German geographical urban morphology in an international and interdisciplinary framework

Heinz Heineberg Institut für Geographie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Robert-Koch- Strasse 26, D-48149 Münster, Germany. E-mail: [email protected]

Revised manuscript received 18 November 2006

Abstract. This paper reviews the development and main aspects of research in German geographical urban morphology in an international and inter- disciplinary framework. German urban morphology has a long history. It was a progenitor of the Conzenian tradition in Britain. During recent decades, however, it has lost the prominent position it held within German human geography in the early years of the twentieth century. It has nevertheless continued to yield a sizeable amount of research, including on cultural-genetic city types at continental and sub-continental scales and on urban change and conservation. Within the framework of geographical urban morphology a number of applied and theoretical topics merit particular attention: among these are the reuse of derelict land, the revitalization of harbour areas, interdisciplinary approaches to redevelopment, holistic perspectives on the built environment, transformation and reconstruction in eastern Germany and urban shrinkage. Fundamental aspects of urban morphology as a field of knowledge include increased participation in the international community of urban morphologists, a renewed impetus to the revitalization of theory, and more contributions on ecological aspects of urban form.

Key Words: urban morphological research, urban form, urban geography, disciplinary history, Germany

Geographical urban morphology has a long recent research on geographical urban tradition in Germany, and the number and morphology. It confirms, in part, the most range of publications in this field in the recent state-of-the-art assessment by German language must be as great as, if not Hofmeister (2004) but complements this by greater than, in any other language. But its taking a somewhat different approach, paying growth in recent decades has not been as attention to the recent organization of urban evident as that in many other fields of German morphology and a number of recent research human geography and it has arguably been less topics. prominent than urban morphology in a number of other disciplines in Germany, namely urban history, town planning and settlement The tradition of urban morphological archaeology (see Arntz, 1998). However, in research in Germany his report on ‘The study of urban form in Germany’, Hofmeister (2004, p. 10) comes to The first three decades of the twentieth century the conclusion that ‘although no bread and were decisive in the development of urban butter issue, urban form has, in recent years, morphology in Germany. These started with received adequate attention from German Schlüter’s (1899) and Ratzel’s (1903) works geographers’. and were concluded by those of Geisler (1924) This article is a review of both ‘classic’ and and Martiny (1928). At that time German

Urban Morphology (2007) 11(1), 5-24 © International Seminar on Urban Form, 2007 ISSN 1027-4278 6 German geographical urban morphology urban geography was mainly concerned with Christaller’s (1933) theory of central places. urban morphology, particularly the location In an important state-of-the-art report Schöller and layout of towns. This emphasis was (1953) acknowledged the importance of urban continued by Dörries (1930) who underlined morphology, above all in connection with the explanatory description of the layout of functional approaches and the genesis of towns as one of the most important objectives cultural spaces (Kulturraumgenese). of urban geography. Earlier, Dörries (1925) had mapped within old towns the age of houses and styles of building, undertaking The Conzenian tradition research reminiscent of that on Vienna by Hassinger (1916). From his position in the One of the heirs of the crucial inter-war phase University of Göttingen, Dörries influenced in the development of German urban several monographs on towns, in which the morphology was the ethnic German urban mapping of construction age was in each case morphologist M.R.G. Conzen. As an outpost an essential part of the work (Denecke, 1989, of German urban morphology within Britain, p. 9). he founded a school of thought in that country Influenced by explorations of the cultural that was essentially German. Before his landscape initiated by Schlüter in particular, in escape to England from the Nazi regime in the 1920s the geographer Passarge (1930, p. v) 1933 Conzen studied in Berlin and had been pointed out, in an edited anthology on influenced by the German geographers Stadtlandschaften der Erde (Townscapes of Schlüter, Geisler and Louis (Simms, 2004, p. the Earth), that over the preceding 20 years a 56). As a university professor in Newcastle great deal of attention in scientific geography upon Tyne, Conzen developed an innovative had been devoted to urban landscapes. The method of town-plan analysis that drew individual articles of the anthology – for heavily on German antecedents (Conzen, example about townscapes in the Arabian 1960; Simms, 2004; Whitehand, 1981, 2001; Orient by Passarge and on Australian Whitehand and Larkham, 1992). Conzen townscapes by Geisler – were predominantly constructed a conceptual framework for urban about physiognomic features, though cultural, morphology, which