DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 075 537 UD 013 500 AUTHOR Gall, Peter TITLE Desegregation: HoW Schools awe Meeting Historic Challenge. Current Trends in School Policies and Programs Series,, Number 3. IiSTITUTION National School Public Relations Association, Arlington, Va. PUB DATE 73 NOTE 97p. AVAILABLE FROMNational School Public Relations Association, 1801 N. Moore Street, Arlington, Va. 22209 (Stock' No. 411-12854, Single copy $6.00)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC Mot Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Administrator Attitudes; *Administrator Role; Boards of Education; *Community Role; *Educational Administration; Integration Effects; *Integration Methods; Integration Studies; Local Issues; Political Issues; School Community Relationship; *School Integration; School Superintendents; Student Transportation IDENTIFIERS League of Women Voters ABSTRACT This report is organized in eight parts, as follows. The first part is an "overview" discussing such topics as the lack of commitment to the disadvantaged, making desegregation work, opposition to busing, and public opinion. There follow six chapters: Chapter 1, "Where Educators Stand," discusses the way professional and lay educators have swung behind desegregation as .others have attacked, abandoned, or belittled it. Chapter two, "Ten Rules: How to Begin," provides some guidelines for the majority of school administrators, board members, and teachers who wish to try to make desegregation work with regard to forming alliances supporting desegregation. Chapter three, "Womanpower at Work: The League of Women Voters," describes how to utilize this group in the promotion of school desegregation. Chapter four, "Implementing Desegregation," traces the pattern which emerges from the experience of United States Office of Education and the experiences of some desegregating or desegregated school districts. Chapter five, "Getting Help from Outside," discusses the funding and location of consultants. Chapter six, "Whither Desegregation in the '70s? A Local Burden," discusses the need for individual superintendents and boards to demonstrate leadership on the race/schools issue. An "appendix" includes a glossary and various materials useful for the administrator of a desegregating school district. (Author/JM) U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU CATION POSITION OR POLICY

FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY DESEGREGATION How schoolsgemeeting historic challenge

CURRENT TRENDS in School Policies & Programs

A Publication of the NSPRA National School Public Relations Association Copyright 1973 National School Public Relations Association 1801 N. Moore Street Arlington, Virginia 22209

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 73-80156

Single copy, $6. Stock No. 411-12854. All orders under $8 must be accompanied by payment. AU orders over $8 must be accompanied by payment unless submitted on an authorized purchase order from a schooldistrict, organization or institution. Billed orders will include shipping and handling charges. Address communications and make checks payable to National School Public Relations Association, 1801 N. Moot:: Street, Arlington, Virginia 22209. Table of Contents

DESEGREGATION

CURRENT TRENDS in School Policies & Programs

Overview

Chapter 1.Where Educators Stand 9

Chapter 2,Ten Rules: How To Begin 16

Chapter 3.Womanpower at Work: The League of Women Voters 35

Chapter4. Implementing Desegregation 40

Chapter 5.Getting Help from Outside 73

Chapter 6.Whither Desegregation in the '70s? A Local Burden 74

Appendix

The A to Z of School Desegregation 78

ESAA Guidelines: The Roadmap to Integration Aid 79

Title IV, Civil Rights Actof 1964:Desegregation Planning and Implementation 90

USOE Regional Offices 91

State Departments of Education, Equal Educational Opportunity Programs 92

Title IV University School Desegregation Centers 94

Organizations with Information on Desegregation 95

Bibliography 96 This Is a Current Trends Report.

Desegregation: flow Schools Are Meeting Historic Challenge is the third ina series of reports on Current Trends in School Policies and Practices. The aim of the Current Trends series is to provide know-how, coping skills and understanding to school administrators, school-community relations directors, board members and other school staff as they face the demands of their jobs. We owe thanks to many, many people who helped us gather information, obtain documents, identify concerns and interpret mountains of raw material. In addition to the Current Trends reports, the National School Public Relations Association also publishes Education U.S.A. Special Reports, which probe in depth a single current area of education. Desegregation, How Schools Are Meeting Historic Challenge was written by Peter Gall. It was developed by the Education U.S.A. Special Reports staff: Shirley Boes, Managing Editor; Walda Roseman, Editorial Research Associate; Roy K. Wilson, Editorial Director. Production: Cynthia Menand, Manager; Doris Jones, Joan Lenz, Alice Mansfield, Joyce Pullen and Yvonne Souliere. Overview

Education is political in essence and it always has been. Desegregation is essentialli a political question and it will be decided on a political basis.

Bernard C. Watson Chairman, Urban Education Dept_ Temple U.

Bernard Watson only articulates what others have gation. And many state legislatures are softening been saying in many ways. School administrators earlier desegregation laws. have always had to be politicians to implement Add to this all of the publicity being given to educational policy, and the more controversial the the anti-busing forces which cannot help but policy the more politically astute the administrator have an effect on the climate in individual school had to be. For the most part, that meant local districts. Meanwhile, such desegregation advocates politics,oftenwith conflicting pressures from as the Select Committee on Equal Educational parents, school board, students and teachers. Local Opportunity of the U.S. Senate (The Mondale politicians often make hay at school system ex- Committee) go largelyignored. The committee pense, too. concluded in its report i,sued Dec. 31, 1972, that Now school desegregation, in the emotionally the busing debate has "tragically blinded many to charged guise of the "busing" issue, has brought the legitimate concerns of parents from all racial national politics to the superintendent's doorstep. and economic backgrounds." More than school prayer, more than the old fights over "progressive education" or sex education in the schools, the latest furor over desegregation Yeas and Nays on Desegregation catches the school superintendent and his board Complicating the issue for public and school squarely in the middle of conflicting pressures. officials alike are recent challenges to the premise That does not mean that superintendents or of desegregation. A number of highly respected many parents or civil rights groups do not see the sociologists, some of whom had backed desegrega- issue asit was originally framed one of equal tion in the 1960s, began in 1971 and 1972 to educationalopportunity under law.Certainly, question its value. One of the first was Harvard U.'s many if not most of the nation's top educators and Nathal Glazer, co-author with Daniel P. Moynihan a preponderant number of U.S.. courts from the of Beyond the Melting Pot. Glazer, speaking before Supreme Court on down view desegregation as the a San Francisco audience in November 1971, means to protect minority children's rights to complained about the busing of Chinese, black and equalprotection under the law, as the14th white students in that city: "The government has Amendment to the Constitution dictates. This, in no right to break up a group." In a later article in turn, means overcoming state-enforced or state- Commentary magazine (March1972), he said sanctioned school discrimination by reassigning "much integration through transportation has been children where deemed necessary to reduce racial so disappointing in terms of raising achievement isolation and educational deprivation. that it may well lead to reevaluation of the earlier But it is on the political level that the national research whose somewhat tenuous results raised debate rests. Bills have been introduced in Congress what began to look like false hopes... ." to curb drastically the use of buses in desegregation Glazer cast heavy doubts on the findings of the plans, with the ultimate threat a Constitutional 1966 report, Equality of Educational Opportunity amendment to outlaw busing altogether.Pres. (the "Coleman Report"). Coleman's basic conclu- Nixon said both before and after his reelection that sion was that socioeconomic and racial integration he was against busing, and would not permit the together offeredthe best hope for raising the federal government to promote busing for desegre- education level of minorities.

5 In the Summer 1972 issue of Pub Interest education_ the existence or absence of mod- magazine, the other shoe fell_ David Armor, a ern up-to-date facilities and instructional ma- sociologist at Harvard U. and an avowed integra- terials.thepresenceor absenceof well tionist, declared that 'Indeed. review of past inte- trained, qualified. sensitive teachers and staff. gration research showed that the education levels the socioeconomic mix of the students in and attitudes of black students worsened or at least classrooms. and all the other attributes of a got no better in integrated classrooms. Armor's school andtheactivitiesthattake place conclusions were attacked by his former professor. withinitalso account for the success or Harvard U. Prof. Thomas Pettigrew, as "distorted failure of individual students and of g.,;ups of and incomplete." But it was Armor's view, not students in the schools and classrooms of this Pettigrew's. which received national attention and nation_ further fueled the busing controversy. Finally, still another Harvardprofessor,this time educator Mondale is even to grant many points of Christopher Jencks,favoredintegrationinhis view on how best to achieve educational equality. book, Inequality,but documenteditslimited but senses a deeper problem: effect on the achievement of black children. He also said educational institutions bear too much of What is important and in my opinion, what the burden intrying to overcome inequities in is missing is a deep and strong national American life. commitment to justice for disadvantaged chil- What ultimate effect the sociologists' negativeor dren. Erickson oncesaid, The most neutral conclusions might have on the courts and deadly of all possible sins is the mutilation of on educators themselves remains to be seen, of a child's spirit.. ..' We are mutilating the course, Some top educators have begun to rally spirits of millions of American children every colleague: against the Armor, Glazer and Jencks day, and it is surely a sin. findings. "I do not believe that the work being done by 'Making It Work' these analysts of subtle cause and effect relat;on- shipsin Americansocietyshouldbeac- Despite the struggles, many school administra- cepted.. . as the major determinant for decisions tors believe in desegregation and have adopted a on either school integration or educational" ex- policy of "making it work." They believe on the peaditures," says Harold Howe II, a Ford Founda- basis of experience, on the basis of research, and tion vice president who served as U.S. commis- frequently just because they speculate that separa- sioner of education in the turbulent mid-1960s. tion of races in schools leads to separate societies. The merit of such work lies in its future promise For instance, Supt. John H. Lawson of suburban for solving tough social problems, he said. "Butas Shaker Heights, Ohio, wrote in the September- far as school integration is concerned, it should not October 1971 issue of Integrated Education: supersede the moral and legal basis on which we have determined that segregated education denies If one agrees that cross- cultural experiences equal protection of the laws," Howe said. must be provided for all children who are to participatefullyinthedailyrealities of pluralism, then he must support integrated Mondale Cites Lack of education in the 1970s. Inversely, he must Commitment. to Disadvantaged conclude that segregated schools deny the American promise that everyone black, Similarly, the members of Sen. Walter Mondale's white, Oriental, Indian, Spanish American committee even those Republican members who shall have a chance to achieve his full poten- dissented from some portions of the majority's tial. Thus, in segregated schools everybody conclusions say that while the family back- loseswhileintheintegratededucational ground and home environment of a student deter- setting, everyone wins. mine "in large measure" whether he succeeds in life, "we are convinced that schools also makea Increasingly, organized educators are siding with difference."*The report states: men like Lawson and Thomas Shaheen, former San Francisco superintendent, and with the courts. We believethat money wiselyspent on Even the skeptical Prof, Watson of Temple U. 6 expressed surprise in a June 1972 interview at the opposition "sterns more from busing orders that strength of the stands taken by the National are anticipated than from those that have taken Education Assn_ and other educators before con- effect." The Harris poll would support that, since gressional committees. "I am not optimistic gen- fully 83% of those parents with children being erally, but that is a hopeful sign." he said. bused to school said they were "satisfied" with What keeps many superintendents going are their children's bus trip, compared with a l5% continuing reports of scholastic progress out of "dissatisfied" count. desegregating school districts. The Berkeley, Calif., What causes such a turn-around in public atti- United School District, for example, is frequently tudes? Admittedly, they do not change by them- cited as a "success" story in desegregation, al- selves. Acts alone, such as local court decisions, though the district admits it ha's problems, too. In rarelychangetheviewsof an entirenation. fact, well after sociologist A. mor's findings were Educators have not been acting to alter public made public, the Berkeley district issued a report stands on desegregation,except as they have which showed: "for allfour subgroups (black, recently run counter to the trend. Political leaders. white, Asian and Chicano) the median (reading) on the other hand, appear to have accelerated scores made in 1972 were equal to or better than antagonism toward desegregation. the 1971 scores in at least four out of the six elementary grades." Over the six-year pull since integrationbeganinBerkeley,"theconclu- Public Opinion Shift: sion ... is that there has been an overall, consistent Due to Publics? improvement in the reading achievement level of elementary school children in Berkeley," the re- One dramatic indication of how desegregation port says. has been rendered almost not at all an educational issue and almost completely a political issue is occurring in Michigan. There, the courts on one Many Say 'No Busing' hand and thepoliticians on the other caught superintendents in Detroit and its suburbs in a On the other hand, many integrationists are pincer movement. Judge Stephen Roth of the U.S. pessimistic due to the shift in public attitudes on District Court in Detroit ordered school officials to busing, just between 1971 and 1972. The Louis come up with a cross-district desegregation plan Harris poll reported on April 10, 1972, that 69% of involving as many as 53 educational jurisdictions. 1,600 households polled were "not willing" to He was then backed by the Circuit Court. He have their children bused for court ordered deseg- said official acts of the state had led to illegal regation, compared with only 25% who were segregation; busing was to be the remedy. Shortly willing. The balance had gone the other way in afterward, Sen. Robert Griffin, R-Mich., intro- 1971, with 47% willing, and 41% unwilling. The duced a Constitutional amendment to ban busing. New York Times reported in May 1972 that angry Although Griffin had been moderate to liberal on

Nix Cites 'Northern Hypocrisy'

Georgia State Supt. Jack Nix echoes the "Northern hypocrisy" theme ofmany Congressional delegates from the South. "For years, the rest of the United States has helditself above the South while itcitizens wrestled with the problem of eliminating the dual school system," Nix stated in a Georgia Alert column. "But suddenly, with the equal application of court-set formulas to bring about integration by busing, it has become a national problem." "The solution to the problems of the ghettoes in cities like Los Angeles and Atlanta is not to bus children into an artificial environment," Nix said. "Whatwe need is a constitutional amendment that will result in students being assigned to the school nearest their residence," he added.

7 the race issue, his switch was not as startling as that schools is going to change the minds jt people of Rep. James O'Hara, D-Mich_ O'Hara had led who are standing in front of the buses. I think floor fights on desegregation for years. And, for we're whistling Dixie." several years, he was the chief strategist against Rep. Jamie Whitten. D-Miss.. as Whitten tried to nullify desegregation law. O'Hara did a complete * Teacher:, administrators, chief state school about-face in 1972 when he joined Griffin and all officers are shedding some of their traditional but two of the 18-man Michigan congressional ambivalence on the subject, informed observ- delegation in support of an antibusing amendment ers note, and are issuing association mani- to the Constitution. festos not only backing desegregated educa- What are 53 Detroit area school superintendents tion but, in most cases, endorsing busing as to do? More importantly, what can they do, and one means of achieving that end. how strongly can they assert their own views? Whatistheirroleinthepolitically charged Alternative "remedies" for the disadvantaged atmosphere? The questions can be asked in thou- in American societyopen housing, minority sands of school districts. And, they will be. hiring programs and minority business devel- opment, guaranteed annual income, among others are being pushed no more vigorously ,:1(1(iing to the Confusion. r.or are they yielding more results than they were when first announced. These unfulfilled The current hysteria over busiiis compounded "remedies," then, seem to leave to tip. schools by several ironical occurrences: the primary burden of redressing imbalances, much to the chagrin of many sociologists and The South, with some hgld-fought desegre- educators, among others. gation battles behind it, is being held up as an example of how desegregation can work, how the work of educating can be advanced in an The 'Alan in the Middle' .Aut integrated setting. Lessons can be learned from those who have Many studies indicate that a large dose of been through the difficult process of desegregation. money alone does not overcome the educa- And it seems important for the superintendent or tional handicaps of disadvantaged minority board that wants or is under legal compulsion children. More case histories are surfacing to to desegregate schools, to place the immediate support the value of desegregation to the crisis over desegregation into the larger contexts of minority child and the white child as well. time and geography. However, Prof. Watson of Temple U. said at The assumption is that the man in the middle the 1972 convention of the American Assn. must ultimately act, and that he should have access of School Administrators (AASA): "If we to any and all information that may help him make think that research findings which indicate an and live with some difficult decisions. It is in this increaseinlearning through desegregated spirit that this report is written.

8 Chapter 1 Where Educators Stand

One of the least reported aspects of the great gerrymandering. "All school districts should use busing fightsisthe way professional and lay these and other methas to the extent necessary to educators especially educational organizations provide meaningful, integrated education." Then, have swung behind desegregation as others have whilepraising Congress and the President for attacked, abandoned or belittled it. In some cases, fundingdesegregationthroughthe Emergency the increased support for desegregation, and busing SchoolAssistance Act (ESAA), the resolution as a means of achieving it, are unusual simply urged that "number one priority" be given to because they rui, so counter to national political coveringthecost of busing withthat ESAA pressures. money. Thus, both board members and thew superin- tendents ran against the sentiment of Congress and NSI1A the Adwinistration by recognizing a need for integration and by asking that the federal govern- Thus, the National School Boards Assn. (NSBA), ment aid in busing efforts required by law. composed of the school board members who are elected to office on the strength of their policy decisions, made a majority decision in April 1972 CCSSO to ask local and state officials to take "affirmative action" toward a "quality integrated educational Most surprising of all to some educators was the experience." NSBA added that "where transporta- strong stand for desegregation taken by the Coun- tion of childrenisone of those methods (to cil of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). Mum integrate), all races should be treated equally." or barely commital in the past, the association NSBA also said flatly that the federalgovern- stated in 1972 that, "Although transportation of ment should give financial support to court-or- students as a method of achieving desegregation dered desegregation, including funds for busing. has become a highly controversial issue throughout the nation, the members...believe it is a viable means of achieving educational opportunity and should be supported." And without singling out Pres. Nixon, CCSSO added that "state and fed- Were board members stimulated by the action of erallegislative and executive efforts to impede their administrative officers? The American Assn. or prohibit school desegregatbn are increasing. The of School Administrators two months earlier stated councilbelievesthatstateeducationagencies in its resolution: "We believe integrated schools to should continue to resist all efforts to prohibit be the best preparation for participation in Ameri- iiiiplementation of school desegregation." ca's multi-ethnic society.... Superintendents have an affirmative responsibility to provide the leader- ship, not %Ally to desegregate schools but also to NEA integrate teaching staffs, curriculum and activi- ties." If nothing else, then, desegregation is providinga As for the means of desegregation, AASA noted common ground on which most administrator and that bus transportation is one means, along with teacher organizations can agsee. In the summer of paired schools, magnet schools, special schools and 1971, the Representative Assembly of the National 9 Education Assn. (NEA) said "it is imperative that desegregation of the nation's schools be effected. Policies... must be strengthened and must comply In the state of Michigan. the board of directors with judicialdecisions and withcivil rights of the Michigan Education Assn. t.MEA1 endorsed a legislation." Since that time, NEA has gone to statement by its Human Relations Commission in court on the side of the controversial plan to November 1971 designed to head off the abandon- consolidatediecityof Richmond, Va., with ment of school desegregation in favor of "alterna- suburban Henrico and Chesterfield Counties and tives." desegregate them together. The NEA also inter- The statement is not long. but it is direct: vened on behalf of minority children in a Denver desegregation case before the U.S. Supreme Court. We, the Human Relations Commission of the MEA, affirmthe guarantees of the U.S. Constitution as interpreted by court rulings insuring equal educational opportunity for all our children, including busing as one possible method of achieving quality education. And The American Federation of Teachers, AFL- we support the effective implementation of CIO, made their strongest statement about busing open housing andfairemployment laws in March 1972. At that time, AFT Pres. David which will insure an integrated community. Seldentestifiedagainst antibusing amendments before the U.S. House of Representatives Commit- Not all Michigan school superintendents, school tee on the Judiciary. Selden said "all other things board members and teachers agree with their being equal, integration is an educational plus as organization's stand. well as a legal and moral necessity." Michigan not only has a big busing imbroglio Busing, too, was seen as a need. "It is quite coming up in the Detroit metro case, but has apparent that this nation cannot long survive if half already gone through the trauma of community the population has to be bused to where the other fights,bus demolition and the creation of a half lives in order to observe as an exhibit what a national antibusing organization in Pontiac, the decent American standard of living is supposed to National Action Group (NAG), All grew out of a be. But until we have taken steps to establish a federal judge's decision that Pontiac had discrimi- truly integrated society, stop-gap measures such as nated by official acts and must desegregate with busing are an absolute necessity," Selden said. busing. Now there is some consensus that Pontiac has settled into orderly, if not enthusiastic, de- segregation.

AlbertShanker,presidentof AFT-affiliated A United Federation of Teachers in New York City, contended in his weekly New York Times column Finally, the PTA, the one organization where in the spring of 1972 that "the issue actually is not parents and teachers have a national institutional busing. Millions of children are now bused.... bond, reaffirmed at the May 1972 convention a What sounds like a prohibition against busing "long standing PTA conviction" that busing is [antibusing amendments before Congress]is in "one way to achieve quality educar for all factadeath blow to any plan to desegregate children." Passed by only a six -vote margin, the schools whether or not busing is involved...." resolution included as a way to quality education Similarly, the NEA-affiliated New York State "[a]search for solutions that could by rational Teachers Assn. testified against an antibusing con- means reduce racial isolation through transporta- stitutional amendment through its president, Torn tion and to develop other viable alternative meth- Hobart: "If quality, integrated education is ever to ods for providing quality education." be attained to a significant degree or even if The votewascloseand the language was racial imbalance is to be restrained to its present convoluted, but itstill had a different outcome level all possible means of achieving desegrega- than votes taken in the House or Senate if the U.S. tion, including busing, must be utilized." Corgess. 10 Pres. Nixon Takes Antibusing Stand Others Rack the President A'' back their professional associ- In Georgia, busing is a state rather than a local a' 'ring desegregation and the use matter since the U.S. Justice Dept. filed a federal direct opposition to the stand suit and won a statewide desegregation order in take. s. Nixon. In March 1972, the Presi- 1970. Thus, it is no surprise that the Georgia State dent's antibusing program called for a moratorium Board of Education and State Supt. Jack Nix feel on court-ordered busing at least until July 1973. they should speak for the educators of Georgia on Atthesametime,he favored pouring more the subject and they are definitely antibusing. In compensatory education money into low-income, a February 1972 resolution, the board's second usually segregated schools. suchresolutionagainst busing inless than six As the Washington, D.C., Star editorialized on months, members voted to urge the U.S. Congress March18,1972,in answer to the President's to "adopt appropriate legislation without further message: "Caught in the middle are school superin- delay to insure that each child attends the school tendents and school board members from districts nearest his or her residence offering the curriculum now desegregating under court order, who feel the meeting that child's needs." ground is being cut out from under them." Two months later, the Georgia board adopted a new policy which facilitated a type of "white President's Position Criticized flight."Inthiscase white flight was possible without the necessity for parents to move to a new Among those critical of the President's policy district. "It is the right of the parent or guardian to was Ralph W. Hornbeck, superintendent of the determine where hischildshallattend school Pasadena, Calif., School District until August 1972. subject only to the control of the local system He found Nixon to be "keeping the pot boiling," board of education receiving the child," reads the and to be "posing the question, 'How can we state board policy. The board stated in justification desegregate without busing?'But, Hornbeck said, of the policy that "the state board is bombarded "he did not give' us an answer." Pasadena buses each year with requests from parents to send their 12,500 of the system's 27,500 students, having children to school systems other than the one in gone through its court test back in 1969. which they live." Thus, parents could use the Pres. Nixon was also criticized in a statement by policy to avoid desegregation. Wayne Carle,superintendentin Dayton, Ohio. Dallas' experience with desegregation showed no Carle saidthe President"isa lawyer, but he benefits, said Dallas schools' Supt. Nolan Estes in demeans his profession and the presidency in using testimony before a Congressional judiciary sub- the letter of the law to kill the spirit of the law on committee in March 1972. Estes stated further that racialjustice. The President has reinvoked the he would support a constitutional amendment, an `separate but equal' doctrine. I believe that justice executive order or judicial decisions to change and integration ultimately will prevail over his "devastating" busing rulings. "We find in many regressive policy, but I feel the President should be instances that Negro children experience decreased taken at his word to provide federal funds for educational achievement, that hostility is increased inner-city schools." Carleis an example of an and that the resegregation of our city is acceler- educator caught in the middle of a community ated," Estes said. battle, who nonetheless felt compelled to speak out against the prevailing mood. In fact, some Dallas began a closed circuit television integra- factions in Dayton, a city torn by a divided board tion program while retaining over 80% of its black and implementation of a desegregation plan, began students in schools which had over 80% black to ask for Carle's resignation. composition. Meanwhile, the district is appealing a At the state level, Florida's education commis- U.S. District Court order to desegregate, which sioner, Floyd Christian, predicted an "intolerable" couldresultinconsiderable additional busing. situation would result in his state due to the Estes, who was an associate U.S. commissioner of President'spolicy. Some school districts would education at the time of the drafting of the 1964 have to keep busing and others would not, he said. CivilRightsAct,says he isnot opposed to "Many parents will not understand next year when integration. But he is opposed to busing at a time their children are still being bused," Christian said. when his district faces more of it.

11 The Ideal: An Integrated, and sought black identification, togetherness and power. If those of us who are pushing so hard for integration had `Humane' Society been sensitive enough, we would have been aware long before we were that it can be damaging to blacks both Our nationalsights needto be set on "an psychologically and economically. Early moves toward integrated societywithintegratedschools that integration went too far in the direction of asking blacks reflect humane values," Harold Howe lltold a and other minorities to join American society solely on national conference on quality integrated educa- white terms, to forget. any pride or interest in their own tionsponsored by the National Conference of heritage, or, if you will, to become white men. Christians and Jews in November 1972. Howe, vice Now we know that integration has to be a two-way president of the Ford Foundation who served as street, that it is not just a simple matter of mixing people in U.S. commissioner of education in the turbulent some judicially or administratively determined proportion, that non-whites as well as whites must help to set the terms, mid-1960s, concedes that mistakes were made and and that these terms must include as a matter of dignity much still needs to be done. He suggests, however, and rightthe opportunity for non-whites to lead and that the school is the rational place "to start the control some of the institutions in our pluralistic society. It revolutionthatisrequiredinour values and ispartlyforthis reason, for example, thatIsee the behavior in the interest of humane survival." traditionally black colleges as significant.In a country' His speech, in abridged form, follows: where blacks don't run many essential social institutions, these colleges, that are numerically less significant every Momentumhasbeenlostindesegregatingthe year in the education of blacks, have a special place in the schools....Partisanpoliticaladvantage has superseded resolution of "the American Dilemma." principle as the arbiter of racial discrimination.... Children Economically, blacks have suffered in school integration. continue to be victims of an adult society that imposes its Principals have lost their jobs, as have teachers, and blacks prejudices on the next generation. The record on these have, in general, lost out in the promotion and appointment matters is too clear to warrant debate.... processes of newly desegregated schools. This problem is What do we do now? starkly documented in a May 1972 report entitled It's Not Any response must start from a basic assumption about Over in the South. It is not surprising that facts like these what matters. 1 submit that the only, acceptable, long-term have cooled some black ardor for integration. goal for American society is a fully integrated social system It would be a mistake for me to take on the social without evidences of discrimination based on race, religion, science community in regard to the effects and usefulness sex, or national origin. Ten or fifteen years ago those who of school integration.... I'll tell you in oversimplified form believed in such a goal were in the vanguard of social what I get from reading Coleman, Mosteller and Moynihan, reform. Their views were widely accepted as the basis for and Jencks: changing public policy and for encouraging private action in reducing discrimination and enhancing therights and 1. They present no clear case for or against integration opportunities of minorif'es. But now the picture is less of the schools as an important social goal, although clear. It is less clear for four reasons: they suggest its limited usefulness as far as certain measurable outcomes of schooling are concerned. 1. Minority group persons (particularly blacks) have created their own separatist movements that threaten 2. They present a much clearer analysis of the pervasive the spirit,if not the substance, of an integrated effect of poverty on an individual's future opportu- society. nities, and they raise some serious questions about thecapacityof currentpractices inschoolsto 2. The lively researches of statistically oriented social overcome the disadvantages of poverty. These anal- scientists have cast some shadows on conventional yses of the average results of current practices should assumptions about the benefits of integration, par- not, however, be in'terv7.ted to mean that a school is ticularly in the schools. unable to improve4,1 youngster's chances in life or that education does not pay off for the individual. 3. Many people feel or believe that an integrated society somehow threatens their jobs, property of future I do not believe that the work being done by these security. analysts of subtle cause and effect relationships in Ameri- can society should be accepted by educational policy 4. Those of us who have provided leadership for the makers or by political figures as the major determinant for move toward an integrated society have not always decisions on either school integration or educational expen- been as wise as we might have. ditures. Their work ... should not supersede the moral and legal basis on which we have determined that segregated Itis not surprising that some blacks have, since the education denies equal protection of the laws. mid-sixties, rejected integration as the solution to anything I conclude that American society has no other choice for 12 the future than to make integation work in its schools. 4. Those of us who have pushed for integration have housing and other institutions. !Basically, 1 think that this is shown an extraordinary insensitivity to the concerns the choice that will produce a humane society and allow a of those groups known as "the ethnics" or sometimes humane form of public education. as"the hardhats"inAmerican society. Whether No declaration for integrated education is worth sup- justified or not, these lower middle income Ameri- porting without a recognition of the hazards and problems cans have had genuine fears that we have failed to that accompanyit.I'dliketo divide these into two appreciate and that we should not dismiss as being categories those that are external to the individual school solely racist in nature.... and those internal to it.In the first are all the familiar problems of bringing about pupil integration in a society 5. Both legal interpretations and our best guesses about that segregates its living patterns by both race and income sensible education policy lead us to the reduction of groupings. racial isolation as a desirable goal. Obviously, there are practical limits based upon the distribution of 1. The degree to which integration of the schools is so people from different races and backgrounds. The dependent upon housing patterns that it becomes schools do not have fullcontrol of the problem impractical has been exaggerated. With very minor because forces outside them dictate where people live increases in pupil transportation and with careful and work. Also, there remains the perplexing issues of re-working of school attendance lines considerably howtogiveblacks,Mexican-Americans, Puerto more school integration can be achieved in both Ricans, and others a sense that the schools belong to North and South.... them too.... The business of getting more minority group teachers and administrators into the schools 2. The Supreme Court in its April 1971 decision in the also is a priority task. Charlotte, N.C., case set forth a moderate and clear position regarding the constitutional rights of pupils Let me sum now ro what I really want to emphasize: the todesegregated education and the obligations of internal aspects of the school school districts to provide it including, if necessary, Racial and economic integration of educational institu- the use of busing within limits. tionsisa prerequisite for bringing about emphasis on humane values within these institutions humane values 3. Many of the initiatives that will be most valuable not that include kindness, compassion and benevolence toward only in bringing about integration but also in making all human beings.... To the degree that an institution says it work will be state and local decisions not rulings "no admittance" to some class of persons ... it diminishes of the Supreme Court or legi:ilation by the Congress. the chance that those it does admit will have a total sense of humanity. This is the basic argument against segregation, Current efforts at the federal level to restrict the against apartheid. It is based upon the view that physical or options of states and localities in using federal funds cultural differences among men breed fear and suspicion to assist with school integration problems as locally that are passed on from one generation to the next, but planned also deny the essence of our federal system that these can be overcome by the rational and civilized and inhibit the opportunities of children. In addition, attainments of human beings. The schools are especially this important area of local, voluntary action is important because there most of us have our earliest and significantly encouraged or discouraged by the tone most impressionable experiences with people outside our of national leadership in racial issues. own families. Racial prejudice is learned, not inherited....

