ICSS XIX, 12-13 July 2019 19th International Conference on Social Sciences
Venue: Université Libres de Bruxelles, Avenue Franklin Roosevelt 50 - 1050 Bruxelles, Belgique
Proceedings Book
EUROPEAN CENTER FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
19th International Conference on Social Sciences Brussels, 12-13 July 2019
Edited by Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ecirli
Proceedings Book ISBN 9781646334933
Venue: Universite Libres de Bruxelles, Avenue Franklin Roosevelt 50 - 1050 Bruxelles, Belgique
Publishing steps of the Proceedings and Organization of ICSS XVI The first meeting has been held on 20 April 2019 concerning the announcement of the 19th edition of the ICSS series by the executive members of the committee. The first call for participation for submission of abstracts and full papers in social sciences, educational studies, economics, language studies and interdisciplinary studies, was announced to the registered subscribers of ICSS email database as well as through conference alerts services on 26 April 2019. The submitted abstracts and papers have been reviewed in terms of eligibility of the titles as well as their contents and the authors whose works were accepted were called to submit their final version of the papers until 30 June 2019. What follows is the result of these academic efforts.
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Ewa Jurczyk-Romanowska, PhD - University of Wroclaw, Poland M. Edward Kenneth Lebaka, PhD - University of South Africa (UNISA) Sri Nuryanti, PhD - Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Indonesia Basira Azizaliyeva, PhD - National Academy of Sciences, Azerbaijan Federica Roccisano, PhD - Neriman Kara - Signature Executive Academy UK Thanapauge Chamaratana, PhD - Khon Kaen University, Thailand Michelle Nave Valadão, PhD - Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil Fouzi Abderzag, PhD Agnieszka Huterska, PhD - Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń Rudite Koka, PhD - Rīgas Stradiņa universitāte, Latvia Mihail Cocosila, PhD - Athabasca University, Canada Gjilda Alimhilli Prendushi, PhD - Miriam Aparicio, PhD - National Scientific and Technical Research Council - Argentina Victor V. Muravyev, PhD - Syktyvkar State University of Pitirim Sorokin, Russia Charalampos Kyriakidis - National Technical University of Athens, Greece Wan Kamal Mujani, PhD - The National Universiti of Malaysia Maria Irma Botero Ospina, PhD - Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Colombia Mohd Aderi Che Noh, PhD - National University of Malaysia Maleerat Ka-Kan-Dee, PhD Frederico Figueiredo, PhD - Centro Universitário Una, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Iryna Didenko, PhD - Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine Carlene Cornish, PhD - University of Essex, UK Sadegh Ebrahimi Kavari, PhD Mohammed Mahdi Saleh, PhD - University of Jordan Andrei Novac, MD - University of California Irvine, USA Ngo Minh Hien, PhD - The University of Da Nang- Universiy of Science and Education, Vietnam Kawpong Polyorat, PhD - Khon Kaen University, Thailand Haitham Abd El-Razek El-Sawalhy, PhD - University of Sadat City, Egypt Ezzadin N. M.Amin Baban, PhD - University of Sulaimani, Sulaimaniya, Iraq Ahmet Ecirli, PhD - Institute of Sociology, Bucharest, Romania Dominika Pazder, PhD - Poznań University of Technology, Poland Sassi Boudemagh Souad, PhD - Université Constantine 3 Salah Boubnider, Algérie Lulzim Murtezani, PhD - State University of Tetovo, FYROM Ebrahim Roumina, PhD - Tarbiat Modares University, Iran Gazment Koduzi, PhD - University "Aleksander Xhuvani", Elbasan, Albania Sindorela Doli-Kryeziu - University of Gjakova "Fehmi Agani", Kosovo Nicos Rodosthenous, PhD - Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Irene Salmaso, PhD - University of Florence, Italy Non Naprathansuk, PhD - Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
TABLE OF CONTENTS
THE UNDERSTANDING OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AS INDIGENOUS PRACTICE, SKILL AND KNOW-HOW: THE CASE OF COMMUNAL MUSIC-MAKING IN BAPEDI CULTURE AS A SOCIAL PRACTICE ...... 11
DR. MORAKENG EDWARD KENNETH LEBAKA THE CONTROL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION...... 20
ALBULENA BRESTOVCI, THE HEART OF THE CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION AND REVIVAL OF NEW SCHOOLS IN EUROPE ...... 25
SANDRA CHISTOLINI MANAGERIAL DECISION – MAKING AND MAKING DECISIONS (THE CHOICE OF THE ROAD LESS TRAVELLED) ...... 29
DRITON FETAHU FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND THE CIVIL PARTICIPATION OF THE YOUTH ...... 36
DR. LINDITA LUTAJ ALBANIAN LEGISLATION ON RESTITUTION OF PROPERTY CONFISCATED DURING THE COMMUNIST REGIME: ITS STRUCTURAL INCONSISTENCIES AND A NEGATIVE SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE FOR ACHIEVING AN EFFECTIVE DOMESTIC REMEDY ...... 42
ENKELEDA OLLDASHI RODEN HOXHA WHEN METEORS VANISH IN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHIES - THINKING WITH MICHEL SERRES IN TIMES OF NEW CLIMATE REGIME...... 52
SIAVASH BAKHTIAR RE-QUESTIONING GREEN ARCHITECTURE IN EGYPT: A NEED, A MOVEMENT OR A STYLE? ...... 62
KARIM KESSEIBA STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT AS KEY INFLUENCER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN THE COUNTRY OF KOSOVO ...... 69
HANA GASHI RREZARTA GASHI IL PROGETTO DI RICOSTITUZIONE DELL’ESERCITO ITALIANO DOPO L’8 SETTEMBRE 1943. INIZIALI TRATTATIVE CON GLI AMERICANI ...... 81
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FRANCESCA SOMENZARI THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFORMATION HEALTH CARE SYSTEM IN ALBANIA: THE COMPULSORY OF HEALTH CARE INSURANCE FUND OF ALBANIA ...... 90
RUDINA DEGJONI ILIRJANA LOXHA REAL OPTIONS DEBATE – A BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 94
ANDREAS RAMS THE IMPACT OF THE PERCEIVED SERVICE QUALITY ON REVISIT INTENTION IN THE TOURISM INDUSTRY: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF STRATEGIC APPROACH AND ANALYSIS ...... 102
LOLA KLEISARI DR. EVANGELIA N. MARKAKI IS GRIT THE KEY ELEMENT TO IMPROVE THE LIFE ATTITUDE? A STUDY WITH MILITARY STUDENTS FROM ARGENTINA...... 113
MARÍA CECILIA BARNI FLORENCIA TERESITA DAURA IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ACQUIS COMMUNAUTAIRE IN ALBANIAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM ...... 123
ARBEN SHEHU CREDIT WORTHINESS AND REPAYMENT PERFORMANCE AMONG SMALL – HOLDER FARMERS IN SRI LANKA: APPLICATION OF PROBIT MODEL ...... 127
B. SIVATHARSHIKA A. THAYAPARAN LITERARY TEXTS IN TEACHING GERMAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE ...... 137
BRUNILDA VËRÇANI ENKELA BEZATI THE POSITIVE IMPACT OF A PORTUGUESE STATE-OWNED COMPANY THAT INVESTED ON CONSUMERS NUTRITIONAL EDUCATION – THE CASE OF FISH AND DOCAPESCA ...... 141
ANA OLIVEIRA MADSEN VALENTINA CHKONIYA MARKET OR PUBLIC SECTOR - WHICH ONE BETTER PROMOTES DEVELOPMENT? ...... 148
ORIOLA MUSA
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DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE CLASSROOM: STORYTELLING AND SCRIPTWRITING IN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNING OF MOOCS ...... 155
HALVDAN HAUGSBAKKEN WOMEN EMANCIPATION IN ALBANIA TRANSITIONING TO MODERN SOCIETY ...... 164
DEA BASHKURTI ANALYSIS OF COMPETITION AND MARKET POSITIONING ...... 174
DEMIR LIMA CURRENT MANAGERIAL CHALLENGES IN ROMANIAN PUBLIC HOSPITALS ...... 185
CARMEN MARINELA CUMPAT MUTHANA ZOURI IMPLEMENTATION OF TQM IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - CASE STUDY: ALBANIAN COMPANIES ...... 192
JONIDA TETA ERALDA XHAFKA ILO BODI FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION? RE-QUESTIONING THE DILEMMA OF FORM VS FUNCTION IN CONTEMPORARY EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE ...... 196
KARIM KESSEIBA AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF INTERDISCIPLINARY COMPUTING ...... 203 BLACKFACE, BULLYING AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION: WHAT LEGAL EDUCATION MEANS FOR LAW STUDENT WELFARE ...... 205
SAMUEL V. JONES RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR SPIRITUAL EXISTENTIAL COPING WITH CANCER: PORTUGAL STUDY ...... 206
FERESHTEH AHMADI RITA TAVARES PAULA MENA MATOS CARLA TOMÁS NADER AHMADI SHORT-TERM SOJOURNS ABROAD AND INTERCULTURAL GROWTH ...... 207
PAWEŁ SOBKOWIAK
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MILITARY EFFECTIVENESS PROJECT: OFFICE OF NET ASSESSMENT...... 208
ALLAN MILLETT MILITARY EFFECTIVENESS: THE STUDY HEARD ROUND THE WORLD ...... 209
ALLAN R. MILLETT PUPILS’ NEEDS, TEACHERS’ SUPPORT, AND MOTIVATION IN A MIDDLE SCHOOL ...... 210
NADERA BOUKHATEM SUICIDE PREVENTION ...... 211
STELLA MICHAEL-MAKRI MS. OULA MAJZOUB-WEAVER THE B.O.S. MODEL ...... 212
ROSALIE M.H.E.G. VAN BAEST THE FREEDOM OF OPINION AND THE CIVIL PARTICIPATION OF THE YOUTH ...... 213
LINDITA LUTAJ THE IMPACT OF THE NEW MEDIA ON RAISING SOCIAL AWARENESS AMONG SAUDI YOUTH .. 214
INAAM AHMED HAMID IBRAHIM TRADITIONAL MEALS AND SENSE OF AT-HOMENESS – FINNISH IMMIGRANTS WITH DEMENTIA IN BILINGUAL RESIDENTIAL CARE IN SWEDEN ...... 215
SIRPA ROSENDAHL MICRO-LEVEL ANALYSIS OF RESILIENCE AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIRMS AND THE REGION ...... 216
DR. FRANZELLE PERTILLA HIGHER EDUCATION IN GEORGIA AND THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY: THE EXAMPLE OF UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA ...... 217
MANANA SANADZE GIULI ALASANIA INCIPIT AND EXPLICIT IN THE ITALIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CHARLOTTE BRONTË’S JANE EYRE . 218
PAOLA GAUDIO DID NOT LINGUISTS DO LINGUISTICS IN BRAZIL? REFLECTIONS AND QUESTIONS ...... 219
TAMIRES BONANI CONTI
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ROBERTO LEISER BARONAS SOCIAL AND COMMUNICATION COMPETENCES OF STUDENTS – FUTURE TEACHERS ...... 220
MARJAN NINČEVIĆ DUNJA JURIĆ VUKELIĆ CRITICAL FACTORS THAT ENHANCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE: EFL COORDINATORS’ PATTERNS OF INVOLVEMENT - THE GREEK EL TEACHERS COPS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PARADIGM ...... 221
KATERINA KOURKOULI M-PESA IN THE ALBANIAN MARKET ...... 222
ELVIS BREGU DR. BITILA SHOSHA DR. ARMELA ANAMALI CHARLES BUKOWSKI – AMERICA’S POET OF THE SOUTH ...... 223
JAROSŁAW KUYATH THE CONSEQUENCE OF EXPOSURE ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE OF ADOLESCENCE ...... 224
GBENGA MICHAEL ADEYEYE EMPOWERING YOUNG SOCIETAL INNOVATORS FOR EQUITY AND RENEWAL USING ABCDE .. 225
DR. ALISON TAYSUM PROF. ARTO KALLIONIEMI DR. MIHAELA THE NEED TO FOCUS ON DIGITAL PEDAGOGY FOR ONLINE LEARNING ...... 226
HALVDAN HAUGSBAKKEN SHAUN NYKVIST DAG ATLE LYSNE THE BLOCKCHAIN CHALLENGE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS ...... 227
HALVDAN HAUGSBAKKEN INGER LANGSETH INTERPRETIVE THEORIZING ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING IN RUSSIA: CONSTRUCTIVIST GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH ...... 228
PAVEL LEBEDEV
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ISSUES REGARDING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TRANSLATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING ...... 229
ALMA KARASALIU HOW RITUALS AND PRACTICES CAN INFLUENCE THE SOCIETY IN EMILE DURKHEIM VIEW; EXAMPLE OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNITIES FROM ROMANIAN SOCIETY ...... 230
EKSIOLGU CRISTINA-MIHAELA MOBILIZING SKIN CARE: MEASURING AND TRACKING EXTERNAL CONDITIONS WITH LIGHT EMITTING DIODES ...... 231
STEPHEN J MCNEILL JUVENILE PUNISHMENT SYSTEM IN VIEW OF THE NEED FOR EDUCATION AND REINTEGRATION ...... 232
JOLA BODE THE REIFICATION OF MAN ...... 233
VERENO BRUGIATELLI, PHD NEW FRONTIERS, NEW ACTORS, NEW RULES: GLOBAL COMMONS, HUMAN RIGHTS, BUSINESS - HOW TO IMPROVE JUDICIAL COOPERATION AND INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ...... 235
CRISTIANA CARLETTI LAURA GUERCIO A NEOLOGISM: TRANSLATION AND/OR ADAPTATION ...... 236
TOMISLAV FRLETA ZRINKA FRLETA THE IMPACT OF SYRIAN REFUGEE ON JORDANIAN NATIONAL SECURITY ...... 237
MAZEN A. S. ALOUGILI ANDREW TAYLOR: AUSTRALIA’S POET OF THE (EXTRA)ORDINARY ...... 238
RYSZARD W. WOLNY MYTHOLOGY AND POLITICS – THE CASE OF KOSOVO ...... 239
TATJANA ĐURIŠIĆ BEČANOVIĆ
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The Understanding of Indigenous Knowledge as Indigenous Practice, Skill and Know-How: The Case of Communal Music-Making in Bapedi Culture as a Social Practice
Dr. Morakeng Edward Kenneth Lebaka Department of Art & Music, College of Human Sciences University of South Africa (Unisa), Pretoria, South Africa
Abstract In Bapedi culture, understanding of indigenous knowledge as indigenous practice, skill and know-how, is largely related to musical preference and inborn talent. Bapedi people regard indigenous music and ancestral beliefs, as a complement to their cultural identity. Indigenous songs accompanied by dancing, handclapping, ululation and different types of percussion instruments have traditionally played a prominent role in preserving Bapedi people cultural heritage. The enculturation process of indigenous knowledge is oral memory-based. The following research question is raised for the study: Why is communal music-making in Bapedi culture regarded as a social practice? In this article, the author attempts to provide the relationship between indigenous knowledge as indigenous practice and communal music-making as a social practice within Bapedi people’s cultural context. Such an investigation has hitherto not been attempted and this article is meant as a contribution in furthering knowledge in Ethnomusicology and Indigenous Knowledge Systems. The present study investigated innovation and communal composing as a social practice, creative imagination, interaction of music and choreography, as well as issues of interest in the philosophy of indigenous Bapedi music. The study was conducted in two phases; the first phase involved visiting and interviewing traditional musicians who are still performing the indigenous Bapedi music. The second phase included library search to determine what others have written on the same issue. The study has revealed that learning music is part of the socialisation process and imitation forms an important part in the transmission process. Individuals contribute ideas about song texts, polyphonic organization, melody and overall form. The resulting composition is therefore their song, not a named individual. The results have also shown that through music, Bapedi people not only learn the music itself, they also learn about their own local culture and as such preserve the Bapedi cultural heritage. Keywords: Bapedi people, indigenous knowledge, indigenous practice, social practice, communal music-making.
Introduction This article presents a case study on the understanding of indigenous knowledge as indigenous practice, skill and know- how within Bapedi people cultural context. Bapedi tribe is an ethnic group located in Limpopo Province in South Africa, but a large percentage is situated in Sekhukhune district (see figure 1). Culture of Bapedi people is largely based on oral tradition and the popular use of songs and story-telling. In the Bapedi society, communal composing is common. Indigenous Bapedi music education practice is not based on competition, but rather on cooperation and collaboration. The creative music-making takes place during a process of interaction between the participants’ musical experience and competence, their cultural practice and their instructions. Altogether this forms the affordances in the creative situation. The talent for composition is based on musicality, together with certain influences that have been of importance in the development of the necessary motivation and mental attitudes such as the inspiration of composer-performers. The art of composing requires a reliable musical memory. This article takes a critical look at communal composing as a social practice. The discussion will move to highlight the creative imagination and the interaction of music and choreography. Subsequently, a brief look at issues of interest in the philosophy of indigenous Bapedi music will be used to highlight how communal music- making promotes cohesion among Bapedi people.