has been summarized by historical and economic aspects were also Simms (2004, p. 56). He distinguished the considered. Three-quarters of a century later town plan, urban land-use pattern and the Gräf and Keller’s (2004) edited volume on building fabric. He divided the town plan into Stadtlandschaft provides a basis for setting this three elements: streets, plots and buildings. early view of townscapes within a longer-term, Conzen developed a number of concepts that cross-disciplinary perspective. became important for urban morphology. One Despite developments in the decade was the burgage cycle, which entailed a following the First World War, Martiny (1928, gradual build-up of a house plot until a new p. 1) was still able to refer to research on economic upswing led to demolition and a settlement forms as having a modest role in totally new development. Another was the geography, though he believed that concept of the fringe belt (Stadtrandzone) morphological investigation of cultural objects which the German geographer Louis had (Kulturgebilde) could achieve the same recognized in Berlin in 1936. Both concepts importance in cultural geography as the relate to historico-geographical variations in morphology of the Earth’s surface in physical the building intensity of the city, which are geography. Subsequently urban geography associated with economic and social changes. diversified considerably in its contents and Most of Conzen’s work was undertaken in concepts. A new functional direction emerged, Newcastle upon Tyne, but after his formal at first in Scandinavian urban geography, then retirement from his Chair the vanguard of the initiated by Bobek in the German-speaking school of essentially German thought that he countries, and after that influenced by developed in England moved to the University German geographical urban morphology 7 of Birmingham, where J.W.R. Whitehand planning (Städtebau), as well as the founded the Urban Morphology Research fundamental importance of a geography of Group (UMRG) in 1974. Increasing in size to town planning and development (Geographie 28 members by 2005, this group developed des Städtebaus). However, unlike in Great two subdivisions. One deals with the planning Britain, no major geographical research group, and development of the medieval and early or school of thought, developed within post- modern city, especially its town-plan analysis war German urban morphology. (for example, Baker and Slater, 1992; Lilley, 1999, 2000; Slater, 1987). The other is concerned with investigating the processes and Townscape research and the new cultural agents responsible for the urban landscapes of geography the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (for example, Larkham, 1996; Whitehand, 1992, Distinct from the development of the UMRG 2003). In 1994 the UMRG played a major part and ISUF, which German-Irish researcher in the foundation of the International Seminar Simms (2004) regards as part of classical on Urban Form (ISUF), which brought cultural geography, there developed in the late together the German (or by this time Anglo- 1980s within anglophone historical geography German), Italian and French schools of urban an emphasis on landscape as an expression of morphology, embracing archaeologists, experience. This focus, described by Simms architects, geographers, historians and (2004) as ‘townscapes (Stadtlandschaften) as planners. On its tenth birthday in 2004, ISUF symbolic landscapes’, developed out of the so- paid tribute to Conzen, holding in Newcastle called new cultural geography (Simms, 2004, upon Tyne a Post-Congress Symposium of the pp. 58ff). This contrasts with the positivist International Geographical Union on the view of landscape as represented within fortieth anniversary of a meeting Conzen had German cultural geography (see, for example, organized for that body in the same city. Blotevogel, 2003; Gebhardt et al., 2003).

German urban morphology in the early Urban morphology in textbooks, hand- post-war decades books, anthologies and journals

Meanwhile in Germany the history of urban The importance of urban morphology can be morphology had taken a different course. adduced from the range of publications After the Second World War urban devoted to it. Apart from the international morphology did not grow to the same extent as journal Urban Morphology, there are text- a number of other fields within urban books and collections of essays from Great geography, notably social, quantitative- Britain (for example Carter, 1972; Conzen, theoretical and applied aspects. Schöller 2004; Slater, 1990; Whitehand, 1981; (1974, p. 33) admonished that future urban Whitehand and Larkham, 1992), France (for geographical research ‘should not be restricted example, the textbook by Allain, 2005), Spain to functional-spatial analyses, quantitative (for example, the volumes by Capel, 2002, methods and links to systems analysis 2005), and Austria (Lichtenberger, 2002). The planning’. He urged strongly that the book by Raith (2000), from a planning investigation of the townscape (Stadtbild), be perspective (reviewed by Heineberg, 2003) is further developed, noting its fall from fashion indicative of the significance that urban despite its formative role in urban geography morphology has today in university education as a field of knowledge. Schöller stressed the in urban design (Städtebau), particularly in need for links with architectural