Administrators: Job on the Line? What is theory to the sociologist, politician or educational philosopher comes home hard to the local school superintendent. Average job tenure in big cities for superintendents is reported to be less than two years, and racial issues frequently contribute to the departure of the chief school officer. Thomas Shaheen, until recently the superintendent in San Francisco, was dismissedafter a busingcrisis; Harvey Scribner resignedas New York City superintendent under pressure from his board after a nasty fight over the integration of schools in the Canarsie section of Brooklyn. Shaheen, at least, knew what he was in for when he arrived at San Francisco; he rented a house instead of buying as was his practice in previous locations.

13 ... There ha', nee!) much research and argument about competition to cooperation as the dominant mode and whether or not integration produces better reading scores style of the school; and the second k the alteration this or better mathematics scores or fewer dropouts among shift in values will imply in the authority structure and minority group children.I want to assert that there are human relationships within the school. vastly more significant considerations inthe intangible If we are to have a humane society anywhere in the effectsonindividualchildrenof being segregatedor world, we shall have toridourselves of much of the integrated and in addition vastly more significant considera- competitivenessthatdominates our every' action and tions in the influence of education upon the nature and decision. Greater cooperation is the only possible answer to values of the society. These were the broad grounds upon the perils that lie ahead.... So I suggest that the school is which the Supreme Court reached its views in the Brown one place to start the revolution that is required in our decision of 1954 that separation is incapable of produc- values and behavior in the interest of humane survival.... ing equality. Educational change that will emphasize humane values But the battle is far from won when a school enrolls a will have to come from the bottom up. It will have to start cross section of Americans among its stu46ts. We know with teachers and parents who get together and seek ways both to interest children and to make them more success- thatinsidethedesegregated school young peopleare experiencing discrimination. In the guidance office, in the ful. It will involve the pupils themselves in the process. It testing procedures, in assignment to programs and courses, will depend upon initiatives in the individual school or in in the application of discipline, and in countless other ways, small groups of schools in which people know each other there is clear evidence that segregation and discrimination well. Massive educational hierarchies at city, state and national levels will only get in the way unless they learn have moved inside the school probably with greeter impact inthe secondary schools thanthe elementary how to create an atmosphere that supports and frees the because of the track systems and pupil assignment practices initiatives of teachers, parents, administrators and students typical of the upper years of schooling. In recommenda- inthe schools. People within the individual school and tions like those of the Fleischman Commission in New school community should have more control than they York State for the abolition of the so-called "general typically do over the expenditure of the funds that are program"... you have evidence of current efforts to attack supposed to be improving education and over the design of programs to make schools more responsive to children. this interior discrimination, at least inits organizational aspects. The Fleischman Commission's policies should be Insetting our sights on an integrated society with applauded and supported along with others designed to integrated schools that reflect humane values, we are de- change the school from an institution that sorts out young claring an idealistic 'position. Thatis, we are trying to people by rejecting some and advancing others to an bring about conditions that a hard-headed view might call institution that gives dignity to all, rejection to none and a difficult, if not impossible, to attain.... sense of progress to each. But our history provides too many examples of success in producing constructive change in our social institutions How then to change schooling more fundamentally than to surrender to the doctrine that we should abandon our bybringingtogetherchildrenof differentraces and ideals and accept our imperfections because the task of backgrounds. The first requirement is a transition from change is too great.

14 L.; 't ti* -Tr

CURRENT TRENDS in School Policies & Programs

4'

15 Chapter 2 Ten Rules: How To Begin

For the majority of school administrators, board now-abandoned guidelines of the Dept. of Health, . members and teachers who wish to try to make Education and Welfare. They all emphasize that desegregation work in the current political climate, what must be done by law must be done regardless some bitter experience shows that they must form of community attitudes. allies around them to succeed. Following are 10 rules on how to begin, many Forming alliances supporting desegregation also illustrated by the experiences of various school requires an uncommon amount of leadership and districts and communities as they tried to meet or know-how on the part of the board and the school melt community resistance. superintendent.It means involvement, seeking help, listening to all, and, finally, commitment and Rule 1: Gain Community Support. action. These conclusions emerge from desegregation Pasadena: North or South, communities need to attempts which go back as far as 1954, and from be actively led into successful desegregation, ac- battles which are reported in the press almost cording to Ralph Hornbeck, former superintendent daily. In It's Not Over in the South, a study of 43 of Pasadena, Calif., schools. In describing before a urban, Southern school districts released in May Senate committee what he felt to be a successful 1972, the authors say Success did not seem to (court-ordered)desegregation experience, Horn- depend on either the percentage of black and white beck said, "probably our main problem has been students or whether "new transportation arrange- that of community acceptance. We l eve a tremen- ments" were required. dous number of people who are tremendously Instead, "districts in which the school, political supportive of what we are doing....We also have and community leadership made an effort to devise a strong element in the community that fears this and support an effective desegregation plan usually thing greatly, and is working very hard against us had the most successful experiences," according to and really would like to see the plan fail." He told thestudy."Where politicalleaders sought to of a recall attempt in 1970 against the majority of capitalize on the busing issue, or where the school the board of education because the board voted board resisted mandates to develop new desegrega- not to appeal a federal district court decision tion plans, the system's constituency took its cue calling for further integration. The recall failed, but and community resistance flourished. This observa- by a scant 5% or less, depending on the member tion has been made so many times during the past involved, Hornbeck said. decade of the school desegregation movement it is "Thatelection was heldinthe middle of a truism but apparently many school systems have October," said Hornbeck. "I think if it had been not yet learned from the lessons of those who held just before school started, or the first week of experienced desegregation before them." (The six school... itwouldhave beensuccessful. We civil rights groups cooperating on the study were: workedlikecrazytogetthe plan working Alabama Council on Human Relations, American smoothly enough in that first month so that people Friends Service Committee, Delta Ministry of the would begin to accept it." National Council of Churches, NAACP Legal De- Rochester, N.Y., board members and their fense and Educational Fund, Inc., Southern Re- desegregation plan did not squeak by the way gional Council and Washington Research Project.) Pasadena had. An antibusing majority took over in The need to create a positive attitude has also late 1971, even as a court suit threatened more been stressed by federal court rulings and the desegregation instead of less.

16 Prepare Ye the Way for Desegregation

What's a superintendent to do when he's laced with a federal court order !to, desegregate, white flight to the suburbs, protest, anger and concern on the part of parents, and escalating problems in school operations. Or rather, what can he do? One solution used by the Metropolitan Public Schools of Nashville and Davidson County, Tenn., centered around a detailed public relations program. E.T. Carothers. Nashville supervisor of public-relations, outlined the program for a seminar group_ sponsored by the National School Public Relations Assn. in the summer of 1972: Set up an information center with extra telephones and kept the -center opened beyond normal working hours and some weekends. Phones were manned by staff members, teachers and selected substitute teachers and parents. Utilized extensively the services of newspapers, radio and television to call attention to the fact that the problems were not school problems alone, but community problems. Held orientation, information and strategy sessions with all news media, staff and PTA representatives. Returned principals, assistant principals, and guidance counselors to their assigned schools one week earlier than the regular time of reporting. This made them available to parents, teachers and students who were affected by new zone changes. Conducted "Open House" and "See Your Schools" week prior to the opening of schools. Met with ministerial groups and requested them to assistin "readying the community" for change. Conducted neighborhood group meetings with interested parents and encouraged them to enlist others ir, support of public education. ' Conducted town hall meetings for the purpose of giving and receiving infor- mation. Worked closely with organizations such as the Metropolitan Nashville Education Assn., League of Women Voters, Chamber of COmmerce, the Inner-High Student Council. Made space, equipment, information and refreshments available to the news media during picketing at central office headquarters. "To even suggest that our extensive and oft-times elaborate communication techniques were a panacea for all of our perplexing problems is idiotic," Carothers said. The district still has many problems and will continue to have some, he added. "But Ibelieve that our school system faced fewer problems during the 1971-72 school year because we kept the community informed, we involved the citizenry in the communication process and we made a concerted effort to train our staff to react appropriately during the crisis situation occasioned by court-ordered inte- gration," Carothers concluded.

17 Earlier, a Denver, Colo., school board majority cause of state board of education restrictions at the backing a voluntary desegregation plan was de- time, actual desegregation could not begin right feated and the plan junked; that action triggered a away, but Smith immediately started to prepare court suit in the U.S. Supreme Court to determine tl commwit' sit,,o1 for iniegration. He whether citywide busing was to be enforcedin descrihe,, st..osto IL ti.S.CivilRights order to overcome ,!gregation. Ironi- Commission: cally, onof the deliberate acts cited by the judge was the rejection of earlier, voluntary desegrega- The reference in thej school Ihandbook to tion steps. biracial organization woo-eliminated. The Houston Independent School District tried another tack.It has a "progressive" or "liberal" Schools were listed m the direr nory alpha- school board which, according to the authors of betically instead of Ircs rc. as had been done the It'sNot Dyerstudy, has deliberately stopped previously. short of real desegregation in hopes of maintaining Joint meetings of whim-and Negro principals the board's liberal balance and halting "tremen- and supervisors were held: segularly instead of dous white flight" from the district. The Houston occasionally as had been dome prior to this. :plannow callsforteacher and administrator desegregation, special attention to minority stu- Such saeps, which seem "mirror by today's light, dents especially Mexican Americansand other were clearly strong signals in1954. Stronger still concessions to black and Spanish-speaking parents was Smith's rhetoric, as he lo-4,f(-T recalled and students,including culturalrecognition of Mexican Americans in curriculum and textbook I talked with individuals..arad small and large material. The study notedthat Houston was groups: principals, teachers, parents, minis, "trying to find out if quality education with justice tern, lay citizens. I said ouer and over again and opportunity can be realized even in a system that the (Supreme Court decision had (over- thrown a tong-standing: tradition, that the that is segregated along racial and ethnic lines.. the neighborhood school policy (i.e., separate decisioin was inevitable...., the decision is law but equal) does not work in Houston, it will work and there is no probability. of its reversal no nowhere.' " While the report said it "deplores"- the of the adoption of a 0311111stitutio nal amend- continued segregation, it applauded "the atmos- ment to the contrary. phere of movement and hope" which has come out Istated thatI did not think the decision of Houston's compromise between no action and incompatible with the ideals of democratic full desegregation. government and the ideals of the Judeo- Christian religion.... Itlwould not bring the millenium for the'Negro,,nror signal doomsday Rule 2: Establish Early and for the white. Positive Leadership That was about two decades ago. Smith, typical A case study of desegregation in Greensboro, for that time and in that context, also said he N.C., can help illustrate the rule: Establish Early "appealed for the observanne.(of law and order." If and Positive Leadership. The case study is drawn "law and order" has lost inicivill Tights overtones, from School Desegregation in the Carolinas, by much of what Greensboro; ,didisstill valid. In William Bagwell, a Cheyney (Pa.) State College 1956,Smith was a lonely bitarth Carolina educator teacher. against a new state law voth4ph permitted tuition Greensboro was the first public school system in gants to whites fleeing di...tregattion, and which the southeastern United States even to desegregate- let districts close schools rather than desegregate partially and did it in1957with much fanfare them. In July1957,the Ganansboro Board of and in spite of the fact that the then-governor of Education voted to permit the transfer of six North Carolina, Luther Hodges, was appealing for blacks to two previously 21114Milaite schools.. The "volumtary separation of the races." chairman said the board hadacted in "support of A lot of the credit for successful integration of the laws of the United States. as well as the of Greensboro goes to Ben L. Smith, school superin- the State of North Carolina." A Protestant minister tendent in1954. Supt.Smith demonstrated an and a Jewish rabbi immediateku e...fornmended the unusual quality Att" leadership, Bagwell says. Be- board. The Greensboro DailyAitriws, which had 18 editorially supported the superintendent inhis Greensboro indicate that the hope of a busing pre,us moves, criticized Gov, Hodges for failing moratorium (some 16,700 of 29,000 children were to ,approve the first Southern desegregation move. bused daily for an average five miles over 15 or 20 It said "local officials are entitled to support for minutes) angered some white parents who felt they what they have done in accord with their oaths of could have escaped it all, and disturbed others who office." feared accelerated white flight of the kind that led For his strong words and action, Smith paid a some 2,000 white students to leave the system price of heavy harrassment: Crosses were burned between the 1971 and 1972 school year. on hislawn, his windows were smashed, and And yet the six civil rights groups in the it 's Not threats were made on his life. Over report say that Greensboro is illustrative of Community forces were drawn into the mid- "the positivethingsthat can happen and the 1957 activity. Both newspapers were supportive. negative things that can be avoided if community The Greensboro Ministers Fellowship spoke up for leaders, black and white, take a hold of things." the city's religious leaders. Research by Bagwell The report adds that an "enlightened majority of shows that some churches had both sermons and the school board was critical." discussion groups for youth and adults on the Community acceptance of the 1911 order was topic, "How To Make the Transition a Successful "probably superior to that of almost any other city One." The school board members invited border in the South," according to the civil rights report. stateschoolsuperintendents who had already But the report gives a lion's share of credit for that desegregated in to talk about their experiences. acceptance to the City Chambeir of Commerce, Shortly before school opened, Supt. Smith told instead of the superintendent. his principals and supervisors to "withhold adverse What the chamber did could be done by any comment on the recent Brown decision." Any who group, butit was done by the "establishment" could not support the new policy "should sever with the use of politically pre-emptive techniques their connections with the city school system," much admired by the It's Not Over monitors. Smith is quoted as saying. Even before desegrega- "Soon after the court order, the Chamber's tion began, in 1955, the system had begun limiting Community Unity Division established a group the hiring of new teachers to those with "no.strong known as the Concerned Citizens for Schools. The opposition" to teaching in a desegregated class- name of the organization was carefully chosen so room. that those opposed to the desegregation order During preparations for school opening, the would be unable to organize a group and, as so American Friends Service Committee and other frequently happens, name it Concerned Parents or civil rights groups played a monitoring role as well Concerned Citizens," the report says. as one of persuasion in the community. Just b(.4ore The result, the authors add, is that Concerned school opened, the local police department, while Citizens, which ultimately received federal funding keeping privateits views on desegregation, told under a desegregation grant program, not only parents and pupils that anyone who might "be mobilized support for the desegregation plan and molested," should immediately report it for police helped in its implementation but also was able "to action. step into the leadership vacuum which is often It seems obvious that there was an atmosphere filled by vocal opponents to desegregation." in Greensboro conducive to school desegregation. The Chamber of Commerce and other organiza- And yet the firm stand of the superintendent tions financed and sponsored "several" sensitivity which led in 1958 to the first black girl graduating sessions in the spring before the court order. The from a white high school in that area of the sessions included students, teachers and parents. country was singled out by Greensboro leaders The Community Unity Division of the chamber as one of the "most import:att" factors in Greens- had alsobeen sponsoring neighborhood "bull boro's desegregation. And, it was done without sessions" in the previous year, "and this may have political backing. also been responsible for the successful implemen- What is happening in Greensboro in the 1970s? tation of the desegregation plan," the report says. It has problems, according to 1972 reports. District What is not offered in the civil rights report nor officials were summoned into court in 1971 and in Bagwell's book is a judgment on whether the given an order to approximate in each school the leadership slik,..u by Supt. Smith in 1954 helped to roughly 70-30 ratio of white to black students create the climate that won the admiration of six systemwide. That meant busing. News reports from skeptical civil rights organizations in 1972.

19 Rule 3: Do It Yoursel f public mulled both immediate and long range If You NIust plans.

WhenNeilV.Sullivanarrivedasthe new One thing Sullivan did not talk about was the superintendent. in Berkeley, Calif., in 1964, secon- new desegregation plan of 1964. "For me to have dary school desegregation had just started in the spoken out in praise thatfirst year would only city's schools. He was hired because he was a have created more friction. So against illy nature, I known desegregation activist. The job was a big was silent," he states. one, and the issues complex. Sullivan described the But in November 1965, Sullivan and his board city as "progressive, permissive, aesthetic, sophisti- recommended limited busing, of some 240 Negro cated, liberal,activist and far out...(with) its children from overcrowded ghetto schools to white conservative, reactionary and racist elements." neighborhood schools. It had been talked through As Sullivan began his four-year campaign to long beforeitwas presented for board action. completely desegregate the public schools, he did Sullivan writes of the preparation: so in an atmosphere of some bitterness over an unsuccessful recall election involving the desegrega- Nothing was being sprung on the public.... tion issue in junior high schools. Conservatives had [For] over six months, discussion had been permitted only two of 11 bond issues to pass in 36 pursued intensively by board members, school years. One of the conservative elements was the administration, teaching staff, PTA's, League Berkeley newspaper, Daily Gazette, which Sullivan of Women Voters, Chamber of Commerce, said was "vigorously" supporting the recall of the church groups. Plans were made, criticized, school board members who favored desegregation revised and studied again. Hundreds of teach- of the secondary schools. ers, including both teachers organizations, had By the time he left the city at the end of 1968, been involved.Administrators brought the he could and did boast that Berkeley was the "first plan into every speech they were asked to American city with a population of more than make. 100,000 with a large minority group enrollment to completely integrate its schools." Itwas from that base of leadership on tae Sullivan describes in his book, Now Is the Time, desegregation issue that Berkeley built from lim- how he rallied pro-integration forces by initiating ited desegregation in 1964 to full desegregation in some "new directions": 1968. Sullivan advises other school superintendents who want to make desegregation work: "Com- He personallycalled and wrote letters to mitted superintendents will have to go it aloft;... hundreds of citizens inviting them to come to It must be a do-it-yourself process." his office to discuss education. He stressed in speeches the immediate needs Rule 4: Emphasize the Positive of the Berkeley schools, the importance of integration and the need for more emphasis Ralph Hornbeck saw the need to emphasize the on reading. He criticized textbook publishers positive educational value of desegregation as he for their emphasis on middle-class, Caucasian tackled the compounded segregation problems he culture at the expense of minority children, faced as superintendent of the Pasadena, Calif., and wrote a weekly education column for the schools in 1969. Daily Gazette. Pasadena had been going through agonies over school desegregationall through the 1960s. By Bimonthly school board meetings were moved 1968, a law suit was coming to a head in federal out of the administration building into dif- district court. Although the judge's decision and ferent schools for every other meeting. order did not come until 1970, the district school board decided to take the initiative in December Complaints and ideas were put on the school 1969. It did so by adopting a policy to completely board agenda in order to stimulate discussion. integrate the school system with a plan to start with the secondary schools. A School Master Plan Committee of 135 When the court order came down in February members nominated by a cross section of the 1970, the board took the advice of its legal counsel 20 anddecidednottoappealthe judgment.It little 5: Spread (.1001 1111.rfflation: directed the staff to prepare a plan for elementary bill amiors schools to complement the secondary school plan. Even after the court order, however, Hornbeck did Squelching rumors and providing fast, accurate not take refuge in the argument that "the courts informationcanhelptokeep any attempted made us do it." In an October progress report to desegregation plan moving forward and to create a the community, he took his stand in answering the bond of trust between the !;chool administration million-dollar question: and the community which must accept the plan. say many administrators. Why integrate? Students must be freed from Successful ways to provide the needed informa- the "trap'' of educational (not just racial) tion are many and vary with local circumstances segregation. When the overwhelming majority and the amount of help the school administrator of pupils in any school are members of a can muster. He may already have a well operating racial minority and therefore saddled with the school community relations office to handle the frustrations which are unfortunately associ- task for him.If not, he must find some other ated with this role, when they are also from efficientwaytogetinformationout, before lower income homes with problems of nutri- rumors and complaints start. The following exam- tional and other deprivation, and from neigh- ples illustrate different ways some districts have borhoods in which feelings of failurean:1 handled this problem. hostility are common, when they therefore Jackson. Miss., chalked up some good marks in. enter school with an inadequate foundation 1971-72 from civil rights monitoring groups as a for learning, such a pervasive negative atmos- result of a citizen information effort, appropriately phere exists that "equal educational opportu- called the Rumor Center. The center's aim was not nity" is a myth, to urge acceptance of desegregation, for that was already mandated by the courts, but to get white Hornbeck took as gospel the results of studies parents to keep their children in the public schools, which showed the educational value of desegrega- reported the Southern Regional Council (SRC). tion, and included some preaching in his progress The council commended the Rumor Center, report: which was operated by five PTA volunteers who handled up to 40 calls in one 2-hour period. Most Research shows that the educational level of of the calls came from white parents. Assisted by a one's fellow students is a crucial factor in prepared fact sheet, the volunteers answered such reachingsatisfactory educational outcome, questions as: that when low-achieving students are placed withhigher-achievingstudentsthey make Q. "Does the federal government or the courts statisticallysignificant, sometimes startling determine what courses are or are not taught gains and that the achievement increase of the in our schools?" stronger students is not retarded but remains A."No. The local board of trustees determines constant or gains even further. what the curriculum is in our schools."

Sound ethnic balance in schools is imperative Q. "Are there other Mississippi school systems if we are to reach the goals of education in which have similar student racial characteris- our multiracial society. tics that have satisfactorily desegregated?" A. "Yes. For instance, McComb and Aberdeen." Half a year later, Hornbeck was asked by the Senate Select Committee, whether he thought Pasadena, Calif., had only from February to desegregation was an "essential element" in bring- September to prepare the way for implementation ing equal education to reality. of a 1970 court-ordered desegregation plan. Infor- "Yes, I do, and I do to the point that it is worth mation was assigned a high priority and its dissemi- the sweat, and itis a lot of sweat.... Teachers nation was coordinated by the Pasadena League of who have been in the kind of (segregated) schools Women Voters. Many community groups spon- that I have described, who have been to the point sored neighborhood discussions, public meetings of frustration, are seeing fantastic opportunities," and exchanges involving white and black parents, Hornbeck responded. reported the leagueinai 971report. League

21 members also served on a "summer task force" the result of a lack of community enlightenment. which organized and staffed 25 information booths "You can't pull it off merely by setting up a bus at shopping centers prior to the opening of school. schedule," the judge said. The league's largest undertaking was the Infor- According to a source within the district, the mation Center which 55 members operated for 22 administration responded not with educational and weeks atthe school district's offices, answering sociological data to support desegregation, or any over 3,000 inquiries. Tabulations of these calls exhortations to desegregate (because the board indicatedthatthe tonein 80% of them was majority was against further busing and had ap- positive toward or accepting of the new plan; most pealed Judge Doyle's decision), but with quotes people simply wanted to know what school their from the judge's decision :self. "We relied very children would attend and where they would catch heavily on the court order for our informational the bus. program," the spokesman said. It was tacit recogni- In a 1972 tip sheet on community involvement tion of the fact that what the court order said for successful desegregation,' the Pasadena Area could be complied with in a "letter of the law" League of Women Voters found another good use sense while the spirit of the community and for the information center: "It gave citizens a place board majority was maintained, he observed. to vent their anger and fears." Many,if not most school districts take the The league emphasized three additional reasons initiative by writing and distributing fact sheets. A why information programs are valuable: few national organizations like the U.S. Commis- siononCivilRights have published booklets Forums and community meetings with knowl- suitable for parent and community consumption edgeable speakers on integratic n are valuable. School board meetings invarious schools on the subject, but these are rare and may lack the throughoutthedistrictarehelpful, with appeal of a locally produced and locally oriented community involvement whenever possible. information program. Some districts go beyond The superintendent's participationat PTA mere fact sheets. councilmeetings can inform people who The Houston Independent School District, for communicate with schools throughout the instance, gets mixed but predominantly positive district. marks from major civil rights groups. The district accentuated in tabloid headlines both the positive Communication of the facts against misinfor- ("Equal Opportunity School Board's Goal") and mation can mean the difference between the positive-negative ("No Mass Busing. Houston success and failureof the program.Fact Plan: Neighborhood School Zones") in an 8-page sheets from the education center and PTA Sunday supplement to the March 19, 1972, news- newsletters can combat propaganda. papers, which a Houston school official estimated reached 650,000 homes. Conveying accurate information to real estate "A Report of Progress: School Desegregation, brokers and the community is particularly From Your Superintendent of Schools," was the important when white flight is thought to be banner headline to the supplement. The first page a problem. contained a byline article by Supt. George A. Garver. Among his messages: In Denver, Colo., a federal judge felt so strongly We in Houston today are firmly committed to about the worth of the factual material on desegre- following thespirit and the letter of the gation that he ordered the Denver school district to Constitution and of the law in regard to every work outa "meaningful, specific program" to aspect of our school operation. This isa educatefaculty,students and parents on the position from which we will not shrink and subject. U.S. District Court Judge William E. Doyle which we will follow with all of our efforts. said he considered the informational programs more important than busing because of the impor- He followed with a description of one of the tance of community cooperation in desegregation. results of Houston's desegregation plan: neighbor- "It is discouraging when you encounter concepts hoodschools."Children who livewithinthe that suggest color, or lack of it, give you more neighborhood boundaries of a school go to that spirit or human quality or increase your virtues," school regardless of their race, unlike the previous Judge Doyle said. He said that "blind fears" were system in which white children went to white 22 schools and black children went to black schools, It was one of the many attempts across the regardless of how far the schools might have been country to gain public support for desegregation. from their homes." At the same time, however, the school board After a statement of commitment to the future isolated itself from the articles with a line in the of Houston as a commercial and cultural center masthead material: "(The report) was published at and an avowal that "everyone has a stake in regular advertising rates by the Community Rela- Houston," the last paragraph on the front page had tions Dept. of the HoustoPublic Schools under a a bald appeal to Sunday supplement readers: "To grant from the Dept. of Health, Education and succeed we need your help, we need your under- Welfare through Title 45, Emergency School As- standing, we need your support. We ask you to sistance Program. This publication is to inform the inform yourself and to carry forward the traditions public and is not necessarily a statement of official of tolerance and progress that are making our city school board policy." great." An article on "The School Bus" in the Houston supplement pointed out that Houston was spend- RU involve minorities ing less than $5 per pupil per year on transporta- tion less than the cost when Houston schools The 1972 law providing for federal financial aid were officially segregated. The article boasted that to desegregating scl'ool districts states that public "less than 5%" of the 232,000 students in Houston participation and representation, including at least were riding buses under court-ordered desegrega- 50% from minority groups, is a must. Specifically, tion,while Jacksonville, Fla., bused 75,000 of the law mandates that HEW cannot approve a 122,000 students (62%), and Nashville, Tenn., district's applicatic a for money unless: bused 54,000 of its 80,000 students (68%). Civil rights groups had earlier noted that Hous- 1. There has been "open consultation" with ton was for desegregation only when it did not public hearings about the programs to be involve dislocation of pupils. But the city could, funded. and did, boast that the new neighborhood school concept was lessisolating than most big city 2. The program and application were drawn allocations of students: "with the participation of a committee com- posed of parents of children participating in The extreme racial isolation characteristic of a the program for which assistance is sought, segregated school system has virtually disap- teachers,and where applicable, secondary peared in Houston. In1968, for example, school students. At least half the members over 64% of all black students went to schools shall be parents, and at least half shall be where there were no Anglos. Today less than persons from minority groups." 9% of all black students are so isolated, a decrease of over 55%. Thus, Congress recognized the need to instruct school districts to do what many of the success- In comparison with other large school dis- fullydesegregating districtsdid on their own: tricts, Houston now has one of the lowest Involve the black, Chicano or Oriental communi- percentage of black students in extreme racial ties, and involve them earlyinthe formative isolation in the United States. Only 2 of the process of a plan, not merely at the point when 10 largest districts have less extreme racial community acceptance is sought for a previously isolation than Houston (the seventh largest). formulated plan of action. Some of them, like Chicago and Baltimore, Congress' positionis meant to break a long- have over five times as much. standing tradition of ignoring minority groups in school policy matters. To illustrate: even in the Other articles told how the courts made South- late 1960s, majority black school districts in the ern desegregation inevitable, how outside funding "black belt" of the South were run by all-white sources are used to their utmost, and how students school boards and desegregation was stoutly re- at individual schools were trying to overcome the sisted, as speeches of HEW civil rights officials in fact that "desegregation" at one school only meant 1968 and 1969 indicate. In the North, the Newark, putting the blacks and Mexican Americans in one N.J., school district, serving a school population building. which was 82% black, 11% Puerto Rican descent

23 and 7% white in1969. had seven white school sometimestodraft a desegregation plan inits board members but only two black and no Puerto entirety for hoard consideration. Rican board members. With the election of a black Means of involving the minority 'community mayor in1970, however, the appointive school vary from district to district. but Ile, Wash., posts changed to a ratio of three whites, five blacks School District No. 1, which began a tlir,,.-stage and one Puerto Rican. desegregation plan in September 1972, may have Some of the more integrationist-minded states developed the most democratic way by elec- are encouraging the involvement of minorities at tions. every levelin local planning. Homer C. Floyd, Alfred E. Cowles, president of the Seattle Board executivedirector of thePennsylvania Human of Education, explained in an interview how the Relations Commission, toldthe Mondale com- district involved many grass-roots community rep- mittee how that state agency operates: resentatives, among which the blacks were only one faction, but a key one. As part of the (desegregation) plan, we have "You just cannot desegregate without involving insisted that the employment aspect be dealt the minorities," 'says Cowles, a black board mem- with, that the school board commit itself and ber, "and you have to do it before you plan and itsadministrator to seeking out qualified decide and come up with a finished program." persons of minority groups to bring them into Seattle had approximately 76,000 students in the school system so that they can begin to 1971, of which only 13.6% were black and 7.8% share in the process. other minorities. Of the black population in the city, 80% lived in one ghetto area. At the board level, since board members are Seattle was dividedinto12 areas, with an elected, that is far more difficult to do. Under advisory council of 16 members in each area. The the employment aspect of our law, wecan members were elected, not selected. "The funny require the recruitment of nonwhites in em- thing is, we have such a small proportion of blacks ployment positions, but it's far more difficult that even though we are concentratedinthe to deal with at the board level because they Central Area Council territory, we are a 40%-60% are elected from the community. At every minority," Cowles observes. Still, the Central Area opportunity in working with local communi- Council included eight blacks, six whites and two ties [we] point out the fact that as opportu- Orientals a multiracial, minority-dominated ad- nities occur... mayors and city council can visory group. Because it was minority-dominated, appoint board members of the board itself and because the central area would be "heavily can appoint board members when there is an involved" in any plan, the council received special unexpired vacancy. consideration among the12similarcouncils, Cowles says. The board invited all the councils to One factor cited in the successful desegregation submit desegregation plans and then took what it of Jackson, Miss., schools in 1971-72 was that the felt to be the best elements of each. As a result, new mayor, Russell Davis, encouraged the other each district school was to have 15% to 25% black members of the city council to appoirq a woman enrollment when the plan was completely imple- and a black to the school board. The black member mented. But the Central Area Council insisted that was the first non-white to sit on the board since each desegregated school should be 25% black, Reconstruction. which would mean that some white schools would not desegregate at all, considering that the black population would not go around asfar. The How Much Involvement'? advisory council won out. "Then over the next year or so attitudes in the While an increasing number of minority mem- black community changed and the community bers are being elected and appointed to boards of control group grew stronger," says Cowles. The education,the usual form of participation by Central Area Council insisted on nothing less than blacks, Spanish-speaking, Orientals and Indians is 50-50racialcompositioninthedesegregated on "advisory comnzittees." Sometimes the minor- schools, even though that would lessen still further ity is only part of a committee, sometimes it is the the number of white schools which would partici- committee, delegated to advise on desegregation pate in the plan. The board, Cowles says, rejected from the minority community point of view, that demand. "That is unresolved and itis not 24 likelyto be resolved and itleaves some hard "There is flatly no such thing as a monolithic feelings, but sometimes you just have to make a black community," said Jesse L. Jacob. one of the decision and stick toitafter taking inall the five black board members of the Newark. N.J., views," said the black board president. Public Schools. For him, an 82% black school One of the reasons Cowles feels obliged to stick enrollment reflects a community which in theory to the original plan is because it has survived a legal should be able to exercise its will, but which took test in the Washington State Supreme Court against until 1970 to elect a black mayor. a group called Citizens Against Mandatory Busing, "When you are talking about education, you a white parents' organization. And, he feels that don't go to the political leader to find out who the the views of the black community are largely community respects on education matters," said reflected in the plan, in such matters as faculty Jacob. "You have to do your homework, and you desegregation and curriculum changes. "It is much have to do it yourself. You go into the churches more than moving bodies the way we went about and you ask who they listen to in the community it," Cowles says. about education, you go into the supermarket and ask, and if you have to, you go into the barbershop and the tavern." Jacob takes it for granted that the Involvement with Care and Awareness school board and administration will seek out minority group PTA leaders andwill go into As educators and laymen talk about involving predominantly minority schools themselves to find the minority community especially the black out who leads them in educational matters. Jacob community they stress several themes: says specifically that lie does not consider lmainu Amiri Baraka (formerly named LeRoi Jones, the Awareness of the diversity of the community. black author), a new political force in Newark, to be someone lie as a board member turns to for Awareness of the changing views of many educational leadership, because lie feels the people minorities. do not see him as one.