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Figure 1: Geographical Location Map of South Africa showing Sekhukhune district in Limpopo Province. Source: https://municipalities.co.za/overview/127/Sekhukhune-district-municipality Date: 18 June 2019 = shows where Sekhukhune district is situated in Limpopo Province. The next section describes the theoretical framework. Theoretical Framework The present study is based on four schools of analytical models for gaining insight into musical structures as proposed by Nettl (1975:14-16). First, Nettl advocates for the linguistic model for gaining insight into any musical structure. He asserts that this model is effective in treating the linguistics and basic transformational grammar of music. Second, he also suggests a model of Cantrometrics, which focus on performance practice such as parameters of the use of voice and the interrelationships between musicians and ensemble members, with less emphasis on relationship between tones and scales, which have received much analysis. Third, Nettl’s notion of music in his philosophical work includes specific method, which deals with specific style of classification for each culture based on its own perception and musical characteristics. Fourth, regarding music-making as a social practice, Nettl (1975:15) goes on to stipulate that culture’s
12 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 own cognitive map considers recognised views of the culture in its classification, social function and other behaviour. In the context of this study, all the four schools of analytical models recommended by Nettl (1975) apply. The Bapedi context is ideal for Nettl’s notion of music in his philosophical work since, when communal music-making in Bapedi culture as a social practice is analysed and examined through the theoretical framework of this study, the linguistic model focuses on the communal composing, rules, context, structures, performance styles (genres) and interaction of music and choreography. The choice of language usage in composing indigenous Bapedi songs is encouraged by the fact that indigenous Bapedi music is meant for communal music-making. Furthermore, intellectual understanding of music in Bapedi culture involves concept formation and understanding of musical language. The traditional philosophy of indigenous Bapedi music forms the basis for musical and language resources in Bapedi cultural practices and performances. My interpretation of a model of Cantrometrics in relation to Bapedi context is that, in communal composing the lighter and finer part of singing is left to the fair sex. While the female soloist sings the opening stanza of a strophic song, the men grunt, in a ‘masculine’ manner, something which they repeat over and over not because that is how they avoid strain. There are also organized groups, in which roles and responsibilities are distributed among members in some kind of associative relationship. Such performing groups are more or less permanent units within the social organisation. It is the creative individual who builds up the repertoire or re-creates it, but those who learn and perform it on social occasions sustain the tradition and make it a part of the common heritage. With regard to specific method, the theory is applicable to this study because Bapedi cultural heritage is rich in various indigenous music genres such as dipepetlwane, malopo, etc, and these genres are based on their own perception and musical characteristics such as repetition, improvisation, call and response, cycles, sound elements, rhythm and effects, etc. With reference to culture’s own cognitive map, in the context of this study, the communal composing whereby traditional music practitioners belonging to a specific music genre come together to compose indigenous songs, and participants are at liberty to share ideas about song texts, polyphonic organization, melody and choreography. From the above discussion, it may be accurate to say that Nettl relied too heavily on music listening and music-making. Music listening and music-making in specific cultural contexts becomes for Nettl, music as a diverse social practice and music as a human activity. In the next section, previous related studies will be discussed. Previous Related Studies Numerous studies on African Indigenous knowledge have been published such as those by Bakan (2007); Bennett (2016); Botangen; Vodanovich and Yu (2017); Breidlid (2009); Bruchac (2014); Eyong (2007); Kaya and Seleti (2013); Keane; Khupe and Seehawer (2017); Lebaka (2014); Lindh and Haider (2010); Maila and Loubser (2003); Matsui (2015); Nettl (1975); Owusu-Ansah and Mji (2013); Ragavan (2001); Sillitoe (1998); Simeon et al. (2017); Zaruwa, Barnimas and Apampa (2014). These studies have provided general information on the preservation of indigenous culture. Ragavan (2001) briefly discussed the issues involved in attempting to protect, as intellectual property, the traditional knowledge prevailing within traditional societies. Eyong (2007) also expanded on some challenges Indigenous Knowledge Systems face and how they can be addressed. Zaruwa, Barminas and Apampa (2014:4) reported that “there is a long history regarding the study of African indigenous knowledge systems even though the term might appear to be recent”. According to them, this long history has always been intimately linked to the way foreign minds have come into contact with the African mind and system of thought. Traditional knowledge, which is described by Ragavan (2001:4) as knowledge, possessed by indigenous people, in one or more societies and in one or more forms, including, but not limited to, art, dance and music, medicines and folk remedies, folk culture, biodiversity, knowledge and protection of plant varieties, handicrafts, designs and literature forms part of a corpus of Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Whilst some scholars have focused on the relationship between culture, Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), sustainable development and education (Breidlid 2009, Eyong 2007, Lindh and Haider 2010), Maila and Loubser (2003:276) argue that “the inherited Indigenous Knowledge within a cultural setting is therefore essential for that community”. Furthermore, they elaborate that “not only does that particular community benefit from such knowledge, but other communities, near and far, may also be drawn by the ‘magnet’ to these cultural capitals, and be influenced whilst influencing them too” (2003:276). From the research findings of the scholars cited above, one can understand that Indigenous Knowledge Systems are an integral part of the Arts and Culture and are embedded in the cultural and historical milieu of different people. In what follows, this article discusses research method.
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Research Method The study was conducted in two phases; the first phase involved visiting and interviewing traditional musicians who are still performing indigenous music. The second phase included library search to determine what others have written on the same issue. Both primary and secondary sources are referred to in the discussions. Of the traditional musicians interviewed, 8 were male and 7 were female. The ages of the traditional musicians ranged from 18-66 years. The present study employed ‘participatory’1 approach which allowed the researcher to interact with traditional Bapedi musicians to establish the research working relationship. Participants’ cultural activities were observed, and some traditional Bapedi musicians interviewed so as to obtain first hand information. During the research visits, the role of the researcher was that of both a participant and an observer. This afforded the participants the opportunity to share their experiences and expertise in indigenous Bapedi music with the researcher, and hence enabled the researcher to obtain the widest possible range of information. These participants were selected because of their knowledgeable and informative qualities. Results Observations made on the communal music-making are listed and discussed below. Innovation and communal composing as a social practice Using videos, it was recorded that among the Bapedi people, practice is a known and accepted fact of the traditional musicians’ life, and all traditional musicians say they practice, if not every day, then at least twice a week. Interviews with both female and male interviewees showed that it is difficult to determine the duration of such practicing sessions, as they differ from one group to the other, but in theory, at least, it is fairly substantial, amounting to two or four hours a week at the minimum, according to the traditional musicians. The learning process of indigenous Bapedi songs reflects communal composing whereby a groups of traditional musicians belonging to a particular traditional dance group meet to assemble communally new compositions for specified occasions (see photo 1). Learning music is part of the socialisation process and imitation forms an important part in the enculturation process. Individuals contribute ideas about song texts, polyphonic organization, melody and overall form.
1 Mji (2013:3) describes ‘participatory’ approach as a strategy which allows professionals to learn with, by and from indigenous communities and to create a working relationship in which people’s priorities and values become more fully expressed in research. 14 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Photo 1 Cultural festival (Dikgageng village; Sekhukhune district, Limpopo Province, 24.09.2018), Photographer: Morakeng Edward Kenneth Lebaka Participants were asked why is communal music-making in Bapedi culture regarded as a social practice. They felt that indigenous Bapedi music convenes the community participation and accompanies cultural and religious rituals. It is in this light that traditional Bapedi musicians compose their songs through frequent rehearsals which are open to criticism from their listening participants/audience. The context of the performance is a natural way of combining enjoyment with education. The resulting composition is therefore their song, not a named individual. A new composition does not come from ‘outside’, no matter how much individual traditional musicians borrow ideas and strategies from others. The compositional voice always and ultimately emanates from within. Some songs emerge as some are abandoned. After assembling the composition, the group selects the soloist/leader. The above observations are endorsed by Eyong (2007:125) who writes that every society has a history behind its knowledge resources, which guides its development process. Furthermore, Eyong elaborates by stating that Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) have suffered for decades from several strategies of disinformation embedded in western centric, colonial and post-colonial education and western religion, science and technology (2007:131). He further asserts that it is widely known that colonialism largely inhibited the development of indigenous technology in Africa and de-stabilized some of the existing processes of technical growth and the indigenous manufacturing capability was deliberately undermined to facilitate European exports (Eyong 2007:131). Creative Imagination Skills: With regard to skills, it was found that the art of music-making involves some skills and activities, and skills in activities require direct involvement in listening, movement and making rhythm as well as improvising (see photo 2). From the observations and interviews, it was established that intellectual understanding of music involves concept formation, understanding of musical language and engaging music thoughtfully through listening. Using videos it was recorded that knowing how to listen, and what to hear, are parts of what constitutes creative imagination.
Photo 2 Cultural festival (Dikgageng village; Sekhukhune district, Limpopo Province, 24.09.2018), Photographer: Morakeng Edward Kenneth Lebaka During my field research in Sekhukhune district, I have also observed that indigenous Bapedi music is characterized by joy and happiness, affording the participants the opportunity to dance, sing, and learn different drumming rhythmic patterns and the audience response is demonstrated either by dancing to the music or by acknowledging the creative ability of the musicians/performers by clapping hands or giving them gifts. From personal observation and interviews, it was established that creative imagination plays a vital role in communal music-making in Bapedi people’s socio-cultural context (see photo 3).
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Photo 3 Cultural festival (Dikgageng village; Sekhukhune district, Limpopo Province, 24.09.2018), Photographer: Morakeng Edward Kenneth Lebaka Interviews conducted and activities observed in the Bapedi culture indicate that music-making involves learning the why and how of musical creativity. From the forgoing, one can discern that musical creativity revolves around making musical sense and making musical meanings. Based on this understanding, to traditional Bapedi musicians, music is an inborn talent enhanced by informed learning during communal music-making and/or enculturation process. As told by Lethabo Machika (Informant: 24 September 2018), musical intelligence involves its own rules and thinking structures, not necessarily linked to other kinds of intelligence, and creativity is thus manifestly a cultural process. From these observations, it is clear that communal music-making requires organizing, listening and communication skills. Demonstration: During my field investigation at Dikgageng village, in Sekhukhune district, for instance, at the time to revalidate my data, I have observed that traditional musicians within the group were free to give creative and imaginative corrections to each other or one another, and the corrections were usually taken with gratitude. The investigation has also revealed that among Bapedi people the learning process is oral memory based, organized, direct and instructional. Within this understanding, demonstration implies some definite mode of instruction, and there are a number of examples of such instructive techniques. It was further observed that different rhythmic patterns are demonstrated within the footwork, movements and gestures of the dance. It is noticeable that call-and-response pattern is employed in communal music- making and this pattern allows for spontaneity and self-expression. Attesting to the observations above, Aluede (2012:78) observes that music making in sub-Saharan Africa is a form of exercise in that musical activities go with dance, drumming, hand clapping or other forms of instrumentation. Aluede further mentions that music as a collective human activity in Nigeria is known to be commonly combined with dance whether under the entertainment, religious or ritual situation (2012:78). In his view, dance is a strong concomitant with music. Aural-recall: This is how the participants remember music by ear. Memorizing music helps them to develop a mental ‘map’ of the music. By using their ears to execute different rhythmic patterns, they can memorise long cycles of patterns with signals, breaks, responses, etc. It is noteworthy that traditional Bapedi musicians regard the ear as their first musical instrument. It has to be worked and practised in the same way as any instrument. It has been observed that indigenous Bapedi music allows traditional musicians to test and develop their capacity to recall aural patterns in a very enjoyable way. Imitation: From the observations and interviews, it was established that participants are encouraged to imitate one another and respond playfully to dance ideas. They were also encouraged to move into the centre of the circle to perform a movement of their own. The participants responded positively to all such efforts. During the study, it was further observed that various techniques are employed, for example, conscious imitation and observation approach. Phrase by phrase method is applied in communal composing. The participants sing the phrases after the leader. It has emerged from this study that when teaching drumming, the leader who is usually an expert takes the drum and sets the example to be followed. The learning process is executed cycle by cycle. Thereafter the participants attempt to put the cycles or variations together.
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The leader/instructor may also teach the participants how to put the drum in proper playing position and how to place the left hand on the rim to depress the membrane and effect muting or stopping to generate higher tones. This may include a guide on how to use the drumstick to give strong and strokes in order to generate two or more tones on the drum. When a certain level of mastery is achieved, the leader/instructor takes one other drum and tries to play together with the participant to give him/her the experience of coordination. Based on the research findings of this study, it is very clear that with a good deal of repetition during the training session, personal practice at other times and participation at general rehearsals, a higher level of mastery is gradually attained. Interaction of music and choreography Bapedi cultural heritage is rich in various forms of indigenous dance music such as kiba, makgakgasa, mantshegele, lebowa, etc. Indigenous dance music is often accompanied by dancing, drumming and ululation. It is built on a repetitive rhythmic pattern with a simple melodic stream. Dance music and musical instruments are among the key aspects that shape the Bapedi cultural identity. As the songs are sung and the singers move to the music in an increasing tempo right to the end, music helps them to create an opportunity for social interaction. The duration of the performance is not fixed and depends more on the number of performers. It has become evident from the interviews that indigenous Bapedi music and choreographies were inherited and became inspired through time with many of the traditional dance music pieces still practised by the tribe up to the present day, especially among the older generation. Improvisation: Reviewing the results yielded thus far, it is clear that traditional Bapedi musicians tend not to be interested in any music which lacks improvisation. From this study, it is evident that improvisation can be executed through singing, dancing, ululating, handclapping and drumming. It was further observed that participants on their own, drawing upon their creative intelligence, use improvisation and gestures to make their performances impressive. It is noticeable that among Bapedi traditional musicians in particular and Bapedi people in general, improvisation tends to be a dominant practice, reflecting a cultural ideology which promotes the goals of communal music-making informed by indigenous Bapedi music creators rather than professional musicians’ practices. Gestures and Actions: Analysing the data, it was found that during communal music making different movements are choreographed into complete performance. The investigation has also revealed that during communal composing, every level of creative musical ability is put into best possible use through the development of singing, instrumental and dancing skills. Using videos, it was recorded that participants on their own, drawing upon their creative intelligence, use improvisation, variation, recreation and gestures to make their renditions impressive. During observations and interviews, it was also established that participating actively in music making, enables the participants to understand indigenous Bapedi music artistically and contextually. In view of the above findings, it makes perfect sense to say; communal music-making in Bapedi culture as a social practice, and as a living art form, is largely dependent on improvisation, recreation and variation. Coordination: During my field research in the Bapedi community, I have observed that during communal music-making, there is coordination in relation of sound structures with particular gestures and actions, an associative process. This view is based on the transfer of knowledge and understanding between people. During observations and interviews, it was further established that after all participants have mastered the songs, knowing them by heart, they can be afforded the opportunity to start dancing. The dance is repeated innumerable times until all participants have mastered every detail. When asked the question, is it possible for traditional Bapedi musicians to compose indigenous Bapedi songs individually or in isolation? All interviewees have agreed that it is not possible. They perceived that among traditional Bapedi musicians, music composing is not necessarily an individual process. They all agree that the learning process is a group activity, and it is both a pleasure and a recreation rather than a chore. Issues of interest in the philosophy of indigenous Bapedi music The impression created during observations and interviews was that traditional Bapedi musicians employ sound effects, several figures of speech, proverbs, parables, idioms, forms of imagery, metaphorical and proverbial language in their communal music making. Indigenous Bapedi music in its nature context and practice, adopts the use of these elements. Interviews with all participants showed that communal music-making, more than being a process of social practice of communication, is a product of the art itself. As a product, it exists to provide certain functions and as well serve as reference source in the society.
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Sound elements, rhythm and effects: As music resembles poetry, sound effects in poetry arise from expressions made in certain organised order and clever use of words that would sound in some desired forms. The singers deliberately organize words, syllables and lines in patterns that will generate similarity in sounds, create audible sensitivity and stimulate more curiosity and emotionality. Traditional Bapedi musicians are capable in creating images in the imagination and minds of the audience by imitating and representing sounds of objects and characters so described in order to stimulate emotional responses from audiences. This is achieved by use of some sound elements and verbal techniques that appear in various forms of repetition, parallelism, rhyme, etc., to enable traditional musicians present their witty ideas with great effects on the listeners. The effects then make the songs more easily memorable both to the performers and the audiences. The following song is an illustration of these sound effects. Song text and translation Original Sepedi stanzas English translation Katse swara legotlo Cat catch the rat Legotlo tšhaba katse Rat take care of the cat Katse e swere legotlo The cat caught the rat Legotlo le swerwe ke katse The rat is caught the cat Table 1: Sepedi with English translation of ‘katse swara legotlo’ (cat catch the rat) song to illustrate the use of sound elements, rhythm and effects. The song was recorded by the author, at Dikgageng village, Sekhukhune district in Limpopo Province, on the 24th of September 2018. In indigenous Bapedi songs, most themes are educative. The reiterative nature of the songs serves the purpose of emphasizing the messages. The singers of the above song recycles the theme in order to fix both the names of the characters and the principal ideas firmly into the minds of the audience. The two names in the song (katse and legotlo) end with the vowels ‘o’ and ‘e’ to produce a masculine sound that would emphasize the theme of a dreadful capture. The names are interchanged within the lines. One name begins a line and the other ends it each time. While the names create internal rhymes within the lines, they also form end rhymes that make the lines sound similarly at the end. Sounds of words, when they are properly organized, create rhythm and accentuation that give strong effects in tone and movements. In indigenous Bapedi music, while the rhythm and dynamics of these sound elements play aesthetic roles, they also perform communicative function. No word is waisted in indigenous Bapedi music; they are all aimed at communicating specific messages, proverbially, metaphorically, idiomatically or directly to the audience. Bruchac (2014:3814) endorses these observations by stating that knowledge is often passed on through regular indigenous performances – including oral traditions, song, dance and ceremony – that convey both literal and metaphorical truths about these relations. He defines ‘Traditional Indigenous Knowledge’ as a network of knowledges, beliefs and traditions intended to preserve, communicate and contextualize Indigenous relationships with culture and landscape over time. Bruchac elaborates by observing that oral traditions whether communicated as historical narratives or mythical stories, constitute a form of traditional knowledge that can teach, carry, and reinforce other knowledges. On the basis of these findings and discussion, it is arguable that “the development of individuals’ creative musical abilities to the highest possible level is woven into music-making” (Lebaka 2014:40). Similar to Lebaka’s argument, Simeon et al (2017:107) rightly highlights that traditional musical instruments and the dance music, contribute in some measure towards a better understanding of cultural arts and heritage. Conclusion This article provided a discussion of the understanding of indigenous knowledge as indigenous practice, skill and know- how. The results yielded thus far have shown that through communal music-making, modern traditional Bapedi musicians are helpful in preserving the Bapedi cultural heritage and identity. The investigation has also revealed that through these musicians, the past is living in the present. Music composed by these traditional musicians is a compendium of the gamut of cultural flows that constitute an actual Bapedi cultural heritage and identity. It has emerged from this study that indigenous Bapedi music is inevitably a social practice. Basically, the results suggest that in the Bapedi culture, traditional Bapedi musicians who make music in the appropriate way, finds human worth and significance in music a meaningful way of interacting. The findings which have been presented in this article will help us to understand that indigenous knowledge as indigenous practice is part of communal music-making in Bapedi cultural context as a social practice, but is also part of culture and at the same time forms culture. From this study, it appears that music-making as a communal activity in the Bapedi culture serves as an avenue for the development of group solidarity, contact with reality, relief from self concern, socialization with peers and avenue for exercise.
