lynkx Kotler, P. (2003). De A tot Z van marke ng: 80 thema’s voor iedereen die aan marke ng doet. Utrecht: Het Spectrum.

81 Litrell, M. (1996). Shopping experiences and marke ng of culture to tourists. In M. Robinson, N. Evans, & P. Callaghan, tourims and culture : image, iden ty and marke ng (p. 107-120). Newcastle: University of Northumbria.

Lombarts, A. (2011). Citymarke ng: Spanningen en uitdagingen in de stedenstrijd. In G.-J. Hospers, W. J. Verheul, & F. Boekema, Citymarke ng voorbij de hype: Ontwikkelingen, analyse en strategie (p. 15-25). Den Haag: Boom Lemma uitgevers.

McKercher, B., & Cros, H. (2003). Tes ng a cultural tourism typology. Interna onal Journal of, 5(1), 45-58.

Miskies. (2009, April 12). Soorten toerisme. Opgeroepen op March 9, 2017, van Reizen en Recrea e: h p://reizen-en-recrea e.infonu.nl/diversen/34875-soorten-toerisme.html

NBTC Holland. (2008). Travel & Life Style segmenta on. Den Haag: NBTC Holland.

NBTC Holland Marke ng. (2017). Bezoekersdoelgroepen. Opgeroepen op March 16, 2017, van NBTC Holland Marke ng: h p://www.nbtc.nl/nl/homepage/ar kel/bezoekersdoelgroepen-1.htm

Provincie Groningen. (2013). Ontwikkelingsvisie Eemsdelta 2030. Groningen: WM Veenstra Druk BV.

Quora. (n.d.). What are some of the most amazing places to visit in Europe? Opgeroepen op February 14, 2017, van Quora: h ps://www.quora.com/What-are-some-of-the-most-amazing-places-to-visit-in- Europe

RECRON. (2010). Het onderzoek van gastvrij Nederland. Opgeroepen op March 17, 2017, van RECRON Innova eCampagne: h p://www.recroninnova ecampagne.nl/nl/informa e/onderzoek- dagrecrea e/brand-strategy-research-model

RECRON. (2017). Wat zijn de Leisure Leefs jlen? Opgeroepen op March 17, 2017, van RECON: h p://www. recron.nl/leisure-leefs jlen-(kleurensegmenta e)/wat-zijn-de-leisure-leefs jlen

Richards, G. (2001). The development of cultural tourism in Europe. In G. Richards, Cultural A rac ons and European Tourism (p. 3-29). Wallingford: CABI Publishing.

Zillmann, D., & Vorderer, P. (2009). Media Entertainment: The Psychology of Its Appeal. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

82 Appendix 3. Interview guides 3.1 Marcel Tap Interviewer: Dirk van de Ven

What is your role at RECRON?

Does RECRON represent 85% of the entrepreneurs in the leisure industry?

Is there a reason why farmers are not part of the associa on?

Is the growing number of tourists from other provinces a trend?

Does RECRON support entrepreneurs that combine mul ple func ons?

I read that RECRON says that municipali es need to give ‘space’ to entrepreneurs to be innova ve. Is this the case? Do depopula ng municipali es allow more innova on?

Are there many of such ideas?

Do you get feedback from those companies?

Do you think that investments in the leisure industry in Groningen could be successful? Because it has li le touris c poten al.

A professor from the Groningen University said the leisure industry innovates very slowly. Is that true?

So the opportuni es lay more in touris c regions like Zeeland and Limburg?

I asked this because the mission of RECRON is to entrepreneur in a changing environment.

Does depopula on play a role in the investments in a region?

Are there par cular things you hear from entrepreneurs in depopula ng regions?

Were you surprised that Parkstad Limburg won the interna onal price?

What are the largest diff erences in policy between Limburg, which has a huge success, and Groningen?

What are the ‘real’ benefi ts of tourists? Your chairman says: ‘’Tourism is good and essen al for a village’’. But in what way and are there other benefi ts?