Care in the selection of minority "representa- Richard B. Anliot, director of the division of tives" or "leaders" as spokesmen for any education of the Pennsylvania Human Relations community. Commission, testifying before the Mondale com- mittee, described what he saw as the current Recognitionthatparticipation may mean attitude of the black community toward deseg- friction and conflict. regation:

`Plantation Picnics' Bite the Dust

An articleinaSunday supplement on desegregationin Houston, Tex., newspapers explained the old dual school system, with anecdotes like one from William Holland, a black principal of a then-black high school. He told of a request from the board of education to have the black choral group perform at an "old-fashioned plantation picnic." All the board members were going to arrive in stagecoaches pulled by six white horses. They told me they wanted the girls in our choral group to wear red bandanas around their heads and have their hair in little plaits like `pickaninnies' and slaves. I told them no, we didn't sing for anybody like that. They told me it was an honor for us to sing at the picnic and I told them I didn't care, we weren't slaves. The article continued: "Such slights became the accumulated experience of generations of black students under the dual system. Aside from the inferiority of their facilities and the lower pay of their staff, such episodes instilled the feeling that separate facilities were not equal, but inferior."

25 Up until now, I think it is accurate to say, the One-Way Desegre;tation black community was pressing for desegrega- With What Results? tion, but celebrating its achievement uncondi- tionally. Thatischanged. Now the black Mrs. Gertrude Wilks, from East Palo Alto, Calif.. communityissaying that desegregationis an integrationist in 1965, demonstrates how disillu- acceptable as far as they are concerned only if sionwith a one-way desegregation process can it meets other conditions. And these stipula- alienate the black community from that goal. She tions are understandable, fair and just be- told the Mondale committee why she decided to causeblack parents, no more than white begin a separate black school, Nairobi High School. parents, want their pupils reassigned to a in 1966: school farther from home, whether by bus ride or otherwise. Iwondered whatI was doing tothose children, and it was at a time when 1 knew a Anliot's list of conditions required by blacks to change had to come, becauseIcould see get involved in a desegregation plan are echoed by psychologically what it was doing for those individual school superintendents and by black youngsters. They had to give up everything: groups themselves: they had to go into hostile communities, begging for something 1felt was rightfully theirs. The staff must be integrated where blacks attend school. Mrs. Wilks told the Mondale committee's only blacksenator,self-proclaimed"integrationist" The burden of being bused must fall on Edward Brooke,R-Mass., of the weakness of "advisory groups." She said she thought the only whites as well as on blacks. way to strengthen the advisory committee's role was to give them decision-making power. White staff and black must be trained to In addition, Mrs. Wilks said: handle biracial classes and to deal with disad- vantaged students. 1 think if we are going to talk about in- tegration,we oughttotalkaboutinte- Curriculum must be revised to include minor- grating the board of education, integrating the ity group history. school board.... Until we do that, I think it is unfair (to bus) just because we might have the power to ship a bus load of white kids some place. Our school board right now is a Civil Rights: Mostly a Local Activity hundred and a half percent white. We cannot elect a black school board member to our Any school board wrestling with desegregation board. They say we are going to bus the kids, should consider one aspect of the black commu- and that is going to solve the problem. It ain't nity which seems to be increasingly consistent: necessarily so. civil rights activity is carried on in a local, not a national context. And individual community re- Sen. Brooke was forced to agree with her logic sponses are stronger than any single ideology, be it in establishing Nairobi school: "I have no objection integrationist or separatist. to that.I am an integrationist.I have nothing John R. Lewis, former head of the. Student objectionableto what you saidif you getit Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, has said his together. We (integrationists) might come along in fornier organization is dead, while CORE is less the interim period, but what you are saying is, we strong, and the Southern ChristianLeadership are going to improve the quality of education in Conference is foundering, leaving only the NAACP our schools and you are going to givethese and the Urban League with varying degrees of children the psychological stimulus they need. I success across the country. "But if you travel agree with you." through the South you will see local organizations Mrs. Wilks personifies, in a way, the opposition and local leaders very much involved in the civil to desegregation which can develop in the black rights movement." community if it is not only "involved," but given 26 some sense of helping to control its own destiny. opposition or approval of busing per se to a Thus, Russell Kent, superintendent of the San "let's-make-the-schools-work attitude." Mateo, Calif., Unified School District, of which In Berkeley, Calif.. generally thought to be a East Palo Alto is a part, said the separate black voluntary desegregation success story, meetings school movement developed since 1965 "has now with white parents ranked high on the agenda of become one of the major obstacles to achieving preparatory moves made by citizen advocates and desegregation in our area." He said that a new the administration of Neil Sullivan. desegregation plan stimulated in great measure Mrs. LouiseStoll,awhite parent, told the by pressure from HEW "is causing probably Mondale committee: there were "a large number of stronger opposition in the black community than it myths that we had to dispel," including one on the is in the white community." evils of busing and another that it would be harder While it applies to nonminority segments of a for white children to get into college if they went school district as well as to minorities, this com- to a black school. ment from the Mondale committee report stresses Mrs. Amanda Williams, a black representative of the need to involve minorities and conduct open Berkeley's "Community Forum" and a mother of hearings: four Berkeley students, emphasized the importance of meetings, too, but spoke more strongly of "this Involving the total community in planning for hereditary fear that is the root of today's climate, desegregation is not an easy task for school parental fear which isa real fear. ... White officials, and it may appear to be an ineffi- parents have fearsthattheirchildrenwillbe cient approach to decision making. But the physically assaulted or that their learning will be effortisworthwhile. By assuring thatall downgraded. Black parents are concerned about segments of the community are fully involved their children being bused across town and what in the development of the plan, resistance can would happen in the event a child becomes ill and be minimized and public support, which is needs to come home, the kind of humiliation he essential to the success of any desegregation might receive having gone into a foreign neighbor- program, can be significantly increased. And hood." the plan itself may be made more responsive Mrs. Williams discussed the attempts to meet to the community's reeds. those real fears: We had house meetings with parents coming Rule 7: Involve the 'Uninterested' together, and counselors were hired in the and 'Opposed' school district at the elementary and inter- mediate schools, which proved helpful in all To a busy school administrator trying to make instant feedback to parents' problems and desegregation work, it must seem to be enough to concerns. The superintendent and his team of try to involve friendly forces and the necessary school administrators went into homes to elements of his school system and the community, listen and offer solutions to problems.... without trying to involve as well the apathetic or There is something to be learned in Berkeley. outright opponents of desegregation. Yet several The Berkeley experience is a multiple achieve- desegregating or desegregated school districts can ment, in which the parents whose children are prove that such extra effort pays big dividends in bused have played a key role. community support for desegregated education. While the modern minority community can cause problems for .a desegregation plan, it has Politics: A Big Consideration been more often the white majority that has voted to maintain segregated schools by their choice of Interestingly, the Berkeley experience encour- school board members, and by the formation of agedaneighboring community, and its school such groups as NAG in Pontiac, Mich. The question system,the Richmond, Calif.,Unified School is whether it is a waste of time to try to involve District, to try desegregation, too. But it has been c lcitrant white parents in a desegregation prof- held up by a Richmond resident and sociologist, .The PTA president from Pontiac testified Lillian B. Rubin, as an example of ignoring and before a House subcommittee that it was not a finally alienating, rather than enlisting, the resis- waste, that such people ultimately switched from tant white community, in her 1972 book, Busing 27 and Backlash, White Against White in an Urban self-contained elite a definition that too School District. In the conclusion of her two-year frequently accorded with their own self in- study, she writes, "The thrust of my argument here terest and largely left the working class and is that America's so-called silent majority has been lower-middle class out. left out of the political process far too long and that, in part. their present anger is a response to that political fact." Chan:zing Resistance to Participation The communications gulf between the pro-inte- gration "liberals" and the anti-integration "conserv- The evolution from white resistance to white atives" in Richmond was so deep. she wrote, that participation in Jackson. Miss.. was described in in her 50 interviews with leaders from each camp. the March 1972 issue of Inequality in Education. "there was no point at which the responses merged The author. Patricia M. Derian. is active in the or even came closetogether," on matters of Mississippi Council on Human Relations. She de- educational philosophy. When the question of scribes herself as "one white mother" of three integration came up in 1965, the liberally oriented children who is telling how whites overcame the school board made itsfirst mistake, she said, fact that "most white parents, raised on the myths because it appointed a Citizens Advisory Commit- of black indolence, ignorance and immorality, fear tee on De Facto Segregation. "The board had tried school desegregation on abasic,if sometimes to provide a balance of race, sex and geographical unconscious, gut-level," distribution," the sociologist wrote. But no serious Mrs. Derian follows the process through three attempt was madetobalancethe committee stages: politically "a fact that the conservative anti- integrationists played up very successfully in their In the early sixties, "small groups of white- attempts to mobilize the community," she added. gloved, middle-class women were trying to One white "conservative" said he was "shaken allay these fears through 'respectable,' low- up" by the appointment of the committee, while a key, nonthreatening organizations." They held liberal board member conceded that "we took our coffees, talked to other mothers, spoke in resolution to mean that we meant to deal with small public meetings and bought television desegregating the schools, so there was no point in spots and some billboards. That was during appointing those who opposed integration." One the days of minimal desegregation. When real other board member said that the board did not desegregation threatened in 1969, many of want to discuss the "if" of desegregation, only the these women thought that they had reached "how," and that they hoped that "the force of their limit, that massive desegregation was too law" and the "authority of the courts" would much. compel opponents to go along, even if it was with "strong regrets." "A new coalition of `respectables' waited in "Unfortunately," Miss Rubin said, "they failed the wings. It included recently arrived Yankee to comprehend that this issue had evoked unusu- parents; stunned chamber of commerce types ally strong feelings that would not be quieted who knew that no new business would come throughthetraditionalpoliticalmechanisms." to a place without public schools; the morally Soon after, a Citizens Committee for Neighbor- upright whose religions finally declared that hood Schools was formed and the anti-desegrega- racism was a wicked sin; and some outright tion movement grew quickly. In all, Lillian Rubin integrationists. This coalition had its limits, concludes that the unwillingness to involve the too: It was all-white, and an abortive effort to "conservatives," along withtheliberalboard's have a biracial parent group failed because hesitancy over when and how to proceed with white parents' worries differed from black desegregation, doomed the attempt to failure and parents' concerns. Nor did it include poor the board to defeat at the polls. As for the success whites; it was entirely middle class, chiefly and strength of the conservatives: from one geographic location."

It would seem that the major strength of the When desegregation finally .came, some of the conservative drive probably lay in the fact poor whites had no choice but to begin that for too long the definition of the public integrating and that brought the most involve- good had been made by a small, relatively ment of those who had stood on the sidelines: 28 "At this point the middle-class parents. or- it on any kind of fair basis, it works.-- The speaker ganized to meet their own needs. began to was Sen. Mondale. probably the single memberof have acommunitywideimpact.Parents Congress who has listened to more testimony on popped up in all the schools, tutoring, helping the subject of school desegregation than any other. in a thousand ways. adding to the white faces, He addressed his words to a 19-year-old white watching with as much good will as they youth who had just graduated from high school in could muster. They manned telephone rumor Greenville, S.C., and who had made the point that centers and tracked down every hysterical not only were most white students satisfied witn story of bombings. rapes and knifings that desegregation, but "1 would also say that many of had not taken place. They spoke to civic thewhite students were challenged byit.It clubs,advertisedandvisitedother white brought a new spiritto the school.It made parents door to door so that their children everybody want to work together to make the would not remain a small minority." system work." At the same session of Senate hearings, however, "If Jackson's experience is any example," con- a black student from Greenville who entered a cludes Mrs. Derian, "white fears will gradually white high school under a "freedom of choice" diminish in the face of cumulative evidence that plan and stayed for two years, stressed how hard it black and white boys and girls attend school was for black students to "relate in activities such together every day, safely." as student council government, elected offices and all, because the administration is the power struc- ture of all activity." Rule: Listen to Students "We have heard this story many, many times. I Views: Of a Civil Rights Veteran, think, if you left the issue of integration to the Students, a Superintendent young people of this country, they would have it over with in no time at all. They are the ones who Ruby Martin, former director of HEW's Office are integrating and every poll I have seen indicates for Civil Rights and a civil rights veteran who that the young people want it, and, where they try brought students to Washington, D.C., to appear

Fears Arise on Both Sides NeilSullivan,inhisbook, Now Isthe Time,described walking intoa pre-desegregation meeting sponsored by the Berkeley board of education. Sullivan describes some of the exchanges, in which he says he saw some white resistance weakened:

The whites did not hide their fear that the achievement of their children, many of them gifted, would be downgraded or diluted by what they considered and what was on the average the lower academic standard of the Negro pupils. Speakers countered with reports of research showing that desegregation does not lower the achievement of white children while it raises the achievement level of Negro children. "Oh, research!" one white parent muttered. "You can prove anything with research."

Then one Negro mother stood up. "I see what it isyou're afraid of Negro kids!" she declared. "Why? We have something to offer you but you've always turned us down. What if our children should slip back in their studies by coming up here? Did you ever think of that?

That statement got loud applause from many Negroes and from some startled Caucasians. Could it be that Negroes too worried about scholarship? The ironic nature of that meeting would have been funny had it not been so painful....

1111111M111111111

29 before the Mondale committee, shared her views ceived and something was done about it.says Supt. on what good use of federal money for desegrega- Wilmer S. Cody. tion would be: He told the Mondale committee thata race council of students was formed. Over 150 black Itisvery clear to me that a substantial and white students participated in regular discus- amount of that money should be going to sions on problems of desegregation and. through private, nonprofit groups. It should be going these, they gained much understanding and respect to student groups, and nqt to the traditional for one another, the superintendent said. "Our kind of teacher-training programs thatso high school has not been free of disruptions and much federal money has gone into...which demonstrations. It is significant, however, that the really has not dealt with the problems that few protests we had were aimed at school policies these students face. and programs and were not basedon friction between students," Cody said. One black student from Columbia, S.C., the Cody admitted that student grievance proce- student coordinator for the Southern Regional dures were "inadequate," particularly in junior and Council's school desegregation project, took ad- senior high schools, at the beginning. But he added, ministrators to task in an article he wrote for New "One of our most important objectives" will be to South: convince students that rational procedures for resolving conflict and for achieving justice are School officials must come to grips with the available and can work. problem. They must not dodge the basic issue Perhaps the most dramatic story of student race. Many school officials feel that if no involvement comes from a group of seventh graders one talks about integration, then everything in Pontiac, Mich. Following the motto "Let's Make will work itself out. Why don't they ask the It Work," the group went from school to school students? Surely they will ask the "straight with songs, skits and a recurring message: that A" student what he thinks, but thatis students would tolerate, even welcome, busing understandable. For years these were the only although some of their parents did not. The group students who had had any type of communi- not only helped ease tensions in Pontiac itself, but cations with the administration. Now school became a national object lesson in youth leadership officials must begin talking to those students in an area where some adults feared to tread. w:to are truly interested in the racial situa- tion. But at many schools these students have been labeled "radicals" and "troublemakers." Rule 9: Involve Business and Labor, If Possible The student, Richard Gergel, took a student poll during the first year of desegregation, with the help Along with the need to find a role for fearful of a U. of South Carolina sociology major. white parents is the opportunity in the 1970s to involve the business community in a desegregation If school officials would begin to listen they plan. However, both the U.S. Chamber of Com- would find much helpful information. The merce and the National Assn. of Manufacturers, administration would know that a majority of when queried at their Washington, D.C., headquar- the students (64% black and 54% white) are ters in mid-1972, said they had no business making in favor of integration and want more inter- policy statements on school desegregation. And the racial activities... . National Federation of Independent Business, Inc., says it found in a March 1972 poll that 86% of Gergelsuggested studentinitiativesif adult 157,500 responses from its members favoreda institutions cannot or will not solicit and respond Constitutional amendment against busing, 9% were to student views. He reported that black and white opposed and 5% were undecided. The figures are students in Beaufort, S.C., jointly published an significant, for more than half of the membership undergroundnewspaper,"TheDailyPlanet," responded to the survey the highest response which campaigned for, and won, a new student rate to a poll in the federation's history. government "which will relate to all the students." But the fact is, both local and state chambers of At Chapel Hill, N.C., the potential for "human commerce are getting involved, and so are nu- relations problems" between students was per- merous independent businessmen. Sometimes their 30 involvement is patent self-interest, reflected in the Jackson, Miss.. had actively resisted desegrega- fearthatpublic education willbe harmed if tion in courts for seven years when it partially desegregation is resisted too strongly, and that new desegregated in the 1971-72 school year. Then it business will not be attracted to a community with adopted an extensive busing plan as part of a a school crisis. Sometimes they work to preserve consent decree between black parents and the "law and order" when a controversial plan goes school board. and the business community got a into effect. Sometimes they merely lend their good deal of credit for the acceptance and promo- names as business leaders to desegregation advisory tion of desegregation. "The chamber of commerce committees. Increasingly they are getting involved, organized the Jackson Education Task Force to as they find the problem will not go away by support the desegregation plan and provide assis- gnoring it. Sometimes the chamber of commerce tance in mobilizing community leaders behind the moves into a leadership vacuum left by frightened efforts of the school system," report monitors politicians, a recalcitrant school board or a trou- from the six civil rights groups in It's Not Orer in bled superintendent. the South. The turning point came in January of 1970, Hartford, Conn., provides an example of how when Allis-Chalmers, Inc., the equipment manufac- extensive business participation can occur. The turer from Wisconsin, sent engineers and executives local chamber of commerce, backed heavily by the to Jackson to discuss moving business down to insurance industry, helped to create a positive Jackson. The reason given for the final decision not climate for the city-suburban voluntary busing plan to move was the instability and general educational known as Project Concern. The project, stimulated problems in the public schools there. The chamber by TitleIof the Elementary and Secondary stopped seeking new industry whilethestate Education Act in 1965 and begun with the busing research and development center warned that of only 300 inner-city children to surrounding Jackson's economy would be seriously hurt if it suburbs, has grown in Connecticut so that by 1972 didn't do something about the schools. some 3,000 students in four cities Hartford, Afterthe Supreme Court's decisioninthe Bridgeport, New Haven and Waterbury partici- Swann case permitted extensive busing where pate with surrounding communities. neededtodesegregate schools,adetente was According to William J. Sanders, 1972 president reached with the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, and of the Council of Chief State School Officers and a busing plan was agreed to, with businessmen the Connecticut state commissioner of education, clearly in the forefront. The task force was headed one of the driving organizing forces behind the by a banker, and included a vice president of the entire idea was a man who was president of the telephone company and an insurance man. Full- Hartford metropolitan chamber at the time, and page newspaper ads picturing white and black also president of Travelers Insurance Corp. and a children together were captioned, "We are sticking member of the State Beard of Education. with our public schools to help make them the best "The officers and the secretary of the chamber in the nation." would use their influence. For example, when they The involvement of other chambers of com- noticed someone in a suburb was voting against the merce in the South was described in the It's Not plan they would ask 'Who does this guy work for?' Over report: And then they would twist arms," says Sanders. "These were enlightened businessmen who knew The St. Petersburg, Fla., Chamber of Com- that they lived in the suburbs but they worked in merce's Community Alliance Committee was Hartford and that Hartford was the source of their involved in commenting on the staff-devel- livelihood. One hand washes the other." oped desegregation plans there before they Sanders says he sees more businessmen getting were submitted to the school board. involved as political figures flee controversy. "Poli- ticians respond to the fears; the businessmen get The Greensboro, N.C., Chamber of Commerce things off dead center because they see long-range organized a similar group called Concerned self-interest in integration and better education." Citizens for Schools. He says Hartford was a "shoo-in" for educational renewal funds from the federal government in part Chamber of commerce organizations in other because of the kind of local support for such cities such as Little Rock, Ark.; Columbia, programs guaranteed by the business community. S.C.; Nashville, Tenn.; and elsewhere endorsed

31 the desegregationplans of the respective intendedto stemflighttosell negatedii.! iv ate cities,by supporting public educationor schools by whites during cc iirt-ordcr desegregation. merely calling for "calm."

Businessmen played leading roles'nbiracial "educational advisory" committees set up in 1970 across the South to help smooth the way for a Organized labor also gets involved, hutat differ- sharp increase in desegregation. The chairman of ent levels in different places. Thus. in Pontiac. the apolitical South Carolina Educational Advisory Mich., when many United Auto Workers (UAW) Committee during the1970 and 1971school members picketed or honored piokets at General openings was Robert S. Davis, who is white and the Motors Corp. plants to show their sympathy with president of a Columbia, S.C., printing and office NAG and their opposition to bti sing Limingthe supply firm. In 1970, Davis convinced Southern 1971 school opening, UAW leader in Detroit Bell Telephone Co. executives to write employes issueddirectivesto prevent UAW localls from explaining desegregation and urging support of helping to finance the antibusinggroup, NAG, and public education. TV tape clips of black and white tokeep NAG from involving UAW members. chilch-en playing happily togetherwere relayed by Neither of the statements,one by UAW president highway patrol cars to 11 TV stations across the Leonard Woodcock, and the other by regional statebefore school started. The statewide at- director Ken Morris, referred to the rightnessor mosphere of acceptance helped in1971, when wrongness of busing. Both concentrated instead on Columbia, S.C., schools were desegregated. "It'sa contractual relationships: question of leadership, both black and white,"says Davis. Woodcock: It would be intolerable ifa local In Louisiana, an on-going nonprofit organization couldfinance,directlyorindirectly, the with 4,000 supporters, called the Public Affairs activities of an organization (NAG) which Research Council, Inc. (PAR), formed the nucleus attempts to interfere with the collective bar- in 1970 for a massive statewide Seminarcan School gaining obligations of the union and the Desegregation. The year before, PAR had p.iblished employment of our members, and cause the a 129-page study on Improving Quality During loss of income to UAW families. School Desegregation. When PAR held the seminar in 1970 in Baton Morris: No outside group, whether NAGor Rouge,itinvolvedtheCouncilfora Better any other outside group, has the legal right or Louisiana, the Louisiana AFL-CIO, the Louisiana authority to ask UAW members to violate the Manufacturers Assn., and theLouisiana State contract which exists between General Motors Chamber of Commerce. Much of the speech and the workers at Fisher Body (GM)....We material dea3t with the need tosave public schools call upon members of the UAW who work at and most of it seemed to be addressed to business- Fisher Body to ignore the demonstrations and men. Speakers ranged from a U.S. district court go to work on Tuesday, Sept. l 4....Regard- judge to the superintendent of Ouachita Parish less of community issues or controversies, Schools to federal enforcement officials, including thereexists a legalcontractual agreement one from the U.S. Justice Dept. who told business- between the workers at Fisher Body and the men to tell local law enforcement officials when General Motors Corp. schools open "that you want order and you want And, while many AFL-CIO-affiliated locals stay any dispute about what's occurring to be decided out of the busing issue in their towns and while by reasoned discussion if necessary, even in the many individual members oppose busing,the courts." AFL-CIO Executive Council, the top leadership The seminar was followed in subsequent days body of that union amalgam, adopteda statement and weeks by a new emergence of positive political in February 1972 which said: "The AFL-CIO has supportfordesegregation. The day afterthe consistently supported both quality education and seminar, for example, the state Republican Party integrated education." It added: issued a strong statement in support of public education. The next day, all four of Louisiana's We wholeheartedly support busing of children Catholicbishopscalledfor support of public when it will improve the educational opportu- education. At the very least such statementswere nities of the children. 32 We deplore the actions of those individuals or NAACP and Mexican American Legal Defense and groups who are creating a divisive political EducationalFunds. have particularinterestin issue out of America's vital need for quality. desegregated education. and in the case of the integrated education. Legal Defense Funds. often sue school districts to obtain that goal The National Urban League in We will oppose the Constitutional amendment many large Northern cities. and groups like the approach because it will do a disservice to the AmericanFriendsService Committee and the quality,integratededucationwhichwe Southern Regional Council in Southern states. are support. active sources of both support and information from the minority community. A list of contact persons and organizations appears on page 95 Rule 1: Locate and Enlist the Natural Ally

Finding an ally to help rally public support Il' Role ol \ldi;: seems like a natural thing to do. But some school administrators and board members hesitate about In the category of logical allies for school board recruiting pro-integration organizations for fear it members and superintendents who must desegre- will polarize -Loninlvnity opinion. A member of the gate or who wish to desegregate, the mass media, Detroit, Mich., school board complained of the including the press, television and radio, are per- League of Women Voinrs, for example. He said haps the most important in many ways. No League "They're too liberal. Nobody is going to listen to of Women Voters' statement, no public meetings, them, and they don't listen to the conservatives." no building of public consciousness of what deseg- However, some school boards andsuperin- regation is all about, would be possible without the tendents do work with groups which promote media to communicate it all. desegregation and report good results. Sometimes, Ideally, newspaper, radio and television report- such groups impose themselves on the debate ers would maintain an active and constant interest without invitation. inevery aspect of their community's schools. Civil rights groups like the National Assn. for the including desegregation. And ideally for school Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the boards trying to desegregate, editorial writers and

Put Yourself in Students' Places When students speak out, they often complain of things that may seem trivial to adults, but which have overwhelming meaning sometimes symbolic, but still important to students themselves. For black students, finding a place in the student government or on the cheerleading squad is as important as finding a place in the classroom. The phenomenon is discussed by Frank A. Petroni, Ernest A. Hirsch and C. Lillian Petroni in their book, Two, Four, Six, Eight, When You Gonna Integrate?, recording student attitudes in an unnamed high school disguised as Plains High School: Some adults may also ask, why is so much emphasis given to a project of such secondary importance as the election of a black cheerleader? While few adults consider the election of black cheerleaders, or black class officers, or the desire for an open lunch hour to be mainly civil rights issues, we nevertheless feel that the issue of a black cheerleader, for example, is relevant for the situation in which these black students find themselves.... When the black students at Plains High attend a basketball game, the contrast they experience as they watch five black athletes on the court, while seven white girls lead the cheering on the sidelines, is a constant reminder of white prejudice and white exploitation.