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References [1] Aluede, C. O. 2012. Music as Edae: The Implications for Music Therapy in Nigeria. Journal of Arts and Humanities, Volume 13, No. 1, pp. 74-90. [2] Bakan, M, B. 2007. World Music. Traditions and Transformations. New York: McGraw-Hill. [3] Bennett, D. et al. 2016. Reflection for learning, learning for reflection: Developing indigenous competencies in higher education. Journal of University teaching & learning practice, Volume 13, Issue 2, pp. 1-19. [4] Botangen, K. A; Vodanovich, S. and Yu, J. 2017. Preservation of indigenous culture among indigenous migrants through social media: the Igorot peoples. Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International conference on System sciences, pp. 2303-2312. [5] Breidlid, A. 2009. Culture, indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable development: A critical view of education in an African context. International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 29, pp. 140-148. [6] Bruchac, M. 2014. Indigenous Knowledge and Traditional Knowledge. In Smith, C. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, pp. 3814-3824. New York: Springer. [7] Eyong, C. T. 2007. Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development in Africa: Case Study on central Africa. Tribes and Tribals, Special Volume, No.1: 121-139 (2007). [8] Kaya, H. O. and Seleti, Y. N. 2013. African indigenous knowledge systems and relevance of higher education in South Africa. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives 12(1), pp. 30-44. [9] Keane, M; Khupe, C. and Seehawer, M. 2017. Decolonising Methodology: Who benefits from indigenous knowledge research? Educational Research for social change 6(1), pp. 12-24. [10] Lebaka, M. E. K. 2014. The cultural and historical significance of malopo ritual: A Pedi perspective. Acta Theologica 34(2), pp. 29-43. [11] Lindh, K. and Haider, J. 2010. Development and the documentation of indigenous knowledge: Good intentions in bad company? Libri 60(1), pp. 1-14. [12] Maila, M. W. and Loubser, C. P. 2003. Emancipatory Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Implications for environmental education in South Africa. South African Journal of Education, Volume 23 (4), pp. 276-280. [13] Matsui, K. 2015. Introduction to the future of traditional knowledge research. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, Volume 6, Issue 2, pp. 1-4. [14] Mji, G. 2013. African indigenous knowledge and research. African Journal of Disability 2(1), pp. 1-5. [15] Nettl, B. 1975. On method in the study of indigenous music. In Kuchertz, Josef (ed). Musical Indegema: Symposium Musico-Ethnologium. Rome: Secretariat de CIMS. [16] Owusu-Ansah, F. E & Mji, G. 2013. ‘African indigenous knowledge and research’, African Journal of Disability 2(1), pp. 1-5. [17] Ragavan, S. 2001. Protection of traditional knowledge. Minnesota Intellectual Property Review, Volume 2, Issue 2, pp. 1-60. [18] Sillitoe, P. 1998. The Development of Indigenous Knowledge: A New Applied Anthropology. Current Anthropology, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 223-252. [19] Simeon, J.J.C. et al. 2017. Traditional musical instruments and dance music of the Lundayeh of Sabah. Wacana seni Journal of Arts Discourse 16:103-133. [20] Zaruwa, M. Z; Barnimas, J. T. and Apampa, R. O. 2014. Indigenous distillation in North Eastern Nigeria and the production of Argi. G. Emeagwali & G. J. S. Dei (eds.). African Indigenous Knowledge and the Disciplines, pp. 19-21. Sense Publishers.
19 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Control of Public Administration
Albulena Brestovci, College AAB, Prishtina
Abstract Public administration in Kosovo is in a development phase and it is being built under new circumstances which derived from the international civil administration. In this regard it is also ready to undergo under various forms of the control and supervision. With this paper the author makes an analysis of the ways of the judicial control the public administration undergoes based on the positive legislation in Kosovo. For the needs of this paper the combined methodology is used whereas the following methods will be used: method of systemic analysis, method of legal analysis, theological method and the method of theoretical analysis. Analysis, findings and conclusions will contribute the academic debate as well as they will serve the practical work which is being developed within the institutions of the public administration and the work of those that deal with the judicial control and the supervision of the public administration. Keywords: administration, judicial control, institutions, Kosovo, supervision
Introduction Kosovo Public Administration could be treated as it has passed through various phases of building and development, whereas Kosovo is one of the seven new states created in the process of the dissolution of former federal Yugoslavia. The process of dissolution of the Yugoslav federation was apintfull and with big consequences for Kosovo as the former federal unit. Firstly, in an unconstitutional way Kosovo status was abolished by an act of occupation undertaken by the other federal unite [Serbia]. After the Kosovo autonomy was unconstitutionally abolished, in Kosovo as a result we see two systems being built and consequently two administrative powers as well: one, of the power installed by the force from Serbia and second, the parallel power constituted against the Serbian forcefully installed power in Kosovo. And this that was known as the parallel system indeed was totally legitimate because it derived from the majority population of Kosovo which supported it. Of course the field of activities of this administration was narrow and this was dictated from the circumstances and the situation created as the consequence of occupation. Thus administration, based on the existing circumstances had limited space of acting, but it was very useful and it provided services for citizens in the field of health, education and in ome other fields. This way of organizing th elife of the public administration and the parallel system of public administration which would provide services for citizens will continue until the end of the war in Kosovo.1 The end of war brought the international civil administration in Kosovo as a power which was not applied until then in any other post conflict situation in the world. International Civil Administration in Kosovo Legal basis for establishing the international civil administration in Kosovo is the UN Security Council Resolution 1244. Based on this resolution, the international civil administration would be established through four illars known as UNMIK (UN Mission in Kosovo) pillars. Regarding the organizing the temporarily administration, UNMIK is led by Special Representative of the Secretary General, as the highest civil authority in Kosovo, who has four deputies. Each deputy is responsible before the Special Representative of the Secretary General and at the same time is the head of so called “pillar” which is obliged to exercise determined administrative functions. This “pillar (s)” is led by the
1 War in Kosovo has ended with the end NATO of air strikes against Serbian military forces and with the UN Security Council known as 1244 Resolution. 20 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 determined international organization. Four pillars include plice and justice (UN), Civil Administration (UN), democratization and capacity building of cadres (OSCE) as well as the economic development and reconstruction (EU).1 In order to exercise the duties of the Special Representative of the Secretary General as the highest power in Kosovo to him were given competences of promulgating regulations, which from the obligatory force are laws based on which the life was organized in Kosovo. In addition to this, in Kosovo there were applied also laws of former Yugoslavia which were in force until March 22, 1989 conditioned with a classification that they were not discriminatory and that they were not against the rights known internationally regarding the human righst. This in principle was called the applicable law. During first five years after the conflict the process of establishing the public administration has passed through the three big phases: establishment of temporary UN power, creation of the provisional institutions of local governance and the launch of the plan for applying the standards for Kosovo.2 Regarding public administration and its establishment in Kosovo, it could be said that the UNMIK pillar for public administration in Kosovo in 2003 started the process of creating the strategy for pubic administration in Kosovo. Thus since 2003 UNMIK transferred responsibilities to the provisional institution of local governance in Kosovo and this in the fields which were not reserved only for UNMIK, including the budget.3 From here the process of transfer of the power from UNMIK to the local institutions has continued during a long period of time, passing through a phase known as the phase standards before the status. This phase – standards before the status was a process which had to be monitored and evaluated as a pre condition fpr a green light before staring with the negotiations for the Kosovo final status. The process of monitoring of standards ends with the report of Kei Eide who was in charge with the competences of evaluating if Kosovo had fullfiled stadards for going forward towards negotiations for the final status of Kosovo. And standards were the rule of law, free movement, sustainable return and the rights of communities, economic development, property right, negotiations with Belgrade for technical issues, Kosovo Protection Troups were the determined standards, whose fullmilment was the joint duty of UNMIK and the provisional institutions of self governance, whereas the middle of 2005 was determined as the period of standards of evaluation.4 Kei Eide positive report made Kosovo moes forward defining the Kosovo final status through process of negotiations which would be lead by former Finish President Maryi Ahtisaari. Process of negotiations for solving the Kosovo final status has taken determined time and in these negotiation there were applied almost all forms of negotiations. But however the process for determining Kosovo final status was not finalized with an international agreement therefore President Ahtisaari came up with a solution which would be called the Comprehensive Proposal for Kosovo final status.5 This because Serbia did not accepted the proposed Ahtisaari Plan. It should be noted that Kosovo accepted the mentioned Plan and based on this Kosovo Parliament being that all conditions were fullfiled for going forward, on February 02, 2008 declared Kosovo Declaration of Independence which will be developed as the independent state and which will be internationally recognized. Since then Kosovo has been recognized by 116 states.6 Starting from here the process of establishing and strengthening the Kosovo independent state takes high intensity and Kosovo right to self determination strengthens and it was sealed also by the opinion of the Internationl Court of Justice in 2010. Thus Kosovo starts to act as the independent state and under the context of this topic it starts to establish its public administration. However the process of statebuilding and the development of the public administration was monitored and evaluated continually by the international community. Bellow are drawn some data according to the Progress Reports for some years.Thus there are underlined EU Progress Reports. Administration from the Progress Report viewpoint During the next years Kosovo should especially: → monitor application of the public administration reform from the strategic framework under the ombrella of a broader developing strategy, ensuring a clear connection between the public administration reform and the economic development;
1 KIPRED,Misioni i Kombeve të Bashkuara në Kosovë dhe privatizimi i pronës shoqërore, Prishtinë 2005,pg.9. 2 Mirlinda Batalli, Reform of Public Administration in Kosovo, Thesis, nr 1. (https://aab-edu.net/uploads/docs/thesis/2012/01-2012- anglisht/01.%20Reform%20of%20Public%20Administration%20in%20Kosovo-%20Mirilinda%20Batalli.pdf (qasur me 20.09.2018) 3 Esat Stavileci, Agur Sokoli, Mirlinda Batalli, E Drejta Administrative, Universiteti i Prishtinës, Prishtinë 2010, pg.305 4 www.zeriamerikes.com/a/a-30-a-2003-12-10-4-1-85537332/372595.html (accessed on 23.09.2018) 5 https://www.kuvendikosoves.org/common/docs/Comprehensive%20Proposal%20.pdf 6 www.mfa-ks.net 21 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
→ to increase accountability through total review of all agencies and to improve the acces in the administrative justice by addressing issues which are not made administrative; → to approve general financial management of the program reform.1 Development of the public administration and stagnations in thos development will not be described or analysed with this paper, since stagnations are various and the resources for these stagnations are also various. The main aim is discussion about how is the solution of the administrative conflict as one of the forms of the control over the work of organs of public administration, which as it is seen from many report should be deep and various. However, Kosovo has a good level of preparations for the pubic administration reform. A progress has been made with the fact that the general strategy of financial management and the Law on Public Administration were adopted. However, Kosovo has not addressed recommendations of EU Commission in the field of accountability. Recruitment on the non merit basis has affected the efficiency and the eficasity as well as the professional independence of administration. First reports of monitoring show that the reform package has considerable delays.2 Administrative conflict as a special form of control on the work of administration Regarding the judicial control of the administration there are various thoughts in theory. Judicial control of the administrative work is the main form of judicial control over the administration which is exercised by courts.3 Courts while acting during the process of ludicial control in one way contribute the process of legality. Even title judicial/court control shows that it as such has some specifics who make it to differ from other forms of administration. These characteristics could be divided into formal and material. Formal characteristics of judicial control are: 1.organs that exercise the control and 2.procedure according to which the judicial control is exercised.4 Judicial control as a special form on the administration is important and necessessary, especially in the states of transition and in the post conflict states, thus consequently for Kosovo as well. Kosovo in many foreign or inner reports appears to be as a country where the administration is overloaded, to determined extent politicized and in determined segments not professional. Under such circumstances there are not rare cases when the misuses of official positions are present, especially in the labor relationships, in violation of human rights, etc. In addition to all efforts on building a professional, effective administration which doesn’t allow the misuse of position, which doesn’t allow the violation of human righst, Kosovo Parliament has adopted the Law on Administrative Conflict. Kosovo Law on Administrative Conflict This law has been promulgated by the Kosovo Parliament in 2010. Its characteristics are as follows: The aim of this law is to ensure judicial protection of the righst and legal interests of physic persons, judicial persons and the other parties, the rights which were violated by individual decisions or with the acts of public administration organs.5 During their work, courts act respecting some principles and under this context law underlines the principle of verbal review (art.6), principle of efficasity (art.7), principle of the help for uninformed parties. It is good that these principles are underlined and sanctioned by law because in fact these are the principles which are not respected well. Principle of the verbal review is one of the principles which is frequently violated in a way that parties are not given the possibilities to declare regarding their pretendings and thus the organ decides in contradiction to the European Convention for human rights. Court in the administrative conflict decides on the legality of final administrative acts by which administrative organs while exercising public authorisations, decide on righst, obligations and judicial interests of physic and judicial persons in the administrative issues.6 Law on administrative conflicts in a specific way gives the parties who could initiate procedure of administrative conflict and that as follows:
1 https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2015/20151110_report_kosovo.pdf (accessed: April 17, 2018) 2 https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_report_kosovo.pdf (accessed: April 17, 2018) 3 Esat Stavileci, Agur Sokoli, Mirlinda Batalli, E Drejta Administrative, Universiteti i Prishtinës, Prishtinë 2010, pg.139 4 Esat Stavileci, Agur Sokoli, Mirlinda Batalli, E Drejta Administrative, Universiteti i Prishtinës, Prishtinë 2010, pg.141, cited by Bashkim Rrahmani 5 Art. 1,Kosovo Law on Administrative Conflict 6 Art 9, Kosovo Law on Administrative Conflict 22 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
-the right to initiate administrative conflict have physic and judicial persons if they consider that by the final administrative act in the administrative procedure there is violated a rights or legal interest, - organ of administration, ombusperson, associations and other organizations that acts on protecting public interests could initiate administratve conflict,-organ has the right to initiate conflict of administration against the decision which was taken based on the appeal in the administrative procedure, if he/she considers that a righ or an interest was vioalated, -if with the administrative act was violated a law in favour of physic person, judicial person, the administrative conflict could be initiated by the authorized public prosecutor. Administrative organs are obliged that when they are informed about this to inform the prosecutor or the organ authorized by law.,- administrative conflict could be initiated by competent prosecutor or by authorized person if with the administrative act is violated the law against the national governance bodies or the organs accountable to them, against the interests of local governance and their constituents,when the property righst of these organs were violated.1 Law on administrative conflicts with its disposal further foresees in a precise way and sanctions the court competences, the procedure of appeal against the decisions that made possible initiation of the administrative conflict, deadlines and the execution of the decisions which are taken in the administrative conflict. Besides creation of a legal infrastructure the issue of administrative conflict remains to be as something that has to be used and that has to be intensified, by what the public administration is strengthened and where the possibilities for misusing the official position and the violation of human rights will be reducecd. Conclusions Kosovo has passed through several phases of its development and these phases determined the level and forms od the development of public administration. Before the war (1999) there were also some phases through which the Kosovo public administration was built within the Yugoslav federation-within a system know as the system of socialist self governance in the system of delegation. No matter of weaknesses the pre Miloshevich system had there existed an administration which to some extent was efiicass and professional and this always [talking] under the context of existing state system which was socialist which anyway was different from the clear communist systems. After the war, in Kosovo we hve the international civil administration which later on became mixt and which after 2008 became an administration which belongs to an independent state. It has been noted that Kosovo public administration is overloaded a lot and this has a dual impact: it doesn’t help the process of professionalization of the administration in one side, and it has the budgetary implications on the other side. Engagements and the employment in the administration continue to be under a political impact even though a progress has been made. Beeing that however the administration remains to be under a political impact then this is a basis or a resource of appearance of various forms of misuse, nepotism, etc. Thus this administration has to be necessarily controlled and supervised by courts. But it Is not to be said that there is an enthusiasm only from the fact that there exist a legal infrastructure that makes possible the functioning of the public administration. The fact that existence of the administrative conflict doesn’t mean that it helps without limit parties whose rights were violated. This amonst the other also from the fact that courts themselves are overloaded with huge amount of cases in one side and the judicialy system itself is mot criticized part of the system on the other side. Based on this, parties when their righst are violated hesitate to initiate the court procedures whose endings are difficult to be foreseen. Literature [1] Comprehensive Proposal For the Kosovo Status Settlement available at: www.kuvendikosoves.org/common/docs/Comprehensive%20Proposal%20.pdf [2] EC KOSOVO REPORT for year 2015 – (https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood- enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2015/20151110_report_kosovo.pdf) [3] EC KOSOVO REPORT for year 2016 (https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood- enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_report_kosovo.pdf) [4] EC KOSOVO REPORT for year 2018 (https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2018/04/17/key-findings-2018- european-commission-report-kosovo/) [5] Emir Dobjani, E Drejta Administrative 1, Tiranë, 2003, pg.225 [6] Esat Stavileci, Agur Sokoli, Mirlinda Batalli, E Drejta Administrative, Universiteti i Prishtinës, Prishtinë 2010 [7] Jean-Marie Woehrling: Judicial Control of Administrative Authorities in Europe ... HRVATSKA JAVNA UPRAVA, god. 6. (2006.), br. 3., str. 35–56 -
1 Art 10, Kosovo Law on Administrative Conflict 23 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
https://www.google.com/search?q=judicial+control+of+administration&rlz=1C1CHBD_enXK764XK764&ei=t6D XWqu9KYKakwXblLtg&start=10&sa=N&biw=1366&bih=662 [8] Judicial Control over Administration and Protect the Citizen's Rights: An Analytical Overview. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320442968_Judicial_Control_over_Administration_and_Protect_the_ Citizen's_Rights_An_Analytical_Overview [9] Kettl, Donald and James Fessler., The Politics of the Administrative Process. Ëashington D.C.: CQ Press, 2009 [10] Kosovo Law on Administrative Conflict -Nr.03/L-202 [11] Mirlinda Batalli, Thesis nr.1, - https://aab-edu.net/uploads/docs/thesis/2012/01-2012- anglisht/01.%20Reform%20of%20Public%20Administration%20in%20Kosovo-%20Mirilinda%20Batalli.pdf [12] www.osce.org/kosovo/24787?download=true [13] KIPRED,Misioni i Kombeve të Bashkuara në Kosovë dhe privatizimi i pronës shoqërore, Prishtinë 2005 [14] Bashkim Rrahmani, Judicial Control of Administration in Kosovo,Tribuna Juiridica 218 [15] www.mfa-ks.net
24 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Heart of the Citizenship Education and Revival of New Schools in Europe
Sandra Chistolini PhD, Università degli Studi Roma Tre, Italy
Abstract Our present time is characterised by many contradictions and the aspect of uncertainty indicates a sense of our deep loss of values. Education is the traditional space, in which generations create meanings and adults prefigure the future. Despite the idea of liquid modernity, which dominates our existence, we are convinced that we inherit meaningful testimonies of schools born in the spirit of the Reform from the pedagogic culture of the last two centuries. Schools, such as Dalton, Jena Plan, Decroly and Freinet, are still alive and bringing us a new message of citizenship education coherent with the impulse of their founders. Following our field study to investigate the reality of the Schools of Method in the areas of the Flanders and Brussels we were able to draw a solid concept of community. In the 500th anniversary of the Reformation, we assume that the modern western culture reaches its task to convert the dispute into tolerance. Citizenship education wishes to overcome any separations and indicates the road to peace and harmony. It is not by chance that Reform Schools are now reaffirming the original impulse. They are transforming the contradictions of our postmodern society into the management of daily education. Headmasters and teachers are seriously opting for movement and variety of the curriculum against school stereotypes of the disciplines. Children become protagonists of the reformation, using the methodology of dialogue, development and discovery. Teachers and parents appear to be fundamental parts of the process, and learning democracy in school begins with the practice of a council of pupils: discussing, deciding, doing. The external world actively enters schools to shape life. History is composed of the biographies of senior citizens, mainly grandfathers, and languages are matter of pride for children from families with migrant backgrounds. Keywords: reform, pedagogy, schools of method, values, education, great educators, memory, citizenship education, community schools