history and Austria. the history of building (Architektur- und A current textbook devoted exclusively to Baugeschichte) and town-development German urban geographical morphology is 8 German geographical urban morphology lacking, in spite of the long tradition of this journal Die alte Stadt (see Hofmeister, 2004, discipline in central Europe. However, urban p. 9). morphology is covered in urban geography textbooks (Bähr and Jürgens, 2005; Fassmann, Topics in cultural-geographical urban 2004; Gaebe, 2004; Heineberg, 2006a; morphology in the post-war period Hofmeister, 1999). Schroeder-Lanz (1982, 1986) edited a two-volume anthology on After the Second World War German urban research into urban forms (Stadtgestalt- morphological research was characterized by forschung) that considers in international and a reaffirmation of earlier morphogenetic interdisciplinary terms townscape and remote approaches. However, in addition many new sensing, townscape genesis, perception of topics were worked on, frequently within an urban environment, urban forms and town interdisciplinary context. Questions about the planning, and urban form and tourism townscape were integrated within the wider research. Scientific exchange and joint field of cultural geography and linked meetings of British and German increasingly to functional, socio-geographical representatives of urban historical geography and other aspects of urban geography and were the basis for an anthology, which social geography (see, for example, Demmler- included contributions on urban morphology Mosetter’s (1978) study of Maximilian Street (Denecke and Shaw, 1988). Urban morph- in Augsburg and individual contributions to ological and urban historical topics have also the anthology of Mayr et al. (1993)). A received special consideration in the new number of important contributions were made German national atlas (Nationalatlas Bundes- in the conference proceedings edited by republik Deutschland, Vol. 5: Dörfer und Schroeder-Lanz (1982, 1986), in the historico- Städte/Villages and cities, 2002) edited by the geographical urban research of Denecke Institut für Länderkunde, Leipzig. (1984, 1988, 1989, 2002) and in the applied Characteristic of German urban morph- research of Thieme (1995). ological research is its presence within several disciplines in addition to geography, partic- ularly urban history, including the work of the ‘Classic’ approaches to the analysis of Institute for Comparative City History (Institut layout and built structures (Grundriss- und für vergleichende Städtegeschichte), located in Aufrissanalysen) Münster (see, for example, the German city atlas (Deutscher Städtatlas), the series One of the first cultural geographers to pursue Städteforschung and the anthology edited by earlier research traditions after the Second Stoob (1985)). Urban morphological topics World War was Gorki (1954). His layout receive frequent consideration in the meetings analysis (Grundrissanalyse) of Westfalian of the Institute that have regularly occurred towns led to the recognition of two dominant since 1974 and in the series Siedlungs- types (‘round-radial’ and ‘right-angled- forschung (Settlement research) of the inter- straight’). He also sought to explain certain national interdisciplinary study group for distribution patterns genetically. Hartmann genetic settlement research (Arbeitskreis für (1963) in his dissertation (Faculty of Archi- genetische Siedlungsforschung, since 2005 tecture, Technical University of Darmstadt), entitled Arbeitskreis für historische Kultur- reconstructed the urban development (städte- landschaftsforschung in Mitteleuropa, Study bauliche Entwicklung) of the city of Mainz group for historical cultural landscape research from Roman times, basing his interpretation on in central Europe). Important for urban numerous historical city maps. Also important morphology in the German-speaking countries were the works of the historian Keyser (1958) is also the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Die alte Stadt on the layout of towns as a historical source (Study association for the old town), which with particular reference to city foundations since 1974 has produced the interdisciplinary and town planning in north-west Germany in German geographical urban morphology 9 the Middle Ages, and the investigations by the geographical curriculum largely under funct- East German historian Blaschke (1997) on the ional and social-geographical headings (Kross, outlines and development of towns. These 1975, p.40). Urban morphology in current studies are indicative of the fact that, in school geography education is included in the addition to geography, a number of disciplines collection of articles on ‘Städte’ published in participating in urban research have utilized the magazine Geographie heute in 1998, and layout analyses to shed light on the is covered by several contributions to a development of urban form. In addition many volume by Meyer and Popp (2005) on urban volumes published on city or town planning geography for schools. history (Städtebaugeschichte) give special The layout of towns and their building consideration to historical types of town fabric have been examined with increasing layout. With regard to these aspects, the books frequency, particularly in combination with of Planitz (1954), Egli (1959-1967), Hotzan functional and socio-spatial aspects. Examples (2004), Gruber (1976) and, from