33 commentators would see the value of equal edu- In Volume II of the U.S. Office of Education- cational opportunity, and would applaud efforts to funded booklet, Planning Educxional Change: achieve it. That these ideal conditions do not exist Human Resources 1,1 School Desegregation. the isobvious. But some of the media have gained authors state: attention in the 1970s for their role. The six civil rights groups mention several in /t 's t Over in The local press and radio station- are institu- the South- tions where interests may or may not he partisan, but with which itis important to Among the newspapers mentioned (by moni- develop good relations. communication and tor;) was the Arkansas GazetteinLittle trust. The way in which news media cover or Rock, Ark., which has been supportive of do not cover stories, and stress or do not desegregation efforts for more than a decade. stress particular events, has enormous impact upon community perceptions of desegre- The Florence, S.C., Morning News provided gation. excellent coverage of school programs and curriculum innovations and featured several Few superintendents can "control" the news, level-headcd articles from the viewpoint of but many can so involve the press in deseg- drivers, students and school officials on how regation planning that they have full informa- busing was actually working in the district. tionabc,utthesystem'sintentionsand The St. Petersburg Tires consistently fea- designs. tured editorials which were very positive iii supporting the district's desegregation efforts. Thereis no substitute for rapport with the At its own expense the paper printed a media -- enough rapport to be able to walk into a comprehensive section called "Pinellas School city room or an editor's office and feel welcome. Zone Guide" (St. Petersburg is in Pinellas Mrs. Marian R. Van Landingham, supervisor of County). One of the appointees to the dis- public information in the Mobile County, Ala., trict's biracial committee characterized the system when that district implemented a court- Times as "fabulous." The Charlotte Observer ordered busing plan during the 1971-72 school has also provided leadership in covering that year, said that such rapport "helped a lot," in district's tortuous route through the courts, in getting the school district's thinking across to the treating the district's problems and potential public. in a balanced and thorough manner, and in "I was on a first-name basis with most of the calling for the district to fulfill its constitu- media people. I went in and talked with them a lot tional obligations. and I kept them wellinformed," Mrs. Van Landinghamsaid. Her office also published a For the public to be able to read or hear two-page information document, "Facts About informational and/or supportive material on deseg- Busing in Mobile County," which was a basic regation, the school district must at least cooperate reference source for the news media during the by permitting accessto teachers and adminis- time that the new desegregation plan was being trators and even the children themselves. Usually, implemented. even more is required. A school district often puts Mrs. Van Landingham places great store by the a public information officer to work developing information sheets, which she cited in a 1972 public relations plans and materials as one of the National School Public Relations Assn. (NSPRA) first steps in trying to rally community support for seminar as one factor in the relatively smooth a plan. beginning of desegregation busing in Mobile.

34 Chapter 3 Womanpower at Work: The League of Women Voters

While many organizations can be pressed into hands with other organizations: service or even press themselves into service out of their own convictions or zeal the one group In Santa Monica, Calif., the league and the which consistently appears in an active role across American Assn. of University Women worked the country, North and South, is the League of to form a Citizens School Advisory Group on Women Voters. In Washington, D.C., its leadership Ethnic Balance although, as local league testifies against antibusing provisions and for civil members say, "the group is tightly controlled rights law. At the state and local level, it puts both by the school district." its prestige and its organization on the line to assist incommunitydesegregationpreparationand The -- Buffalo,N.Y.,league cosponsored a implementation. Men getinvolved, too. "What meeting with leagues in Erie and Niagara nobody realizes is that a lot of husbands of league Falls and with the Buffalo Chamber of Com- members do things in their roles as engineers, merce to discuss finance and integration. lawyers and even educators to help out," reported Some 480 people registered for the forum. a staff member in the Washington office. A number of individual leagues which have been The Mobile,Ala.,league worked with a especially active were contacted for this report. citizens' organization which became federally Some of the leagues submitted material to the funded, known as the ACT Educational Pro- Mondale committee which never appeared in the gram, and undertook to conduct a biracial record. Others had filed brief descriptions of their workshop with the title, "Make It Work." activities with the national league, and still more were mentioned by civil rights groups' monitors. Their involvement varies from working on court- League Researches Integration ordered desegregation plans to influencing commu- nity attitudes to unsuccessful attempts to promote One of theleague'straditionsisextensive integration in a resistant community. research, presumably conducted by housewives The Nashville, Tenn., League of Women Voters who want to put some of their free time to saw six of its members participate in drawing up a constructive community use. federal court-ordered desegregation plan in 1970. Similarly, in 1971, the Human Resources Commit- In Tiffin, Ohio, the league studied school tee of the Tulsa, Okla., league spent a summer integration in unit meetings and wrote a paper researching and evaluating school integration in called "Approaches to School Integration." Tulsa and other cities across the country. It then developed a plan for court adoption based "on the The Amarillo, Tex., league launched a study concept of communitywide sharing of advantages of the current desegregation plan and its and inconveniences of integration." The concept background, HEW guidelines, what went into received "good publicity" and the endorsement of the desegregatim decision, community atti- community groups and leaders, league officials say. tudes and what was being done to prepare the In Los Angeles, Calif., the league signed the amicus communityforintegration. The Amarillo curiaebrief on behalf of desegregationina league conducted "numerous" interviews with Superior Court case. groups,board members andtheschool Many League of Women Voters chapters join superintendent; conducted three public meet-

35 ings: and studied alternate plans for desegre- Leagueunits around the country aregreat gation. letter-,telegram- and position paper-writers. to judge by their own and others- testimony. The In Mount Clemens. Mich.. league members Atlanta, Ga., league was one of several groups studied integration in their city. then pub- which issued a statement in May 1971 urging the lished a three-page study on the subject. school board to use whatever methods were neces- sary. including busing. to desegregate the school system. In San Francisco, Calif.. a league represen- Gets the \Vont tative said it "helped communications. trying to present information calmly." including the dis- An alreadyestablished organization like the patch of letters to the editor of the big daily league. wita no overtones of religion, partisan newspapers and a letter to the board of education politics or any particular racial makeup. can serve supportingaplanto desegregate junior high as a meeting forum for citizens, especially for schools. The Las Vegas. Nev., league sponsored an women who might not go to school board meetings eight installment publication called "Happenings." or to the affairs of other organizations. which discussed quality integrated education in Clark County Schools. Over 10.000 copies of The Downriver League of Wayne County, "Happenings" were produced and distributed by Mich., Detroit's home county, focused all its the league to both the school and community. human resources work on "crossdistrict The Midland. Tex., league fired off a telegram to busing," and consequently had "the greatest the federal court opposing a school board desegre- number participating" in general membership gation plan, and added that they preferred one of meetings on that subject. two alternate plans offered by the Negro commu- nity andtherural community; itwas hardly In San Joaquin County, Calif., the league held supportive of the board, and the league itself a general meeting forall members of the reports that "media coverage was quite extensive, community who cared about education, de- much response both positive and negative." segregation or "children in general." "The emphasis was on understanding our own feelings about desegregation of the school Case History Shows district," reports the league. Films on cultural Success and Limitaticms differences were complemented by speakers expert in intergroup relations. Case histories of league involvement indicate both the successes and limitations of a group like In Richmond, Ind., the league worked to the league.Intheory, any organizations ina bring white parents to a human relations community could play similar roles. workshopforparents,teachers,adminis- In San Bernardino, Calif., minority group agita- trators and students after a "serious racial tion for desegregation reached a peak in 1965, and problem at the high school." resulted in some pressures from both state and

`Listen to Conservatives'

Certainly, the League of Women Voters is not universally acceptable toevery segment of the community. A member of the Detroit, Mich., board of education calls it "just one more liberal outfit," and dismisses it as too far to the left to be a binding force in Detroit, with its multi-district court case. He was speaking in the corridors after a conference in Washington, D.C., about bigcity school problems; his solution was to get each of Detroit's suburbs to take minorities up to 10% of their school enrollment, but he did not think the league could help in that effort. "You have to get the conservatives involved, and listen to them," he says.

36 federal authorities to begin some of equaliza- "additional information" reminding editors of ear- tion of educational opportunities for the white. lier board promises to rebuild the schools. Four black and Mexican. American children there. By daysafterthefirsteditorial.theleague ..- September 1967, the board announceda desegrega- rewarded with a stronger one in the samenews- tion policy and initial plan. following a citizens paper stating that "morally, the present board is advisory committee report. During 1967 and 1968. obligated to rebuild those schools... ." the San Bernardino League of Women Voters sent In 1971, antibusing groups in San Bernardino no fewer than 13 written messages to the school pushed for the revision of a new desegregation board, all of them praising the board for its stand. plan. with elimination of all references to busing. frequently commending particular actions. but They also began a movement to recall the board of finallyasking for more than the "freedom of education. The league stood fast for the inclusion choice- voluntary desegregation approved by the of transportation in the new desegregation plan. board. but it kept hands off the recall issue. An appraisal of that communique by a league "Rightly or wrongly, it was felt at this time that official notes that one question. intended to press for the league to take a role Ion the recall issue] faster elementary desegregation, "was always side- other than the role of individual members. would stepped by the administration and seemed to point further polarize the community and add fuel to the to a fear of community reaction to any plan which fire,"anofficialwrote.In1972,the board would involve disruption of the 'neighborhood numbered 10 blacks and three Mexican American school' or busing." The league in this case was an women among its membership of 135. ally to the school board in the sense that it offset In February and March 1972, the board of the opponents to desegregation. It made certainan education dropped busing from its desegregation observer was at every board meeting; backed up plan. The league president. at this point a black the board in its human relations program; pushed woman, tried to head off the board at its meeting for a minority appointment to a board vacancy; with a statement recognizing that the board "has reacted vigorously to the news that only 3% of been subject to tremendous pressure by elements eligible minority students participated in voluntary inthe community who feel the constitutional desegregation the first year, and only 6.4% in the guarantees of equal opportunity in education and second; and generally maintained pro- integration court decisions... should be disregarded." She pressure on both the board and the community. also urged the board not "to take an unrealistic The league sponsored a symposium on integra- backward step." In voting to drop busing. several tion in November 1968 because it said more in- board members took pains to say they were not formation on the advantages of desegregation was against integration, just busing. needed. A broad representative group of San The league, then, was out in front of the board Bernardinans was invited. of education for almost five years. But the second The same symposium gave the league a chance of two school superintendents inthat period, to renew its call for the appointment of a minority George Caldwell, seemed to share league views. board member to fill a vacancy. And it succeeded. When he presented his administration's desegrega- About the same time, the San Bernardino league tion plan, he prophetically observed: was cooperating with a California State League of Women Voters surveyofracialimbalancein The board instructed us to bring back a plan various districts, giving both fact and opinion to that did not include the use of buses for the arm the state league in a fight for a state law to purpose of racially balancing schools. We have require desegregation of segregated districts. brought back a plan without busing except in Throughout 1969, 1970 and 1971, the league voluntary programs. It would not appear- to us continued to push for "complete" desegregation; that our plan as presented would fully meet for more money to be spent in schools, particularly the requirements of the law. In this uncertain in the area of human relations counseling and time, however, I believe that it will move the training; and for the reconstructionof. unsafe district into a position in which we could schools in minority areas. When the local news- react to either a court or state executive order paper, generally supportive of equal educational to desegregate should one be handed down. opportunity, did not appear to the league to be pushing hard enoughinitseditorialsforthe Within three months, a California State Superior rebuilding of minority area schools in mid -1971, Court judge had takenthe board to task for the league sent a "statement" to the editors with appearing "almost schizoid" on the subject of 37 busing. Several weeks later he handed down an having direct access to the hoard of edu- order that San Bernardino desegregate its schools cation. so that each school reflect the total racial balance of the community within a tolerance of 15%, one Hireahighly qualified.wellpaidpublic way or theother:inother words, with San relations person to work with the district. Bernardino enrollment roughly 37% minority, each telling its story and "selling" its plan. school would have to be 22r,;to 52minority enrollment. The case was decided on the basis of a Draw more on the talent of classroom teach- new state racial balance law, rather than on federal ers... at the actual policy-making level. legal interpretation of the Constitution, and thus appearedto escape the federalrestrictions on Come up with a complete integration plan busing enacted by Congress. involving economic as well as ethnic integra- tion setting definite deadlines for imple- mentation. Advice from Two Leaguers Once plans have been passed on by the groups involved and the board of education, present In a joint statement for this report, the San them forcefully and with pride to the com- Bernardino league president, Mrs. Juanita Scott munity. and the chairman of the league's education com- mittee, Mrs. Sibyl Disch, agreedo share some Clearly show the program to be professionally lessons drawn from six years of imolvement with arrived at, and leave no doubt that it will be school desegregation. implemented. Provide machinery for periodic First, the league officers pleaded that certain review and revision if necessary. conditions be met by federal and state officials, including at least 50% funding of any mandated Ifitisnot already toolate,advisethe local compliance programs, for long enough to superintendent of the folly of allowing oppo- measure the worth of the program; guidelines to nents of integration to ferment trouble and tell what "acceptable" integration is; more flexi- get organized. bility in the use by local districts of funds allotted to them; less politics, more prominence for educa- Conduct a high-level leadership training pro- tion in Washington; new sources of school support gram, conducted by professionals on the "to remove the power of property owners to pass skillful handling of confrontation. or defeat local school financing at their whim"; and astipend to permit a "greater variety of The two women conclude: "From our observa- people" to be school board members. tions locally, it is evident that extending periods of "Given at least some of the above," the two so-called preparation over months and years does league officials said, they would suggest the follow- nothing to improve the climate of acceptance in ing to school superintendents and boards: the community. It fosters suspicion on the part of the minority groups as to final intentions, while Form, or adVocate the independent formation giving the opponents of integration hope that by of an on-going citizens committee, something organizing and disrupting they can prevent real along the lines of a grand jury. They would integration from taking place. In the meantime the advise and react to programs, and serve as a schoolchildren become the pawns of the various catalystwiththe community, aswellas pressure groups."

38 11-"' tin .1O041 CURRENT TRENDS in School Policies & Programs Chapter 4 Desegregation NktImplementing,//'

The creation and implementation of a desegrega- indeed, in the minds of much of the public this is tion plan are the nuts and bolts of desegregation. perhaps allthereis to desegregation. It is really They force the superinendent and the board of only one of many facets, although probably the education to look inward to their own resources, most technical and the most capable of responding often supplemented with imported expertise. The to good administration. board and superintendent must face up to the IV. The need for feedback and evaluation and a details which remained theory during public discus- further plan for continuity of desegregation are sion and debate and even during the formulation of important. basic policy. Forthispart of the desegregation process, professional advice abounds. Booklets, consultants, I. Setting the Goals of Education lawyers and even computer operators can help a school district follow through on its desegregation In planning desegregation, a large number of plan. Thus, this report will attempt only to trace school superintendents and boards of education the pattern which emerges from the experience of have seized the opportunity to make innovative USOE (as reflected in the series of four booklets moves in the overall educational structure of their on "Planning Educational Change," written at the community.Billedas an improvement inthe U. of Michigan's Center for Research on Utilization quality of education, desegregation can not only of Scientific Knowledge) and the experiences of improve learning but also will help to make the some desegregating or desegregated school districts, process itself more palatable to community and as reported in the Mondale hearings and at 1972 staff, say administrators and board members who meetings of educational organizations. have tried it. To put theory into practice, several efforts must Thus, to set as the only goal the "acceptable" or proceed at the same time. This seems obvious, but legally required ratio of minority students and it must be recognized beforehand if a timetable is whites in the district's schools is not enough and is to be met. Four processes em,;.rge in the planning deliberately short-ranged in the eyes of those who and implementing phase. They must overlap in have tried to do more. Some examples illustrate time with each other and with the previously what can be done. outlined campaign to engage the community positively in desegregation. I. A basic plan of action must be adopted, one A Plan For Positive Change which is educationally based and which has an appeal in terms of education as well as deseg- SchoolDistrict #111inKankakee, Ill., was regation. ordered by HEW in 1969 to desegregate its schools II. The administration and staff, from assistant or face possible cutoff of federal funds under Title superintendent tocustodial employes, must be IV of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. "Instead of prepared for the changes which will be taking coming up with an 'integration plan' per se, we place. focused on providing a sound educational rationale III. Plans for physical change the transferring for the changes we were contemplating," said Lee of students, teachers and equipment, the raising G. Grebner, superintendent of Kankakee schools. and lowering of blackboards and the routing of The district deliberately deemphasized the "inte- buses where necessary require painstaking effort; gration factor." Schools were reorganized from 11

40 elementary buildings, two junior high schools and the same time." The philosophy of combining two senior high schools into a new arrangement desegregationwitheducationalinnovation was which facilitated desegregation and left eight build- related to the Pennsylvania School Boards Assn. by ings with grades 1-3, two for grades 4 and 5, two James M. Francis, administrative assistant to the more for grades 6-8, and three 4-year high schools. Harrisburg superintendent: About half of the 7,680 students were bused for integration, and thefirst year went smoothly, Of the two dramatic changes that were to administrators said. take place in the school districtintegration "The staff in our primary centers saw immediate (the busing of students) was by far the benefits to the new arrangement. They could now morecontroversial.Because. itwas more concentrate on the learning needs of a specific age controversial, the integration story demanded group, with the total effort of the entire school more news coverage, The public relations focused in one area," Grebner said. Community effort therefore directed a greater effort to acceptance of the "reorganization" plan was high, telling the story of better educational oppor- with negative reaction minimal, he added. Three tunities through the grade realignment. This other innovations which were introduced during or effort brought a better balance to news stories. shortly after reorganization included an "urban- Itwas designedto demonstratethatthe rural" program to develop a model school serving schooldistrictwas interested in a superb children outside the city limits, with maximum educational system that was desegregated, community participation; a "self-imposed study rather than any kind of system so long as it program" which permitted a B-average student to was desegregated. leaveconventionalclassesandto workina laboratory, library, another class, or even to goof off,allwith the intended purpose of having Stress on Reading students learn to use time effectively; and "project child," wherein achildistested as he enters Some school administrators see a natural need to kindergarten and then receives the attention of a restructure the learning environment to mesh with psychologist, therapists or teacher aides as neces- a desegregation plan. This was true in the Berkeley, sary to help overcome learning difficulties. Calif., Unified School District, according to Neil V. Sullivan, the former Berkeley superintendent, in his book, Now Is the Time. "Now heterogeneity is Emphasis on the Positive a great word, but to bring it into action takes all the innovativeskillteachers and specialists can The Harrisburg, Pa., City School District devel- summon," Sullivan wrote. He worried that "the oped adesegregation plan in 1970 which was seeds of tracking" might be planted in the district's unusualinitsinvolvement of computers and integration plan: "Consider reading, for instance. detailed research before the plan was implemented. In the primary grades, there would be children But it also featured educational innovation as part reading above grade level and...minority children of the program adopted under pressure from below gradelevel.The readingclass must be state human rights officials to come up with a racially mixed, yet individual needs must be filled. desegregation plan. Under the new plan, for the The high group could be mostly white, the low firsttime, four- and five-year-old children were group mostly black. How do you handle this offered schooling in early childhood centers. The situation?" plans contained provisions for replacing two junior Berkeley teachers met throughout the spring in high schools by the end of 1974 with a grade 6-8 reading workshops, reviewing some nine programs middle school to be located in an "educational then in use. "We knew no teacher would go back plaza," andfor converting two existing high to the fundamentalist systems of the good old schools into comprehensive four-year high schools days," Sullivan said. He told of one "homemade" with specializing in science and the other in reading program designed by teachers at a work- arts and humanities. shop, with the help of a reading specialist from the In the summer of 1972, one Harrisburg official nearby U. of California. looked back on the 1970-71 school year opening as being "on time and with a minimum of confusion, The key is that all children, whether fast or in spite of two controversial changes going on at slow in learning, can work together in one

41 group while they grasp the basic idea of the of grouping: "I don't think it is important as long words of a story or text. They getitas as the rest of the day the other kinds of association newspaper readers catcha good headline. exist. But to group students all day long on some Thentheconceptisbroken down and ability criteria would be harmful." he concluded. adapted to the varying learning levels while children work in smaller groups. A Chance to Step Up Change The reading specialist said such a program had never been put into action anywhere before the One school district which has been trying one 1968 school year, Sullivan reported. "Many other way or another since1961toeffect school activities that prepared for integration, I am sure, desegregationistheRiverside,Calif.,. Unified have never been done before. And I am absolutely School District. As the district moved from mere certain so much has never been done before in any open enrollment and teacher desegregationto school community. The new school zones steamed active pupil redistribution in 1966, it accompanied with activity," he added. Not only werenew the moves "by an acceleration of educational education programs developed to coincide with innovation," according to one of the USOE "Plan- desegregation, but new parent involvement pro- ning Change" booklets entitled How Fire School grams and interracial events were conducted to Systems Desegregated, One example was detailed: anticipate the opening of the school year. To avoid a mass exodus from the (Emerson Elementary) school, a special program was set Individualized Instruction up by the district school administration. The first step was to ungrade the school in every Wilmer S. Cody, superintendent of schools in way possible. There were no homogeneous Chapel Hill, N.C., and a past consultant to the groupings; the new goal was individualization Cabinet Committee on School Desegregation, told of instruction for each child. the Mondale committee in 1970 that Chapel Hill had no choice at that time but to change its Inaddition,the administration initiated the educational approach to mesh with desegregation: following changes in Emerson: Being a college town, Chapel Hillhas a A specialmotordevelopmenttraining predominance of upper-middle-income edu- program. catedwhites and another large group of lower-income blacks who are principally ser- Cognitive training and assessment. vice personnel for the university. There are few people in the middle. In the beginning of A "third culture" approach to learning in desegregation there was not a great amount of social studies in fact, anthropology studies overlapping in student achievement levels in of a culture foreign to all the varied racial and the classroom. In response to this problem,a economic groups in the class. philosophy of individualized instruction has been adopted for the whole school system. A Cross-age teaching, with older children teach- large grant under the Education Professions ing younger ones. Development Act was secured to train teach- ers how to provide learning tasks appropriate Cooperative educational and recreation pro- to individual student needs. grams with social agencies, local universities, the police and city government. This, explained Cody, was the alternative to grouping children by ability, or "tracking" them, Parent involvement, to keep the library open which he said was just a way to resegregate them. longer, to tutor and to construct learning "You work out a balance. I think biracial experi- materials. ences are an important part of the educational program, and I would go so far as to say that a E. Ray Berry, superintendent of Riverside, told majority of a student's time should be spent in the Mondale committee in1971that he had such activities." He did not rule out brief periods "permanently concluded" that "we have to have 42 DESEGREGIITION CURRENT TRENDS in School Policies & Programs this kind of change inthe educational process teachers. In addition, USOE says in Volume 11 of itself, the change in the attitude of people, the Planning Educational Change: whole reorganization." In Riverside's case, lie said, "we have to stop talking about integration as Facultydesegregationmustproceedwith something for minority children. That becomes a careful attention to the development ofun- subordinate phase to a total educational program. derstanding and collaboration among profes- We have to start talking about how do you really sional peers. Negro and white teachersen- educate every child." counter many of the same problems in racial Thus,whileit might semi to be an added relations as do newly dcsegregateu students complication to an already controversial situation, and community groups. They must givespe- many school administrators who claim to be happy cial priority to collaborative effort, however, because faculty relationships oftenare models with school desegregation have .deliberatelyset a for observant students. goalatthebeginning of changing the entire educational process in some way, broadening the There is the other side of the staff desegregation goal beyond that of mere desegregation.To them, such goal-setting enhanced, rather than merely coin, too, besides making certain that consciousor complicated, the desegregation plan. unconscious discrimination does not cut theper- centage of black staff. Districts cannot ignore those staffers who flatly resist desegregation. Says Vol. II of the USOE series: "Efforts can be madeto help IL Preparing Officials and Staff superintendents deal with staff resistance and to develop a unified, committed cadre There are few areas of public lifenow attracting of administra- more charges of hypocrisy and failure to practice tors. Some staffs have undergone special trainingto what is preached than the area of school desegrega- help them work as a uniton new and difficult tion. One syndicated newspaper column by Nick school policies. When such efforts failto persuade Timmeschin1970 detailed how ninny liberal resistant staff members to support desegregation congressmen and pro-desegregation education offi- either out of intellectual commitmentor organiza- tional loyalty, other alternatives need cials in Washington, D.C., sent theirown children to be ex- to private or white suburban schools rather than plored." USOE listed the followingas alternatives: the heavily black Washington sch ')ols. Thecolumn was circulated, quoted and preached upon for Retention of resistant staff membersso the months afterwards. School districts which superintendentcanknow how opposing try to groups in the community feel. implement a desegregation plan witha segregated administration and faculty are begging forthe same treatment, USOE says. Reassignment of staff members so theymay fill staff positions that are useful but donot require decision-making responsibility, The administrativestaff should also bea model of desegregation in action. A superin- tendent who has not desegregated his staff Termination of contracts of those staffmem- cannot possibly expect his principals to deseg- bers unable or unwilling to support basic regate theirs.It is important to provide for school policy. desegregated staffs at senior leadership levels as well as lower echelons of responsibility. Staff Involvement in integration Teacher desegregation is not merelya matter of setting an example, The Fifth CircuitCourt of Even with an integrated and responsive staff, it Appeals has niled that, in thecase of officially isnecessaryto involvetheteachers and their caused segregation in any Southern school district, principals in two ways in the desegregationplan- teacher transfers must be made to achievea racial ning and implementation, say the majority ofthose balance of teachers in each school. Thatis, if there who have been through it. One way is to bring were 750 white teachers and 250 black teachers in them into the actual planning process, Theother a given school district, each school in that district way is to train them in such a way as to make must come up with a 3-1 ratio of white to black desegregated teaching and learning a more 44 effective process than segregated education was, in Preparing Staff for most instances. Increased Desegregation According to USOE, the principal can help identify any special problems that his school may A district with years of experience in desegrega- have., including: tion but which is still only part-way along in the process is the Louisville, Ky., school system. Implementing additional curriculum offerings. Although it began desegregation back in 1956 in 55 of its 75 schools, Louisville still had enough Adding administrative personnel. desegregating to do in 1970 to begin a new training Retraining counselors or teachers. program to help teachers relieve racial isolation in selected target school's. CarlHines,vicef chairman of theLouisville The USOE booklet observes that a principal school board at the time, told a Southern News- "who is merely a recipient of a pre-set plan may paper Publishers Assn, seminar on desegregation comply with it as his duty but feel no responsibil- how the board used federal and local funds for a ity or desire to be innovative and creative in its training program: implementation." In addition, if school staff see First, the board began an Organizational Devel- that their principal exerted no influence in plan- opment Program aimed at all 275 administrators ning, they are less likely to respect his adequacy from the board on down, includittg: and competence and are less likely to follow him, the authors say. One four-day biracial laboratory for about 24 Teachers also get in on the ground floor in groups "to . .. promote improved race rela- districtwide planning for desegregation.In the tionshipsaccompanyingadditionaldeseg- Berkeley, Calif., Unified School District, the super- regation." intendent, circulated proposed plans for desegrega- "Biracial group processes," to aid in identi- tion to all school staff, and in fact incorporated a fying and selecting able administrators and modification of the plan suggested by a teacher. A teachers for racially balanced staffs. principal in Riverside, Calif., reported to USOE researchersthat"perhapsthe most important Development of "an awareness and receptiv- educational innovation of allis 'honest' involve- ity to the needs of black students." ment of teachers in curriculum and instructional -At the same time, the personnel division began policy decisions." Sometimes the teacher training to identify and recruit blacks with leadership processservesto increase involvement as well. qualities to promote black career mobility. This USOE says this was true in the small Chattooga was to be done by: offering leadershiptraining to County, Ga., system, where training "spurred their selected participants "for future leadership posi- participation in the overall planning of the school tions"; placing selected blacks in leadership po-* program. Out of the activities of the (training) sitions and administrative openings as they oc- program grew several study projects, conducted by curred; sending at least four potential leaders to teachers working with the curriculum director on the U. of Louisville to help them qualify for educational methods." leadership positions. Theseareexamples of the involvement of Seven months later, inservice training began at teachers in planning desegregation. But perhaps the six target schools plus those "where major changes more common experiences in many school districts in the racial composition of the faculty have taken isthetrainingof teacherstoteachinnew place." The emphasis was on: offering opportu- situations: Classrooms filled with children of un- nities for individuals to examine their attitudes familiar socioeconomic backgrounds, culture and toward persons of another race, a "greater thrust" preparation for learning; curricula which have been invocational education, and increased use of redesigned in the planning process, and perhaps individualized instruction. most unnerving of all to some teachers, various levels of learning ability or learning achievement in one classroom. The degree of training will vary lnservice Training: Involvement for All with the will of the superintendent and board, the resources availableand the awareness of the need The Riverside, Calif., Unified School District for training. found that the usual summer training programs

45 with lectures to teachers were not enough, "since nate curriculum throughout the grades. Al- teachershad not seemed noticeably aided by thoughcurriculumprobablyshouldnot previous efforts and soon lost their initial enthusi- change radically in the first year, the reorgani- asm," according to USOE. Thus, a new program in zation of the schools will providenew oppor- 1967 "sought to involve a wide spectrum of school tunities for imaginative programs and teaching personnel and citizens. In addition to teachers and methods.Staff may want to revise social administrators, participants included teacher aides, studies, language arts, math and science, and custodians, board members, parents from various to include programs specifically geared to ethnic and economic groups, and personnel from educationally disadvantaged children and slow city and county police, probation, recreation and learners. welfare programs," said the USOE booklet. The emphasis was on involvement, carefully 6. Provide training sessions for early childhood developed and led by skilled practitioners.Small and elementary teachers, most of whom will group discussions, open confrontations of feelings not have taught in desegregated classes. Top- and fears, and situations that brought together a ics should include learning styles, pupil per- variety of lifestyles and backgrounds werear- formance, teacher-pupil relations, teacher ex- ranged. Content was broadened from discussion of pectations (it is important to generate high school desegregation to the root considerations of expectations of all students), and discipline. change, undertheheading,"Educationin Teachers should suggest topics for future Transition." training sessions. Each early childhood and elementary teacher might spend a week or more during this spring at a school with a Six Ways To Prepare Staff different racial composition under a school exchange program. When the Harrisburg, Pa., City School District set out to desegregate its schools under a mandate from the state's Human Relations Commission, it hiredaconsultantfirm,ResearchforBetter III. Making the Physical Changes Schools, Inc., of Philadelphia. In addition to their recommendationsforstudentorientationand The nation's school districts vary extremely in parent communication intheinitialstages of size, geographical, financial and demographic char- implementation, the consultants outlined a six- acteristics and in other features. Because they do, point program of staff preparation: the problems associated with the physical changes inschool desegregationvary from districtto 1. Set up district. What works for a tiny five-school district severalorientation workshops for with a stable school population has no bearing at teachers,supervisors and administrators to all on the experience of Detroit, Los Angeles or familiarize them with the new organization. Boston, with their ever-changing ratio of black, white and Spanish-speaking students. 2. Set up orientation workshops for nonprofes- Also, because these more technical aspects of sional staff. school desegregation appear to be susceptible to more conventional management skills, the usual 3. Increase recruitment of well qualified black technique of this report using examples, or teachers. models seems less valuable than a straightfor- ward enumeration of the elements which experts 4. Provide opportunitiesfor early childhood deem to be common to most, if not all, attempts teachers to meet and discuss needed facilities. to make physical change in a school district. They should also have the opportunity to In the search for a common denominator, the work with the buildings and grounds commit- U.S. Office of Education booklet, Vol. I, Planning tee in defining and implementing these needs. Educational Change: Technical Aspects of School Desegregation, appears with a compilation of de- tailedsteps which can help nearly any school 5. Provide curriculum workshops for teachers on district meet itsobjectives. Following are the all levels to plan new curriculum and coordi- pertinent parts of that volume: 46 I. DATA REQUIRED FOR DESEGREGATION PLANS

The development of a sound desegregation plan depends upon cooperation betweenthe local school officials and technical assistance personnel in collecting accurate data and informationabout the school system. Some of the kinds of information needed include:

o Student enrollments by school, grade, race o Staff assignments by school, position, race o Capacity, age, location and adequacyof all school facilities o Curricular and extracurricular offerings in eachschool o Demography and geography of the community,including potential safety hazards o Distances between schools and betweenpopulation centers o Transportation facilities available o Tax base and fiscal information o Organization and current policies of theschool district o Past efforts to desegregate o Office for Civil Rights, D/HEW, compliancerequirements.