Introduction The definition of uncertainty pursues that of indecision. The certainties of the past span the crisis of postmodernism. The relationship between modernism and postmodernism overcomes the concept of opposition and becomes a challenge to regain the depth of the sense of humanity in each of us. In modernism, the human mind did not encounter uncertainties, but found a way to lead the great processes of the spirit and, indirectly, the great geopolitical formations back to unity. It was a time of grand ideologies, philosophies and religions founded, as Lyotard said, on metanarratives and great empires or nation states. It was a time governed by strong thinking, broad meaningful horizons and a calling that was a deep-rooted belief in what one was doing. Postmodernism is exactly the opposite: it is a time of weak thinking, a time of thinking based on small and multiple horizons and a time of the disintegration and crumbling of the great spiritual and geopolitical processes. Grand ideologies, universal philosophies and rock-like religions no longer exist. Empires and Nations vacillate in search of lost identities. As Friedrich Hölderlin understood so well, postmodernism is the beginning of the theoretical and empirical break-up of a civilisation. During this ambivalent era of transition, everything is reduced to scale and is virtual. Specialisation breaks up the great conceptual frameworks. In its highest meaning of general cultural, the Greek “paideia” disappears (Ferracuti, 2008). And yet, man always resurfaces, searching for a new way to see postmodernism that gives hope by overcoming illusions and is capable of releasing its humanist spirit. The vision of the Angelus Novus that Walter Benjamin recovers from Paul Klee translates the emancipation of modern man. Looking back means not losing the past, it means looking at what happened in its entirety, of good and evil, it means drawing inspiration to build the future. Progress cannot be stopped and, thus, it is necessary to send its own strong messages created by great public figures to be able to redirect one’s life and, through this, the world of interpersonal relations. History is not destruction, but teaching and remembering. In the vision of a new humanism, the past, present and 25 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 future are simultaneous, because man knows how to rebuild the sense of himself, and the world in which he lives, from the fragments. During this shift from illuminist trust to the search for new hope, what happens to education? What has happened to those ideas of renewal of the school that, during the second Millennium, had revolutionised the way of thinking about teaching and that had combined nature, science and culture so well? Which educational paradigm is more plausible today? The theoretical paradigm of this research is the result of an original composition of ethnomethodology, using interactive personalism and the strategy known as Decoding the Disciplines, intended to guide learning by means of an in-depth analysis of the difficulties of the pupils (Morel 2013; Warren 2016; Pace 2017). Educate despite uncertainty The concept of fragment contains the idea of the difficulty of gathering meanings into a uniform entity. The meanings multiply and need new interpretations in order to be introduced into living situations that are essential for growth. Among the fragments that arise in daily life, there is a separation between nature and culture, between the need for general human development and economic development; hence, the necessity to find paths of meaning that are able to re-establish continuity between the environment and the person, which creates feelings of belonging to that environment, starting from one’s own story. Among its main tasks, the school counts that of promoting an education full of meanings for the children; for this reason, teachers try to construct learning situations, in which communication between the outside and the inside world is constant and is rekindled by the initiative of the pupils who relate positively to the educational proposal. To have independence and freedom internalised requires an educational process founded on a method of experimentation and verification. Our research on the best practices for the modern school led us to brush up on the methods of the active school of the late 1800s, created by educators and scientists who knew how to observe natural childhood development in relation to planning educational activities and social progress. To counter the subject of uncertainty, we sought experiences of educational certainty; to do this, we directed ourselves to what exists today, starting with Belgium, as a country in which there are current new schools, situated in a space of reasonable proximity and easily reached. The main objective of renewing education according to the pioneers of Pedagogy of the Reformation in Europa was precisely that of creating meanings, building ties, connecting contexts and permitting the steady flow of the spontaneous human growth process, transformed into a cultural product of the school and community. School of integration and joy. School of discovery and invention. School of community and active participation. Driven by the academic knowledge of New Schools, we understood how to familiarise ourselves with the current status of the teaching situation in the Decroly School, the Dalton School, the Freinet School, the School that aspires to the method of the Jena plan. During our trip in the month of February 20171, we were able to familiarise ourselves with the methods and appreciate the current implementations being adapted to environmental contexts in Belgium, between Brussels and the Flanders area. The qualitative survey of the separate features of Method Schools involves ten investigative actions; namely, the tools for recognition in the field: • random choice of four method schools defined as community schools; • connection of the schools to well-known models of educational innovation;
1 The paper The heart of citizenship education and the revival of New Schools in Europe was in the Programme of CiCe Association Conference 2017 incorporating the CiCe Jean Monnet Network conference, Reaffirming citizenship education in an uncertain world, VIVES University, Bruges/Brugge, Belgium, June 8-10, 2017. Jean Monnet CiCe (Children’s Identity and Citizenship in Europe) Network is supported by the European Commission’s Erasmus+ Programme. The school visits reported in this paper were organised by Hugo Verkest of Vives University College, in Vives, Belgium.
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• semi-structured interviews with privileged observers represented by school rectors, teachers, parents and children; • observation of the school and classes during morning teaching activities; • reading of the scholastic material prepared for the teaching and made up of homework, drawing, physical activities, research and evaluation; • description of the activities by the children in spontaneous conversations, during which the task of the researchers was to bring out the “what” that made that specific school a complete, full learning environment; • research on the specificity and difference of these schools in the education panorama of the European school; • connection of these schools to other innovative pedagogical experiences in operation in other countries and, specifically, in Italy; • persistence of the pedagogical legacy and awareness of the importance of the method; • interest in the preservation of the original model. Renewal beyond memory The renewal work that began with Ovide Decroly (1871-1932), Peter Petersen (1884-1952), Helen Parkhurst (1887-1973) and Célestin Freinet (1896-1966) requires a single-minded passion for teaching. The faith in the liberating activity of the child who experiments and self-educates is a feature common to all these experiences. The Ecole de l’Ermitage in Brussels is in the same building, in which Decroly worked, and the physician’s living quarters still preserve the material for working with both children and teachers. The original documents collect the perceptions of the language and development of the child. One can see how careful, localised observation was at the basis of the scientific arrangement. The workbooks of the students of the Ecole de l’Ermitage show what was meant by the global method of learning from literature and writings, through word and phrase. From the phase of global perception, one moves to the phase of experimental observation, hereby collecting data that open up teaching to scientific discussion. Just as Decroly used films and documentaries about the daily life of the school, perfected the active method and explained how to follow the interests of the child, so, also, do the children of the Ermitage now describe their experience of knowledge of the world and ascribe the right words to the events experienced inside and outside of the school. The parallelism between the globalisation explained by Decroly and the globalisation explained by the children that attend the Ermitage makes a sizable qualitative jump. The children with whom we spoke were able to tell us what interested them and why what they were studying was important to their lives. They knew how to distinguish learning by discovery from imitative learning; they knew to say that ties exist among the various curricular and extracurricular activities. The school that follows the method of the Jena Plan of Peter Petersen was opened in 2011 by decision of the Gent community. It gathers in children of 36 different nationalities. Every child enters the classroom knowing how to speak Dutch; for this, the child may spend one year in a nearby school to learn the language prior to entering the Jena Plan school. Teaching is organised in groups of classes by grade: first and second; third and fourth; fifth and sixth. The Dalton system of Helen Parkhurst is based on four fundamental principles that guide the educational action of the teachers: • independence of the children; • the way of working together; • freedom; • thinking. The children learn how to do their own tasks and think about what they are doing. They know how to ask themselves why a task is completed or not. In pre-school, the work is in groups, while in primary school, individual work is encouraged. Teachers are prepared in training courses organised in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and everyone must know the Dalton method. They may also teach in Dutch and French and sometimes in other languages. One must not neglect to say that this school originated in Gent in 1990, in a poor area of the city, and slowly became a school preferred by families from the middle and upper-middle classes. Today it accepts many children of Turkish and Moroccan families and is considered an international school because various languages are spoken. Dutch is the teaching language and French is compulsory from the age of 10. During the recreation period, the children can speak their mother tongues, even if different from the official languages.
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The invention of the free-format text, the practice of typography, the experience of advising and taking decisions, the architecture of the school thought out for play, movement and imagination were all part of Freinet teaching and in schools that recaptured their features and enriched them with new visions, because following the founders does not mean copying their example, but means, rather, understanding their spirit to recreate it in new forms. The same inside and outside architecture of the Tielt and Meulebeke schools expresses the vision of pedagogical cooperativism of Freinet. Contact with nature and care of animals educate towards respect and environmental sustainability. The active participation of families, parents and grandparents are the writings of personal and group biographies and educate to values of identity of belonging. The schools of the Jena Plan, Freinet and Dalton are community schools subject to national inspections and can use a free curriculum that is faithful to the method that the school establishes; the municipality is responsible for financing and school policy. Waldorf and Montessori schools are not considered community schools; they are method schools that are inspected by commissions outside the national system of instruction. Conclusion The Weltanschauung of teachers in the New Schools is recreated daily in contemporaneous experiences, inspired by the founders from which they take their name. Teachers at the Decroly School, the Freinet School, the Dalton School and the Jena Plan deeply believe in their work, to the point of considering it of crucial value that makes existence unique. Over the last 10 years, a noteworthy revival of Method Schools is being witnessed in Belgium. In talks with persons running the school, one notes the tie that binds those who are continuing with the method and those who initiated it. The expertise of these teachers cannot be measured like university results or career successes, but rather the capacity to enter into the spirit of the project for renewing education and knowing how to invent school situations in keeping with the basic idea: give space to childhood, so that it grows in nature, experience and culture. In nature, according to the needs of the person, for gradual development and contexts of unity between the school and community. In experience, according to educational opportunities of contact with things, animate and inanimate objects that add to the environment. In community, for the contribution of families and persons, who live close to the school and understand its importance for preservation and improvement. References [1] Benjamin, W. (1950). Berliner Kindheit um neunzehnhundert. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. [2] Benjamin, W. (1966). Angelus Novus: Ausgewählte Schriften 2. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. [3] Decroly, O. (1925). “La fonction de globalisation et l’enseignement”, Bulletin de la Société française de pédagogie. [4] Decroly, O. (1928). La pratique des tests mentaux. Paris: F. Alcan. [5] Ferracuti, M. (2008). Una “scintilla divina” dentro la postmodernità. Il Nodo. Scuole in rete, 33, April, 5-6. [6] Freinet, C. (1928). Plus de manuels scolaires: méthode vivante et rationnelle de travail scolaire par l'Imprimerie à l'école. Saint-Paul: Éditions de l'Imprimerie à l'école. [7] Freinet, C. (1967). Le journal scolaire. Cannes: Editions de l ' Ecole Moderne Francaise. [8] Hölderlin, F. (1915). Hymnen an die Ideale der Mennschheit. Leipzig: Insel. [9] Lyotard, J.-F. (1979). La condition postmoderne: rapport sur le savoir. Paris: Les editions de minuit. [10] Morel, N. (2013). A social investment strategy for the knowledge–based economy, Scuola democratica, 3: 631-650. [11] Pace, D. (2017). The Decoding the Disciplines Paradigm: Seven Steps to Increased Student Learning. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. [12] Parkhurst, H. (1922). Education on the Dalton plan. New York: E. P. Dutton & company. [13] Parkhurst, H. (1930). Beauty: an interpretation of art and the imaginative life. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. [14] Petersen, P. (1927). Der kleine Jena-plan. Weinheim: Beltz. [15] Petersen, P. (1931). Allgemeine Erziehungswissenschaft. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. [16] Warren, S. (2016) “Struggling for visibility in higher education: caught between neoliberalism ‘out there’ and ‘in here’-an autoethnographic account”, Journal of Education Policy, 32(2): 127-140 Online 1 November 2016
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Managerial Decision – Making and Making Decisions (the choice of the road less travelled)
Driton Fetahu
Abstract Making decisions, or decision – making, is a process of choosing among several possibilities. It is a thorough thinking process consisting of recognizing and choosing the possible solutions which lead to a desired state. The result of decision – making is the choice of an action which should be taken, or a strategy which should be applied in practice. The basic difference between a manager and other employees is the content and the type of decisions they make. The most difficult and the most responsible thing in management is decision – making. Making decisions, i.e. the ability and responsibility of decision – making is characteristic only to a small number of businessmen. The final criterion is still the level of objective business success. In the history of business, there were some uneducated people, who started their business with small capital, but who had a good characteristic: the feeling for making the right decisions at the right time. After that, it was less important to them whether those decisions were the result of intuition, intelligence or luck. The final success is their best confirmation. Keywords: decision making, managerial decision making, qualitative decision making, efficient decision making, contemporary decision making.
Introduction If you are careful at the end as in the beginning, you will avoid the failure. Lao – Ce What a manger should always have in mind is how his decisions influence his subordinates and the organization as a whole. In contrast, “the ones who work” – the employees are only interested in how a manger’s decision will influence them. Decision – making demands the distinction between the urgent from the important. If this is not done, too much time will be spent on solving unimportant issues, instead of paying enough attention to more important problems! Long – term decisions demand the confidence in the final objective: you need to know what you want to achieve. When the purpose is clear, you will be able to decide what to do. At that, it is vital to make a decision to do something, and not let things happen themselves, because of hesitation or non – action. So, if decision – making is the a choice of ONE alternative which lends to the realization of the set objective, then QUALITY decision – making is the choice of THE BEST alternative, while EFFICIENT DECISION – MAKING is the PROMT choice of THE BEST among the available alternatives which will make sure that the goal is reached. For QUALITY DECISION – MAKING, it is necessary to recognize the necessity for making a decision and be aware of the time – limit at decision – making. The above – mentioned elements are natural prerequisites for making good decisions. Successful managers can feel and know when the situation demands decision – making. In the same way, successful managers have developed the feeling for timely decision – making. They can make decisions qualitatively. You can be efficient only if you do the right job well. Doing the wrong job is not efficient, no matter if you do that job perfectly. Do the right job – not only in the right manner. Being creative does not always mean having revolutionary ideas; it is more important to have a fresh and free approach to decision – making. Modern decision – making happens in the conditions of tight deadlines, with data which are not reliable enough. Those are high – risk circumstances. It is necessary to find ways for a better, easier and more qualitative decision – making. Enabling managers for the right and timely reaction to solving complicated problems and making important managerial decisions is also about knowledge, experience and training. Making decisions or deciding is the process of choosing between multiple options. To is a fundamental thought process that consists of recognizing and selecting the possible ones solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs. Decision-making results in selection actions to be taken or strategies to be implemented in practice. What is the hardest and most responsible in leadership is making it happen decisions. Making decisions, ie the ability and responsibility to decide is a feature that is inherent to only a small number of business people. From year to year 29 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 year, new and new management theories are being formulated every day Surveys and surveys around the globe bring the hustle and bustle of the latest knowledge from that area. Some are even mutually opposed. While one takes the advantage moral qualities, others put expertise first, and third intelligence, leadership, and the like. Ultimately, however, the level of objective was still high business success. In the history of business there were uneducated people, those who are they started work with a small capital, but they had one good thing: feel to make the right decisions at the right time. After that, there was less It is important whether these decisions are the fruit of intuition, intelligence, or happiness. Conclusion Success is their best confirmation. The manager must always keep in mind how his decisions affect the subordinates and the organization as a whole. In contrast, "those who work," employees, are interested only in how a manager's decision affects them recognized. In what way the manager decides, it also determines its success and the success of the company it leads. Individuals in companies make decisions without whether it was about top decisions, or decisions within a particular workplace place. Thus every individual is regularly involved in decision making, ie, individuals selects one or more options. It is unquestionable that many of them these choices are uncertain actions taken without much thought. Deciding to demand separation urgently from the important one. If it does not do it, it does too much time in solving irrelevant questions is not enough Attention to important problems. Long-term decisions seek security in the ultimate goal: You need to know what you want to achieve. When your purpose is clear, you will be able to decide what should work. It is crucial to decide that something is done and not to allow it to happen things are happening by themselves, because of being locked up or not acting. Decisions by Managers have to make a dual nature each day; can be expected and unexpected. Although it seems that managers are easier to make the expected decisions because they have more time to think about them, it does not mean all the managers they are easier to bring. Placement and Decisions Deciding is an integral part of everyday life of people. It can be under the influence of emotion or reason, and most often under the influence of both. Deciding is an integral part of every manager's business. He can not ignore either to someone else to take responsibility for the problems that he needs to find. but, The everyday life of every manager is making decisions for solving different problems that are present everyday in the company. "Many theorists differ from each other in the place where they need to be located but everyone is completely in agreement with his meaning. One smaller number they go so far as to make the decision one of the functions management ". 1 In the structure of managerial work, decision-making is present the most common business (up to 92% of the time), and this is the fact that applies to all levels menagemente. Making decisions is the process of choice between multiple alternatives options, or between the many possible actions that should be realized. Yes the decision-making process would take place in line with the needs of a rational one decision- making, the choice between the available alternatives is necessary in advance to know the possible results of each alternative in the future. But, knowledge of these possible results is burdened with significant uncertainty, which in a great deal makes it more difficult. Particular difficulty is the fact that factors that Depending on the uncertainty of the results are not only factors of internal character, respectively factors that are generally known and which can be affected, but also external character, which is not possible or very difficult to influence, and who, often, unknown before. The problem is generally resolved in a way that is appropriate by predicting narrowing the field of possible uncertain alternatives, and in focus Remaining remains a few alternatives, which we can make in the future able to predict. Based on these results, according to some priority or the criterion is to choose the best alternatives and make decisions. The main goal of decision making is to bring the business system to the desired statuse. Adopting and enforcing decisions should enable them to be adequate positioning the company in relation to other environmental components. Must point out the fact that in any decision making process, regardless of the situation, in the influence of decision-makers is less or less significant. That influence characterizes subjectivism. Regardless of whether decision makers know the theory decision- making or not, in each decision-making process are present their "free ones estimates, hypotheses, intuition, experience. But, independently of that, the decision as the outcome of the thought process of decision makers must be certain attributes. It must be: clear, timely, realistic, purposeful, determined form, formalized, protected. Deciding is the process that it has its structure and its procedure. The decision is the result of the decision-making process, which is in accordance with the structural part of this process: it brings, conducts, controls, corretcion.