the viewpoint are monographs on the former court-towns of the history of art, Meckseper (1982) are of (Residenzstädte) of Mannheim (Friedmann, importance. Furthermore, since the 1970s, 1968) and Wolfenbüttel (Ohnesorge, 1974). In partly with the collaboration of geographers, a study of the planning and layout of the numerous historical city atlases have been enlargement of the city of Koblenz in the produced, not only for Germany (Deutscher eighteenth century (Koblenzer Neustadt), von Städteatlas/German Towns’ Atlas; Deutscher der Dollen (1979) included both planning and Historischer Städteatlas/German Historic the building fabric. Denecke (1979) provides Towns’ Atlas) but also for individual German another historically relevant publication for regions and many other European countries Göttingen, a city which is still strongly shaped (see Guardia et al., 1994; Opll, 2005; Pinol, by medieval structures. This work considers 1996). in detail the effects of recent town planning Since the 1970s the methods employed by (Bebauungsplanung). Demmler-Mosetter geographers to interpret urban layouts have (1985) elaborated urban morphological received special consideration in publications elements, growth phases and structural and designed for a wider readership, for instance in socio-spatial subdivisions of the old town of topographical atlases for individual federal Augsburg. At the scale of the individual plot, states, including the Topographical Atlas of town-layout aspects were combined with Berlin (Senatsverwaltung für Bau- und socio-topological issues by Siekmann (1989). Wohnungswesen, 1995). Other publications Denecke (2005) published an overview of with interpretations of topographical maps interdisciplinary socio-topographical urban include studies of Kiel (edited by Bähr (1983), history research. with contributions by Stewig (on the city of An interest of long standing that continues Kiel) and Wiebe (on the city centre of Kiel)), unabated is the study of building types. One urban morphological interpretations of the example is the work of Möller (1959) which is 1:25 000 topographical map by means of four concerned with types of building fabric (so- time cuts, using the example of the city of called Gebäudeverbände or ‘building Münster (Heineberg and Mayr, 1991), and a associations’) in a Hamburg residential area. study of Essen/Ruhr (Vorstand der Geograph- On the basis of physiognomic topographic ischen Gesellschaft Essen et al., 1900). mapping and evaluation of building records Possibilities for the treatment of urban (Bauakten), Jaschke (1973) used the example morphological topics in school education, of Reinbeck in the area surrounding Hamburg especially types of town layouts in different to investigate for three dates (1914, 1939 and town planning epochs, were demonstrated by 1970) the connections between types of Kross (1975); this geography-didactic buildings and the social positions of the clients contribution was published at a time when the (Bauherrn). Because of its refined distinctions city was beginning to be dealt with in the new between different style periods and house 10 German geographical urban morphology types according to structural criteria the Urban fringe phenomena investigation of house types in London by Höfle (1977) is of especial interest. The Von der Dollen (1983) examined urban growth author refers in particular to the pioneering phenomena in medium-sized towns in central article by Hassinger (1910) about house forms, Europe in relation to the fringe-belt concept the innovative art-geographical atlas of Vienna developed earlier by Louis and Conzen (see worked on by Hassinger (1916), and the also Barke, 1990; Whitehand, 1988). The comprehensive work of Bobek and Lichten- approaches of Louis and Conzen, in particular berger (1966) on the building fabric of Vienna. the role of the internal fringe belt emphasized Also taken into account is the work of the art by Conzen, were confirmed. However, for the historian and architect Stein (1970) on the Middle Ages and early modern times belts structural arrangement and conception of the were clearer than for the nineteenth century façades of historical burgher houses (Bürger- (von der Dollen, 1983, p. 15). Using the häuser) in Bremen and that of the architect example of Greater Berlin, Hofmeister (1987) Schuster (1961) on the layout and building analyzed the urban-structural process of the fabric of Bürgerhäuser in the Inn-Salzach area. development of villas and country house Further examples of the recording and colonies between 1860 and 1920, comparing classification of residential building types are suburbanization there with the form and the investigations by Meynen (1977, 1978) of function of the tenement areas of the so-called Cologne-Ehrenfeld and by Wehling et al. Wilhelminischer Ring in Berlin. (1990) of workers’ and co-operative settle- Fringe belts played a significant though ments (Werks- und Genossenschaftssied- different role in the form of city enlargements lungen) in the Ruhr District. in Germany in the course of the twentieth To urban geographical analyses of the third century. Comparative analyses of new dimension in the townscape belongs the article shopping centres in the Ruhr District, by Freund (1999) on high-rise buildings, including development at city peripheries in taking the example of Frankfurt am Main. He comparison with town-integrated locations, elaborates not only