The following are suggested as means of obtaining the necessary facts:

1. Building information To develop a plan, data on staff, building capacity, students, grade level, and so forth are necessary. This type of information can be supplied by each school principal.(See p. 62.)

2. Proposed building information Information on future construction plans, including long-range projected plans, should beobtained. (See p. 62.)

3. Pupil locator maps A pupil locator map for each school should be prepared by local school officials.The lowest grade of each school usually enrolls the greatest number of pupils. Thus, plottingthe location of the students in the lowest grade of every school in the system should prove to berepresentative of total student distribution. For example, if the school system is set up as 6-3-3, threepupil locator maps should be prepared. The first map would locate every student in the 1st grade, thesecond map would locate every student in the 7th grade, and the third map would locate every 10th-gradestudent. If the school system is 4-4-4, a separate map should be prepared for students in grade 1,students in grade 5, and students in grade 9.

In addition, it is important to obtain projected figures for the student population overthe next 5 years, and to foresee changing housing patterns in thecommunity. These procedures may prevent re- segregation in the future.

The residences of Negro and white students should be plotted on maps by the useof different sym- bols or colors. For example, white students could be plotted with red dots andNegro students with green dots. (See p. 63.)

Maps of adequate size should be used. They may be procured from thelocal Chamber of Commerce, State and county highway departments, or other municipalagencies. Duplicate copies of these maps will be needed. 47 In some cases a separate locator map for each schoolmay be necessary. These maps can show the flow patterns of students as established underpresent policies.

4. School and school site map

A map should be obtained which shows the location ofeach school in the system. Schools should be placed on the map, coded as to level. In addition,all proposed buildings and sites owned by the board should be shown. All schools should be located inblue; elementary schools 0, intermediate schools LS, and high schools . (See p.64.)

5. Transportation maps

Maps should be obtained showing all bus routes, the schools served,the number of miles driven for each route, and the number of students livingon each route. Students should be designated by race. (See p. 65.)

6. Demographic smear map

This map shows the community population distribution byrace.

I I. EFFECTIVE USE OF DATA

As a preliminary step to the ust: of data obtained,an on-site inspection should be made of community hous- ing patterns and existing school facilities. A ridethrough the community surrounding each school and an external examination of schools and school sites will usuallybe sufficient. This inspection will provide the background necessary to work effectively withthe data collected, and a demographic smear map could be prepared at the same time.

The following steps have proved successful in the development ofdesegregation plans and might serve as useful guides once the data have been assembled.

The examples used are based on an average-sized school districtorganized on a 6-3--3 grade struc- ture. As the size and grade structure vary, these stepsmay be modified. For illustration, the maps included in the appendix have been reduced in size, with the exception of the pupil locatormap. For urban areas of dense population, a map scale of 1 or 2 inchesto a mile is recommended.

1. As a reference guide, the following symbols and colorswill provide easy identification: White students Red dots Negro students -- Green dots Elementary schools Blue circles Intermediate schools Blue triangles High schools --Blue squares Zone lines Black

2. In most cases, it is advantageous tostart with the elementary schools. Place a sheet of acetate overlay over the school locator map and mark allelementary schools on the acetate with a blue circle. Either on the edge of the acetate oron a separate sheet of paper place the following information for each school:

a. Name of school d. Current enrollment b. Date of construction e. Number of portable classrooms, if any. c. State rated capacity

As additional information is needed, consult data sheets for individualand surrounding schools. (See p. 62.)

48 3. Remove overlay from school locator map and secure over elementary pupil locator map.

4. Consider the location of pupils in relation to the existing elementary schools.

5. Where simple zoning does not result in significant desegregation, techniques should be considered such as:

a. Pairing of schools f.Education parks b. Grade structure reorganization g. Education complexes c. Central schools h. Metropolitan plans d. School closing i.Magnet schools e. Special-service schools j.Construction (where financially feasible).

6. Using zoning and other techniques, establish on the acetate a plan for elementary schools which is educationally sound and administratively feasible. All techniques used should be clearly indicated on the acetate.

7. Repeat steps numbers 2-6 for the intermediate schools, keeping in mind that elementary school zones should, where possible, feed intermediate school zones. The acetate containing the elementary plan can be occasionally placed over the intermediate overlay to check for desirable feeder patterns.

8. Repeat steps numbers 2-6 for the high schools, keeping in mind that both elementary and inter- mediate zones should feed high school zones.

9. A permanent map for each level should be prepared from the acetates and a narrative description of the plan should be prepared for explanation to those involved in the desegregation of the school district. The written plan should include pertinent background information as well as specific recommendations de- veloped for transition to a unitary system, including desegregation of faculty and staff, elimination of a dual transportation system, and policy on future construction and minority transfer policies.

10. Alternate plans should be developed where it is clear that more than one technique would result in complete desegregation or where other factors might be present that would dictate the need for an alterna- tive, such as the relative educational soundness of various techniques.

Following are descriptions of various techniques for use in developing desegregation plans and a de- scription of the manner in which a final plan should be presented. Presentation to local school officials and the public should be kept in mind throughout the development process, with particular emphasis upon the kind of plan(s) developed and why.

III. DESEGREGATION TECHNIQUES

The techniques for developing an effective plan vary, since they are contingent upon such factors as size of the student population, residential patterns of the community, number and location of schools in the sys- tem, and grade levels served by each sCiool. Those discussed in this section have been used by many school systems. In some cases one of the techniques will be adequate to do the inb, but in larger systems a com- bination of one or more may be needed.

It will become necessary to analyze the data obtained and the maps and overlays developed in order to de- termine which technique is most effective in a particular situation.

49 GEOGRAPHIC ATTENDANCE ZONES

In many school systems it will be possible to assign students to schoolson the basis of geographic attendance areas. Zone boundaries should be drawn in a manner promoting a maximum of desegregation in each school and in as many schools as is administratively feasible. This would tend to deter theprocess of resegregation or exclude it altogether as a possibility. In many cases it will be sufficient merely to enlarge existing attend- ance areas. In others, new and imaginative attendance areas must be drawn to assure that schools servea racially and socially heterogeneous student population. Many systems have used school busroutes as a basis for establishing attendance areas.

Illustration #1

Illustration #2

PREDOMINANTLY NEGRO SCHOOLS 1--1 PREDOMINANTLY WHITE SCHOOLS

rm DESEGREGATED SCHOOLS

50 SCHOOL PAIRING

This method of desegregation is best suited to an area of a school system which has two comparable schools located within a relatively short distance of each other. Before pairing, one school might be a predomi- nantly Negro school serving grades 1-6. The other school might be a predominantly white school serving the same grades. After pairing, one school could serve grades 1-3 and the other 4-6. In this way the former attendance patterns for the two schools would be merged to form one larger attendance area for both schools.

MOSTLY MOSTLY NEGROEGRO WHITE

rrGRADES K-6

AFTER

1111DESEG. DESEG. Air

r----1GRADES Fr-1GRADES K-3 4-6

11111._

BEFORE PAIRING, STUDENTS ENROLL ACCORDING TO EACH SCHOOL'S ATTENDANCE AREA. AFTER PAIRING, STUDENTS OF BOTH ATTENDANCE AREAS ENROLL IN THE TWO SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO GRADE.

51 REORGANIZATION OF GRADE STRUCTURE

In some school systems, desegregation may be accomplished through changingthe basic grade organization. Prior to reorganization there might be a predominantly Negro schoolserving grades 1-12, one predominantly white high school serving grades 9-12, and two predominantly white elementaryschools serving grades 1-8. The system could be reorganized on a 6-3-3 basis for all schools. Theformerly white high school could serve grades 10-12, fhe formerly Negro school could serve grades 7-9, and the formerlywhite elementary schools could be zoned to serve grades 1-6. Utilizing this method wouldnot only completely desegregate the system but would also make full use of existing school plants.

BEFORE AFTER

ESTABLISHING SCHOOLS FOR SPECIAL SERVICES

A school formerly attended predominantly by students ofone race may be converted into a special- services building to serve the entire system. The special-services needs of thesystem should be as- sessed to determine how the building might be best utilized.Such a facility could be used to house classes for the educable mentally retarded and physically handicapped students withhearing or sight diffi- culties, or as an adult education center, advanced learning center,or recreation center.

AFTER

MIPREDOMINANTLY NEGRO SCHOOLS PREDOMINANTLY 1_1 WHITE SCHOOLS

rui DESEGREGATED SCHOOLS

52 CENTRAL SCHOOLS

Central schools are established by converting one or more facilities into schools which serve a single grade for a much larger geographical area. Thus, when a central school is created, attendance areas for the remaining schools can be enlarged. For example, a predominantly Negro elementary schoo: could be converted into a school for all 6th-grade students in the community. The remaining elementary schools would then serve only five grades.

BEFORE

GRADES GRADES GRADES 1-6 1-6 1-6

GRADES GRADES 1-6 1-6

AFTER

GRADES GRADES rGRADES 1-5 1-5 1-5

1

riGRADES GRADE GRADES 1-5 I b 1-5

PREDOMINANTLY NEGRO

BOUNDARIES FOR GRADES 1-6

BOUNDARIES FOR GRADES 1-5

53 SCHOOL CLOSING AND CONSOLIDATION

In many systems small inadequate schools exist whichwere originally -v.r.,.tablished for students of a particular race. Such schools deny students equal educational opportunity and should be closedand the students as- signed to other schools in the system. Consideration shouldbe given to recommending, when administra- tively feasible, that schools not meeting Stateor other accreditation standards be closed. likvommendations should be made of other uses that could be made of the facility,such as adult education center, recreztion center, reading center, special materials center.

BEFORE

WHITE WHITE WHITE

GRADES GRADES GRADES 7-9 7-9 r 7-9

WHITE MOSTLY NEGRO WHITE

GRADES GRADES 7-9 r 7-9 4111=1

AFTER DESEG. DESEG. DESEG.

GRADES GRADES 7-9 7-9

CLOSED_diiiii0000.11.11.1111111 DESEG.f----ii DES EG. .---1 GRADES GRADES 7-9 7-9 rj :A4bg 1

THE PREDOMINANTLY NEGRO JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL IS CLOSED AND THE STUDENTS ARE ASSIGNED TO OTHER SCHOOLS.

54 EDUCATION PARKS

For some communities the education park plan may be one of the best techniques for achieving desegrega- tion, as well as for improving the overall quality of education and providing opportunities for specialized training. The education park could consist of one facility, centrally located, which would serve all students in the area. The park plan usually calls for new construction but it also permits more innovation and special- ized facilities.

QUO ti 4P.

Gym PACILITy

EXPERIMENTAL

PLAN FOR NEW YORK'S NEW EDUCATION PARK PROVIDES FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 2,800 PUPILS. INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS FOR 3,600, AND A COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL FOR 4.000. STUDENTS WILL BE GROUPED IN UNITS OF 700 EACH IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS, 900 IN THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS, AND 1,000 IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. THE CENTRAL UNIT WILL OFFER COMMON FACILITIES FOR i.LL SCHOOLS IN THE COMPLEX.*

*DIAGRAM ADAPTED FROM SATURDAY REVIEW, NOVEMBER, 196c.

EDUCATION COMPLEXES

This method may be suited for communities in which there are several schools of the same grade structure located relatively near each other. While it might be impossible to draw attendance zones that would de:teg- regate such schools, reorganizing the academic program in each school so that course offerings aredistributed among the schools on a departmentalized basis would reSu'A in all children attendingall schools sometime during the day. This method would also provide for the best distribution of specialized ,ryarsonnel, sinceall children would be gathered in one building for each curricular area. One situation conducive to reorganiza- tion into an education complex would be an area of a community in which there are five elementary schools, two predominantly Negro and three predominantly white. The five schools could be reorganizedinto the

55 following: a social science building, a languagearts building, a math and science building, a central library building, and a special education building. The reorganizationwould result in more concentrated programs for all children in the area.

AFTER

S OCIAt SCIENCES LANGUAGE AR TS MATH & SCIENCE PRIMARY GRADES PRIMARY GRADES PRIMARY GRADES

SOCIAL SCIENCES LANGUAGE AR TS MATH & SCIENCE INTERMEDIATE GRADES INTERMEDIATE GRADES INTERMEDIATE GRADES

PREDOMINANTLY NEGRO SCHOOLS

PREDOMINANTLY WHITE SCHOOLS

METROPOLITAN PLAN

The metropolitan plan may embody some or all of the featuresof educathn parks and complexes but differs in that it includes surrounding suburbanareas, Thus, one large complex of buildings and facilities located in the the city would serve central iTity and suburban children.The site of the complex should be as convenientas possible to all areas that it serves and should be largeenough to permit growth. Illustration #1 illustration #2

\ // / \ / I A / II I \ / I PREDOMINANTLY t / \ / \ / NEGRO SCHOOLS / PREDOMINANTLY \ / 1-.1 WHITE SCHOOLS \ / EMDESEGREGATED GOO' SCHOOLS

56 MAGNET SCHOOLS AND SUPPLEMENTARY CENTERS

To attract students from a wide geographical area of a school districts programs which are innovative or which are designed to supplement activities existing in traditional schools could be offered exclusively at "magnet" schools. A supplementary center could also offer a special curriculum taught nowhere else ih the system. Many students should be eager to choose to attend such a school on a full-time or part-time basis. Attract- ing students from as large a geographic area as possible would assure a more racially and socially hetexogen- eous student population.

%/.

Fl

PREDOMINANTLY NEGRO SCHOOLS

ElPREDOMINANTLY WHITE SCHOOLS

IV. FACULTY AND STAFF DESEGREGATION

Faculty and staff desegregation is an essential part of the total desegregation process. In developing aplan for the complete desegregation of a school system, local school officials are responsible for reassigningstaff so that no single school can be identified as being for one race.Since the reassignment of total staff must take into consideration the academic preparation and certification of each staff member, nospecific guidelines can be formulated that would be applicable to every situation. There are, however, certain generally applicable criteria for the reassignment of staff on a desegregated basis:

1. To the extent possible, no school should have a faculty the can clearly be identified asintended for students of a particular race, color, or national origin. Wh.re staff fae permits, Negro andwhite per- sonnel should be placed on the faculty of each elementary and &Tcortdary school in the system.

57 2. In the event of a reduction in staffor assignment to :ewer status due to complete desegregation, the staff members to be released or assignedto lower status positions must be r.-elected from all the school system's professional staff members without regardto race, c093r, or national DrigiP and on the basis of objective and reasonable standards. In addition,no vacancy may be fiVed te,,ixt,4itment from out- side the system unless school officials first determinethat noor. of the li:=41.-A..e.1 state Irrk....-el,t1rs is quali- fied to fill the vacancy.

3. In no event should teachers or administratorsbe assigned to ,.:9-:t..3c1) they are not properly certified.If retraining is planned for thereassignmem of staff in ve?dtions or for up- grading of skills, the expense should be borne by the school system or soc,72 ca.;t:,..t:-.::-.E; source, suchas the Education Professions Development Act. Fundsfrom Title IV o'; the Civil 4Vt elJ 1964 can be used for inservice training of staff to prepare them specifically for function:rg eese7-egated settings.

4. The salary of no employee should be reducedas a resul- of the implementer:4m of the proposed plan of desegregation.

Statements of policies formulated with regard to thereassignment, new enignoent, and promo- tion of staff should be distributed to all professional employees, Similar policy staAernents should also be distributed to nonprofessional staff.

5. In the reassignment of staff, sound personnel proceduresshould be practiced. Assignment of staff members to desegregated teaching situationsshould be mad2; as earlyas possible in the spring of the school year preceding the new assignment. Along withthis assignment process, meetings should be held with staff members to answer questions and clarifyany new policies with regard to the desegregation of faculty.

V. EFFECTIVE DESEGREGATION

The problems faced by school officials during the desegregationprocess are numerous. Many are complex and require comprehensive analysis if adequate and lasting solutionsare to be found. Most local school officials and their staffs have had littleor no preparation for dealing with problems incident to desegre- gation. Also, it is often difficult for those most closely involvedto give attention to specific details while maintaining an overall view of the many differentaspects of the process.Personnel policy and deploy- ment, curriculum content and organization, materials andresources, program planning, inservice teacher training, school-community relations, extracurricular activities,parent-teacher relations, evaluation, student grouping methods--these are just a few of themany areas which should be considered if a district is going tc move smoothly toward a unitary school system.

The following checklists of specific factorsmay serve as a guide by which school officials and their staffs can assess their efforts to provide the best possible educationalexperiences for all students under their responsibility. They will aid school officials in planning fordesegregation, in assessing activities already underway, and in moving from physical desegregation toward the more complex curricular changesre- quired for effective integration. Each factor in thechecklists may be assessed by placinga "no", "some- what", or "yes" answer in the space providedto the left.

SCHOOL OFFICIALS:

1. Are the Board of Education and other local schoolofficials providing active and progressive leadership toward the elimination of thedual school system?

58 2. Are local school officials carrying the major responsibility for schooldesegregation rather than depending upon the voluntary choices of parents and students ?

3. Is desegregation being carried out as fast as is administratively feasible,without unnecessary delay ?

4. Are school officials meeting with and kWlying representatives of local organiza- tions, white and black, interested in education ?

5. Are positive steps being taken to keep the total community informed ofmajor decisions, plans, and progress ?

6.Are efforts being made to take full advantage of al0.available technicalassistance from local, State, and national sources ?

7. Does the Board of Education have a clear written policy of providing maximum education for each child ?

8. Are school officials doing the program planning necessary to provide eachchild with a maximum educational opparlunity ?

9. Does the Board of Education have a policy which encourages all students,regard- less of race, to participate fully in a!! of the activities of the schools ?

10. Are positive efforts being made to staff each school with qualified teachersof differing races and/or national origin ?

11. Are positive steps being taken to hire qualified minority-group teachers ?

12. Is the staff being prepared for school desegregation through inservice training programs ?

13. Is the district planning for staff and student human relations activities prior to desegregation ?

14. Is positive action being taken to avoid resegregation in classrooms and school activities after desegregation has taken place ?

15. Are curricular reforms necessary for successful desegregation being studied, developed and implemented ?

16. Are multi-ethnic and minority group materials available in the classrooms and the library ?

CLASSROOM TEACHERS AND OTHER STAFF :

1. Are you able to identify problems that block or hinder open and nonest com- munication between yourself and your principal, your fellow teachers, and yourstudents ?

2. Do you inspire your students to respect one another and be open and honest intheir communications with you and with other students ?

59 3. Do you read books or articles to increaseyour understanding of and sensitivity to the particular aspirations, needs, problems, and frustrationsof minority or disadvantaged children ?

4. Do you take the initiative in dispellingprejudices, stereotypes and misunderstandings among students under your responsibility ?

5. Do you listen with an open mind to studentsand faculty members of other racial groups, even if their ideas are divergent fromyour own thinking ?

6. Do you strive to avoid expressions and actionswhich are offensive to members of other groups ?

7. Do you help to discourage or preventpatterns of informal discrimination, segregation, or exclusion of minority group members from school clubs, committees, and so forth ?

8. Do you utilize classroom techniques and methods,such as improvisational dramatics, role-playing, joint planning of programs by teachersand students, small-group sensitivity discussions, and analysis of group roles that will increasespontaneity and honesty of ex- pression and an understanding of the dynamics ofgroup interaction ?

9. Are you aware that group prejudices and antagonisms might bereinforced by homo geneous or ability grouping and have you taken steps to prevent this reinforcement?

10. Are your teaching methods and materials appropriate forheterogeneous groups of students ?

11. Do you suspect that latent prejudicesor stereotyped thinking may unfairly influence your discipline or evaluation of students ?

12. Do your outside reading assignments includeaccounts of all races ? If not, are you familiar with bibliographies containing suchreadings ?

13. Do you continually check with your schoollibrarian to learn how much material of this type is available in your school library?

14 Do you show P.iegro as well as whitegroups in your bulletin board displays ?

15. Do your classroom pictures of great peopleinclude Negroes as well as whites ?

16. Have you discarded pictures or posters thatmay reinforce Negro stereotypes or stereotypes of other minority groups ?

17. Do your pictures of cities include representatives ofdifferent cultural groups ?

18. Do you use magazine and newspaper articlesrelating to interracial experiences and problems that can be discussed in class for betterhuman relations ?

19. Do you evaluate your textbooks to determine whetherthey contain fair and appro- priate treatment of minority groups ?

20. Do you make efforts to overcome any deficiencies ofyour textbooks' treatment of minority groups ?

60 21. Do your students have opportunities to learn democratic skills and values by inter- acting in problem-solving groups ?

22. Do you encourage your problem-solving groups to concern triemseives with problems in intergroup relations that have immediate relevance to their lives ?

23. Do you organize and present your material (units of work) to include contributions of minority groups and individuals ?

24. Do you visit or otherwise personally familiarize yourself with the families and com- munities of your students ?

25. Do you make efforts to involve the parents or guardians of your students in school activities ?

VI. PRESENTING COMPLETED DESEGREGATION PLANS

Any plan presented for adoption by a school system should contain the following elements:

1. The plan should satisfy all requirements of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and/or of the court. Approval should be obtained from these sources prior to presentation.

2. The plan should employ the most educationally sound technique(s) for the district.

3. The plan should be administratively feasible.

While school officials may want to negotiate the provisions of the plan with Federal technical assistance personnel in the area, it should be kept in mind that any negotiations for the purpose of official plan ap- proval must be between the Office for Civil Rights (Title VI CRA) and/or the court and the school system.

The materials to be used in presenting the plan should be reviewed thoroughly before the presentation and should be organized in an orderly and coherent manner.

As a suggested format for the presentation:

1. Outline briefly, if necessary, the legal requirements for desegregation, including recent court decisions.

2. Distribute copies of the written plan to each person present.

3. Explain the desegregation plan in great detail, using maps, overlays, charts, overhead projector, and a detailed written description. For districts that are made up of several attendance areas, it is suggested that the presentation cover one area at a time.

4. Make educational recommendations that are pertinent to plan implementation. Explain the various sources of technical assistance available for plan implementation.

5. Make recommendations that are not only pertinent to short-range plr implementation, but that also deal with effective desegregation and prevention of resegregation.

61 BUILDING INFORMATION

Name of School

Address

Name of Principal

Grades in School

Number of Permanent Teaching Stations

State Rated Capacity

Maximum Building Capacity (without portables) Portable Classrooms Number Capacity Temporary Classrooms Number Capacity Current Student Enrollment White Negro Total Student Enrollment

Number of Teachers Full time or Part time White Negro White Negro Total Full time Full time Full time Part time Part time Part time Other Professional Personnel White Negro Total ENROLLMENT BY GRADES

1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th d - 9th 10th 11th 12th Total W 4 - N Total I

Number of Students Transported

Age of Building Type of Construction

Number of Acres in School Site Wilber of Square Feet in Building

This building contains the following facilities:(please check)

Cafeteria Multipurpose room

Gymnasium Teacher lounge

Library Auditorium

Attach a list of the subjects and courses offered.

62 0 0 0 I a * p. 4 ° 0 0 CI 0 0 U 9 # s _. 0 0 A s 0 or 0\ es 11.09 0 9 0 ,co 0 V 0 0 0 V 0 0 0 0 A 0 .0 $99 cb °a 00 0 00 0 0 **et, Q a . a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 / 0 .- , 0 ..,- * sA I /00 0 00 0 0 . . 0 6o 0 ,c7 * 0A 0 a 0, ' 0 0 . C/Q #0 4 0 0 0 . Q. 0 as 0 0 0 Q41 . 4 0 )00 0 ° 011 0 0. ,V W 00 0 au_ 0* 0 0 n 0 DO -\I 040 0 0 0 0 "is 0 sew A 7of /at 0 0 0 00 0 % 40 000 0 ,., 0 IP ° ... %.70 ''., *0 0 0 0 4,.... 0 ..1 .40 ..0h 0 * 0 4. 0t* 00 0 0, O Q ..,,, ..s. ° o 0 0 0 , 00 0 .0 o P c, to, 10 0 Ito% ...,., ..'4. "*.? a s'el 0 e et, (4 0 Y G0 0 co 0p 9 o 00 0 0 0 Q. 1 0 0 0 0 o to (7 0 11,,, (. 0 -00 . - 0 c. 0 ) 0..0 0 *9 a0 De V. 0 015 I - -., a I 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 () 004 ..,_ -4:. 0 0 0 0 on0 e) li vg) a 4 . r2 0 0 I 0 0 c I 0 0 4' 7°",.. 4,00 SO 0 0 0 :. ''' 0 V 0 0 0 "er ... a° % 0 0 0 ,.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 64, 0 0 0 0 0 t 00 0 0 vr0.1 0 00 0 00 4' 1102", n 0 , ,_ VI ' 0 0 . b0e 0 OS 0 devo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. C 00 0 4., e 0 0 0 stl %.9,... 90 o0 00 0 0 0 . 0 0 0,1* 0 00 NI a,--ow- . 0 £/0 A 0,°.000° O. 8 0 00: ''.... --". 0, 0 '° 0°Q 0 00 , 0 0 0 9 0VA 0 Oa 0 0 0 0 o c, .,,, 1. 0 0 0 0 se s Q- 4,9,.. 0 0 0 AP 0 ° o -. 0.,, 0 0 0 3 *sp.* 0 0 0 V 0 0.0 0 00 4 6 if 0 .s.s o .0 0 Pb, 0 ° ° ° s .o 0 o 0 0. 0 0 9 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 V. 0 0pc, '' . v 0 0 ° ..o..4.,0 0 Pa .s.(3 0 n 41:: ° as : .00 0 0 0 0 0 00 . oo 0 a 4? 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 Q o o 0 0 0 *to 4100 40 0 V 0 a a- 0 0 .I 0 Cf 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 C' 0 ° 00 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 ( 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 00° cl 0 0 0 0 _,...,,, 0 ,,,d1 o o o 0 o 0 °00 . 00 /10 . . 0 * U,L.-"".,t4. HEWMAN V",/,' 'Li. mem min] Lza 13,11N

aFOS agn.4

15:15 raliLL \\ riiii,:4111 07411ft. ti 4 %54-gricto,\v Gravel iot toomelowmgaailm'' roan413'11 r oe ernmite,1 liaig 111101i1541fiiA1 tii kaV trarcuilyi`i'pacii;;M17.11EiiiiinrIalint,

MIN

?Cisco° HASKELLHEIGHTS"' 4 B A TER, 11/4.0"44 S "Hu* Ai' le It a 10111 .3.r.:14, *N.- 44,, ' i'Ii ir 1-it i, r inr)tri 1P^` .3. IT'nr" ' - f' 31 .3' ''' * i V:i 'Stir, Xi; lesLy:°2r701-4: i'-'14\i, 2:.:1114111C,0070...... ' ,, N,''"'t tot, -.17,11PY 11pauu ion blip ,Y,-.\c'N4':,.it 44 -11.k ''.i'''';:r.-1\71 '''''''T .1 . 10 Alq 0, ItY-114\11 t -11,f/ifhAj''',1',.....1.... 1-, 4r-7-ricee .1 Hi PENNINGTON 1 14K".,, MP'Ayr' *0 ccz 0 An z RANOON1 % irlilKi, J.. It, ' 11 4'ACHE a, a$$$$$$ V YORKSHIRE %HILLS 04 YAM WOOD O. 0.1(1 tam. mo 0 Da A Icf O :1su 2t e. Nu. 2, ,b4 11 v I z z c; \\sit, \\,

s. ' \

z tat,!0)v rrr 71; , -vo tfk,Nojry 4 AftK;:;414:CI4. lli7t1;14' do W/1 '9/1e4 IblAilltiiIMI ' IIII"onsignalf-. '11,(11, 11, It' Aikib ./15.74I !t it #4t74 ''''',11/// :',W '/7/,''/////i, /,'1,1///, , tri '.'.."- it-' "'!AID '

114111,14/1:41 ,'',/ ,/'4/i,y if,' ''..*%°' IV. Devising a Feedback, Evaluation The research focused basically on the first year and Continuity Plan of desegregated schooling. It explored academic, social, behavioral and attitudinal characteristics in: Why evaluate? Isit necessary? Yes, say those the children transferred from the black school, a who have devised plans and have watched them racially mixed group experiencing no change in work with varying degrees of success. setting, and predominantly white children in the The community needs to know that the school six receiving schools. board and administration are concerned enough A limited follow-up was carried out two years and have enough faith in the plan to test its results; later on 40 Negro transfer pupilsstillinthe national policy makers need to know how various elementary receiving schools. In all, the data would desegregation plans have benefited or failedto "serve to define a wide spectrum of potential early benefit the children they were designed to help; outcomes that might be anticipated by other and, perhaps most important, a reading on the communities adopting this general approach to strengths and weaknesses of a desegregation plan desegregation; their implications may well extend can help a school district adjust its plan in time to to other desegregation efforts as well," the research get better results. report said. Human Resources in School Desegregation, Vol- Here are some excerpts from the summary of ume 11 in the USOE series, gives school board and the Ann Arbor report, by subject and/or by study administrators the basic why and how of evalua- technique (with the students divided by their role tion: in the plan, as "transfer," mainly Negro; "non- transfer,"racially mixed; and "receiving," pre- The process of planned change is a never- dominantly white). ending effort to improve school life. Efforts at social change need constant monitoring to Scholastic Aptitude and Achievement: Academic perfor- insure their continuing relevance to the origi- mance of the transfer group can be summarized as generally poorer than that of the nontransfer and receiving groups, nal goals and diagnoses which constitute the both before the transfer and one year after its implementa- basis of a plan. tion.Thisisdemonstrated by a higher incidence of nonpromotion in the transfer group, and by generally lower The same methods that were appropriate for mean scores on standardized tests of scholastic aptitude, the diagnosis may be useful for evaluation. reading and arithmetic ... in part a reflection of atypical Examples include attitude surveys, standard high levels of performance among children in this commu- performance tests, observational records of nity. classroom interactions, and interviews with Differences between white and Negro pupils are substan- staff members or clients. Since there is always tial, on the whole, and the advantage generally lies with the a danger thatthe evaluator's values and white child. interests may bias the results, the superin- As would be expected, all groups demonstrate improved tendent may gain a more objective review post-transfer performance on standardized tests. The largest gains, however, tend to be made by receiving-school pupils, from an outside agency than from experts on whose initial performance levels were highest. Thus, the his own staff. widening achievement gap reported nationally for white and black children as they progress through the grades finds some measure of support here, particularly in reading A Case Study achievement ... the desegregation experience provided to Ann Arbor ghetto children cannot be said to have altered The Ann Arbor, Mich., Public Schools con- this phenomenon appreciably for the transfer group as a ducteda three-year research program intoits whole. desegregation plan involving the closing of a black elementary school and the busing of students to In spite of these discouraging findings, there other schools, both integrated and white. The were also the positive notes that half the transfer studycost $102,000 but was 75%-funded by pupils showed gain in IQ of 5 points, or more, and USOE. An assistant superintendent said at the time 37 showed normal or greater gains inreading. of its release in late 1969 that the system believed Transfer pupils studied two years later were at best it to be "the first desegregation research project of holding their own academically, relative to national its kind conducted entirely by the research staff of norms, while progress of receiving, white children a public school system." seemed unaffectf-1.