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"Therefore, Deming's logic should be applied in the decision-making process circle, which indicates that no decision can be perfect that it could not is improving. At the same time, rare decisions are made of the inherent genius, which revolutionizing the situation in one area is usually happening "Ground-based" decisions that can be based on knowledge and acquired previous experience to bring significant results to the constant improvements in the logic that comes from from Deming's Circuit shown in Figure 1 ".2
Planing
Motivate Do IT
Up Grade Analyze
Figure 1: Deming's Circle - The Logic of Continuous Improvements Phases of Decision-Making According to R. Oldcorn there is a whole series of decisions in the decision-making process different phases: 1. Identify the problem to be solved 2. Find out the facts and find the cause 3. Develop some of the possible solutions to the problem 4. Complete the choice of alternate course of action 5. Doneti the decision 6. Do the made decision 7. Analyze the consequences of this solution 8. Feedback to improve decision-making 9. Some authors decide on a number of stages, but the essence remains the same Manager, Decision, Feature Efficiency Declarations, How to Increase Efficiency of Decision Managing organizational changes under the conditions of a turbulent environment is one of the most important and most difficult tasks that managers are facing today meeting. Contemporary decision-making takes place in the conditions of time- consuming ends with insufficient data. These are circumstances of high risk. It is necessary to find ways to make a business faster, easier and better odluka. Manager training for correct and timely response to solving complex problems and making important management decisions is the thing and knowledge, and experience, and training. The manager can be extremely successful in generating ideas or in motivating employees, but in the final instance, it is evaluated on the basis of that what decisions it brings. In fact, every businessman makes decisions. One not surprising, isolated events, but part of the current and evolving process. Us This way, every business decision is an element of a dynamic process that is is under the influence of numerous factors. Decisions can be considered as mechanisms which managers are trying to achieve a certain desired state of affairs. In doing so. They also represent the manager's response to business problems. Manager first must identify the need for a decision, define a problem, collect facts and develop alternative solutions. At the next stage he evaluates alternatives and chooses best solution. Finally, the chosen alternative is implemented in practice along with appropriate control process. Figure 2 is one of the possible basic views decision making phase.
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Figure 2: The process of making managerial decisions So if decision making is the ONE WEEK alternative that leads to realization set goal, then QUALITY decision making is the BEST choice alternatives, and EFFICIENT SELECTION - WINNING choice BEST of the available alternatives to ensure reaching the goal. The precondition for the realization of the decision-making process is existence MOTIVATION. If there is no motivation, the manager will not even enter the process solving problems. The motivation of managers today is extremely topical today problem, especially in environments where there are no built-in mechanisms for this. Motivation is not only achieved through financial instruments. And in ours conditions of low personal standard, it is possible to act motivated managers by finding opportunities for personal satisfaction of the immaterial type (by creating more favorable working conditions and advancement, etc.). In developed economies, such instruments of manager motivation are devoted to great attention. It is important to bear in mind the characteristic psychological reactions of every man (and if not a manager) when faced with the problem. The first normal reaction is Try to overcome the problem: "Problem really is not, and if so, it should it is solved by someone else. "If" not pass "this variant, the man is trying to the problem is solved in some standard way, as it has already solved similar problems in experience: "Once I've done a similar analysis, I'll find and modify the old one version, "" Once we had a similar failure, we resolved it to replace it and that of course. "The existence of this psychological response is based on the contemporary concept education and training. Through training, it enriches the manager's experience and he passes through through situations that will be expected in future real practice. Obtained for them, it will in practice behave in a similar manner and the problem will be resolved by the choice of adequate alternative. (Clearly, this type of reaction lies in itself and the danger of being wrong recognizing the situation as similar and when it is not, which can lead to making inadequate decisions. Quality and quantity of training, this danger is minimized.) Finally, if the problem can not be overlooked or ruled out known ways, the manager explores and finds a new - original solution to the problem. Characteristics of efficient decision making The very fast-paced problem starts from the point: speed needs to distinguish from rush. Using quick decision-making methods is possible is also in situations where time does not permit a complete analysis of the situation decision-making and application of more complex decision support methods, reduce risk of wrong decision. Models for quickly solving strategic business problems are based on the idea to draw attention to the obstacles to which significant attention is needed and time, suggest a way in which some less dangerous obstacles should be quickly overcome consciously ignore those obstacles, in addition to which it is best to pass as if they did not exist. Speed - in the context of these models - includes slow, fast, and lightning (Foto. 3). FIXING PROBLEM requires caution and time spent on this phase is never useless. For strategic problems, which are as a rule insufficiently defined, rapid diagnosis, in conditions of compulsive situations, not rarely may be wrong, which can lead to catastrophically-selected "therapy". This is the phase in which it is first necessary to determine an approach in the sense of: discarding / deferring /selected.
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Figure 3 - Quick Decision Model If it is determined that the problem is to be avoided and to avoid it solving, the entire algorithm is suspended. If it is possible to postpone settlement problem, the algorithm stops. The problem can be solved in this case one of the more complex, more comprehensive (and longer-lasting) methods, or, if so become acutely, by re-activating a quick decision-making algorithm. If it does the problem has to be resolved immediately, striving for its more precise definition, in sense of delimitation from other problems and "forests" in its environment. Selection of KEY CRITERIA on which to access Problem solving depends on several factors: • the size of the deviation from the actual conception state, • frequency of problem, • Experts' approval of the existence of the problem, • Isolation of problems from other - limiting factors, • A chance to find a solution, • The power of the environment, • The relationship between the cost of finding the solution and the expected marginal effects, • The expected usefulness of the solution at the time of its implementation. • This is the stage to go FAST but WARNING GENERATION AND EVALUATION OF IDEAS - ALTERNATIVES do not is based on the principle of optimal, but satisfying (good enough) rešenja. Models based on optimum logic are not only sluggish, they are already the rule is idealized, so it unambiguously simplifies reality: the problem is adapt to the model, rather than the model problem. A logic of satisfactory solutions is not only significantly "faster" but is much closer to reality. By model, developing ideas, or defining alternatives and theirs evaluation, no phase separation; developing an idea - an alternative, a donor the decisions are immediately evaluated according to the expectations set. If they are its effects close to expectations, the idea is corrected. The model, however, foresees possibility of correction of expectations. It can be estimated that the effects of the ideas for the solution the problem is very acceptable, but expectations are set on the basis too high - for a given situation of unrealistic expectations. Feedback allows adapting expectations to reality. This stage in the Quick Decision model goes fast because it can use some of the multicriteria ranking models, supported by software a tool that significantly accelerates the way to satisfactory alternatives, while respecting it expectations and
33 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 established limits. Its result is the idea of an alternative whose fulfillment satisfactorily fulfills our expectations - we achieve the set goal. How to increase decision-making efficiency The ways to increase decision-making efficiency are above all in a variety of ways forms of training: from so-called "cold" analyzes, type "WHAT - if" and "IF - AND ", which are performed if time is not a critical factor and represent direct preparation for "hot" situations, through case studies - similar analysis problem from practice, to simulations that can be quite simple, or presented with very complex models of realistic systems. In an acute situation decision making, the inevitable support for greater efficiency is the application of computers. The computer can provide support for decision-making as it will (if it is for that prepared) to provide a quick and efficient review of available alternatives, and, along with the existence of adequate models, by doing their fast and exhaustive analysis, suggesting the best of the available alternatives. Therefore, a computer intended for decision support should contain DATABASE, which will be updated with relevant information from your own system, from other information systems, from the classic external sources information (books, newsletters, magazines), or through the Internet, as well as information from own experience, so-called. "private" data (estimates, forecasts). BASIC MODEL, which will include models for analysis, selection or ranking Database Selected Information (simulation models, models for visekritrejumus optimization, econometric, heuristic or fuzzy models). Which models should be chosen depends on the type and character of the decisions that are specific the manager brings (strategic, marketing, financial decisions, etc.) Decision Support Computer In crisis situations, which are essentially system disorders, the centerpiece of decision-making is shifted from historical data to percentages, projections, forecasts, innovative planning, with an accent on the exterior podatke. While many factors from so-called. the inner environment can control, most of the external factors are out of control of the organization. So they have to do it decisions about the factors that an organization should react to, about what it would be should try to influence those who should ignore it. That's it it must take into account the fact that, due to the dynamic nature of internal and external environment, the relative influence of certain factors changes over time. Strategy crisis management, requires first of all effective decision-making. Starting from the fact that efficient decision-making implies slow and fast, too lightning, and that it is a prerequisite for him to have a blend of knowledge, experience and training, to be our economy is in a situation where it is urgent to quickly decide on the conditions uncertainties, managers will in the future have to be used to a greater extent decision support systems, especially when making significant strategic decisions. Read Out of the Decision Many managers fall into constraints when making decisions. One traps which most affect the quality and creativity of the decisions are: • Priority Not Recognized • Non-consulting of others • Failure to experience predecessors • Failure to acknowledge mistakes • Promise the impossible • Regret for the decisions made • Creating crisis situations • Unsubscribing and unprocessing data that is the basis for decisions Conclusion There are many ways managers engage in the process of making decision or information to others that they are required to decision making process. Courses that are intended for future managers, mainly training candidates in areas such as administration, behavior cadre, quantitative models and problem solving, decision theory and elements of business ethics, as well as the process of increasingly globalization. Of course, these Courses are designed to help managers solve problems and making decisions. In many organizations, decisions come in a variety of forms methodologies, rules and philosophies that are inherent to that company. Managers are encouraged to collect data and make decisions that are based on their experience.
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In such situations and in many other, managers are directly involved in the decision-making process, although most do not the impression that they make and final decisions. The wider decision-making process involves data collection, problem identification and decision making only. Many solutions and conclusions, carried out by managers represent the current steps in the process decizion. Meetings, telephone conversations and discussions with colleagues are used in collecting data, identifying problems, and introducing others to choose a certain course of action. Each of these steps can be crucial in the process making decisions so that the participants often do not feel that they are actually the ones who make decisions. Because of the subtlety, which is inherent in the whole process, itself complexity of the decision-making process, it is often difficult to determine which information will be be necessary. Decisions often require creativity. That's why in general Observed, data should be collected much before problems indeed, appearances. It is therefore fair to say that the real challenge is to design an information system that needs to support and to represent the manager benefit for the organization itself. So one of the important business managers is that explores the need for information and in general the possibility of their use in solving problems in the future. Managers are visionaries, strategists, leaders, looking at the fog in a foggy distance (with or without the "Nastek" glasses). They make decisions of crucial importance to the business of a company so that their proper understanding of the benefits (i mana) of modern computer technology and environments is of crucial importance for the functioning of the company in constantly changing business conditions. Literature: [1] Dr Živan Živković, Dr Milan Jelić, Dr Nemanja Popović, Osnove menadžmenta, Bor, 2002. [2] Pavličić D., Teorija odlučivanja, Ekonomski fakultet, Beograd, 2004. [3] http://www.ekonomist.org.yu [4] http://www.operationsmenagment.com [5] European Journal of Information Systems, 1999, 2003. [6] www.learnmarketing.net [7] http://rds.yahoo.com/S=96062883/K=marketing%2blectures/v=2/l=IVR/ *- [8] http://www.knowthis.com/legal.htm [9] Majska konferencija o strategijskom menadžmentu, Zbornik izvoda radova, Borsko jezero, 6- . jun 2005. [10] Cambridge Journal of Economics, www.cje.oupjournals.org [11] Faculty of Economics, Moskva, www.econ.msn.ru [12] Canadian Journal of Economics, www.economics.ca.cje [13] Londan school of Economics, www.Ise.ac.uk
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Freedom of Expression and the Civil Participation of the Youth
Dr. Lindita LUTAJ University “Aleksander Moisiu” Durres, Education Faculty, Department of Pedagogy, Albania
Abstract This study treats the importance of the education and the civil formation of the youth. The real possibilities that they have in expressing their free opinion and their active participation in civil actions. Relating to the experience of other countries and our country in this direction the results and possibilities for interventions need to be indicated. The goal of the study is to evaluate what is the level of the free expression of the opinion, what prevents the youth to express their opinion freely, how much support do they receive from other citizens in order to solve their problems, to assess how the university curricula help them in education and equipping them with active citizenship, if they believe that situation of the future will change and the areas and possibilities created for active participation in society. The study included 258 university students (Bachelor and Master Programs) of the Education Faculty in the university “Aleksander Moisiu” Durres. The students filled in a questionnaire with 21 closed questions. The study evaluated the problems that the students encountered, their possibilities to freely express their opinion and the factors that prevented them to do so. The study indicated that the free expression of the opinions and the active participation of the students is not in satisfactory levels. These levels are not enough for the actual requirements, and for this is required an open mind, collaboration, and funds to enhance the active citizenship. We need to accept the reality as it really is with the belief that it belongs to the present, and we should try to change the future in order to increase the youth trust in this direction. Keywords: active citizenship, participation, freedom of expression, democratic citizenship.
Introduction In the recommendations of the Committee of the Ministers of the European Council, among others is emphasized the fact that the democratic civil education includes a complex basic of concepts and values, which are the same for all modern democracies. The principles of democracy are universal, but their implementation is performed in accordance to the actual circumstances of each society, so the students are prepared to live as citizens of a democratic civilization. The member states should support the inclusion of the education for democratic society and for the human rights in the institutions of Higher Education, especially those that prepare future teachers, by respecting the principle of Academic freedom of these institutions (Recommendations CM/Rec (2010)7 of the Minister Committee of the European Council p. 7). Active citizenship includes the strategy that needs to be followed if we want to continue to go toward the civilization direction. Education of the civil rights is actually the topic of the day in many countries, as it is given a special urgent consideration towards the preparation of the youth in order to confront the challenges and insecurities of furious changing life (Ichilov, 1998). Sherry Arnstein in 1969, in relation to the participation of the citizens in the process of planning in USA developed the idea of “Levels of participation”, in which are proposed eight “levels” of participations on the aspects of three extended categories: passive citizenship (manipulation, collective therapy); development of the image of active citizenship (information, consulting, symbolic participation) and active citizenship (collaboration, civil decision making, civil control). These levels have served as measuring indicators, in order to see the participations of the youth in the active democratic processes in many countries of the world. Our youth should be prepared to undertake roles and responsibilities in life. “The key to be responsible in a modern society is to take responsibility of your own life, and this is a virtue of independence and autonomy. The independence of the judgment is as necessary as the independence of the action. The individuals should be left to create their own opinions”
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(Civic Education in Europe, University of Boon, 2000). That mentioned, an important role plays the education system, as it prepares the youth for the future. “Active citizenship in my opinion means taking responsibility for our own destiny. We cannot just let the government decide everything for us. It is important that when we develop certain skills that we also use them for the benefit of society” (Pedro Augusto Almeida, 2012, p.15). “Active citizenship is very important. It’s vital to be engaged in the things you think matter, to improve your life and the lives of others, and to make the world a better place to live in. It means understanding what rights you have and what role you can play; using those rights and being involved in activities” (Andrzej Adamczyk, 2012, p.16). Another important request of active participation is the tendency of citizens to be active in the community problems. In a democratic society this tendency relates to the rights and responsibilities of the individual in this society, with the ideals of a political community and a civil society. It includes the tendency of the individual to be an active member of the society, to respect the values of individuals and human dignity, to take personal civil, political and economic responsibility, to respect the rules, to be included and well informed with maturity and efficiency in the civil issues, to enhance the function and consolidation of a healthy democratic system in Albania (Shakaj, V., 2012, p.89). “We need our young people to be active citizens, because this is their world and they need to be involved in decision- making. If I can do it, so can the others,” she declares. “To me, that’s what active citizenship is. As Gandhi said, you must be the change you want to see. It’s about giving people the tools to believe in themselves and make their voices heard” (Madi Sharma, 2012, pp. 52-53). Education and civil formation can not be understood without the freedom of expression, without the active participation in the whole life of the country. “Education for a democratic citizenship is mainly focused on the democratic rights and responsibilities and on the active participation in the political, citizenship, economical, legal and cultural areas of society (Card of EDC, Recommendation CM/Rec (2010)7 of the Ministers Committee, 2010, p.7). Each country that wants to be an important part of European Union tries to have a qualitative education. “Democratic Civil Education is an indicator of the development of the quality of a country’s education, a strong supporting point for social development and adherence to the European Union” (Gora, C., Gore, V., & Skolstvo, Z., 2007, p. 14). Civil education equips people with knowledge, skills and contributions to actively and efficiently participate in the society, as critical citizens that know how to take responsibility seriously. The youth are the most important part of the society. In this context the students should play their active role, as the student who is not a citizen in his class today, cannot be a citizen of the country tomorrow. The study research shows that students that follow civil education/citizenship courses at school are more informed about the political life (formal and informal) and for this reason there are more chances for participation in the future (Hahn, 1998; Niemi and Junn, 1998). Alma Powell, Alliance of the American Promise emphasizes that when the youth discover that they may be agents of change, wonderful things happen. They start serving on the neighborhood, teach others on public issues, develop new solutions for difficult political challenges and finally become voters, creators of community projects, and leaders of our communities and the nation. The center of this transformation, from a spectator to a citizen contains the meaning of who we are, our democratic values and the individual roles that we can play (Report, Guardian of Democracy, 2003, p.24). Bole and Gordon, are critical that schools and public institutions in the US are not teaching people how to be active citizens, able and encouraged to criticize the status quo – all of which they perceive to be essential if the challenges of social cohesion, truly active representative democracy, and democratic cooperation are to be met successfully (Bole and Gordon, 2009, p.273). In the curricula frame of the Pre-university Education of the Republic of Albania, among the key competencies of long life learning is the civil competency. The student is committed to the overall good. The student creates relations to the others, with the society and other cultures. He understands and respects the differences between people; accepts and respects the others; demonstrates responsibilities for the issues of general public interest; embraces and enhances beneficial changes for the personal life, for the society and the environment (IZHA, 2014, p.15). Even the students who are preparing to be teachers in the faculties of education in universities should know and implement the civil competency, as they will work with lots of generations of students who are the future of our country, and will contribute in putting strong foundations of democracy.