Gestalt principles and were studied by Heineberg and Mayr (1986), locational types of high-rise buildings, but and large housing estates in east Germany considers also, by examination of the historical were investigated by Hohn and Hohn (1993). derivation of high-rise buildings, the diverging The related academic debates tended to be political-economic influences in the former interdisciplinary and frequently outside divided Germany. Of urban geographical geography, for example within the framework interest is also the discussion by Rodenstein of town planning or urban sociology (see, for (2002, 2003) of the high-rise building develop- example, Brake et al., 2001; Harlander, 2001). ment in Europe, giving special consideration to However, geographers participated in debates Frankfurt am Main, London, Munich and about future forms at the urban fringe (see, for Vienna, from a sociological and urban-political example, Burdack and Herfert, 1998; perspective. Wehrhahn, 2003; Wiegandt, 1998). Vertical urban structures also receive special attention in a number of aerial photo- graphic atlases (for example, Buchholz and Regional types of towns Scharmann (1992) on Mecklenburg, Western Pomerania) as well as in city atlases that were Schwarz (1952a,b) considered regional types produced with the prominent participation of of towns in Europe, notably in Lower Saxony. geographers (Frater et al., 2004 about Classic contributions concerning the definition Düsseldorf; Heinritz et al., 2003 about of regional physiognomic types of towns were Munich; Jansen et al., 2003 about Cologne; the treatise of Huttenlocher (1963) and the Schmidt et al., 2005 about Leipzig; and cultural landscape-genetic investigation of Wiktorin et al., 2001). south-west German types and groups of towns German geographical urban morphology 11 by Scheuerbrandt (1972). Huttenlocher refers centres and new towns, and accorded with the to the previous German urban research on this principles of Soviet town planning, first and subject, particularly in the fields of foremost in the centre of east Berlin construction and art history (Bau- und (Heineberg, 1982). Physical manifestations Kunstgeschichte), especially that by Grisebach took the form of extensive demolition, (1930), whose results he felt merited structural decay and limited urban preservation evaluation by geographers (Huttenlocher, measures (including partial reconstructions) in 1963, p. 174). old towns and the construction of new According to Schöller (1967, p. 41), cultural peripheral urban building complexes (so-called spaces bound to territories are the basic socialist residential complexes) (Lessmeister, framework that shapes regional city formation. 2005; Pauli, 2005; Schöller, 1986). Regional characteristics are particularly evident, he believed, in cultural landscape features, especially autochthonous house Cultural-genetic city types at continental forms. Like Huttenlocher, Schöller (1967, p. and sub-continental scales 41) spoke of clearly distinct ‘provinces of dominant construction materials (Material- The so-called cultural-genetic approach has provinzen)’. In the formation of regional gained particular importance (Bähr and styles, cultural influences and diffusions from Jürgens, 2005; Heineberg, 2006a; Hofmeister, the south and west of Europe were particularly 1980, 1996). This can be exemplified by important. He distinguished seven city regions studies in Latin America. and/or city groups. Franconian and south-west An exceptional urban geographical German cities are examples of regional types publication about a single cultural continent is (Schöller, 1967, pp. 42-56). Popp (2005) the book by Wilhelmy (1952) about South provides a cartographic representation of the America. He gives special consideration to the distribution of ‘German city provinces’, origins and standardization of Spanish and following Schöller (1967). Ehlers (1997, p. Portuguese colonial towns. Wilhelmy and 27) notes that the regionalism of an indigenous Borsdorf (1984, 1985) and Bähr and Mertins folk culture shows particularly in building (1995) give particular attention to Latin materials, specific house forms and American urban morphological structures architectural patterns. during the colonial period, as well as to more The approach of recognizing regional city recent changes to the Stadtbild. By means of types within a historico-genetic framework a case study of Montevideo, Mertins (1987) was pursued by Sabelberg (1984b) in his book explores urban growth phases with special about regional city types in Italy. He explored reference to social housing. Gans (1987) has building types in two regions (Tuscany and complemented the contribution of Mertins in Sicily) that had different territorial, economic his research on the old town of Montevideo, and social histories (see also Sabelberg, studying inter alia urban-structural changes, 1984a). building use and urban conservation. In the The importance of territorial cultural spaces tradition of the urban morphological approach, in the explanation of regional urban the work of Gormsen is pre-eminent. He has morphological structures is evident in the devoted attention to problems of renewal, German Democratic Republic. Here the conservation and preservation of historical former socialist town planning and the socialist monuments of colonial town centres in Latin land order (Bodenordnung), the economic America (Gormsen, 1990, 1994, 1996; system