67 Self-esteem, Motivation and Personal Aspiration: With the support. Teachers appeared to have a minimal role, if any, possible exception of pupils in grades K-I, self-esteem in in these differing perceptions of school climate. the transfer group appears to have been generally unaf- fected by the transfer. For the K-1 transfer population, the Interview Data (of children and parent attitudes): Bearing initial level of self- esteem was comparable to that of their in mind that interview data must be interpreted cautiously, nontransfer counterparts but somewhat below the level in that it represents only what those interviewed are willing demonstrated in the receiving group.... The scores of to report, the data presented here indicate that a majority white transfer pupils tended to diminish somewhat over the of thetransfer pupils and their parents held favorable post-transfer year, while the scores of Negro transfer pupils expectations foi the transfer (70% and 55% respectively) tended to increase in the fall and either stabilize at that and reported favorable reactions following the first year of level (boys) or diminish slightly thereafter (girls)... but it desegregated schooling (66% and 62%, respectively). is difficult to ascribe the slight gain of the transfer group to Pupils' attitudes as they reported them were somewhat the transfer. less positive than the attitudes ascribed to them by their parents;this was pti.ticularlytrueatthe end of the (To realize the complexity of the study, note post-transfer year, when 92% of the parents reported their the following: ) children's attitudes toward the transfer to be positive, as c.3inpared with 66% of the pupils' reported reactions. Findings from a special substudy, utilizing previously Negro children showed some tendency to express more validated experimental measures of achievement motiva- positive attitudes prior to the transfer, and less positive tion, suggest a greater impact of desegrsated schooling on attitudes after a year in the receiving school, than white the achievement motivation of Negro boys than Negro girls. children. The reverse was true for white and Negro parents. Over the post-transfer year, Negro boys in the transfer group showed a significantly greater increase in autono- In addition to these excerpted sections, there mous achievement motivation than did nontransfer boys. were others reporting on the demographic charac- A paralleltrend was apparent for social comparison teristics of the three sets of students, on pupil achievement motivation, indicating a reduced tendency of health, school attendance and special problems, on older Negro boys (grades 2-5) to overaspire i.e., to set behavior in school and on concomitants of change unrealistically high goals. Overaspiration was found to be (change in reading as related to gain in vocabulary, associated with membership in a salient racial minority group in school (Negro or white). For pupils of low-to- etc.). The last paragraph of the summary presents moderate socioeconomic status, it is also associated with some "tentative conclusions" of the study: attending a school in which regular contact with children of higher socioeconomic status is not possible. Desegregation is clearly no panacea for. the ills of the ghetto child. The evidence presented here suggests Interpersonal Relationships: In general, the transfer pupils thatit may have an early positive impact on the appear to have been somewhat less well accepted by their attitudes and behavior of elementary school children, receiving-school classmates than they were the previous and that it may be a more effective strategy for some year by their classmates in the de facto segregated school. children than for others. The evidence suggests also Both sociometric and self-report data show that the that if the consequences of such intervention are to transfer group expressed more positiveperceptions of approachthehigh hopes reflectedinthe1954 classmates and teachers in the receiving school environment Supreme Court decision, in promoting the educa- comparedtoperceptions expressedpreviouslyinthe tional betterment of minority-group children, deseg- segregated school. An opposite tendency appeared among regation must be something more and probably a nontransfer pupils.... The increw-ed positive response of great deal more than moving children from one the transfer group isbest described as a strong initial educational setting to another. reaction, which diminished to some extent over the course of the year. Two Views of an Evaluation Reactions to School: ...An upward shift in scores from the pre-transfer year to the post-transfer year suggests that the The Ann Arbor study and many of those transfer pupils saw their new school situation :s more conducted by other school systems have attempted supportive than the milieu of the de facto segregated school to bring some objective measurement to bear on an attended the year before. This post-transfer shift was not emotional and frequently misunderstood subject. evident in the nontransfer group, but it did occur among In the absence of such an attempt, some form of white receiving-school pupils, raising the possibility that the evaluation will be done, even ifitis only the introduction of a new, predominantly Negro reference introspection and observation of school board group into the receiving schools may have brought new members, the school staff, the media and the rewards for the white child, in terms of perceived classroom public. Each will form an opinion of a desegrega- 68 tion plan; if there is little in the way of hard data Some breakdown of discipline, especially in to use to judge the plan, it will be judged anyway. the attendance area and tardiness. There are Thus, at an April 1972 meeting of the Council disproportionate numbers of blacks who are of Big City Boards of Education of the National being suspended and expelled and thisis School Boards Assn., two No folk, Va., school something that we are very disturbed about. board members gavetheir owri assessment of Three major reasons for suspension: atten- desegregation in Norfolk. They included what had dance, truancy; disrespect for teachers; failure happened and what was needed in a school system to obey orders. It grows out of community which desegregated bit by bit beginning in the attitudes, and must be dealt with in communi- 1960s and culminated in extensive busing in the ties, either black or white. 1972-73 school year. The assessments were dif- ferent indeed, one coming from a white business- Need to reduce the number of people who are man who was chairman of the Norfolk school at war with the school system. We are being board and former chairman of the Council of Big blamed for the situation in which we find CitySchools,theother fromthe one black ourselves. member of the board, a woman long active in civil. rights. Vincent Thomas, the board chairman, told big Positive items on the balance sheet were: city board members that "the trick is maintaining integration once we get it," and noted that it is the Most positive thing and we are completely board members "who have to be what we would balanced, with every one of our schools and call pragmatic idealists. After all, the policies are faculties balanced isthatI believe now made by the federal government, the courts, the whatever itis that Norfolk is offering, every state and the local government, then we're the ones school child in our system has equal access to who have to it, we have to make it it. It is a magnificent thing. It is what I think work." In anyany school system, he said, "we need a the courts have been trying to urge upon us. lot more objectivity given to these matters than we Seem able to give." He was particularly critical of 1 don't believe we'll ever go back now, even if the booklet, It's Not Over in the South, as being we could ease off on what I consider to be inaccurate,prejudicedandirresponsible. He too extreme a busing plan. charged that it "increased divisions", in Norfolk. (The report was critical of Norfolk.) Our school board attitude has gotten a lot Thomas drew a balance sheet of Norfolk's ex- better. Even though Southern school boards' perience as his way of evaluating the good and the have been kicked down the road every inch of bad. He called it "a mixed bag, and I hope we can the way, now that we are integrated, we're change some of the negative things." proud of it and feel that there is something that is very valuable that has happened here On the negative side, Thomas listed: as long as we can maintain some semblance of support of our people. Lost 20% of white middle-class people. This has implications for future support of public Faculty dispersal is very good. Don't worry education. about integrating your faculties. You'll hear' a lot of flap about it, but this breaks up a lot of Cost ($1.5 million for buses) and a concurrent cliques that you may have had in your school, budget cut by the city. it puts everybody on their toes. Many teach- Have to rearrange our priorities, our local ers who can't handle what's going on in our priorities, and accept priorities set by others. schools today will remove themselves volun- tarily black and white who say "I can't A loss of that sense of community, of getting hack this." There are plenty of young ones parents back close to the schools. Bound to coming along that can hack it and do want to lose that when you see some of the distances face up to that challenge. traveled. PTAs have dropped off and we're going to have to do something to recapture Caused us to change our educational philoso- community support. phy from emphasis on middle-class education

69 to emphasis on individual education for every conclusionthatthisisalifestyleforthese young people.... It still has no real fundamental importance to the process of education. The black community view was represented at I know that in our schools, many of our students appear least in part by Mrs. Vivian Mason, the civil rights to be careless and indifferent. Well, this has always been advocate and Norfolk board member. Shere- true, there have been careless and indifferent students in spondedto Thomas and tothe desegregation school. But the problems seem accentuated when we have elements as she saw them: black and white students together. The same thing is true of fighting. That's been our great tradition, that boys fight. White boys fought white boys, black boys fought black On the Board of Education: 1 am sure Mr. Thomas gave boys. But of course it becomes .1 different thing whena what in his mind was a very accurate picture. I was really white boy fights a black boy and vice versa. It immediately sorry and 1 respect Mr. Thomas' view, of course that takes on a different connotation. such a melancholy picture was given to you of what has happened. It is past now.... I don't have to giveyou the On Teachers: Our teachers are not trained properly to take dark history of foot-dragging that went on throughout the on the problems of integrated schools.Idon't think our South, including Norfolk. Our school boardwas like many community was. I don't blame anybody for this, because in others,underahammer: Under the hammer of the the hurry and the force and the pressures, there perhaps community and under the hammer of the courts. I know wasn't time. We need compulsory courses for teachers, so there was a general feeling in the community, especially that they can understand what's happening in the world among the black people, that we ought not to wait every around them. You see, black and white have lived in two time for the courts to tell us what to do, thatwe should different worlds, and now the worlds are colliding, in terms have the courage and the leadership sometimes togo ahead of integration. We're on the rim or* those two worlds, and and do what we think is right, fair and just, and then let the because we're on the rim, we teeter and don't know which court sit down and demolish the program if it didn't meet way to go. with the specifications of that body.

On Students: All of you who are plagued by discipline Both the Thomas and the Mason evaluations of problems in the school... we need to have joint efforts Norfolk dealt with real problems in the school between the students, the parents and the administration to system and with the situation of desegregation. But help resolve these problems. We ought to hear what the the difference in perception and the difference in students say about actions taken against them.Iget emphasis were considerable. And in neither case, annoyed at them very often. Sometimes the hair dos, the were there any hard data from the first days of swaggering walk and the combs ornamenting theears, desegregation in tho 1960s on which either of the sometimes that annoys rne.But.Ihave come to the board members based their discussions.

) Four Books: Four Points of View

1. Students: Two, Four. Six, Eight, When You Gonna 3. Principals: The Principal: Change-Agent in Desegrega- Integrate? By Frank A. Petroni, Ernest A. Hirsch and C. tion, by Martha Tumage, is a convincing 60-page book Lillian Petroni, is a study of black and white students' arguing that the principal is the "forgotten man" who reactions to the desegregation of a high school inan really makes desegregation work. Itis based on 312 unidentified Midwestern school district. The bulk of the responses to a survey in Virginia and details how the book is uncensored dialogue, with conclusions added by principal fits into the effort and when he works best to the sociologist-psychologist authors. Behavioral Publica- aidit.IntegratedEducation Associates,School of tions, 2852 Broadway-Momingside Heights, New York, Education, Northwestern U., 2003 Sheridan Rd., Evans- N.Y. 10025; $11.95. ton, Ill. 60201; $1.75 plus 20¢ for mailing. 2. Teachers: May I Speak? Diary of a Crossover Teacher, by Manie Culbertson,detailstheconversion of a 4. Superintendents: Now is the Time, by Neil V. Sullivan Louisiana white teacher from the resistant and fearful with Evelyn S. Stewart. How the Berkeley, Calif., transferee to a black school to an enthusiastic supporter schools were desegregated, with much of the agonies, of her own involvement in desegregation. Pelican Pub- but also a lot of the optimism and tactics which lishing Co., 630 Burmaster St., Gretna, La. 70053; sustained Sullivan in his four-year drive to desegregate. $4.95. Indiana U. Press, Bloomington, Ind. 47401; $5.95. 70 leave town sundown because our very presence is a slur on somebody'r, fine name. This is a dual ,s,ystern peculiar to OCR Official Views the news industry. Civil Rights Enforcement Our clippingstile, which goes back many years, will prove .at once to any student of history that we move too What doescivilrights enforcement actually fast, too slow, too gingerly, too clumsily, too tar South, too late in the North, or that desegregation has gone out of mean atthelocallevel? Why and when does style now that Title VI has neared the end of itsfirst USOE's Office for Civil Rights (OCR) appear on decade. thelocalscene?Should OCR investigators be . No law that compels change onthe scale of Title VI viewed as good or bad guys? How does OCR see its can hope for even a minute degree of public support unless role in desegregation cases? What is its track record there is a critical spotlight on its enforcement, a sensitivity on enforcement? to the objective of the law, and a sensitivity on the part of In an attempt to answer these questions and the government to the bounds of reason. particularly to illuminate the role of the media, the ... During these past years wehave picked up some superintendent and the board *of education in a major new enforcement responsibilities. The Office for Civil district "under investigation" by OCR, Peter E. Rights enforces Executive Order 11246, which prohibits Holmes, acting director of OCR, addressed the discrimination as to race, color, national origin, religion and annual meeting of the Education Writers Assn. in sex by institutions receiving federal contracts. This year, we are also gearing up for enforcement of two new laws Washington, D.C., on March 29, 1973. bearing on sex discrimination. One is Title IX of the Higher While slamming the media for what he calls its Education Amendments of 1972; the otF3r is in Titles VII "dual system" of news coverage on desegregation and VIII of the Comprehensive Health and Manpower Act. investigations, he concedes that part of any mis- For the moment, however, let's stick to Title VI.... I construed coverage may be due to the federal have always been concerned about the speed with which we investigator's failure to make clear the purposes are elevated to news prominence.... But more importantly and procedures used. The blame doesn't stop here, I am troubled by the telescoped kinds of headlines that according to Holmes; it extends to the school greet our efforts. We are accustomed or at least resigned administrator and board members. to the 30-second spot treatment on,television news which The point is not who is to blame or who has warns the community that an ominous presence has come been misinterpreted but rather, what happens to to town, and we realize that the brevity of headline space is unmerciful. But when the facts get telescoped or simply left the community as a result. Holmes stresses that out of the news story itself, a more serious problem arises. much of the alarm created in a community where The reason may be that the federal investigative effort is the districtis being investigated for .possible dis- shielded by bureaucratic "no comments." This would crimination could be avoided since, "in most of represent a failure on our part to make our purpose and our cases, negotiation has settled matters without procedures clear, and I hope we can at least minimize this the necessity of legal action." His remarks, in kind of problem in the future. abridged form Once in a while though, we could all do with a better perspective. To illustrate what I mean, let's walk through a We (the Office for Civil Rights) are best known for our sample case together. Say, for example, that we believe involvement in school desegregation in the South under a because of a complaint or from statistics given us by the little five-paragraph portion of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, school district that some black pupils may be discrimina- captioned rather blandly as Title VI. In a few years, marked torily isolated. One of our 10 regional offices will want to by headline-making controversy, Title VI and court action investigate. A letter goes to the school superintendent have eliminated all but a few vestiges of the infamous dual asking for an appointment. Our team arrives in town. school system. Its primary effectiveness is based on the Click go the cameras. Mumble Mumble goes the investi- prohibition of the use of federal funds for programs that gator, who knows deep in his heart that nobody ever got discriminate as to race, color or national originnot just in fired for failure to talk to a news reporter: Out the back schools but wherever federal dollars go. We are by no means door goes the local school superintendent, who hardly the only federal agency charged with Title VI enforcement. knows what's happening atthis point anyway. School All have the same responsibility. But because HEWs funds board members suddenly cannot be reached by news go to schools, colleges, hospitals, nursing facilities and state reporters. The reporter, reduced to dependence on memory agencies we are pulled headlong into the forefront of or some complex legal document, recalls only that Title VI public attention. carries the threat of cutoff of federal funds. Historically, many newspapers greet our investigative Bam goes the headline: "Feds arrive, Walla Walla Stands teams with news desk delight and editorial page dismay. To Lose Funds." Ladies and Gentlemen, you've got the cart The news desk marks us good page-one copy. The editorial before the horse! page marks us fair game and not infrequently invites us to All we are really doing at this point, aside from scaring

71 hell out of a once-tranquil community, is gathering some that there is a violation. after weeks or months of review, very basic data. Where are the students? How are they the school district still has further recourse. It can appeal assigned to the schools they attend? Were attendance zones the two earlier decisions to the secretary of HEW, who, if gerrymandered? What about facilities? Curriculum? Guid- he elects to do so, must have time to review the whole case. anceand counseling? Teaching? Does punishmentfor If he agrees with the two previous findings, isn't that the misbehavior fall with a heavier hand on black pupils? time at last to announce the loss of funds'? No, not yet. The We may collect a truckload of attendance maps, board secretaryis required by law to give 30 days' notice to minutes, interviewnotes, employmentrolls,statistics, Congress, then the cutoff goes into effect unless the policy statements, the whole works. Our staff members go school district goes to court to challenge the Administrative home to talk to each other, compare notes, go tediously decision, which has Immened. By this time, incidentally, through all the files, write reports, consult with attorneys, the tenth-grade student who read about HEW's presence at with supervisors, and schedule other investigations. All this the school board officethatfirst day may well have takes months. They catch colds, go on vacation, 2nd get graduated. yanked off on other assignments. ... Throughout the history of the enforcement of Title Meanwhile, back inthe old hometown the PTA has VI, this agency has initiated hearing procedures against come alive. Once-dormant civic organizations throw away some 600 school districts. Of that number, only 200 had their gardening tools and demand free time on television. their funds terminated. All have had their funds restored Confused parents write the President, the congressman, the because they came into compliance voluntarily or under senator, the secretary of HEW. Adrenalin flows. All hell court order. There is only one district today with funds cut breaks loose. And we don't even know at this point if there off. In fact, at the peak of massive Southern resistance, is a problem except the one we created by our presence. there were never more than about 125 school districts with. But our investigative staff is now beginning to form funds terminated at one time. Yet you could count the some conclusions. They draft a report, rewrite it, double- cases we have lost on one hand. Most were settled by check facts, or get sent back by their supervisors to fill in voluntary action. We still find it necessary at times to go to the gaps. Finally we report to the school district on our hearing..,. findings. Assume we find discrimination and we lay out the Let me focus for a moment on 3 school district that facts in our report and ask the superintendent what he's didn't go to hearing, that faced a serious problem in the going to do about it. educational opportunityforits minority students, and We statethat if corrective action is not taken, legal came up with a landmark solution,Last August, we sanctions may be necessary. But cold legal documents don't concludednegotiations with theEl Paso Independent tell you what the community needs to know: In most of School District in Texas. In June, our Dallas regional office ourcases, negotiation has settled matters without the had notified El Paso school officials that they must extend necessity of legal action. equal educational services to Spanish-surnamed students, to Voluntary compliance is far more common than enforce- comply withTitleVI. The district came up with a ment.Even after anotice of hearing goes out to a voluntary plan to convert all its schools from kindergarten non-complying district, negotiations can continue and legal through eighth grade to a bilingual, bicultural education action be dropped at any time compliance is achieved. program over a five-year period.... We have negotiated The odds are always heavily in favor of voluntary other plans for dealing with the language barrier in smaller compliance, and that's the fact we'd like to get across early. districts. But El Paso is the first large American city to Much of the alarm is unnecessary if we do our job and help undertake an aggressive program to provide equal, quality you do yours, education to thousands of students from Spanish-speaking Our regional offices will be encouraged to explain to you homes, what we are doing, the status of the case, how the law is We are also about to undertake a similar kind of review applied and our efforts to secure voluntary compliance. in New York City, looking at problems relating to the More importantly, we want the community to understand provision of equal educational services to Puerto Rican that Title VI, by its very nature, assures due process. children.... Suppose we takea schooldistricttohearing, after ... In my opinion the objective of our enforcement exhaustingeverypossiblemeanstogetvoluntary programs has for too long been viewed by the press and compliance? public as the termination of federal financial assistance. First, the Civil Service Commission names a Federal That is not the objective of our efforts. Our objective is the Administrative Law Judge, a date is set, and he holds a elimination of discrimination from federally assisted pro- hearing about LO days after we've started the hearing grams so thatallindividuals, regardless of race, color, process. If he finds the school district in violation of Title national origin or sex, may participate equally in those VI, he recommends termination of federal funds. Again, the programs. headlines, because the prospect of loss of funds cannot be I appeal to you to begin now what you should have done ignored, but it can be and should be accompanied by otter years ago: measure the effectiveness of our enforcement facts. Thr school district has the right to appeal an adverse program in terms of equal opportunity achieved id decision to a Reviewing Authority, a five-man panel of law discrimination elin-linated; not in terms of federal funds professors or lawyers from outside HEW. . If they concur denied, In 1973, that does not seem like much to ask. 72 Chapter 5 Getting Help from Outside

Itis hard to believe at a time of sociologists' Emergency School Assistance Act are included on doubts about desegregation and politicians' attacks p. 79. And descriptions of the lour types of grants on it, but there are people who are promoting it in available under Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of a concrete way. Many of these people provide a 1964are found on p.90. product or service which can be used by school But what many school officials do not seem to districts wishirts to desegregate. realizeisthat foralltheir talk against busing, Consultants have been hired by the state or with congressmen and senators in Washington are in a federal money or both to help districts work out jam if they refuse to help a school district which plans, train teachers and change their curriculum warts to desegregate or must desegregate. and even the school structure itself. These consul- There are, of course, limits to what a man of tants, in turn, can suggest nonprofit or for-profit Congress can do at HEW. At the very least, he can organizations which have varying degrees of exper- demand a status report on how a district's appli- tise with the process of desegregation and edu- cation for money is going. At the most, he can call cation. an HEW official to his office to find out why.some- thing is not happening, and he may be able to exert pressure to ease a bureaucratic logjam or to gain a Consultants can be found in: speedy interpretation of a difficult guideline. 10 regionaloffices of the U.S. Office of Education (See list on p.91.) Help Available at the State Level 32 equal educational opportunity programs While school desegregation is a constantly chang- lodged in the state departments of education ing situation due to the actions of state school (See list on p. 92.) superintendents and state legislators, some states arewell known for either their laws requiring 17 universityschool desegregation centers school desegregation or the aid they provide to funded under Title IV of the Civil Rights Act help desegregating districts or both. of1964(See list onp.94 ). Pennsylvania provides a good example of a state whichrequiresschooldesegregation,enforced In addition, a number of other organizations are through the state's Human Relations Commission. willing and able to provide information on desegre- At the same time, the state assists school districts gation and education. The list on p.95is not which aredesegregating. The need for current comprehensive, but it may provide a. starting place information is being met by a weekly publication for the local superintendent or board. of the Pennsylvania School Boards Assn., Informa- tion Legislative Service. Part14of the Mondale hearings details the Pennsylvania experience well. Help Available at the Federal Level Massachusetts is another state winch requires desegregated school systems, with the state snper- The single most important tool for 7,nost school intendent in charge. districts which can be provided by Washington is Connecticut aided some urban school districts money, most superintendents and board members which worked out voluntary plans with neighbor- willagree.The guidelinesforsharinginthe ing suburbs,. by funneling money into the projects. 73 Chapter 6 Whither Desegregationin the '70s? A Local Burden