You said that the current Cabinet has li le a en on for the ‘Ommelanden’, but I also read several policies for a specifi c popula ng regions. For example a region with less legisla ons. Do such experiments ‘work’?

So, such experiments fail?

Is the ageing popula on another opportunity for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry?

Do you keep records of the investments in par cular regions?

83 3.2 Lex Geesink Interviewee: (G) Lex Geesink Interviewer: (L) Chantal Leegstra & (V) Dirk van de Ven

(V) How does Appingedam sees itself? Because I see diverse statements about Appingedam in rela on to depopula on.

(V) Is it provincial or municipal policy?

(V) What are the nega ve consequences of popula on decline? As you said, the popula on of Appingedam does decline, but it has nega ve associa ons.

(V) Why do you cooperate with Delfzijl and not with Loppersum or Eemsmond?

(V) In your development plan you argue that there are many opportuni es for recrea on and tourism. What are these opportuni es?

(L) Do you also work on the 10 story lines?

(L) Do you also get many foreign tourists?

(L) So entrepreneurs do not compete with each other?

(L) What do you no ce from the earthquakes?

(V) Is that ‘proudness’ diff erent from other municipali es?

(L) You do not see any change in tourism numbers despite the earthquakes?

(L) Does Appingedam have disaster tourists interested in the earthquakes?

(V) Is that coopera on something from the residents or is it strongly facilitated by the municipality?

(V) Just like Delfzijl?

(V) What is the reason that there are barely tourists coming to Appingedam? Is it only the loca on?

(V) Only during events?

(V) We have been to an inspira on day of EBG, but there were barely entrepreneurs from the Eemsdelta. What do you think is the reason of this absence?

(L) Should entrepreneurs cooperate more with each other? I have heard that there is a ‘ba le of the villages’.

(V) Is it true that Appingedam is the only government where tourism and recrea on is not within the economic por olio?

(V) Appingedam, city of water and culture. You invest a lot of money in that project, right?

(V) Do you have an economic goal with that project?

(V) Do you think popula on decline impacts the par cipa on among residents?

84 3.3 Cherita Meijer Interviewer: Dirk van de Ven

I read in an ar cle that you exploit this camp site for more than 25 years.

Has the camp site changed much in those years?

So that was generally for expansion?

Was the camping o en fully-booked that me? That it was necessary do expand?

Do you no ce that when you do not innovate or go along with the mes, you exactly go backwards?

So you think, you are going downwards?

So you are not able to invest as you wanted?

Do you no ce any consequence of popula on decline?

For example that there a less regional tourists?

Where do the visitors generally come from?

Is it generally elderly that come to the camp site?

Where do you think the opportuni es lay for entrepreneurs in the leisure industry in depopula ng regions?

Do you think the coopera on of the municipality of Eemsmond is thanks to popula on decline?

What are the things you want to invest in?

What would your dream scenario look like?

What are you reasons to invest? Pure economic?

Are there other ways you are supported by the municipality of for example by Economic Board Groningen?

So EBG is a valuable ‘partner’?

And your investments only focus on tourists?

What is, in your opinion, the value of the camp site for the neighborhood?

Residents might use the tennis court?

Are residents also involved with the camp site? They know the camp site exist and...?

They are not aware of the investments you do?

Because it focuses only on tourists?

Do you hear that from residents?

Do you believe there are opportuni es for entrepreneurs in this region?

Do you think that popula on decline limits the opportuni es? Or does it off er more opportuni es?

85 Appendix 4. Codes analyzed (Cherita Meijer)

Figure 4.1. Open coding. Source: own fi gure

Figure 4.2. Families. Source: own fi gure 86 Figure 6.8. Families: investment. Source: own fi gure

Figure 4.3. Families: number of tourists. Source: own fi gure

Figure 4.4. Families: popula on decline. Source: own fi gure

Figure 4.5. Families: economic benefi ts. Source: own fi gure Figure 4.6. Families: social benefi ts. Source: own fi gure

Figure 4.7. Families: opportuni es. Source: own fi gure

87