of socialism and the political system Gormsen and Haufe, 1992). Referring to (the formerly ruling socialist party) caused Wilhelmy and Borsdorf (1985), Gormsen and changes to traditional townscapes. These Haufe (1992) and others, Heineberg (1994) reflected the power of the state and the new has interpreted historical town maps from the socialist order, particularly in larger city nineteenth century and photographic materials 12 German geographical urban morphology of the former Spanish colonial towns of Lima, and the effects of urban renewal attempts in Bogotá and Montevideo. the twentieth century. Other studies of the In recent decades the enormous areal morphogenetic development of the British city growth of illegal hut quarters has been the in the German language include those by subject of attention, particularly in the major Conzen (1978) and Heineberg (1997). The cities (Bähr and Mertins, 2000; Kross, 1992, p. objective of the investigation of inner- 4). In Lima, Kross produced a classification of city/central areas (Innenstädte) in Belgium by barriadas, according to their foundation, age, Krings (1984) was to record by means of size, location and layout. Features character- selected examples, including Brussels and istic of the development of barriadas were Antwerp, the development of urban form established from maps and photographs. Bähr (Stadtgestalt) in relation to the role in urban and Mertins (1988) provide comparative change and conservation of persistent elements material for Greater Recife on changes to and structures of past development phases. It ‘simple-house’ settlements (Einfachhaus- is one of the important geographical urban Siedlungen). morphological investigations. Typical features of urban forms have also Lafrenz (1984, 1989, 1999a,b) examined been taken into consideration in research using the changing attitude towards typical local a cultural-genetic approach, and models of city building traditions in several publications, structures and development have been particularly in relation to the old town of produced. For example, Bähr, Borsdorf and Lübeck. In his examination of traditional Janoschka have developed a new model of the urban form during the industrial age, he structure and development of the Latin recognized two cycles. These he related to a American city in which not only the right- historical theory of perception and behaviour angled layout of the colonial city centre is (Lafrenz, 1999b, pp. 347-8). In two more featured but also the structural fragmentation recent studies Lafrenz (2001a,b) applied his of cities, much increased in recent times concept of a cycle theory to Hamburg and (Borsdorf et al., 2002). Barrios cerrados Chicago. Comparisons can be made with (gated communities or condominios) are Whitehand’s (1988) perspective on cycles. examined by Meyer and Bähr (2001) and the structure of mega-projects in the areas surrounding Latin American metropolises are Destruction and reconstruction considered by Borsdorf and Hidalgo (2005). Cultural-genetic studies are by no means In European history there has been a great deal restricted to Latin America. There are, for of urban destruction as a consequence of wars example, the notable two-volume work by and disastrous fires. Considerable analysis has Wirth (2001) on the oriental city and Bähr’s been undertaken of the layouts and built-up (2005) study of the ‘informalization’ structures of towns before and after such (Informalisierung) of cities in Sub-Saharan destruction. There have also been visions Africa, with reference to informal settlements (Leitbilder) and planning measures for within fragmented cities. There are also reconstruction. Most urban areas in Westfalia textbooks on urban structural development in were partially or completely destroyed by fires Kulturerdteilen by Hofmeister (1996), Bähr between the seventeenth and the nineteenth and Jürgens (2005) and Heineberg (2006a). centuries (Spohn, 1990; Weber, 2003, p. 175). Authoritarian administrations imposed reconstruction plans for ‘drawing-board Urban change and conservation towns’ with strikingly regular layouts. Sometimes major conflicts between citizens Leister (1970) has vividly demonstrated the and authorities led to the retention of development of the built-up area of British traditional urban structures (Weber, 2003, p. industrial cities since the nineteenth century 175). Weber demonstrates the socio-spatial German geographical urban morphology 13 consequences of town-planning conflicts in the been associated with the development of the northern part of the old town of Arnsberg in diploma in geography as a significant part of south Westfalia. applied university education. A number of research projects have been Among the exemplary studies in applied undertaken by German urban geographers on urban geography is the investigation into the the destruction resulting from the Second renewal of the old town of Lübeck by Lafrenz World War and the subsequent reconstruction (1977), in which the historical development of of German cities and towns. Mulzer (1972) townscape elements and the conflicts of aims studied the reconstruction of the devastated old regarding renewal of the old town were central town of Nuremberg, particularly with respect themes (see also Lafrenz, 1999a). The study to the maintenance of monuments. Tiborski by Berger and Debold-Kritter (1989) – an (1987) made a comprehensive study of the urban planner