There are no statistics availableon who spoke Individuals Speak Out out in favor of desegregation in 1972, and thereis no easy way to chart a trend into the future. Some At the same convention where thegroup posi- informed observers express pessimism.One over- tion was taken, individuals spoke out, worked expert at a regional desegregation too. "If center we're going to integrate the inner city,Isee no aimed his critical view of the situationat some alternativeto busing," saidElbert D. Brooks, administrators: "School superintendents liketo superintendent of the Nashville, Tenn., schools. hide in a crowd on the desegregation issue,but While it may not be the bestway to achieve there are few of them who will takea forthright integration, it is the only way that works so far, stand on their own." Otherssay: "Don't blame the and will be as long as schools remain the "scape- school administrator alone"; most of therest of goat" for the other racial problems of housing and the world seems to have thrown the big yellowbus job discrimination, Brooks added. into reverse and backed away. Russell A. Jackson Jr., superintendent of Roose- What has been ignored or not given enough velt School District 66 in Phoenix, Ariz.,ap- attention, however,is the way many individual proachedthe problem adifferent way by superintendents and boards have demonstrated questioning the recent emphasis by anti-integration leadership on the race/schools issue. Somesuperin- forces on "neighborhood schools." Such schools tendents are worried that the current busingfuror have some real advantages, but they "havenot can undo some good that has been achieved in provided quality education formany minority recent years; many are putting themselveson the children," he said. He posed the ultimate puzzle line for school desegregation, echoingor outdoing for school superintendentsby noting that al- the two resolutions onrace relations and school though most Americans do not favor the mainte- integration adopted by AASA membersat their nance of two separate societies, most do not realize 1973 convention. that the school bus happens to beone of the few AASA said in part: means to travel the distance between those socie- Superintendents have an affirmative responsibil- ties today. ityto provide the leadership, not onlyto Meanwhile, the pressures of desegregationare desegregate schools but also to integrate teach- moving increasinglytowardthe Northern and ing staffs, curriculum and activities. urban areas and away from the Southerndual- school systems. In the South,a surprising number AASA supports the busing of studentsas one of school districts have desegregatedto meet the necessary means of correcting racial andeco- demands of federal court orders nomic isolation, and commends the or to meet the use of demands of Title VI of the 1964 Civil RightsAct federal, state and local funding for thispurpose. under the threat of federal fund cutoffs by HEW (although Title VI was essentially abandoned in The resolutions said,however,thatitwas 1970). While big-city districts inthe South like legitimate to oppose "precise and complexplans Atlanta and Richmond struggle to meet desegrega- which seek to achieve exact mathematicalbalance tion demands, the real opposition of races irrespective of defensible educational to desegregation and and the real battlefield is muchmore in the North. practical considerations." Thus, thegtzasa hedge in the 1973 stand. But it Consequently, Southern school superintendentsare was one whole a increasingly vocal in what theysee as a double pro-busing position. standard: National policy favored desegregation 74 when the South was the legal target, but backs preme Court) and Detroit, Mich. (before the Sixth away when Northern schools are at issue. CircuitCourt of Appeals).Ineachof these Cyril B. Busbee, state superintendent of educa- districts, lower courts have approved the merger of tion in South Carolina, flatly says it is foolish to city districts with surrounding suburbs or rural ask or expect a "moratorium on all busing." He countiesfor purposes of desegregating heavily told AASA members in 1973 that problems still black cities and the predominantly white surround- plague desegregated Southern districts, from white ing communities. Known as "metro plan" cases, flighttoteacher lossto segregated academies. these, too, are on appeal. When they are finally Still, our governmental leaders and most of our decided by the higher courts, they could change citizens and students maintain unkillable faith in the entire way school systems are viewed, both in the fact that public education is the wellspring of the context of desegregation, and in the broader America's greatness," Busbee said. meaning of what constitutes the true boundaries of But he also noted with some asperity that ' a school system, those set by communities at their also have faith that any law of the land should to borders, or those set by state or federal agencies or firmly and fairly applied nationwide. Any so-called courtsto implement educational policygoals. moratorium on 'new' busing could now smack of Generally speaking, the hard-pressed superinten- regional discrimination, and I know a number of dents in big urban districts would like to share the superintendents of education who will gladly ap- resources, the predominantly white pupil enroll- plaud equal protection under our laws." ment and the teaching staff of nearby suburban school districts. The suburban superintendent, on the other hand, is under heavy pressure to retain Court Decisions Are Forthcoming autonomy if not complete disengagement from the generally disadvantaged inner-city system. "It is Some observers predict that superintendents will interesting to note," says the Mondale committee be dealing in an atmosphere of legal and political report, "that in both cases (Richmond and Detroit) uncertainty into the mid-1970s. In early 1973, the center city school district requested the joinder superintendents, the Nixon Administration, civil of its suburban neighbors." rights groups and parents were still awaiting the The Mondale report says both metro cases rest Supreme Court decision on the Denver case. This on the theory that "once the state has been shown decision, school lawyers agreed, would signal the to have fostered school segregation directly, or lengths to which Northern school systems those indirectly through housing discrimination, the state which had never been labeled "de jure" or dual can be required to take action, including consoli- systems in the past could be made to take steps, dation of school districts created by state law. ..." includingbusing,to undo segregation. School The committee in early 1973 said the future of administrators are hopeful that the kind of proof the metro decisions and their legal theories could of discrimination, and the amount of state involve- not be predicted, "but what can be predicted is ment to be shown in order to legally require an that courts are not the branch of government best effective desegregation plan, would emerge from equipped to deal with the extremely complex the Denver case. The debated question of what "de issues involved in breaking down racial and eco- facto" segregation really means might finally be nomic barriers within metropolitan areas in ways answered. Certainly, the Nixon Administration that do justice to the legitimate concerns of all would favor a decision which would indicate a involved." The report added: go-slow approach- in desegregation orders. The Administration admittedly favors an attack on A court cannot offer subsidies to compensate "economic discrimination' over more pupil trans- suburban communities for increased costs, in- fersin schools as a way of meeting the race cluding educational costs, of serving low-income relations problem in the nation. In any e-.'ent, it is families or provide assistance to replace revenues possiblethat the Denver case (Keys v. School lost through location of tax-free public housing District No. 1, Denver) may come to mean for units; a court isill equipped to require that Northern schools what the 1954 Brown v. Board of low-income housing be scatter-site, rather than Education of Topeka decision meant for Southern in huge apartment projects or to implement the schools. metropolitan planning needed to prevent some Other decisions before the federal courts include suburban communities from being swamped by those involving Richmond, Va. (before the Su- low-income housing while others are untouched. 75 But if public officials at the local, federal and requires in busing. what percentage of childrenare state levels refuse to act, the courts frill be left already bused, whether busing or walking is safer. to their own, and very limited devices. what effect desegregation has been shown to have on children's test scores; and two other questions, The committee recommended federal financial only 16% could answer four or more correctly supportfor voluntarymultidistrict cooperative while 41% got five or all six wrong. integration efforts. and "special incentives" voted "Too often public officials. educational leaders by Congress for metropolitan planning. Some of and members of the mass media have, unthink- this federal encouragement shows up in the ESAA ingly, accepted the criticisms and passedon the guidelines, but its use is dependent almost entirely slogans of busing opponents without troubling to on the community and its leadership including examine the evidence," the commission concluded. the superintendent. The commission's true-false questions, and their Finally, another court suit would force HEW to "right" answers, follow: resume enforcement of Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, after a finding of fact that they had stopped using the fund cut-off provision as a means Q: The courts now require the busing of chil- of requiring desegregation where discrimination dren from suburban school districts into had been proved. HEW has appealed the case; if central-city school districts. HEW loses, superintendents will havean ally if and when they wish to desegregate their schools. A. FALSE although lower courtsin both But if neither the Denver, nor the Detroit, nor Detroit and Richmond had ordered such the Richmond, nor the HEW case conies out in busing. Some metropolitan areas like Hart- favor of integrationists, the true test of local school ford, Conn., have pursued it on a voluntary administrators will come into play. This will be basis, however. especiallytrue, informed observers say,if the political climate continues to grow against desegre- Q. Less than 1 out of 50 schoolchildren in the gation, aided by demagoguery of high-placed politi- United States is being bused for purposes of cians and the sociological studies which minimize desegregation. or discredit the value of integration. It is clear the uphill battle for citizen understanding and approval A. TRUE, since recent U.S. figures show only continues. about 1.2%, or about 1in 80 schoolchildren is being bused for desegregation. Accurate Information May Help Q.White students' test scores have fallen sharp- The United States Commission on Civil Rights is ly in desegregated schools. the one official body which hasa mandate to oversee the equality of opportunity or lack of it in A. FALSE, since even some of the sociologists every phase of American life, and to prod the who criticize busing state that nearly every federal government into doing something about it. study shows that white students do not lose; Concerned that loaded questions were being asked and according to some studies, some black by pollsters, the commission conducteda survey of students show modest gains when perfor- 2,006 statistically representative citizens. in late mances are matched between segregated and 1972, asking neutral questions on both attitude desegregated schools. and knowledge about busing and desegregation. To their chagrin, the commission learned that Q. As far as accidents are concerned, busing 70% of thoseinterviewed opposed busing for schoolchildrenissaferthanletting them desegregation although 67% said they favored walk. -integratedschools as a national objective, The irony of nearly the same number approving the A. TRUE, as the latest figures of the National ends but disapproving the means was not lost on Safety Council show: The accident rate for the commission, but itsaid that additional data boys is .09% and for girlsis .07% when showed that one of the reasons for duplicitywas walking, but only .03% for all children when ignorance on the subject. When asked what the law riding buses. 76 Q. Busing for desegregation adds 25% or more Carle, in testimony before the Mondale commit- to local school costs. tee, said Ohio has more large cities than any other state(Cleveland, Cincinnati, Columbus, Toledo. A. FALSE. The cost of busing for desegregation Akron, Dayton, Youngstown and Canton, each a usually runs about 1% of a school board's separatemetropolitan area) and thus has"its budget. abundant share of urban discrimination in housing, employment and education." Q. The Supreme Court has ordered busing in spite of evidence that it would harm a child's In discussing who must be responsible for doing ability to learn. something about discrimination in education, Carle said flatly: "Administrators should lead the way." A. FALSE. In the 1971 Charlotte, N.C., deci- . And, headded, while waiting for desegregation, a sion,the Supreme Court specifically said lot of steps can be taken: courts must consider whether the "time or distance of travel is so great as to risk either If anintegrated student body istechnically the health of the children or significantly difficult to achieve in some parts of Ohio and impinge on the educational process." They I am willing to concede that [is the case] only in also said age counts as a factor. the most isolated areas there is no reason for any school to be without integrated staff and By publishing the results of its survey, the instructional program replete with multiethnic commission helped to inform the public on the materials,experience and emphases. For the facts of the issue, but the facts are frequently very survival of our society the state of Ohio can forgotten in the heat and emotion of local school afford to require no less. district debate on the issue. It is usually up to the superintendent to assurethatsuch materialis Carle indicated who should be responsible for injected into public discussion, just as it is up to additional steps toward integration: the superintendent to exercise many of the initia- tives in the tender area of desegregation. Every teacher, every administrator, every parent and every pupil must assume responsibility for ending racial and economic isolation. The State The 'Man in the Middle' Must Act Dept. of Education must leadthe way by clarifying the legal mandate, establishing criteria, The urban school board and its superintendent developing the curriculum standards and assur- feel the weight of racial isolation most deeply, and ingtheresourcesto end theinequities of it is from the ranks of these men and women that segregated education in Ohio. the current leadership is emerging. It seems fitting, therefore, to close the report with some observa- The problems of desegregation, of inequities in tions by Wayne Carle, superintendent of schools in education,ofracialisolation and of political Dayton, Ohio, who testifiedfor desegregation resistance to solving the problems are not unique before the Mondale committee. to Ohio or to Dayton. The words of Wayne Carle Subsequently, Carle was denied a new contract in talking of how to actually integrate schools by his school board in January 1973, reportedly would seem, in this era of "local responsibility,"to because of his pro-integration stand. That didn't hold true most everywhere: deter him, however, from joining with the minority of theschool boardinaplan providing for The process of desegregation and the practice of maximum integrationinanswer toaFederal integration are not easy to accomplish, even District Court order. Meanwhile, majority members though much is known about how to do it. It on the board were preparing a plan calling for willtaketechniques,trainingandevange- minimum desegregation in answer to the order. lism....

77 Appendix

The A to Z of School Desegregation: U.S.districtcourtsinLos Angeles and Denver and elsewhere have ruled that past official state or school board Definitions acts, past officials acts of commission of mission by states or school boards have fostered segregation. Ability grouping Also known as "tracking." This process refers to the classification of pupils in homogeneous "intel- ligence" sections for purposes of instruction, based on De jure segregation Although frequently equated with "Southern" segregation in teachers' assessments or standardized test results. A fre- the 17 Southern and border quent result is to resegregate children by race in what might states, de jure segregation in fact refers to any separation of be an otherwise desegregated school facility. Ability group- students by race which results from official school board, ing was outlawed by a federal district court in the case of city or state action. The fact that the Southern states once the Washington, D.C., system. maintained adualschool system, one for whites and another for blacks, created illegal, unconstitutional de jure Busing On the face of it, the transportation of students segregation in the eyes of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1954. between home and school by bus. In its most innocent In 1955, the Supreme Court ruled that such segregation context, schoolchildren have been using school transporta- must be undone "with all deliberate speed." More recently, tion since 1869. By the year 1970, an estimated 20 million, in a Ferndale, Mich., case, a federal court has ruled thata or 40% of elementary and secondary public school stu- Northern district which deliberately isolateda black school dents, were being bused because they lived too far to walk by board action in the 1920s was also a de jure segregated to the school they attended. Only 3% were bused due to district, and therefore obliged to desegregate. desegregation. But the school bus has in recent years become a symbol of court-ordered desegregation, ora Desegregation In practice, a complex social and political symbol of the transporting of children from theirown process of reassigning pupils and teachers in order to end neighborhood to another against the will of some or many racial or ethnic isolation in the public schools. Legally it is parents involved, for purposes of desegregation. In this achieved when a school system no longer has schools context, busing is often referred to as "forced busing." racially identifiable as "white schools," "black schools,"or "brown schools," but in the words of the 1968 U.S. Clustering The method that combines three or more Supreme Court decision in the Green case "just schools." schools, any one or more of which may have been Techniques and the amount of pupil reassignmentvary with previouslysegregated,intodesegregated facilities with the court or government agency requiring desegregation, different grade levels in each. Thus, two predominantly and with the size and makeup of the school district. The black schools and three white, each with grades K-8, in most complete desegregation is generally said to exist when roughly the same area of town, might be reorganized to theracialbalancein each school matches theracial have five desegregated schools, two K-3, two with grades composition of the total school community. 4-6, and one with grades 7 and 8. Itis similar to the "pairing" concept. Integration There is no universal agreement on the difference between desegregation and integration, and the De facto segregation A separation of students by race two words are used interchangeably by many in both the which the law recognizes as having happened either by social sciences and education. But there is a growing sheer accident or because of housing patterns, withno local consensus that integration is more than the reassignment of or state action responsible for the separation. It is often students, and includes the further steps needed to reach the referred to as "Northern" segregation. So far, the Supreme potential of equal educational opportunity and interracial Court has not interpreted the Constitution of the United social contact in the school. "The process of integrated States to require the desegregation of de facto segregated education may be said to begin where desegregation ends," schools. However, the legal definition of de facto segrega- announces the preface to a desegregation-integration hand- tion has narrowed somewhat in recent years, as state and book distributed by USOE. 78 Majority-to-minoritytransfer The process by which are black and 10% are Spanish-surnamed, each school staff students who are enrolled in schools in which their race is would have to have the approximate same percentages. in the majority may transfer to any school (in the same Although some courts have ordered racial balance as a district) where their race is in the minority. Usually, the remedy, it is not a legal end in itself, since the Constitution school district is obliged to provide transportation. The does not require racial balance, only the end to discrimina result can be a voluntary leveling of racial imbalances tion, according to Supreme Court rulings. between schools. School closingFrequently a part of a larger desegregation Neighborhood school Like "busing," a term which has plan, the closing of a school and the redistribution of its overtones of resistance to desegregation. In many Southern student body into other schools not of the same racial school districts where housing segregation is not as much a makeup is one way to change the racial identity of schools. factor as in the North, housing meant segregation for years, To the extentthat "Negro" or "Mexican American" and the neighborhood school has since come to mean schools are the ones closed to the exclusion of "white" desegrega'' )11,But the predominant meaning is one of schools, school closings are increasingly unpopular among preserving a racially homogeneous school near the home of minority communities on grounds thatthe choiceof thestudent whose parentispromoting neighborhood schools to be closed is too often discriminatory. schools. Zoning The placement of school attendance boundaries Noncontiguous zones At face valu: these are geographic to include both majority and minority race children in attendance zones which arc not adjacent to one another every possible school. Sometimes zones need merely to be within a given district. In fact, a pupil living within one enlarged to embrace the living area of the children needed zone who must attend school in a noncontiguous zone to to achieve desegregation and, at other times, lines must be achieve desegregation, will require transportation. Thus, to redrawn in unusual patterns to reach residential pockets of some administrators and federal officials familiar with the one race or another. Since the simple drawing of zone lines term, noncontiguous zoning is equated with "busing." isbased on existing residential patterns and needs no manipulation of grade structure (pairing and clustering) or Open enrollment A passive policy of permitting parents of the children themselves (noncontiguous zones, busing), it to choose arty school within a district for their children to is considered the most stable method of desegregation attend. In the North, it is frequently the first hesitant step when it will suffice to do the job. taken by a desegregating school district; in the South, it was the predominant form of desegregation under the appella- tion of "freedom of choice." However, the Supreme Court ESAA Guidelines: said in 1968 that it was permissible as a remedy for de jure segregation only if it worked. Because open enrollment or The Roadmap To Integration Aid open transfer puts the entire burden of desegregation on the parents and children rather than on the school district Perhaps the most important aspect of the new itself, it is only as successful as an activist community can desegregationassistancttlaw,theEmergency make it. It is rarely if ever the plan of choice of either HEW School Aid Act (ESAA), is that schools which are or the federal judiciary. trying on a voluntary basis,to desegregate, or eliminate, reduce or prevent minority group isola- Pairing A method of desegregating two schools, one tion,are eligiblefor funds. Under the earlier predominantly white, the other minority, which serve the Emergency School Assistance Program (ESAP), same grades. Instead of both schools containing grades K-6, only those districts desegregating under court order after pairing one school might have grades K-3 and the or administrative agency order could ask for and other grades 4-6, with students drawn from the former receivefederal attendance zones of both schools. Both schools would share dollars to easethe burden of the white and minority populations of the enlarged zone. desegregation. This means of desegregation is more frequently used where The purposes of grants under the new law are two comparable schools are located within a relatively short to: distance of each other; but in urban systems, schools in 1. Meet the special needs incident to the elimina- noncontiguous zonesarealsopaired,requiring aans- tion of minority group segregation and dis- portation. crimination among students and faculty in Racial balance A requirement that the racial makeup of elementary and secondary schools. each school in a district equal or approximate the racial composition of the entire community. Thus, if a town's 2. Eliminate, reduce or prevent minority group school population is 75% white and 25% black, each school isolation in elementary or secondary schools might have to have somewhere between 20% to 30% black with substantial portions of minority group student enrollment. Similarly, if 15% of a system's teachers students. 79 3. Aid school children in overcoming the educa- implementation is contingent upon funding, the tional disadvantages of minority group iso- plan must have been made public at least 20 days lation. prior to application. Nonpublic schools may qualify for provision of services through the local public school district in a Who Gets in Line? manner similar to that of ESEA, Title I. However, such nonpublic schools must show desegregation Eligibility for aid includes districts implementing efforts or minority group related needs. desegregation plans required by federal or state orders or state administrative agencies, or approved by HEW under Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: in other words, if someone says you have to How the Money Can Be Spent desegregate, the government Will help. In addition, there are carefully worded rules permitting aid to Authorized activities for which "basic grants'. districts implementing nonrequired plans, too. can be used are under 12 headings; in each case, a A voluntary,nonrequired plandistrict may connection must. be made with the plan which apply it' its desegregation plan: made the school district eligible in the first place. Even public relations is ok! I. Eliminates completely minority group isola- Activities which can be funded under ESAA tion in all schools in the district which exceed grants: 50% minority group enrollment (as defined by the act). I. Remedial services, including student-to-stu- dent tutoring, even when aimed at gifted 2. Eliminates minority group isolation inone or children, as long as they are beyond the more of the minority group isolated schools, programs already existing in the district. or reduces thetotal number of minority group children in isolated schools again, 2. Additional staff specially trained in deseg- with 50% minority enrollment in a given regation or reduction of minority group school spelling the difference between "isola- isolation, both hiring and training. tion" and "elimination of minority group isolation." 3. Teacher aides, both hiring and training (with preference given to parents of chil- 3. Prevents isolation "reasonably likely tooc- dren assisted by ESAA). cur" in any school ranging from 20% to 50% minority enrollment. (Intended to slow the 4. Inservice teacher training by collegesor "tipping" phenomenon.) other agencies.

4. Enrolls and educates nonresident children in 5. Guidance, counseling and other services to order to "make a significant contribution children, toward reducing minority group isolation" in either the sending or receiving school district. 6. Development of new curricula and mate- At least 25 children must be involved. (En- rials, including instruction in language and courages urban-suburban cooperation.) Fur- heritage of minority groups. thermore, these kinds of nonrequired plans may be continued upon receipt of assistance 7. Programs of sharedfacilities,for career under ESEA. education or other specialties.

In all cases, a school board applying for assis- 8. Innovativeinterracialprograms between tance must provide proof of the official action schools, including extracurricular activities, adopting the plans, by supplying the U.S. Office of in the same or different school districts. Education with a school board resolutionor other official implementing document, the desegregation 9. Community activities, including public in- plan itself, and a statement of how the plan relates formation efforts in support of a planor to the program for which funding is sought. Where activity described in the ESAA law. 80 10. Administrative and auxiliaryservicesto no charge. Some required reportsshow the influ- "facilitate the success" of the program. ence of the Mondale committee's concerns.includ- ing those reporting on transfers of property (to 11. Planning, evaluation or information dissem- assure that segregation academies are notbeing inationrelatingtothe program to be helped by public school districts), personnel ac- funded. tions, pupil assignment and ability grouping. and Suspension and other discipline (all to guard against 12. Remodeling, repair or replacement of facili- various forms of blatant or subtle discrimination). ties and equipment, and the lease or pur- chaseof mobile classroomunits.(But Can a District Receive Money limitedto 10% of grant, and not for for Pupil Transportation? ,Ntruction, structuralalteration or urge -scale renovation.") Other clauses seek to prevent faculty discrimina- tion, tracking or language discrimination, but one isflatdirect result of Congressional ire on the What the District Promises in Return subject and is not intended to aid in desegregation: it relates to pupil transportation (or "busing," in The application itself for an ESAA grantis political terms), and it is reproduced in its entirety: replete with various strings and assurances. Among the promises a school district must make are that Transportation. An assurance that no funds money being sought under ESAA is notgoing to made available under ESAA will be used for the supplant other funds from nonfederal sources and transportation of students or teachers (or for the will not be used for son other program other than purchase of equipment for such transportation) for any under the earlier ESAP which was under- in order to overcome racial imbalance or to way in the year prior to application.In other carry out a plan for racial desegregation, when words the applied-for funds must be above and the time or distance of travel is so great as to beyond normal funding, must be money unavail- riskthe health of the children involved or able from other sources, must be used for a brand significantly impinge on the educational process new program. And the new programmust fall of such children, or where the educational within the eligibility and autholized activity rules. opportunities available at the school to which it It must be used for a program dealing with those is proposed that any such student be transported problems upon which the district based its eligi- will be substantially inferior to those opportuni- bility.In addition, a district cannot reduce its ties offered at the school to which such student current fiscal efforts (taxes) in per-pupil expenses would otherwise be assigned under a nondiscrim- or general education expenses. inatory system of school assignments based on Another assurance extracted by the guidelines is geographic zones established without discrimina- that the school districtwillcooperate inthe tion on account of race, rAigion, color or evaluation of plans or any specific projects. Offi- national origin. cials might have to keep records, provide control While this is not a flat prohibition against using groups or control schools for tests, orsubmit to money for busing under any circumstances,it is at questionnaires and "other evaluation instruments." least severely restricting as to when money can be Some promises would seem to be common used for busing, and rules out among other busing sense: such as those prohibiting fundsused for situations, those where white students would be "religious worship" or coordinating ESAA pro- bused into a black school which a school board grams with other federal programs likethe Elemen- might consider "substantially inferior." However, tary and Secondary Educztion Act of 1965 and the act does not prevent a district from busing to with the old desegregation assistance programs achieve racial balance, if the decision to do so is under Title IV of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. But reached voluntarily and on the local level. they are spelled out, anyway. Districts must promise a goodly number of reports and records, as part of public accountabil- Choosing. the Winners ity, including evidence of progress toward program goals, standard achievement test data and the like. The criteria used by USOE in awarding the All must be available to the public at minimal or money really constitute the heart of theESAA

81 program. once an eligible school district has madea C. Activities proper application with all the appropriate prom- ises.And, while the primary basis for making Project design; concentrated. awards is said in the regulations to be "objective intensive and individualized criteria," all the objectivity in the world couldnot instruction to promote growth keep them from being controversial. Grantsare in racial understanding. 11 made on the basis of points whichare awarded for the need demonstrated for the money, and the Staffing; use and training of existing staff. likely success in reducing minoritygroup isolation. 3 (The complex system of points immediately Logistics and delivery of services. drew complaints f:om a Congressman, who said 3 that a poor program involvinga large amount of Parent and community involve- pupil transfer could be favoredover a high-quality ment; how much and evidence program involving littletransfer, and from the that it did involve parents and Washington Research Project,a civil rights group, community before application. 4 which said that too much emphasiswas put on academic programs whichare easily measured by 21 standardized tests. The Project wanted otheras- pects of desegregation given higher priority.) D. Resource management; how wisely the funds will be used, how related In terms of actually handing out themoney, to existing programs, how little Washington will take into account how muchnew new equipment needed. money a school district needs, compared with 6 other districts in its state, and will awardmoney E. Evaluation; how objective themea- under thepointsystem.witheach applicant sures, precise the timetable and districtina given state competing with other careful the match against outside applicant districts until the specificamount set standards. 6 aside for that state runs out. 45

Relative Weight: Once the Money Is in Hand: The USOE Point System More Rules I. Objective criteria (90 points) The detailed rules which must be followedby A. Number and percentage of minority funded school districtsare the result of some hard group students, compared with and even bitter experience Nithtwo decades of other districts in the state. 30 desegregation attemp 3. Thus, thereare rules about when one should and whenone cannot get B. Net reduction in minority group involved with private schools; how there should isolation, as measured by numbers not be faculty discrimination, classroomsegrega- of students placed in nonracially tion within a desegregated building,or acts of any or less racially isolated schools. 60 kind which are discriminatory towardchildren, within a desegregated school. 90 But perhaps the most interestin;;are the rules II.Educational and Programmatic criteria demanding various advisorygroups, to assure that (45 points) the community and even the students havea say-so in planning for ESAA funduse. Advisory groups A. Needs assessment; whatare the needs are required before a project is funded. As HEW and how severe are they? plus sub- officials describe the rules, there must be "broadly stantive data to support these needs.' 6 representative" committees of parents,teachers and students. And at least one public hearingmust B. State of objectives; how specific, be held. realistic, and community-involved. 6 Some advisory committee rules: 82 I ..A dist:rictwide advisory committee must have Funds may also be approved for a plan which atleast.IC days to review the district's creates in a district with more than 507r minority- application. even before it is sent to Washing- group students. one or more "integratedschools." ton. with at least 40'7 of the children from above- median income families or at least 50f; of the 2. Seven or more days before submitting the children at or above the 60th percentile in reading. application, a public hearing must be held Activities authorized in this section "shall be withthe committee and other interested directed toward improving the academic achieve- parties involved, and five days before the mentof childreninminority groupisolated hearing,it must be advertised in a general schools, particularly in the basic areas of reading circulation newspaper, and proof of both and mathematics," the guidelines say. These would hearing and advertisement must accompany include remedial services, teacher aides, new cur- the application. ricula and the like, which would "bear directly on classroom performance." but "other. indirect ap- 3, At least five civic or community organizations proaches which offer unusual promise- will be which, taken together. are. "broadly represen- considered. tative of the minority and nonminority com- The criteria for funding these special projects are munities," select a member of the committee. the same as for the general grant program. except Other members include a white teacher and that special emphasis is put on needs assessment one teacher for each minority groupsubstan- and evaluation design; on the spin-off effect to tially present on the faculty. The committee other schools and even other school districts: and must have equal numbers of each racial group how carefullythe districtplans to spend any or ethnic group involved inthe community, money it might receive. and one-half must be made up of parents of studentstobe involvedinthe program. Non-School Gi-:i.ups Saident members must include at least one Can Apply for Funds representativefroL:-eachracialor ethnic group. Public or nonprofit private organizations outside 4. After the award, the committee's meeting the school system but inside the community can must be advertised and held monthly and apply for and receive ESAA funds to "support the publicly. No amendments are to be made to developmentor implementation of a plan or the application or plan without committee project" carried on by the school system under the comment. act. Examples of the sort of organization are not provided, but the activities for which they can 5. Student advisory committees are to be set up apply for funds suggest counseling, social work, within 15 days of approval of funding, at each preschool. recreational and human relations organi- high school involved in the funded programs, zations would be eligible. selected by student bodies or student govern- Ttvelve activities that are all right for non-school ments onamultiracialbasiswith funding: members of each racial group and consulted periodically by the school district. 1. Remedial services to supplement those pro- videdby theschool district,including to Loring. Making the Best of Isolation: Another Program 2. Career orientation educational programs not offered by school district. Under a "Pilot Projects" section, the law pro- vides for aid to districts with at least15,000 3. Innovative intenacial enrichment programs, minority students, or where minorities constitute bringing children and parents from differ- over 50% of the school population,to fund ent schools and different races together. "unusually promising and innovative pilot pro- grams or projects specially designed to overcome 4. Community activities, including public in- theadverseeffectsof minority groupisola- formation andparent involvement pro- tion...." grams related to the plan. 83 5. Administrative and auxiliary services. sup- school superintendent or board must beaware: porting the school district, whenrequired. Any school board which wantsto apply for a grant under ESAA should, as a preliminarystep. 6. Programstoprepare preschoolersand have its attorney obtain and read theregulations. school-age children for desegregation. Some of the language is lawyer-likeenough, and with enough cross references that 7. Programs to deal with a trained eye will dropouts, suspen- best be able to see possibilities forassistance or sions, academic failure's and otherpossible constraints against application. results of desegregation. Many of the criteria for assistanceare like those of the first set of rules, that is, with points 8. Interracial programs directed awarded at social and for need, for net reduction of isolation,for project recreational needs springing out ofde- design. This summary will only attempt segregation. to high- tight some of the salient features in eachprogram to alert readers to some particular opportunitiesor 9. Cultural enrichment for both childrenand restrictions. Again, copies of the regulations parents. should be obtained and read bya trained regulation-reader for best results. Theyare available through USOE 10. "Home-focused" projectsto enrich the regional offices_ educational atmosphere of childrenin- volved in the school plan, including readingforparents andchildren,and Metropolitan Area Projects school-related family activities. This section is designed to aid(1) interdistrict 11. General assistance or supportat school transfers between district request. districts which have below- average number of minorities and those witha higher number of minorities; (2) 12, Other special area-wide plans to programs of merit to make reduce racial isolation- through jointcooperative "substantial progress" toward the aimsof efforts; and (3) integrated educationparks. All the act. Only the imagination of theappli- these metropolitanarea projects must be con- cant and the approval of the HEW assistant ducted within a Standard MetropolitanStatistical secretary fby education limit this activity. Area (SMSA). More promives have to be madein these applica- tions, along with those the schoolsystem made, Interdistricfransters including coordinatton with the schooldistrict and other nonprofit agencies. The basic ground rule here is thata district with More criteria and per, v1 systemsare detailed, and a low-minority enrollment enroll minority are similar to those for the basic grant group program for students from a district with high minoritygroup school districts, except that "objectivecriteria" are enrollment to create "oneor more integrated de-emphasized to match the educationaland pro- schools." The integrated schoolmust have at least grammatic. 40% of thechildren from higher-than-median income families (when compared with themedian More I Guidelines from USOE: of the applicant district, the SMSAor the nation, Goodi (al Strings whichever is lowest); or have at least 50%of the students score at or above the 60th percentileon reading; must have a minority-groupenrollment The second set of regulationsgoverning the which isatleast 50% of the minority distribution of desegregation aid group was released in proportion of all schools in the SMSAand in no March 1973 and covered the fundingof metropoli- event more than 50% minority, and tan area projects, bilingual projects, must have a the use of faculty in which the proportion ofminority group educationaltelevisionprojects, evaluation, and teachers is equal to or greater than "special projects," a catchall section the proportion which in- of minority group students. Thepresumption is cludes reading projects. The twosets of regulations -that minority students would be brought convey two strong overall impressions of which from an the inner-city,racially isolated school toan integrated 84 suburban school, but the arrangement cannot leave how, by some date prior to July1. 1983. the any of the inner-city schools more isolatedthan minority children shall have been redistributed so they were before the transfer. that eachschoolinthe SMSA shall have a The critex,3for transfer programs divide 75 percentage of minorities at least equal to halfthe points for -; criteria and 30 for educational percentage cif minority enrollment in the SMSA. and program. ::riteria, thus: Thus, if an SMSA is 30% black. each school in the area should be at least 15% blackbefore the I. Statistical (75 points) deadline, and the applicant districts "shall specify in detail the means by which such objective is to be A. Need: number and percent of mi- achieved." nority children in .he sending dis- The funding criteria divide 60-30 on statistical tdct cooperating with applicant and programmatic bases. thus: (the receiving distn 30 I. Statistical (60 points) B. Reduction of isolation number of minority group children removed A. Need (Number and percent of fromminoritygroupisolated minority-groupstudentsin all schools. 45 schools in the SMSA). 30 75 B. Isolation reduction. 30

11. Educational and Programmatic (30 points) 60

A. Statement of objectives: degree to Il. Educfitlonal and Programmatic (30 points) which specific measurable objec- tives are proposed and the promise A. Stat6nent of objectives. (See de- for success. Makes specific men- scription under Metropolitan Area tion of private school use. 6 Projects.) 6

B. Activities B. Activities

Project design with emphasis on Project design which includ.::s a student involvement of all races; demographic study forecasting individualizedinstruction; and housingpatterns and involve- interracial /interculturalunder- ment of zoning and other agen- 5 standing. cies. 10 Staffing. 3 Staffing. 2 Services delivery involving extra- Parent and community involve- curricular activities. 5 ment. 7