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Being that the youth are the future of a country, investing in them means contributing in progress and the future. One of the main objectives stated in the European Strategy for the Youth 2010 - 2018 is the promotion of the active citizenship, social participation and solidarity of all the young people. (May 7th 2012). Active participation of the students in all the activities is very important. This leads to improving the feeling of citizenship among them. The students are active in various activities that are organized, but it is important the fact that they take roles and responsibilities on their own in order to organize these activities, as they are more open, more sincere on what they do and say, and more cooperative with others. Indeed, fostering the ability of members of the University community to engage in such debate and deliberation in an effective and responsible manner is an essential part of the University’s educational mission. (The Committee on Freedom of Expression at the University of Chicago, “Final Report of the Committee on Freedom of Expression,” 2015). The European Council and the European Committee among others have stated that roles for adults in youth participation may include: • caring: being available and showing genuine concern for young people; • flexibility: being willing to listen and adapt; • support: working with young people, rather than doing things for or to young people; • commitment: valuing the rights of young people to have a voice in decisions affecting their lives, and creating opportunities for meaningful involvement; • respect: demonstrating acceptance of young people’s contributions, values and opinions. (The European Council and the European Committee, 2010, p. 111). • “There is no better site for political or democratic action than the school itself and the students’ own community” (Filipovitch & Ozturk, 2012, p. 85). • Today’s world absolutely requires collaborative critical thinkers, creative and courageous • innovators, and true lifelong learners (Prensky, 2005; Tapscott, 1998; Robinson, 2009). School directors should monitor the school politics so that all the members have the opportunity to learn and practice what it means to be an engaged member, to profit an understanding for the democracy and the role they play in it, and to learn how to be active members of the civil society (Homana, G., Barber, C., & Torney-Purta, J., 2006, p. 10). A major work and endless analyses have been done in order to gather information and different facts which helped to get the results. The question is what practices can change this non functional culture that exists in our youth? It is needed to determine the behaviors that accompany the values of democratic citizenship, in supporting the contemporary standards and new techniques, and implementation of the new ways to work in collaboration, for an active contemporary citizenship. Research methodology This study treats a very delicate and very important issue nowadays. The goal of the study is to evaluate what prevents the youth to express their opinions freely, to assess how the university curricula help them in education and equipping them with active citizenship, and the areas and possibilities created for active participation in society. The study included 258 university students (Bachelor and Master Programs) of the Education Faculty in the university “Aleksander Moisiu” Durres. The students filled in a questionnaire with 21 closed questions. The study evaluated the problems that the students encountered, their possibilities to freely express their opinion and the factors that prevent them from doing so. Results and discussion The students were asked where they felt better to express their opinion for the problems they had encountered. From the results we noticed that 80.23% stated that for the solution of their problems they rely on their families, and only 19.77% rely on the society. The expression of the opinion in government institutions, NGO, media, and political forums resulted in 0 %. Students trusted more their families, and their support given in any case for the solution of the problems. Students were asked if they expressed their opinion freely. Around 23.26% did not express freely their opinion, 12.79% are neutral by not stating any response, and 63.95% stated that there were cases when they could freely express their opinion. They argue that “through civic engagement, individuals — as citizens of their communities, their nations, and the world — are empowered as agents of positive social change for a more democratic world” (Bole and Gordon, 2009, p. 276).
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Related to the question on what prevented students from freely expressing their opinion in any matter they stated that 39.53 % lacked the trust, 23.26% did not express themselves as they were insecure, 19.77% lacked the courage, 8.14% were indifferent, 5.81% were scared, 2.33% related their expression to the interest they had in certain circumstances and 1.16% stated they did not express their opinion as there were many bureaucratic actions which made them not to believe the problem would have a solution. The question about the support that the students had from the institutions in solving the injustices, 53.49% state that this support does not exist, 24.42% are neutral by not stating anything 22.09% state that they have the support of the institutions. This huge percentage of the students that state not to have the support of the institutions and the ones that are neutral are points of attention for the future democracy of our country. This lack of responsibility for the support given in resolving the problems may lead to loss of trust from the youth. When students were asked if they believed in the functioning of the state institutions, 63.95% stated they did not believe in institution functioning, 18.60% remain neutral by not answering the question and only 17.45% state to believe in the institution functioning. The loss of trust relates to the reality where the students live. The students were asked if they themselves support others in problem solving and 4.65% stated not to support others in problem solving, 12.79% are neutral by not answering and 82.56% state to give help to others in need. They considered important that within the possibilities they would give help to the people in need. About the question on their engagement on various political forums 81.39% state that they are not engaged in any political organization, 13.95% are neutral and 4.66% state that are participants of different youth political forums of the country. The students were indifferent and did not trust the Albanian political class. This lowers their desire to actively participate in all the democratic development of the country, and more over to be part of the political parties’ forums. They accepted that they voted, as an impact from the family. About the funds available for the enhancement of the active citizenship 56.98% of the students stated that they did not have any funds to support them in this direction, 29.07% are neutral and only 13.95% state that they have the right funds for an active citizenship. An interesting question was the one on the collaboration of the various actors and institutions. Around 58.14% of the students think that there is no collaboration, 25.58% remain neutral and 16.28% state that there is a good collaboration between the actors and institutions. The high percentage of the students that notice the lack of collaboration shows that we are in an abnormal situation. This leads to problems not being solved, and the existence of bureaucratic actions. According to the question that what is the impact of university programs in education and formation of the students in citizenship they answered as follows: 16.28% of the students think that these programs do not have an impact, 8.14% remain indifferent and 75.58% think that university program have an impact on citizenship. While for the question on the impact of university programs in the improvement of the active participation, 18.61% think there is no impact, 17.44% are neutral and 63.95% think that university programs help education of the youth with the feeling of active citizenship. When the students were asked on the active participation of the youth nowadays, 67.44% stated that participation is not on good levels, 16.28% are indifferent and 16.28% stated that this participation is sufficient. The high percentage of the students that think that participation is not on the proper levels makes us think that we should think wisely about the future of our country. This is a reality which needs to change as soon as possible. The students were asked if they believed that this situation would change in the future. 26.74% of them state that they are not optimistic that the situation will change, 18.61% are indifferent and 54.65% believe that things will change in the future and people will become more responsible for their roles and responsibilities as active citizens. They believe in the development of a democratic society, so it is necessary to work hard, in order to transform this trust of the youth into reality. “We need people who are models of active citizenship in order to have the kind of society we want to live in, and to encourage others “(Kathleen Walker Shaw, 2012, p.65). What needs to be emphasized in this study is the considerable percentage of the students who are indifferent. They are not sure to express what is required as they do not trust the system, are scared, indifferent, experience lack of courage etc.
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Active citizenship helps to counter indifference. It is about taking responsibility on oneself and on the life of the surrounding community (Pavel Trantina, 2012, p.60). Conclusions This study is important as it tries to see the role of youth on freely expressing their opinion and their participation as active citizens of the society. The study evaluates the causes that prevent the youth to actively participate in society. It is important to assess the ways through which we can interfere to improve the situation in the future. Considering the fact that family plays a major role regarding the support and confidence that they provide to the youngsters, family members should work harder to ensure maximum support towards their children. It is very important to work on this issue, related to the increasing of confidence in youngsters, in order to avoid the fear and to defeat the indiference that is noted nowdays amonst youngsters. Strengthening the altruism, in order to support people in need in different situations. More work should be done regarding the sacrifice of our own good, for the good of the community. It is important to include education and civil formation curricula in the university programs of the teaching faculties, and especially the qualitative improvement of the contribution these subject bring in the preparation of the youth with active citizenship. Regardless their academic formation, the student teachers of all the programs should have education and civil formation, to be prepared for active citizenship as this will make them overcome indifferentism, fear, and insecurity and also improve their self trust. Taking into consideration the fact that there is a considerable number of students that evaluate as positive the impact of university programs, it should be considered a major work with students, in auditoriums for their education and civil development and in the organization of the practical actual actions to consolidate on them the feeling of active citizenship. The study showed a clear reality that the students are not able to freely express their opinion. Also, there are no qualitative indicators in the direction of the active participation of the youth, as it is a very hard area which requires ongoing contributions and engagement from all the actors of society. This is noticed in the lack of participation in the civil actions, indifferentism, the lack of collaboration between the various actors of society, the lack of funds for these issues, lack of information, motivation and desire to participate, and finally the lack of interest that the students have. Over 70% of youngsters think that University Curricula contribute in the students’ education related to the feeling of active citizenship. Therefore, the responsibility that these institutions should take, is of major importance, in order to fulfil their mission, regarding the education and civil formation of the youth. It needs to be seen the chance to study other factors that affect the improvement of active civil participation in the community, this for the fact that every person can create an individual way of understanding the phenomena, as people share opinions and have different points of view for the reality they live in. Institutions play an important role on the resolving of the youth problems, in order to change the reality where they live, in order to gain trust of the youth for a better and more secure future of this country. By taking into account that a considerable percentage of youngsters that participated in the study, expressed that they believe in the future, we need to work more with these students so that they would not feel dissapointed. This country needs people who have faith and who will give their support in order to improve the situation in the future. The funds for an active citizenship need to be increased, through programs where the impact of civil education may find favorable environment. Creating chances of youth participation in projects related to civil education, being evaluated as new forms and very efficient to provide education and civil formation of the students. The development of new capacities of the students, fulfillment of the mission for education and civil formation is primary task for the Albanian integration in the European and world developments. References [1] Card of EDC, Recommendation CM/Rec (2010) 7 of Ministers Committee, (2010). The Card of European Council for Education of Democratic Citizenship and for the Human Rights , p.7.
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[2] Council Decision of 27 November 2009 on a renewed framework for European cooperation in the youth field (2010-2018), OJ C311, 19.12.2009 [pdf], http://ec.europa.eu/youth/pdf/doc1648_en.pdf [3] European Economic and Social Committee, (2012). “Active Citizenship For a better European society”, pp. 15, 16, 52, 53, 60, 65. [4] Filipovitch & Ozturk, (2012). Teaching the Social Studies through Your Local Community, p.85. [5] Gora, C. & Gore, V. & Skolstvo, Z. (2007). Strategy for Civic Education in Primary and Secondary School in Montenegro 2007-2010, UNICEF and the NGO Centre for Civic Education, p. 14 . [6] Homana, G. & Barber, C. & Torney-Purta, J. (2006). Background on the school citizenship, Education climate assessment, p. 10. [7] IZHA, (2014) Curricula Frame of the Preuniversity Education of the Republic of Albania, Tirane, pp. 14-15. [8] IZHA, (2014). Curricula Frame of the Preuniversity Education of the Republic of Albania, Tirane, pp.15-16. [9] Recommendations CM/Rec (2010) 7 of Ministers Committee for the member states for the Education Card for Democratic Citizenship and for the Human Rights of European Council (Approved form Ministers Committee May 11th 2010, in its 120th session), p.7. [10] Report, Guardian of Democracy. (2003). The Civic Mission of Schools in partnership with the Educating for Democracy, University of Pennsylvania, Division for Public Education, National Conference on Citizenship, p.24. [11] Shakaj, V. (2012). Didactics of Education for Democratic Citizenship, Julvin 2, Tirane, p.89. [12] Taylor, L., Parsons, J. (2011). Improving Student Engagement, p.7. [13] The Committee on Freedom of Expression at the University of Chicago (2015). “Final Report of the Committee on Freedom of Expression,”, p.2. [14] T-Kit 11 Mosaic (2010). The training kit for Euro-Mediterranean youth work, p.111. [15] University of Boon (2000). Civic Education in Europe, Same General Principles.
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Albanian Legislation on Restitution of Property Confiscated During the Communist Regime: Its Structural Inconsistencies and a Negative Social Perspective for Achieving an Effective Domestic Remedy
Enkeleda Olldashi Prof. Asoc. Dr. Faculty of Law, University of Tirana / Professor of Roman Law Roden Hoxha PhD Candidate, Faculty of Law, University of New York Tirana
Abstract Following more than two decades of failures to implement an efficient system for the recognition, restitution and compensation of property to owners expropriated by the communist regime, in 2015, the Albanian Parliament passed law no. 133/2015 “On the Treatment of Property”, which aims to build an efficient mechanism to complete the already delayed process, within a reasonable timeframe. Now, more than three years since its enactment, the law and the enforcing authorities have failed to uphold a number of crucial deadlines and tasks, rendering many facets of the process essentially unfeasible and jeopardizing the possibility of a positive evaluation of the new mechanism by the ECtHR. This paper will examine the objectives set out in the law, the procedures foreseen for the successful completion of the property compensation process and the numerous problems experienced so far in the process, among which the deficient financial funds for the compensation procedure, the excessive delays in the examination of applications on the merits, as well as the ineffectiveness of the administrative procedures envisaged in the law. The analysis will show that, despite the new implemented remedies differ greatly from the provisions of previous laws and the expected positive results, these structural failures have inevitably undermined the social and economic interests of former owners, and failed to meet the Convention standards set out in the numerous ECtHR judgments against Albania. Keywords: property compensation, ECtHR, legal certainty, compensation mechanism, administrative act
Introduction The subjective right to ownership is a civil property right, the content of which lies in the assertion that: the owners of the right are recognized by the prescribed law, the possession, enjoyment and the disposal over their immovable property. Proprietas (ownership) is a technical term that means full ownership upon its literal meaning (physical and legal power over the object). This term appears to be used for the first time, in the late Republican period in Rome. For some lawyers, this term replaced the previously used, dominium, while for others it is a new term, with a wider meaning than the previous term (dominium). Proprietas means the right of use, enjoyment and disposition of your item, to the extent permitted by the judicial order "Dominium / proprietas est ius utendi, fruendi, new abutendi sua, quatenus patitur ratio juris". The sense of ownership is the property right of enjoyment and disposition of the property within the limits provided by Albanian law, more precisely under article 149 of the Civil Code, which provides for “the right to possess and to use the item (ius utendi); the right to collect all natural and civil goods (ius fruendi); and the right to destroy the item eventually, to alienate it, or to establish any ownership rights in the interests of other persons (ius abutendi)”. Ownership has never been an absolute right, a full and exclusive right of the owner. This means that along with the right of ownership restrictions remain on the use, enjoyment or its destruction. The existence of these kind of restrictions shows that the purpose of the law is not only the recognition of the rights of individual property on the one hand, but also the determination of the limits of their exercise, in order to safeguard the right of joint usage of objects such as a good created by nature and people for the purpose of mutual co-existence.