and an art historian – of the reconstruction of the old town of Solingen local image of Augsburg contains a against the background of its development comprehensive inventory for the townscape. before the Second World War, including the An anthology on the renovation of the old building programme of the national-socialist town of Augsburg, including perception and period. Of importance also are the review by evaluation of the townscape was produced by Bode (2002), which considers the cities of Schaffer and Thieme (1989). In recent Hanover and Leipzig, the geographical decades urban redevelopment and the investigations by Hohn (1990, 1991) on the preservation of historical monuments have damage to German cities in the Second World affected not only the old towns and inner-city War, the publication by Hewitt et al. (1993) areas of great cities but – particularly since the and the anthology on various aspects of war mid-1970s – also smaller towns (Henkel, damage and reconstruction planning in 1993). Germany edited by Nipper and Nutz (1993). Publications by town planners and architectural historians, such as those by Prospects for urban morphology in the Beyme (1987) and Durth and Gutschow German-speaking world (1993), show that reconstruction was an interdisciplinary concern after the Second Within the framework of geographical urban World War in both parts of Germany. morphology a number of applied and theoretical topics merit particular attention in the future. These include aspects that on the Townscape investigations as a basis for whole relate more especially to planning – planning notably the reuse of derelict land, the revitalization of harbour areas, inter- Since the 1970s a number of geographical disciplinary approaches to redevelopment, investigations for planning purposes have been holistic perspectives on the built environment, published in which urban morphological transformation and reconstruction in eastern aspects have come to fruition. One reason for Germany and urban shrinkage – but also this was the new legal basis for urban fundamental aspects of the field of urban redevelopment created by the Town Planning morphology, such as greater participation in Promotion Law (Städtebauförderungsgesetz) the international community of urban of 1971 in western Germany. Another was the morphologists, a renewed impetus to the stronger orientation of urban planning towards revitalization of theory, and more renovation within the framework of urban contributions on ecological aspects of urban conservation and monument protection. Since forms. the 1970s, and particularly the 1980s, the First, the so-called reactivation of derelict practical orientation of urban geography has land is an important urban-structural topic become of increasing importance. This has (Wiegandt, 1997, p. 622) – in western 14 German geographical urban morphology

Germany since the 1970s and in east Germany planners. An important current topic to be since the political union at the beginning of the dealt with, particularly in inter-disciplinary co- 1990s. It includes urban reconstruction in operation, is the culture of construction areas formerly used for trade, industry and (Baukultur) (Wiegandt, 2003). This entails on mining, and in recent times areas formerly the one hand the production of entire built used for traffic and military purposes. Up to environments and on the other the use and now this subject has received a good deal of perception of these environments (Wiegandt, attention in a number of applied disciplines. 2003, p. 202). Also germane is the interaction However, faced with the incorporation of old of aesthetics, usability and sustainability building fabric and the need for compatible (Wiegandt, 2003, p. 204). Up to now there new construction, the reactivation of derelict have been numerous participants in the land is also of special urban morphological ‘initiative of architecture and constructional relevance. culture’ started by the German Federal Secondly, revitalization measures for Government in the year 2000, involving unused harbour areas and their importance for different project and guidance groups (for the urban forms has attracted interdisciplinary different initiatives of the Federal Government interest. Examples are the work of Priebs see BBR, 2002; BMVBW, 2001, 2005). (1997) and the interdisciplinary anthology of Relevant to this are more recent activities Schubert (2001), which includes the work of regarding the urban constructional culture at geographers (Priebs on the transformation and Land level and the current debate about re-integration of the waterfront in Copenhagen ‘regional building’ (regionales Bauen) from and Hohn on urban expansion and the viewpoint of architecture and town reconstruction on the waterfront of Tokyo). planning (Lampugnani, 2000). With respect to Further urban morphological studies are applied urban morphology, of interest are the necessary, including on waterfront ‘actors’ (investors, builders, inhabitants, etc.) developments along rivers. in individual cities, and the differences Thirdly, urban redevelopment and renewal between cities (Wiegandt, 2003, p.207). Of have been the subjects of urban morphological relevance here is the discussion paper prepared research at least since the 1970s (see Hohn and by Kanzig and Wiegandt (2006) on the Hohn, 2002). New aspects and needs have position of architecture within geographical emerged since the 