--Parent involvement. 4 19

17 C. Resource management. 2

C. Resource management. 3 D. Evaluation. 3

D. Evaluation. 4 30 30 Education Parks Area -Wide This is a project which may be undertaken by Two-thirds of the districts in an SMSA, which one or more districts within an SMSA. The money must enroll two-thirds of the pupils inthe SMSA. available from ESAA can be used only for "plan- must approve the project. The project mustshow ning" (e.g., demographic surveys, site selection, 85 academic achievement studies and standardsetting, C. Activities and parental involvement), 1101 forthe purchase or preparation of a site or the constructionitself. Project design including accessi- The definition of an integratededucation park is ble location to minorities and given as a school or cluster ofschools on a nonminorities: participation of common site: students and teachers: and logi- cal planning sequence_ 4 Within an SMSA. Staffing. 4 In which at least 5,000 students are enrolled. Community and parent involve- ment. Providing secondary education. 7 integrated with at least 40% of the students 17 from families with above median incomeor D. Resource management. 50% of the students at the 60th percentilein reading and with minoritygroup enrollment E. Evaluation. at least 50% of the SMSA minoritypropor- tion and not to exceed 50% minority(except 35 where a single district applies in whichcase the proportion of minority enrollmentmust be at least 50% of the minorityenrollment in Advisory Committees Requireu the district). All of the Metropolitan Area Projectsrequire the Integrated faculty in which the proportion of use of advisory committees. The interdistricttrans- minority group teachers is equal to fer program must involve boththe communities or greater within the receiving than the proportion of minoritygroup stu- or applicant district and the dents. sending or cooperating district. Studentsinvolved in the advisory committee mustrepresent equally The criteria for assistance breaks down those regularly enrolled in the receivingschool and 65-35: those transferred from the sending district. I. Statistical (65 points) In the area-wide plans and theeducation parks, the communities involvedare those throughout the A. Need: involves number and per- SMSA to be serviced or the district(s)from which centage of secondary school mi- the park enrollment is drawn. Students nority children only. and faculty 30 must be s elected from each applicantagency, up to R. Transfers: number and percentage six student members and six facultymembers on a of minority secondary students committee. now in isolated secondary schools which will be incorporated into Bilingual Projects the p:oposed park. 35 A bilingual program is designed "to 65 meet the special educational needs of minority-groupchil- dren who are from environments II. Educational and programmatic (35 in which a points) dominant language is other than English"both so A. Needsassessment:How much they can read, write and speakbetter in their own communityparticipation,data language and in English andso they can understand gathering for assessment, andco- better their own history and culturalbackground. ordination with other planningac- Five interesting pointsare made in the regulations' tivities of the applicant. 6 discussion of eligibility and authorizedactivities:

B. Statement of objectives. (Seede- Nonprofit agencies other than schooldistricts scription under Metropolitan Area can receive aid to develop bilingual Projects.) programs S and curricula, as long as theycan prove the 86 school district requested the services of such environments in whicii a dominant agency or organization or institution. language is other than English. 30 B. ft,...luction of isolation. 0 While bilingual programs are usually thought of as designed for Spanish-surnamed or Portu- 60 guese or Oriental children, in fact, children IL Educational and programmatic (55 points, from any ethnic group are eligible for aid if OE finds that "such group has been denied A. Needsassessment:severityof equaleducational opportunity because of needs as demonstrated by achieve- language barriers and cultural differences." ment testing. 10

The language represents a rare bow in the B. Statement of objectives. (See de- direction of the so-called "ethnics"Italians, scription under Metropolitan Area Poles, Slays and others even if they do not Projects.) wish to take advantage. C. Activities involves minwity An ethnicplan, which Project design, which includes groups other than those involved in the act, it; the degree of narrow. intensive, not eligible "if it results in any increase ;,.-; individualized help, the extern of minority group isolation" for the minorities innovation in spreading bilingual defined in the act. In other words, an Italian arts through the curriculum in an bilingual project cannot be use.1 AS a racially integrated setting, and student segregating device and receive federal aid, too. participation in planning. 12 No more than 25% of funds awarded can go Staffing, including the use of for "developmental"activities. Most of it paraprofessionals. 10 must go for the actual implementation of the Delivery of services. developedorexistingprogramsandfor teacher training. Parent and community involve- ment. 4 Detailed figures must be given on how minor- ity children are separated from nonminorities 28 for bilingual projects: how many; for how D. Resource management. S long; why; whether ability grouping results; how ability grouping is justified if it occurs; E. Evaluation: makes a special point and why different textbook levels are used if of assessing the validity of testing thisis the case. (These regulations are all instruments "when used to evalu- meant to overcome complaints that Chicanc..; ate the language skills, academic and other minorities are put into slower aptitude or general intelligence of "tracks," sometimes even in classes for re- children whose primary language is tarded children when their language problems other than English." (Again, this impeded their learning.) criteria is aimed toward respond- ing to complaints thatculture- skewed tests were used previously The criteria for assistance in bilingual education to"track"non-English-speaking piujects are similar to many for other projects, students into low-ability groups.) 6 except that language, not race is the operating area of change. The use of the word "objective" recurs, 55 and such criteria are worth 60 points, compared with 55 for educational and programmatic criteria. Advisory Committees 1. Objective (60 points) Some special instructions for program or project A. Need: number and percentage of boards for bilingual projects apply to both school minority children "who are from districts and to the nonprofit, private agency 87 applicants.i,iadditioni die rules concerning 6. Reduction of inte -racial or inter.thnic tension advisory committees for basic grant, two adminis- and conflict (spot only I. trators or school board members must be members of the board (one of whom must represent the These programs must be made "reasonably mine:y group to be served by the project): half available" for transmission free of charge antimay the committee must be parents of children affected not be transmitted under commercial sponsorship_ by the plan; and half the committee must be If costs of transmission are met bya commercial members of the minority group to be served. firm, "abrief statement to that effect at the Nonprofit, private applicants must form sucha beginning or end of such transmission shall not be program or project board in a slightly different considered commercial sponsorship." No one 1:-; to manner and must show how such a board will benefit financially from the use or transmission of___ exercise policy-making authority over theprogram. the program. Like the mak, up of the advisory committees to the Funds may not be used for constructionor school district, at least 507 of the board must be repair of abuilding or facility,nor for any representative of the minority to be served. equipment which is not consumed in use (suchas workbooks and other nonbroadcast materials). Informaton which must be provided by an applicant for educational TV funds includes: Educational Television t. A detailed description of programs. the target Any public agency or nonprofit private organiza- audience and the gains expected. tion may apply for a grant to pay the cost of developing and producing "integrated children's Name, race and professional background of television programs" which both teach concrete those putting shows together. academic skills and encourage interracial and "in- terethnic" understanding. [Only five grantswere to Details on evaluation, including how change is be awarded in the fiscal year ending June 30, to be measured amvng target audiences. 1973.1 The type of program to be developed may be Details of past experience of the applicant. either a standard-length series or one-minute spots. Of the six following "areas of concern" full-length Information on research techniques, produc- features may address the first three, while the spots tion standards, nonbroadcast materials and may deal with all six: fieldactivitiestoassureaudiencepar- ticipation. I. Bilingual and bicultural approaches to both the development of skills and the deeper The criteria for assistance are: understanding and appreciation of the two cultures and histories. A. Needs assessment: comprehensive assessment of needs; how audience 2. Instruction in reading, math, art, music and size has been assessed; and audience basic science either supplemental or intro- size. 10 ductory. B. Statement of objectives: match the subject matter to the needs. 3. Instructionin family life-related academic 13 skills, directed particularly at those of sec- C. Activities (35-37 points) ondary-school age. Program content and design, in- 4. Dropout problems, counseling and other ap- cluding the use of minority and proaches (spot only). nonminority characters and other techniques to keep interest. 10 S. Understanding and appreciation of art, music, literature and other cultural att'inments of Staffing. 12 various racial and ethnic groups, the target Capacity of facilities to do a good audience's own and others (spot only). job. 10 88 Supplernenurymaterials.(Ap- De submitted. and the signature of the principal in plies only to standard-length pru- the school to be served is also required. grams.) In fact, the principal is the ke:.--tire in the reading projects. He heads up a -1( force" Parent and community involve- which serves as a broadly based al:;- ,- group ment_ 3 drawn from the community and teachers, and includes at least one other administrator_ In addi- 35-37 tion, the advisory group must be made up equally of minority and nonminority representatives; half D. Resource management. 6 must be parent: andif a secondary schoolis E. Evaluation: includes early testing to involved, the advisory council mu,it include two see which production techniques student members. No changes can be made in a reach audiences best. 5 program without the approval of a majority of the council_ Criteria for the reading projects reverse the usual Advisory committees are required, and if the ratio, with only 20 points for "objective" criteria primary broadcast area exceeds scho aldistrict and 105 points for educational and programmatic boundaries., the committee membership must re- criteria. flect the larger area. I. Objective (20 points) A. Need: number and percent of mi- Evaluation nority group students in the appli- cant district. 10

Many rules already govern such evaluation activi- B. Isolation reduction. (See descrip- ties, especially in the field of education. Evaluation tionunderMetropolitanArea contracts will be awarded on the basis of requests Projects.) 10 for proposals. Such requests will generally seek evaluations on a national basis for specific cate- 20 gories for grants. The criteria for funding will include the following, with no specified wei, ping II. Educational and programmatic (105 of points for each: statement of objectives, to fini- points) cal approach, management plan, data techniques, A. Needsassessment:standardized staff capabilities, resource management and scope. reading tests required. 20 B. Statement of objectives: the mini- SpeciP1 Projects mum requirement is that students reach "normal range" of reading 20 Special projects are divided into "special reading scores in three years. projects" and "other projects" which USOE C. Activities determines "will make substantial progress toward achieving the purposes of the act." (Tilt' c is no Curriculum development. 10 descrption or criteria or even discussion in the guidelines of what is meant by "other projects.") Staffing including training and Reading projects are limited to schools with 20% integration. 20 to 50% minority enrollment, and the program is aimed at improving -eading performance of both Commuzlity involvement. 10 minority and nonminority children. Each class- 40 room affected by the program must have both minority., and nonminority childreninit,and D. Resource management: minimal nobody may be "removed from their regularly new equipment eams points. 5 assigned classrooms on a regular basis in order to participate in a program ... but may be removed E. Evaluation. 20 on an occasional basis for special treatment or services." A special reading needs alsessment must 105 89 Title IV. Civil Rights Act of 194;4: ti:dz assistance to school districts in desig- Desegregation Planning n ated serrice areas and Implementation Public or private organizations (includingcol- leges and universities) may apply for fundsto The J.S.7 Office of Education announced new provide assistance to school districts in the guidelines for programs in desegregation planning preparation. adoption and implementation of and implementation to be fanded under Title IV of desegregation plans. Organizations receiving the Civil Rights Act of 19;:./4_ The g.nielineswere these awards will be knownas General Assis- effective for programs beginning no earlier than tance Centers_ No more than 2t. "wards will July 1. 1973. and ending no later than June 30, be made. with a MaXiMUns of one aware. being 1974. (Applications for the fiscal 1974 grants had made in each of :!() service areas. Sereareas to be accepted by USOE by April15. 1973.) have been dereinnnnx.1 geographically accord- inionnation on funding in future=years can be ing to need for desegregation assistance. They obtained from USOE or from any of the 10 are listed in the application materials_ Each regional offices of USOE. center will be responsible for providing a Programs are funded in four categories: comprehensive range of technical assistance 1. Grants to school hoards and training services to desegregatingor deseg- Desegregating or desegregated school districts regated school districts located withinits with severe desegregation-related needsmay service area. As evidence of need for such apply for funds to employ a desegregation services, each applicant must present letters specialist or in some cases to conduct inser- from districts within its servicearea stating vice training for their school personnel. Since specific desegregation-related neeus andre- a broad range of desegregation services will be questing assistance from the applicant organi- available to school districts through the three zation. Selection of applicants for funding other Title IV programs described below, will be determined according to the enroll- districtsapplying fora grant under this ment of minority students in desegregatingor category must be able to demonstrate excep- desegregateddistrictsrequestingassistance tional need. Any activities conductedas a and the educational quality of the proposed result of such a grant must be part ofa program, comprehensive long-range planning effort in 4. Grants to conduct desegregation traininginsti- the area of desegregation. Nomore than 30 tu tes grantsareexpectedtobe made inthis Colleges and universities may apply for funds category. Selection of applicants for funding to train teachers, counselors. administrators will be determined according to the number and other school personnel in techniques for and percentage of rainority students enrolled Solving special educational problems brought in the district and the educational quality of about by desegregation. Such trainingmay be the proposed project. conducted only at the request of oneor more boardsof 2. Grants to swe educational agenciesto pro- desegregatingordesegregated vide desegregation assistance school districts. Topics treated in institute State educational agencies may apply for sessions will be determined according to the funds to provide technical assistance to deseg- desegregation-related need of the school dis- tricts involved. It is expected that follow-up regatingordesegregatedschooldistricts within their states. As evidence of need for activities will be part of the institute planning such services, each applicant must present anc, thatparticipantswill be prepared to return to their jobs and train their colleagues, letters from school districts stating specific either desegregation-related needs and requesting de- formallyor informally, after com- segregation assistance from the state educa- pleting the institute activities. As evidence of tional agency. Selection of applicants for need for training services, each applicantmust funding will be determined according to the present letters from desegregating or desegre- enrollment of minority students in desegre- gatedschooldistrictsstatingspecific de- gatingor desegregateddistrictsrequesting segregation-related needs and requesting train- assistance and the educational quality of the ing services from the applicant institution. proposed program. Selection of grantees will be determined by the educational quality of the proposed train- 3. Awards to organizations providing desegrega- ing project. 90 U.S.. Office of Education Regional Oilice

Region I (Boston i Region VI (Dallas-Fort Worth Connecticut. Maine, Massachusetts. New Hampshire. Arkansas. Louisiana.. New Mexico. Oklailorna, Texas Rhode Island. Vermont Thomas Kendrick Theodore J. Parker Senior Program Officer Senior Program Officer Bureau of Equal Educatinal C3rporri ='y Bureau of Equal Educational Opportunity U.S. Office of Education U.S. Office of Education 1114 Commerce St. John Fitzgerald Kennedy Federal Bldg. Dallas, Tex. 75202 ivemment Center 214/749-3084 Boston, Mass. 02203 617/2234555 Region VII (Kansas City Region II (New York City) Iowa, Kansas. Missouri. Nebraska New York, New Jersey, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands Robert E. i-arning Jack A. Simms Senior Program Officer Senior Prot'.m Officer Bureau of Equal Opportunity Bureau of Educational Opportunity U.S. Office of Education U.S. Office of Education New Federal Office Bldg. Federal Bldg. 601 E. I2th St. 26 Federal Plaza, Rm. 1039 Kansas City. Mo. 64106 New York. N.Y. 10007 816/3",1-:lo41 212/264-1098 Rsion ill (Philadelphia) Region VIII (Denver) 'are, District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, West Virginia Utah, Wyoming

Edward Cooper John H. Runkel Senior Program Officer Director, School Systems Division Bureau of Equal Educational Opportunity U.S. Office of Education U.S. Office of Education 1961 Stout St., Rm. 11421 P.O. Box 129100 Denver, Colo. 80202 Philadelphia, Pa. 19108 303/837-4844 215/597-9021 Region IV (At larta) Region IX (San Francisco) Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada North Carolina. South Carolina, Tennessee Alfredo J. Villa John R. Lovegrove Senior Program Officer Senior Program Officer Bureau of Equal Educational Opportunity Bureau of Equal Educational Opportunity U.S. Office of Education U.S. Office of Education 50 Fulton St., Rm. 359 50 Seventh St., NE, Rio. 550 San Francisco, Calif. 94102 Atlanta, Ga. 30323 415/556-7750 404%526-3076 Region X (Seattle) Region V (Chicago) Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota. Michigan. Ohio, Wisconsin Joseph Donato Morris Osbum Senior ?rogram Officer Senior Program Officer Bureau Equal Educational Opportunity Bureau of Equal Educational Opportunity U.S. Office of Education U.S. Office of Education Arcade Plaza Bldg. 300 S. Wacker Dr., 32nd Floor 1321 Second Ave. Chicago, Ill. 60606 Seattle, Wash. 98101 312/353-7200 20*/442-0450 91 ALABAMA ILLINOIS Norvel le Clark Robert Lyons Technical Assistance Program Dept. of Equal Educational Opportunities Alabama State Dept. of Education Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction 513 Madison Ave. 188 W. Randolph Rtn_ 201 Chicago. III. 60601 Montgomery. Ala. 36104 312/793-3226 (3227.32281 205/269-7826 (7827) INDIANA ARIZONA Brenda Bowles Henry Arredondo Division of Equal Educational Opportunities Equal Educational Opportunities. Title IV Dept. of Public Instruction Dept. of Education Rm. 319 State Office Bldg. 1535 W. Jefferson St. Indianapolis. Ind. 46204 Phoenix, Ariz. 85007 317/633-4978 (7879) 602/271-5821 IOWA CALIFORNIA Jesse L. High Ples A. Griffin Urban Education Section Bureau of Intergroup Relations Equal Educational Opportunity State of California Iowa State Dept. of Public Instruction Dept. c 'Education Des Moines, Iowa 50319 721 Capital Mall 515/281-3152 (3153) Sacramento,, Calif. 95814 916/#45 - 9482(9483) KENTUCKY Newton Thomas COLORADO Division of Equal Educational Opportunities Fred E. Holmes Kentucky State Dept. of Education Community Services Capital Plaza Tower 16th Floor Equal Educational Opportunity Frankfort, Ky, 40601 520 State Office Bldg. 502/564-6916 (6917) Colorado Dept. of Education Denver, Colo, 80203 MARYLAND 303YS92-2291 (22'92) Theophil Muellen Division of Instruction DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA State Dept. of Education Jack Homback P.O. Box 8717 Council of the Great City Schools Baltimore, Md. 21240 1707 H St., NW 301/796-8300, ext. 460 Washington, D.C. 20006 202/298-8707 MICHIGAN John Dobbs FLORIDA Office of Equal Educational Opportunity Dan Cunningham Dept. of Education Florida Technical Assistance Program 520 Michigan National Towers Dept. of Education Lansing, Mich. 48902 Tallahassee, Fla. 32304 517/373.3497 (3260) 904/488-4164 (4165) MINNESOTA GEORGIA Archie Holmes Wilson Harry Office of Planning and Development Technical Assistance Center State Dept. of Education 262 State Office Bldg. Capital Square Bldg. Atlanta, Ga. 30334 St. Paul, Minn. 55101 404/656-2452 (2446,2447,2453) 612/296-3885

92 NEVADA PENNSYLVAN L4. Bernice Moten Jeanne Brooker Educational Services Intergroup and Civil Rights Equal Educational Opportunity Dept. of Education Nevada State Dept. of Education P.O. Box 911 Las Veg:as. Nev. 89109 Harrisburg_ Pa. 17126 702/385-0191 7171787-1402 (11301 NEW JERSEY Nida Thomas RHODE ISLAND Office of Equal Educational Opportunity Frank R. Walker State Der) of Education Equal Educational Opportunity 224 W. State St. Office of Commissioner of Education Trenton, NJ. 08125 199 Promenade St. 609/2924343 (4344,5922,5894) Providen, R.I. 02908 401/277-2675 NEW MEXICO Henry Pascual SOUTH CAROLINA Title IV Technical Assistame Unit Joe Durham State Dept. of education Office of Technical Assistance Capitol Complex Bldg. South Carolina State Dept. of Education Santa Fe, N.M. 87501 416 Senate St. 507827 - 2683(2047) Columbia, S.C. 29201 803/758-2157 (2158) NEW YORK Morton Sobel SOUTH DAKOTA Division of Intercultural Relations Esther Stark State Dept. of Education Equal Educational Opportunity Program Washington Ave. South Dakota Dept. of Public Instruction Albany, N.Y. 12224 Learning Center 518/474-3934 (2238) Black Hill State College NORTH CAROLINA Spearfish, S.D. 57783 Dudley Flood 605/224-3426 Division of Human Relathas Dept. of Public Instruction TENNESSEE Education Bldg., Rm. 122 Otis L. Floyd Raleigh, N.C. 27602 Equal Educational Opportunity Program 919/829-4207 (4208,4209) Cordell Hull Bldg., Rm. 114 Nashville, Tenn. 37219 OHIO 615/741 2328(2329) Robert 0. Greer Office of Equal Educational Opportunities 65 S. Front M. TEXAS Gilbert Conoley Columbus, Ohio 43215 Texas State Board of Education 614/469-5834 Technical Assistance for School Desegregation OKLAHOMA Texas Education Agency Van Wright 201 E. Ilth St. Rm. 328 Capital Bldg. Austin, Tex. 78701 State Dept. of Education 512/475-5959 (5958) Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105 405/478-0880 (0881) VIRGINIA Robert T. Greene OREGON Technical Assistance Program Jerry Fuller, Gilbert Anzaldua Office of School Desegregation Services Interstate Intergroup Human Relations Virginia Slate Dept. of Education 942 Lancaster Dr., NE Ninth St. Office Bldg. Salem, Ore. 97310 Richmond, Va. 23216 503/378-3061 703/770-3750 (4614) 93 Vfi ASHINGTON FLORIDA Warren H. Bunon Gordon Foster. Director Intercultural Education Florida School Desegregation Consult:I-it:. Center Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction U. of Miami Old Capital Bldg. P.O. Box 5065 Olympia_ Wash. 98501 Coral Gables. Fla. 33124 206:753-2560 305.'284-3213 (32163

WEST VIRGINIA GEORGIA Tony Smedley Morrill M. Hall. Director Technical Assistance Center Center for Educational Improvement West Virginia Dept. of Education College of Education. U. al Georgia 8252 Capital Complex Athens. Ga. 30601 Charleston, W. Va. 25305 404542 -1 304/318-2529 (3303) LOUISIANA WISCONSIN Eldridee J. Gendron William W. Colby, Mary Jean Sylvester Educational Resource Center on School Desegregation Office of Equal Educational Opportunities Alcee Fortier Hall. P.m. 312. Tulane U. Dept. of Public instruction New Orleans. La. 701I8 126 Langton St. 504/866-5247 Madison, Wis. 53702 608/266-0043 MISSISSIPPI List current as of Feb. I, 1973 Leonard-McCullough, Director Mississippi Education Service Center P.O. Drawer NX. Mississippi State U. State College, Miss. 39761 Title IV University School 601/325-4030 Desegregation (7enters NEW MEXICO ALABAMA Johii Aragor, Director David Biork. Director Ray Rodriquez. Acting Director Intercultural Center for Southern Alabama Mesa Vista Hall, Cultural Awareness Center U. of South Alabama Albuquerque, N.M. 87106 2005 Bayfront .Rd. 505/277-5706 (5707) BrocAdey AFB, Ala. 36608 205/433-8457 (8456.8458,8459) NEW YORK Edmund W. Gordon. Director John S. Martin, Director National Center for Research and Information for Auburn Center for Assistance with Problems Arising from Equal Educational Opportmities School Desegregation -leachers College. Columbia U. Auburn U. New York. N.Y. 16027 Auburn, Ala. 36830 212/870-4200 205/826-4994 (4995) NORTH CAROLINA ARKANSAS William A. Gaines, Director A. B. Wetherington, Director Educational Leal,!rship and Human Relations Center St. Augustine's College/North Carolina State U. Arkansas Technical Assistance and Consultative Center 1517 Oakwood Ave. Ouachita Baptist U. Raleigh, N.C. 27602 Arkadelphia, Ark. 71923 919/832-4825 501/2464531, ext. 292,293, 294 OKLAHOMA CALIFORNIA Joe Garrison. Director Lulamae Clemons, Administrative Coordinator Consultative Center for School Desegregation Western Regional School Desegregation Projects U. of Oklahoma U. of California 555 Constitution Ave. Riverside, Calif. 95202 Norman, Okla. 73069 714/787-5733 405/325-1841 94 PENNSYL\ A.NIA Lawyers Committee for Civil. Rights Under Law Ronald Bara.ts, Co-Director 733 15th St., NW James Mauth, Co-Director Washington, D.C. 20006 U. of Pittsf?nigh, Desegregation and Conflict Center Steve Browning 4029 Bige-:w Blvd. (202) 628-6700 Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213 The League of Womeq Voters of the United States 412/621-4S00, ext. 525 1730 M St., NW SOUTH 'CAROLINA Washington, D.C. 20036 James W. Luck Alice Kinkead South C3.i.olina Center for Integrated Education (202) 296-1770 College of Education MARC Busing Task Force 503 S. main Metropolitan Applied Research Center, Inc. Columbia, S.C. 29208 60 E. 86 St. 803/77' -4839 (4838,4837,5181) New York, N.Y. 10028 ..iSEE Lawrence Plotkin Frederick P. Venditti, Director (212) 628-7400- ext. 52 Educational Opportunities Planning Center Mexican AmeAlc.:in Legal Defense and Education FunA 224 Henson Hall, U.. r.f Tennessee 145 Ninth St Knw;ville, Tenn. 379' San Francisa:, f4:alif. 94103 615/974.-2217 Mario Obledc;,. General Counsel TEXAS (415) 626-61':,4,1 Pergy Morehouse; A.,:ting Administrator NAACP Legal tiefense and Educational Fund Te) as Educational L'Pvgregation Technical and 100 Columbui; Circle Advisory Center, of Texas New York, N.Y. 10019 Division of Extension Jun Fairfax Austin, Tex. 78712 (1:12) 586-8397 512/471-3625 (7325) National Assn. or the Advancement of Colored People VIRGINIA 179'Q Broadway Ralph W. Cherry, Director New York, N.Y. 10019 Consultative Resource Center for School Desegregation John A. Morsell, Assistant. Executive Director U. of Virginia (212) 245-2100 164 Rugby Rd. Charlottesville, Va. 22903 National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice 703/924-3625 (3707) 1307 S. Wabash Ave. Chicago, Ill. 60605 List current as of Feb. 1, 1973 Sister Margarat Ellen Traxler Executive Director (312) 341-1530

.10--., National Center for Research and Information on `)Organizations with Information Equal Educational Opportunity Box 40, Teachers College, Columbia U. _../ On Desegregation New York, N.Y. 10027 Nicholmis Mills American Friends Service Committee (212) 663-7244 160 N. 15th St. Philadelphia, Pa. 19102 National Conference of Christians and Jews J. Philip Buskirk 43 W. 57th St. (215) 563-9372 New York, N.Y. 10019 Harry A. Robinson B'naIB'rith Vice President and Director of Public Relations Anti-Defamation League 315 Lexington Ave. National Urban League, Inc. New York, N.Y. 10016 477-Madison Ave., 17th Floor Oscal Cohen New York, N.Y. 10022 National Program Director Ermon Hogan, Director for Education (212) 689-7400' (212) 751-0300

95 Southern Regionz Council in-dern disc,i,sions of such selected topics as Mexican- 52 Fair lie St., NV,' American E0';cation," and "Metropolitan Aspects of Edu- Atlanta, Ga. 303'J3 cational Ine,4ti,ality." Most but not all volumes are available Leon Hall from the of Documents. U.S. Govt. Printing Office. (404) 522-8764 Wastiington, D.C. 20402. at prices between S1.00 and Syracuse U. Resarcli Corp. 52.50. In a.hlition to the numbered hearing volumes. there 723 University Ave. is a 663-pa.volume. Selected Court Decisions Relating to Syracuse, N.Y. 13210 Equal Educational Opportunity, of possible interestto Michael Reagan schoolboard attorneysfor S2.75 from theSupt. of (315) 477-7077 Documents, above address. American Friends Service Committee. It's Not Over in the South: School Desegregation in 43 Southern Cities 18 13',1)liography Years After Brown. Six civil rights groups compiled this booklet after a massive monitoring effort in the 1971-72 school year. It raised the hackles of many superintendents U.S.Officeof Education series, Planning Educational who thought it unfair, but it also highlighted some of the Change. Four booklets about desegregation and/or integra- particularly positive aspects of some desegregation efforts tion. All four are available from the Supt. of Documents, as v.ell as problem areas and second-generation concerns of U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402: Southern school desegregation. Available from American Vol.1:Technical Aspects of School Desegregation, a Friends Service, 52 Fairlie St. NW, Atlanta, Ga. 30303; $1. step-by-steTsplanningaidincludedentirelyinth:.- NSPRA report. Catalog No. FS 5.238:38014; 454. National CouncilfortheAdvancement of Education Vol. II: Human Resources in School Desegregation, the Writing. School Desegregation. A primer for reporters and "systematic approach" to community, policy group, others who must write about school desegregation, the administrative, instructional and student elements in booklet contains simple descriptions of Washington, D.C., trying to achieve desegregation goals. Catalog No. FS and judicial developments, a glossary of terms, experts' 5.238:38012; 500. views, bibliographies and sources of help which might make Vol. III: Integrating the Desegregated School, describes the book useful as a handout to education writers or the changing professional roles played by teachers and broadcasters who cover a school district's desegregation administrators to achieve "a condition in which mem- efforts. Available through the Council, Miss Cynthia Par- bers of different racial groups can relate to each other sons, Executive Director, PO Box 233, McLean, Va. 22101. and work together while maintaining their identities." Catalog No. HE 5.238:38016; $1. Integrated Education Associates. Two books, Desegregation Research, An Appraisal and The Education of the Minority Vol. IV: How Five School Systems Desegregated, brief Child: A Comprehensive Bibliography of 10,000 Selected "sketches" of the experiences of the school systems of Entries. Both by Meyer Weinberg, the titles are self-descrip- Chapel Hill, N.C.; Chattooga County, Ga.; Riverside, tive. The research appraisal contains much that has since Calif.; Rochester, N.Y.; and Sherman, Tex., in desegre- been challenged by the controversial David Armor study, gating. Criticisms by USOE authors appear in each but has value nevertheless as a study of studies. Both are sketch. (Rochester hasreverseditsstand sincethe available from the Associates, 343 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, booklet was published.) Catalog No. FS 5.238:38013; III. 60604. The research study costs $3.75, plus 40¢ for 40,4. mailing, and the bibliography is $3.95, plus 400 for mailing. Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity, United States Senate. Toward Equal Educational Opportu- SNPA Foundation Seminar Books. School Desegregation: nity (final report, Dec. 31, 1972). One of the most fruitful Retrospect and Prospect. A collection of talks given in sources of detailed information about desegregation, based 1970 by experts both in and out of school districts and on nearly three years of hearings by the Senate committee, government. Most of the material is distinguished by its which was conceived and chaired by Sen. WalterF. basis on experience rather than theory. Southern News- Mondale. (The report is referred to throughout the text as paper Publishers Assn. Foundation, PO Box 11606, At- the Mondale committee report.) Available from the Supt. lanta, Ga. 30305; $2 each. of Documents, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Your Child and Busing, a 20402; $2.75. booklet that puts busing in perspective for parents by Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity of the dealing with such aspects as 10 "fears and myths" about UnitedStatesSenate. Equal Educational Opportunity busing. It gives answers which school admthistrators might Hearings, Part IA through Part 22 (the "Mondale commit- find useful for adoption as their own. Supt. of Documents, tee report"). Hearing testimony, mue, of it containing Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402; 35¢; quan- valuable experiences of state and locat officials; and tity discounts.

96