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The right to private property has been of great importance, especially after the downfall of the communist regime in Albania, under which following a number of reforms and legal and constitutional amendments, private ownership was all but abolished (Albania, 1976, p. 4). The great injustices that took place during this regime continue to constitute today a great legal and practical challenge to providing a final solution to this systematic and ongoing problem (Manushaqe Puto and Others v. Albania, 2012). There are a number of difficulties, both legislative and a lack of funds for the compensation of all dispossessed subjects, mainly due to the lack of a clear vision of the appropriate means and procedures for restituting and compensation property to the rightful owners, and partly due to the financial toll this issue has caused to the state finances (European Commission for Democracy Through Law, 2016, p. 9). This right constitutes a fundamental human right sanctioned in Article 41 of the Constitution of the Republic of Albania, which stipulates that: "The right to private property is guaranteed. The law provides for expropriation or restriction on the exercise of property rights solely for public interest. Expropriations or limitations of property rights that are equal to expropriation are only allowed against fair remuneration. Disagreements over the amount of remuneration can be appealed to the court." Likewise, Article 42 provides that: “Freedom, property and other rights recognized by the Constitution and by law cannot be violated without a due legal process." The right to property is envisaged as a fundamental right also by the provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, its Protocol No. 1 providing that: "Every natural or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions. No one shall be deprived of his possessions except in the public interest and subject to the conditions provided for by law and by the general principles of international law. The preceding provisions shall not, however, in any way impair the right of a State to enforce such laws as it deems necessary to control the use of property in accordance with the general interest or to secure the payment of taxes or other contributions or penalties." This provision contains three main rules which are: 1. The enjoyment of private property (Every natural or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions) 2. Deprivation by the right of property (Exceptionally and only in justified cases) 3. Control of the use of property (in the case of taxes, contributions or fines) The European Court of Human Rights has also defined in the sense of this article three main principles: 1. The principle of legality; 2. The principle of a justified purpose in the public interest; 3. The principle of a fair balance. The right to enjoy property in the interpretation of this article is guaranteed not only to natural persons, but also to legal persons. The Court has emphasized (Kopecky v. Slovakia, 2004) that the object of this article is only existing property and the provision and the case-law of the court do not include guarantees to acquire property in the future. This article protects individuals or legal persons from arbitrary state interference in their property, with the exception of exceptional case the Convention itself provides for, such as public interest. These principles enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights, as well as the case-law of the Court were the basis of the laws enacted by the Albanian Government for the remedy of the crime committed against former owners by the communist regime. However, despite Albania becoming part of the Convention System only in 1996 (Parliament, 1996) and the obligations stemming from it, the principles were first met in a number of laws tackling the issue of private property at the beginning of the 1990-s. Despite the positive intention of the legislative power and its initial initiatives to restitute the property to the original owners, these efforts were consistently undermined by the socioeconomical conditions of the time (de Waal, 2004, p. 20) and the need for new legal measures to regulate them.1 With Law 7501/1991 “On the land” started the process of distribution of more than 420 agricultural cooperatives to 365,000 rural households (Stanfield & Jazoj, 1995), land which in practice belonged to the formerly expropriated owners. The majority of the population of Albania (50% of the workforce and 65% of the population) benefited in one way or another from this form of land redistribution (Cungu & Swinne, 1999). In order
1 Law 7501/1991 "On Land"; Law 7592/1992 "On Privatization of State Housing"; Law 7512/1991 "On the regulation and protection of private property, free initiative, private and independent activity, as well as privatizations (amended); Law no. 7665, dated 21.01.1993 "On the development of priority areas for tourism"; Law no. 9482, dated 3.04.2006 "On legalization, urbanization and integration of illegal constructions (amended). 43 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 to minimize the issues created by the Law on Land, in April 1993, Parliament passed the Law on Restitution and Compensation of Property to Former Owners (Parliament, ikub.al, 1993), for the property unjustly expropriated by the state during the communist regime. The implementation of the law was plagued by delays in the decision-making process as well as a total lack of implementation of the decisions held by The Commissions on the Restitution and Compensation of Property. This law was followed by the new Law on Restitution and Compensation of Property (Parliament, drejtesia.gov.al, 2004) adopted in violation of the deadlines set out in Article 181 of the 1998 Constitution of the Republic of Albania, further contributing to the prolonged deadlines for the completion of the process of restitution and compensation of property. It also suffered from a lack of emphasis on technical capability, financial and human resources for its full implementation (Manushaqe Puto and Others v. Albania, 2012, p. 16). This led to an increasing number of former owners who began addressing the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) to resolve their cases. Following a number of considerable financial penalties for the Albanian state in relation to this issue, the ECtHR in 2012 issued the Pilot Judgment Manushaqe Puto and Others v. Albania, emphasizing the need for general measures as an urgent matter to effectively ensure the right to compensation with a certain margin of appreciation for the state. For the purposes of the successful implementation of a new legal policy and initiative on this issue, it was important for the Government to implement an accurate database on the number of decisions on property restitution and compensation to owners, a new compensation scheme based on the provisions of the Convention and ECtHR case-law, a transparent process, and realistic binding timeframes, with respect to each step of the compensation process, to be achieved after a public consultation with the interest groups. With regard to the process of restitution and compensation of the property, both these laws, in contrast to the provisions of the current law and its compensation methodology provided for the full restitution and compensation of property to former owners, and where not possible for objective reasons, its compensation. Law no. 7698, dated 14.03.1993 "On Restitution and Compensation of Property”, provided in Article 4 that: “Former owners or their heirs are recognized and restituted all the properties, which at the moment of enactment of this law were in the form of free unoccupied real estate or unchanged buildings, with the exception when it provided differently herein.” The law also provided for a number of limitations with respect to the quantity of property to be restituted, limiting the full compensation/restitution of up until 10,000 sqm. When properties were from 10,000 sqm to 100,000 sqm, compensation/restitution would provide for an additional 10% of the property (over 10,000 sqm). When the property was over 100,000 smq, +1%. Conversely, Law 9235, dated 29.07.2004 “on Restitution and Compensation of Property” in Article 6 provided that: “Expropriated subjects are entitled to the right of ownership and are restituted the real estate without restriction, with the exception of agricultural land, which is restituted or compensated up to 100 ha, if the expropriated subject (his heirs) have not benefited from the application of Law No. 7501, dated 19.07.1991 on "Land”.” One underpinning element of the 2004 law was the provision of the right to compensation at market value of the property, something not previously expressively stipulated in the preceding law (Parliament, drejtesia.gov.al, 2004, p. 6). This provision was followed by the issuance of a number of Land Value Maps by the Council of Ministers, which set the value of land in a number of circuits of the Republic of Albania, land value maps which are still in use by the European Court of Human Rights as a reference for the just satisfaction of applicants to the court with cases relevant to the issue of compensation of property (Halimi and Others v. Albania, 2016). Further to these stipulations, the law also provided for the right of the expropriated subjects and their heirs to benefit interest based on the time from the recognition of the property until the time of the full enforcement of the decision, stating that “For the period from the recognition of the right of ownership to the receipt of the remuneration in the form of cash compensation, the expropriated subject also benefits the banking interest, according to the annual average issued by the Bank of Albania” (Parliament, drejtesia.gov.al, 2004, p. 10). Despite the best intentions, this rendition of the property restitution framework was not effective either. It was amended numerous times through: Law No. 9388, dated 04.05.2005; Decision of the Constitutional Court (CC) No. 26, dated 02.11.2005; Law No. 9583, dated 17.07.2006; Law No.9684, dated 06.02.2007; CC Decision no.11, dated 04.04.2007; Law No. 9898, dated 10.04.2008; Law No. 10095, dated 12.3.2009; Law No. 10186, dated 05.11.2009; Law no.10207, dated 23.12.2009; CC Decision No. 27, dated 26.5.2010; Law No. 10308, dated 22.07.2010; CC Decision No. 43, dated
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06.10.2011; Law No. 55/2012, dated 10.05.2012; and up until just months before the enactment of the current law, with Law No. 49 / 2014, dated 08.05.2014. The law of 2015 On the Treatment of Property and the Completion of the Property Compensation Process Law no. 133/2015 "On the Treatment of Property and the Completion of the Property Compensation Process" was guided in its merits by the Pilot Judgment "Manushaqe Puto and Others v. Albania", where the ECtHR imposed the general obligations for the Albanian state, to take concrete measures to enforce the unenforced decisions recognizing the right of compensation of former owners and examine pending applications on the matter. The problems noted by the ECtHR in this judgment, which were also found in other similar cases (see Ramadhi v. Albania, Beshiri and Others against Albania, Hamzaraj v. Albania, Nuri v. Albania, Driza v. Albania, etc.) , were the frequent changes to the legislation related to property restitution and compensation (at least seven times between 2004-2010); the fact that none of these laws or any other domestic provision provided for the manner in which the decisions of administrative bodies for restitution and compensation of property would be implemented; the fact that there was no time limit for appealing these decisions to domestic courts or any specific means for their implementation; as well as the fact that these laws again awarded the Council of Ministers, namely the executive power, the right to determine the form and manner of compensation, by defining the relevant rules and methods. The previous activity of property restitution and compensation bodies, in most cases, did not include the issue of assessment of property, but aimed only at the recognition of the former owner's status, the recognition of the property rights of the former owners to restitution or compensation, allowing in this manner for binding decisions to be left pending indefinitely. Thus, the legitimate expectations of former owners were determined by decisions which in most cases recognized the rights to the real estate property but did not determine the financial value of the compensation. The transitory compensation scheme according to the market value of the compensation time was considered by the ECHR in Manushaqe Puto and Others as an ineffective means of enforcing decisions recognizing the right to compensation. Likewise, the non-execution of the final decisions in favor of the former owners, who were granted the right to compensation, had also violated their rights to a fair hearing within the meaning of Article 6/1 of ECHR. Law 133/2015, entered into force on the 23rd of February 2016, in parallel with a new Property Value Map (Albania C. o., 2016), which was instrumental to the implementation of the law due to it being the reference document for the land prices in the process of evaluation of compensation decisions. It has as its main object: the regulation and just satisfaction of property rights arising from expropriation, nationalization or seizure, in accordance with Article 41 of the Constitution and Article 1 of Protocol 1 to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms; the establishment and administration of the Compensation Fund, which would serve for the purposes of property compensation; and would determine the procedures for the treatment of property and the completion of the completion of the property process as well as the administrative bodies charged with their realization. Article 3 of the Law stipulates that this law acts on all claims that are under review at the PRCA [Property Restitution and Compensation Agency, precursor of the current Property Management Agency] on the day of its entry into force as well as on all those applications that will be submitted within the terms of this law as it pertains to the recognition of the property rights. In addition, this law extends its effects, including in the financial assessment, to the: a) execution of all decisions that have not been implemented, for the recognition of the right of compensation provided by the administrative or judicial bodies in Albania; b) applications that are under consideration in the courts of all levels, at the Supreme Court as well as at the European Court of Human Rights, regarding their financial assessment. This law, in contrast to the previous iterations of the legal framework on property restitution/compensation, provides for compensation as the only remedy for the rights of former owners and their heirs, substituting restitution with the concept of compensation in the land previously recognized as property of the former, a new and untested alternative, which was not welcomed by many of the interest groups (Top-Channel, 2015). In Article 8 of Law, the forms of compensation provided are: a) financial; b. with other immovable property of any kind, of equal value, owned by the state; c) in shares in state- owned companies or in which the state is a co-owner, having an equivalent value to the immovable property; d) with the value of objects, which are subject to privatization. The basic property value indicators under this law are assigned separately for land and construction objects (Article 8). When a property is a land union with a construction object, its value is derived per unit, as the sum of the values of the construction object and the land on which it sits. The value of the compensated property in this case is derived for the land based on the land value map, and for the building/facilities, on the Decision of the Council of Ministers on the methodology of valuation of immovable property in the Republic of Albania (Ministers, 2012).
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Further, contrary to the straight forward concept of previous laws of compensation/restitution at 100% of the land previously owned at market value, it introduced a new compensation mechanism, where the property to be compensated is to be evaluated based on the cadastral index that it had at the time of expropriation. The restituted property is evaluated by determining the differences that will result between its value pursuant to the current cadastral index and the value of the property pursuant to the cadastral index at the time of expropriation. Put into a simplified explanation, the process is as follows: Sp x Vp = FVp Where: Sp - the surface of the property recognized for compensation Vp - the value of the property (based on the land value map) according to the cadastral index the property had at the time of expropriation FVp – Final financial value of the property to be compensated to the former owner or the heirs Simplified Explanation on evaluation of property already restituted Sp x AVp – Sp x VP + VRp Where: Sp - the surface of the property recognized for compensation Vp - the value of the property (based on the land value map) according to the cadastral index the property had at the time of expropriation Avp - value of property based on the actual cadastral index VRp – Restituted property value This new methodology was sanctioned in the law as irrefutable in court, leaving room to owners for challenges only with respect to the value calculated by the Property Management Agency, and not the manner in which it as calculated (Article 19/1). The law provides also for the cases where in cases in which the expropriated subjects have benefited through a decision compensation or restitution, the difference calculated as per the letter "b" of paragraph 1 of Article 6 of the Law is deducted from the assessed value of the property recognized for compensation, calculated according to letter "a" of paragraph 1 therein. When this assessment shows that the subject receives a property that has a value greater than the property he had at the time of expropriation, then the subject is compensated in nature with the surface corresponding to the evaluation and the rest of the property is transferred to the land fund through a decision of the PMA. This provision, which would provide for the backbone of the land compensation fund for the state, was found unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Albania (Decision no. 1, dated 16.01.2017, 2017). However, the Constitutional Court failed to consider two of the most problematic and most disputed provisions of the law, failing to reach a majority in its ruling: “Article 7, Item 2/ a and b: If the assessment of the property restituted through a final decision is higher than the estimate of the land recognized for compensation, then the expropriated subject is considered as compensated in full. b. If the assessment of the property recognized for compensation is greater than the evaluation of the restituted land, then the subject is compensated for the difference, pursuant to the provisions of this law.” These provisions have been seen by many parties, from the interest groups on property issues, the President of the Republic, the Ombudsman and Members of Parliament, as a violation of the right of former owners to legal certainty and unfair interference with their right to positive expectations on the issue.
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The Albanian government justified the use of this new compensation scheme based on the characteristics and value of the property of origin, where most of the properties expropriated by the communist regime were agricultural land, forest land, and meadows and pastures, with the plot land surface being an extremely limited area; the numerous demographic, civic and geographical changes occurring during this regime and subsequent years, turning many of these areas, specifically those in the vicinity or boundaries of existing cities from agricultural land into plots of land, due to the natural extension of the boundaries of these inhabited centers; and the lack of financial value added to these areas by the owners themselves, but by the gradual and natural evolution of society. Consequently, this led to the financial impossibility of the state and the nation as a whole to pay the very high financial bill for full compensation of the owners on the basis of the current form of the land and market value. The basic principle on which the Government relied on the conception of this methodology was that "return" is not an absolute right, but may be subject to numerous conditions and limitations (Maria Atanasiu and Others v. Romania, 2010), applying the principle of possible restrictions directly onto the property issue itself. As a novelty to the compensation scheme, the law provides that applicants may apply for special compensation, waiving part of their claim for the benefit of a speedy enforcement. a) When the subject requests to be financially compensated within 1 year, then he receives 20% of the compensation value and foregoes the rest of this value. b) When the subject requests to be financially compensated within 3 years, then he receives 30% of the compensation value and foregoes the rest of this value. c) When the subject requests to be financially compensated within 5 years, then he receives 40% of the compensation value and foregoes the rest of this value. According to the official figures of the PMA, for the year 2017 (Agency, 2017) there have been 12 such applications with a total value of properties at 348,631,590 ALL. The financial value awarded after waiver to the owners has been that of 97,343,259 ALL, saving the state the financial burden of 251,197,331 ALL. For the year 2018 (Agency P. M., 2019) there have been 129 such applications with a financial value awarded after the waiver of 1,507,504,425 ALL, saving the state the amount of 3,010,751,266 ALL. This norm has been seen as a positive step towards not only the speedy and full enforcement of the decisions held by the applicants, but also as a means of providing a lighter financial burden to the state finances. The problems observed in the practical implementation of new framework Despite the finding of the law and methodology as an effective remedy by the Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe (Europe, 2018), many of the procedures envisaged for obtaining compensation were seen and are still seen as flawed legal projections by many domestic actors who have objected to the draft law and the successive law adopted by the Albanian Parliament (SotNews, 2019), culminating in the submission of a request to the Constitutional Court on the non-compliance of the Law 133/2015 with the Constitution of the Republic of Albania and the European Convention on Human Rights. The process of reviewing the submitted petition continued for more than 9 months, at which time the Constitutional Court requested legal assistance from the European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission) on the conformity of the law with Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention and the relevant case-law of the European Court. In its assessment, the Venice Commission maintained a highly realistic position on the then situation of the property issue, where more than 230 cases are pending review by the ECtHR (European Commission for Democracy Through Law, 2016, p. 3); 40,000 issues before competent local authorities; and the financial cost for full compensation of about 814 Billion ALL, estimating that a proportional solution was needed between the right of owners for just satisfaction and the financial burden for the Albanian state. Considering Albania's specific situation, the Commission considered that the new legal framework, which could bring lower compensation to former owners, met the requirement of proportionality (Ashingdane v. The United Kingdom, 1985), as set out in Article 1 Protocol No. 1 of the ECHR. Despite this, the Commission assessed that this opinion was issued to assist the Constitutional Court to evaluate the new law in an abstract manner. Following this opinion, the Constitutional Court partially accepted the petition of the applicants, repealing Article 6, items 3 and 5 of the Law as unconstitutional, and rejecting the request for the abrogation of Article 6, item 1, letter "b", and Article 7, item 2, letters "a" and "b".
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Even after the Constitutional Court's decision to abrogate Article 6, items 3 and 5 of the Law, the latter and its supplementing bylaws have presented a number of fundamental and procedural shortcomings that have affected its effective application, and have effectively halted the process to a standstill. With more than 40,000 decisions awaiting evaluation and later compensation as well as more than 16,000 unexamined applications pending before domestic institutions, the work started slowly and current statistics do not show promising results. Pursuant to the aforementioned reports of the Agency before the Parliamentary Commission on Legal Matters, Public Administration and Human Rights, for the year 2017, the Property Management Agency has evaluated financially 4,038 decisions of the years 1993-1194, 6,941 decisions of 1995, and 4,877 decisions of 1996, totaling 15,856. The total financial fund awarded to the applicants for these assessed decisions was 1,959,411,055 ALL. The total physical fund used for compensation for 2016 was 65,9 hectares and for 2017, 257,5 hectares. In total, only 881 requests for compensation have been deposited near the agency, contributing in this way to the stagnation of the process. With regard to applications pending recognition, only 2529 of them were administered, with 2164 being returned to the applicants for need for supplemental documentation and 365 of them being refused by the Agency. Meanwhile, things started to pick up for the Agency in 2018, when it evaluated financially 9458 decisions, where 8642 of the latter were evaluated financially at 34,156,228,643 ALL, 632 being found to have been compensated pursuant to Article 7 of the law and 184 decisions being awarded the right to first refusal. However, even in 2018, the number of applicants actually being awarded just satisfaction is considerably low for the number of pending decisions, with only 429 applications for compensation and only 18 of them awarded a final enforcement decision in the amount of 35,521,553 ALL and ~56 hectares in compensation in kind. Despite the pick-up in the pace of examination of decisions and dissemination of compensation, in the three years allotted by the law for the process (Article 15), the PMA has evaluated financially only 25,314 decisions out of more than 40,000 pending applications, with the local courts now taking over the process. The timeframe for the evaluation of already issued decisions pursuant to the law is 3 years. If the process is not concluded by this timeframe, interested parties may address the Tirana Administrative Court of First Instance, to carry out the evaluation pursuant to the law. Currently process has reached the deadline and as such applicants can only continue through judicial review, which in itself presents a further burden considering that Albania is undergoing the transitory evaluation of professionals of the judiciary, with a large number of the judges who have undergone the process having been let go of their position, contributing in this way to the backlog of cases pending examination (Commission, n.d.). Even with regard to the examination of new applications for recognition, the law provides a binding timeframe of 3 years, deadline which has been passed with the 2018 report of the Agency stating that in the period of January-December 2018, there were 12,950 new applications administered by the Agency, of which 3000 have been dealt with, and the remaining 9,950 case files being processed currently. However, now that the deadline has passed the Agency has suspended the examination process and waiting for the pending cases to be examined by the Civil Court of First Instance (Article 34). One main question which has risen in the last months is in what capacity is the PMA taking part in the court proceedings of certification of fact by part of the applicants for the recognition of their right to property. The passive legitimacy of the PMA to be part of this proceedings has been questioned, but so far it has been impossible for the question to be answered as currently Albania does not have a functioning Supreme Court, nor a functioning Constitutional Court to rule on the matter. The courts tasked by the law with the duty to review the applicants’ challenges to the decisions of the PMA as well as the requests for recognition once the deadlines for the procedure have passed, in themselves exhibit serious problems in the efficiency of the examination of deposited casefiles. From the most recent data deposited by the Albanian Government to the CoE (Advocature, 2018), it is evident that the Administrative Courts of First Instance at country level for the years 2015, 2016 and 2017 had 21,540 registered cases and only 17,927 cases administered and examined; 24,606, registered cases and 20,365 examined cases; and 21,477 registered cases and only 17,451, examined cases, respectively, in this way contributing year after year to the buildup of a considerable backlog. For the Administrative Appeals Court, the situation is quite similar for the same years. At the same time, even the Civil Courts where the requests for recognition are poised to be deposited from now on, the situation is quite similar. For the years 2015, 2016, and 2017, 89,416, 92,120 and 94,388 filed cases and only 71,589, 75,189 and 78,200 examined cases, respectively, showing the same pattern of backlog buildup which would pose a significant threat to the effectiveness of the mechanism envisaged in the law and the objective ability of applicants in reaching a satisfactory solution to their claims, depriving them of the rights guaranteed under Article 6/1 of the Convention, a core element of the Manushaqe Puto and Others judgment.