1980s, including improve- thinking and research. This deals also with ments to the environments of residential areas behavioural, post-modern, urban-atmospheric through traffic calming and the ‘greening’ of and ‘action-setting’ approaches to the built environments (see, for example, Büchner, environment (see also Basten (2005) and 1995). There are also the wider issues of so- Wood (2003) concerning post-modern called sustainable urban development urbanism). (Bergmann and Wiegandt, 1996), which has Fifthly, investigations of changes to urban received great prominence since the 1990s forms offer a new opportunity for cultural- and, not least, post-modern types of urban geographical urban morphology within the development (Wood, 2003). The last of these framework of the transformation and urban is closely related to the process of reconstruction processes in eastern Germany, gentrification, manifested in the structural, as well as in the east European so-called functional, social and symbolic enhancing of ‘transformation’ countries (see Fassmann and urban districts (Friedrich, 2000; Krajewski, Matznetter, 2005). These processes have 2006). There is an evident role for urban already been the subject of interdisciplinary morphology here with connections to the new investigations. For example, Born et al. cultural geography in Germany. (1998) examine, taking the case of the Fourthly, applied research on urban forms medium-sized town of Gotha, the has been undertaken by geographers often in consequences for urban development of the co-operation with architects and urban complex property transfers in the new federal German geographical urban morphology 15 states. The excursion guide edited by work of the geographer Meynen (1979) in Friedrich and Frühauf (2002) about the city of Cologne. Halle and its surrounding area provides insights into urban morphological changes pertinent to a wider interested public: topics Conclusion covered range from development within the medieval layout to recent processes at the Urban morphology has, within the past three- urban periphery, including suburbanization quarters of a century, moved to a less central and the reconstruction of former socialist position within German geography. residential complexes. Nevertheless, as this review indicates, the Sixthly, urban shrinkage is an issue in the body of urban morphological research output eastern part of Germany, and increasingly in has in recent decades continued to be sizeable. western Germany. This is an important field As in the past, the spectrum of topics covered for applied urban morphology, particularly and research methods employed is broad. In within an interdisciplinary framework this review it has been possible to provide no (compare BMVBW and BBR, 2003: more than an outline of past, present and Heineberg, 2004, 2005; Killisch and Siedhoff, possible future research. But the pertinence of 2005). urban morphology to a range of contemporary Seventhly, it is important that urban issues is clear and the scope for future morphologists should build even further on the contributions, particularly of an inter- long German tradition, particularly in relation disciplinary and international character, is to the cultural-genetic approach, of researching undoubted. The need and scope for the in foreign countries. In this respect there need contribution of urban morphology to urban to be more studies of urban form to reconstruction within Europe alone is striking, complement functional and socio-spatial but there is a need to build on the traditional studies (see, for example, the approaches in strength of German research in other Frantz, 2001). continents, where problems of phenomenal Eighthly, a wider, up to now neglected, urban expansion vie with those of internal aspect is urban morphological theory. German transformation. As urban morphology moves urban morphological research has been further into an era of internationality and primarily empirical and, since the 1970s, also interdisciplinarity, it is to be hoped that the applied. There are few strongly theoretical indispensable geographical skills honed in works. This is in contrast, for example, to the classical cultural geography in general, and work of the British urban morphologist classical urban morphology in particular, will Whitehand (1987) who propounds a theory of continue to be built upon as successfully in the the townscape and its spatial changes: a theory present century as they were in the last. that connects land values, ‘long waves’ in the economy and the adoption of innovations. Last, but not least, there are the ecological Acknowledgements aspects of urban form. The geographical PhD thesis by Chilla (2004) on natural elements in I thank my colleague C.-C. Wiegandt (Bonn) for the townscape demonstrates how successful valuable ideas and J.W.R. Whitehand for theory-led investigations can be, and how the ‘polishing’ my English. I am also grateful to P. theme of ‘nature and town’ is of special Gans, A. Priebs and R. Wehrhahn for agreeing to interest for urban morphologists. There is a the publication of this article, which draws substantially on an article that first appeared in need to build on the older approach to German under their editorship (Heineberg, 2006b). historical ‘green development planning’ (Grünraumplanung) as exemplified by the 16 German geographical urban morphology

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