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Even with regard to the funds made available to the Agency for the finalization of the process, the law has been breached from the outset. In its appendix, the law provides for a budget of ALL 50 billion made available to the Compensation Fund, with a specific amount for the PMA’s annual activity (see Annex of Law 133/2015). Despite the provisions in the law stating that the budget for the years 2016 and 2017, pursuant to the Agency’s reports, in total, would amount to 6,033,000,000.00 ALL, the fund available and used by the Agency was only 3,426,701,399.00 ALL. The same can be said for the year 2018, where despite the law providing a budget of 3,690,000,000 ALL, the PMA has used only 1,543,025,978.56 ALL. It is true that Article 10 of the law provides that the remainder of unused budget funds for a specific year are to be passed to the following year, the initial trends show that there is a failure to use the financial funds available and a delay in the compensation process, raising questions to the effectiveness of the mechanism. One final remedy provided in the law as a means for the speedy compensation of applicants, as well as a means of providing the state with leeway in accumulating funds for the financial and physical compensation fund, was the procedure of compensation through auction (Article 13). The law provides that the PMA, in order to increase the financial resources for the compensation fund, would organize auctions for the sale of a property, part of the land fund. All owners holding a compensation decision financially evaluated by the PMA could participate in the auction. The owners holding an assessment on a final compensation decision could participate in the auction if they express their will to benefit from the physical compensation fund. The PMA would announce the winner in accordance with the legislation in force for public auctions, based on the highest bid. So far, not a single procedure of compensation through auction has been initiated and this process is seen as a failure and unnecessary step in the overall mechanism for the compensation of former owners. Conclusions The legal framework for property restitution / compensation, in the 27 years following the collapse of the communist regime, has undergone frequent and fluent changes with laws and bylaws that most times either don’t complement each-other or are objectively unable to be implemented in full, a systematic problem that has been found to violate the rights of former owners both by the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Albania and the ECtHR. The most recent and current law has encountered many problems and challenges, among which non-participation of interest groups in the formulation of the new law, disregard of budget projections for the financial fund at the disposal of the process, passing of restrictive deadlines set in the law, possible delays in the examination of claims by of the competent institutions or the effective impossibility of the applicants to have access to the judicial system in order to finalize the process of review of their claims. The present law is a law which does not base the compensation of property at current market value or size in origin other than the provisions of previous laws, thus creating a relatively high loss for entities still pending return and compensation for their lawful properties. This mechanism was accepted as being proportional by a number of actors, but it was contested by those groups of interests directly affected by its implementation, seeing it with skepticism and controversy, which has led to the official complaint of many associations and The President of the Republic of the Council of Europe and the ECtHR. Despite the finding of the law as an effective mechanism by the Council of Ministers of the Council of Europe, the many challenges faced by the executive bodies charged with the implementation of the law, as well as the breach of deadlines for the examination of new claims and evaluation of already issued decisions has raised serious questions on the new mechanism. So far, the European Court for Human Rights has refrained itself from issuing a judgment examining the new remedy set in place by the Albanian Government, despite the Government submitting the request for examination in 2016, this due also to the lack of an Albanian judge in the panel to examine the case. Recently, a new Albanian judge was appointed to the Court, and the examination of the case seems to draw to a close. However, the most pressing issue remain on what will happen if there is a negative decision by part of the Court. In general, the Court, due to the principle of legal certainty, does not provide for measures of retrospective effect in its judgments, unless the state wishes to give such effect to the case (Marckx v. Belgium, 1979). However, chances are that it will find the new mechanism incompatible with the Convention System and the case-law of the Court, guiding the state in finding a new methodology and domestic remedy in tackling this long-standing systematic issue. Nevertheless, all this remains speculation until the moment the Court itself issues a binding judgment, which will determine the fate of more than 40,000 already issued domestic decisions and more than 16,000 still pending applications for the right to property.
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Bibliography [1] Advocature, A. S. (2018, October 17). rm.coe.int. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Updated Action Report - Luli and Others v. Albania: https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016808e6 7cd [2] Agency, P. M. (2017, December 27). parlament.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Raporti vjetor per punen e kryer ne Agjencine e Trajtimit te Pronave: http://www.parlament.al/Files/Kerkese/ATP-raportimi-vjetor-2017.pdf [3] Agency, P. M. (2019). parlament.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Agjencia e Trajtimit te Pronave Raport Vjetor 2018: http://www.parlament.al/Files/Kerkese/20190607132432ATP%20Raportimi%20vjetor%202018.docx [4] Albania, C. o. (2016, February 3). atp.gov.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from VENDIM Nr. 89, datë 3.2.2016 PËR MIRATIMIN E HARTËS SË VLERËS SË TOKËS NË REPUBLIKËN E SHQIPËRISË: http://atp.gov.al/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6&Itemid=384 [5] Albania, P. o. (1976, 12 28). eudo-citizenship.eu. Retrieved 7 20, 2019, from Kushtetuta e Republikes Popullore Socialiste te Shqiperise - neni 16: http://eudo- citizenship.eu/NationalDB/docs/ALB%20Kushtetuta%20e%20Republikes%20Socialiste%20Popullore%20e%2 0Shqiperise%201976.pdf [6] Ashingdane v. The United Kingdom, 8225/78 (The European Court for Human Rights May 28, 1985). [7] Commission, I. Q. (n.d.). kpk.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Njoftime: http://kpk.al/njoftime/ [8] Cungu, A., & Swinne, J. F. (1999, April). Albania's Radical Agrarian Reform. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 47(3), 605-619. [9] de Waal, C. (2004). Post-socialist Property Rights and Wrongs in Albania: An Ethnography of Agrarian Change. Conservation and Society, 2(1), 19-50. [10] Decision no. 1, dated 16.01.2017 (Constitutional Court of Albania January 16, 2017). [11] Europe, C. o. (2018, September 20). The Committee of Ministers' Human Rights meetings. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from H46-1 Manushaqe Puto and Others group (Application No. 604/07) and Driza group (Application No. 33771/02) v. Albania: https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectID=09000016808d5938 [12] European Commission for Democracy Through Law, V. C. (2016, October 16). www.venice.coe.int. Retrieved from AMICUS CURIAE BRIEF FOR THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT ON THE RESTITUTION OF PROPERTY: https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2016)023-e [13] Halimi and Others v. Albania, 33839/11 (European Court for Human Rights April 7, 2016). [14] Kopecky v. Slovakia, 44912/98 (European Court for Human Rights September 28, 2004). [15] Manushaqe Puto and Others v. Albania, 604/07, 43628/07, 46684/07 and 34770/09 (European Court for Human Rights July 31, 2012). [16] Marckx v. Belgium, 6833/74 (European Cour for Human Rights June 13, 1979). [17] Maria Atanasiu and Others v. Romania, 30767/05 and 33800/06 (European Court for Human Rights October 12, 2010). [18] Ministers, C. o. (2012, Shtator 26). ikub.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Vendim i Keshillit te Ministrave Nr. 658, date 26.09.2012 Per miratimin e metodologjise per vleresimin e pronave te paluajtshme ne Republiken e Shqiperise: http://www.ikub.al/LIGJE/1211160159/Article-PeR-MIRATIMIN-E-METODOLOGJISe-PeR- VLEReSIMIN-E-PRONAVE-Te-PALUAJTSHME-Ne-REPUBLIKeN-E-SHQIPeRISe.aspx [19] Parliament, A. (1993, April 15). ikub.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Per kthimin dhe kompensimin e pronave ish-pronareve: http://www.ikub.al/ligje/304150001/Article_Per-kthimin-dhe-kompesimin-e-pronave-ish- pronareve-.aspx [20] Parliament, A. (1996, July 31). pp.gov.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Ligji per ratifikimin e Konventes Evropiane per Mbrojtjen e te Drejtave te Njeriut dhe Lirite Themelore: http://www.pp.gov.al/web/ligji_ratifikues_i_kednj_790.pdf [21] Parliament, A. (2004, July 24). drejtesia.gov.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Ligj Nr. 9235, date 29.7.2004 per kthimin dhe kompensimin e prones : http://drejtesia.gov.al/wp- content/uploads/2017/11/Ligj_per_kthimin_dhe_kompensimin_e_prones-1.pdf
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[22] SotNews. (2019, March 9). sot.com.al. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Mbyllja e vlerësimit të pronave, Myrshit Vorpsi: Janë mbi 10 mijë dosje pa zgjidhje, do i drejtohemi sërish gjykatës: https://sot.com.al/politike- intervista/mbyllja-e-vleresimit-te-pronave-myrshit-vorpsi-jane-mbi-10-mije-dosje-pa [23] Stanfield, D., & Jazoj, A. (1995). Markets for Immovable Property in Albania: After Privatization, What? Markets for Immovable Property in Albania: After Privatization, What? - Draft for Discussion, 1-18. Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America. [24] Top-Channel. (2015, July 17). top-channel.tv. Retrieved July 20, 2019, from Debat për ligjin e ri të pronave, pronarët: Nuk njeh kthimin fizik të pronës: http://top-channel.tv/2015/07/17/debat-per-ligjin-e-ri-te-pronave- pronaret-nuk-njeh-kthimin-fizik-te-prones/
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When Meteors Vanish in Political Philosophies - Thinking with Michel Serres in Times of New Climate Regime
Siavash Bakhtiar
Abstract In memoriam of Michel Serres, this essay aims to offer a brief account of the necessity of reading his works in times of political and ecological crisis. Since his opus magnum The Natural Contract, Serres had developed in the last three decades a theory that investigates and rethink the relation of the moderns, since Galileo and Descartes, with what they call “nature” in order to offer a third way to the division between (post-)modern philosophers and dogmatic scientists: the first have been systematically deconstructing all the grand narratives and, the latter have often excluded from their theoretical work any type of moral reflection on the modes of production of scientific practices, and their consequences for humans and non-humans. The path initiated by Serres influenced many contemporary philosophers who have continued and enriched his investigation of the origins and consequences of a new tendency of not doing politics in the epoch of the Anthropocene, of a new escapism that refuses to face the ecological challenges hic et nunc. Keywords: Michel Serres, Natural Contract, Political Ecology, Divide of the Moderns
Introduction What I first remember when mentioning the name of Michel Serres is a voice. A warm and broken voice cadenced by his meridional accent easily identifiable by his followers. Second, comes his gaze: for those who have seen him on television or in a conference, his mischievous gaze that was full of a certain naivety, and at the same time teasing his interlocutors; but foremost, his gaze on current state of affairs that strives to understand and explain the conditions in which humans not only give meaning to the world, but also inhabit it, compose it and are composed by it. It is about humans: that is to say that Serres’ work and philosophical life was dedicated to share his perception of the different modes of existence humans and non-humans have been capable of displaying in front of him. I put an emphasis on his gaze, because he reminds me of a painter who in an ecstatic vision brushes in complex lines and deep colours the different plis (folds) that world offers to him. Therefore, the reader should not be surprise if I use a painting to introduce this paper. It is Jan Breughel the Elder’s The Earthly Paradise (see appendix). It was painted in 1621, but strangely it goes against the flow of its epoch: the era of Descartes, Hobbes and Galileo where the human individual were put at the centre, and the rest of beings and objects were outcasted at the borders of what we, moderns, call existence, society or even the world. Serres refers to this painting in Yeux – one of his most fascinating books where through an assemblage of texts and images, he questions the capacity of the eyes, and more specifically the eyes of the painters – and highlights that Breughel’s tour de force, in times of the emergence of modernity, is to offer a representation of paradise where human figures are relegated to the back of the scenery in favour of a bestiary that forces the viewer to “forget the [dominant] anthropocentrism: the world is back, fauna and flora before humans” (2014b: 146). The world is back, but which world? Or said differently, does the world had a meaning before the humans? Or maybe, by the world, one has to understand the planet earth or what ecologists call “nature.” The world, the planet, nature, the globe: the ambiguity and interchangeability of these terms on condition of universalism – or globalization – is what is at stake in the geopolitical decision of human societies for the next generations. In times of incertitude, where the stability of national and international institutions is dramatical shaken by unpredictable events. It seems that it is time for political thinkers and activists, before even criticizing, to revise their conceptual toolboxes in order to have a better grasp of the bond humans have with nature, or rather with the entities that compose it, and are composed by it – humans included. More than a vision of a remote past, one could see in Breughel’s painting a tragic omen; one could perceive in the disturbed sky of the painting that “a storm is blowing from Paradise,” to quote Benjamin, “[which] it has got caught in his wings with such violence that the angel [of history] can no longer close them” (1969: 257-258). One can almost perceive in the piling
52 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 clouds of the painting a near future where the world could be composed by singled animals that presage no possibilities of a livable future beyond this last generation;1 except maybe for a little cohort of humans that would be outcasted to the most remote – and colourless – knot of the fabric of the world, on the verge of extinction. This reversal, or should I say interruption, of the current situation, which is deluded by the promises of the myth of progress and emancipation of the grand narratives of the 18th and 19th century, is what is at the heart of Serres’ work: “the importance of an event for him is not related to the noise it makes, but to the length of the historical period that it ends” (Legros, Ortoli 2014: 10). With the current social and climate crisis, who would deny that our generation is facing one of the greatest challenges in the history of humanity? The new climate regime not only concerns our material survival as a species, but also our symbolic survival, our modes of existence.2 Concerning the Storm that is blowing over the Ruins of the Modern Constitution I have started this essay with a painting representing what Breughel the Elder saw as paradise on Earth, but the real object should be war. From the first pages of The Natural Contract, Serres warns us that “war and violence” is what is waiting for humans if there is not a significant change in our relationship with the world.3 Far from Breughel’s enchanted vision, Serres refers here to a gloomy representation that is about to come: “The global change now underway not only brings history to the world but also makes the power of the world precarious, infinitely fragile. Once victorious, the Earth is now a victim. What painter will depict the deserts vitrified by our war games? What visionary poet will lament vile, bloody-fingered dawn? But people are dying of hunger in the deserts just as they are suffocating in the slimy quicksand or drowning in the rising rivers. Conquered, the world is finally conquering us. Its weakness forces strength to exhaust itself and thus our own strength to become gentler” (1995: 11-12) But war against whom, or rather against what? Well, Serres first reminds us that war has always been an important part of the foundation of modern human societies: there should be an emphasis on the qualifying adjective modern because we are not dealing with the pre-moderns, for whom human (society) was still only a small part of absolute φύσις;4 here, the question of war and society falls on those, from Hobbes to Rousseau and beyond, who consider that “[t]he social contract that gave birth to us is perhaps born with war, which presupposes a prior agreement that merges with the social contract” (1995: 13). The acceptance of the premise that war can be channeled but cannot be totally avoided. It can only be restricted and framed with some rules through a contract. Serres however argues that today we are facing something utterly new in the battle situation, which is not restricted to humans anymore, but has to accept the presence of a third belligerent. From now on, nature acts as a rebellious agent which holds humanity countable for its destructive behaviour: “We so-called developed nations are no longer fighting among ourselves; together we are all turning against the world. Literally a world war, and doubly so, since the whole world, meaning all men, imposes losses on the world, meaning things. We shall thus seek to conclude a peace treaty” (1995: 32) A peace treaty, really? I can imagine the reader smiling at this proposition, and thinking to herself: “wait a minute, are we talking about trees, tornados, rivers, grasshoppers and bacteria taking a pen and signing an official document?” No, of course not. This treaty is a symbolic gesture, a recognition that we humans are not the only important beings in the world. Just as Rousseau’s social contract opened a transcendental condition to the co-existence of different categories of humans, Serres seems to extend this right to exist to potential non-human social actants, and while thinking of it, he reminds his
1 If there was still any doubt, the reader should by now realise that Breughel’s representation is far from any biblical image of Noah’s Arch. 2 Modes is written in plural to make clear that humans have through history offered different world visions, but again, the term is in itself ambiguous, since it is comes with a deep connotation that refers to a long European philosophical tradition that goes from Spinoza to Deleuze, Souriau and Latour. See Delchambre, Marquis 2013; Le Bot 2014. 3 Serres is certainly one of the first philosophers that has put forward idea that the situation we are facing in the near future is a state of general war. He has been followed by other thinkers such as James Lovelock and Bruno Latour. See Lovelock 2006 and Latour 2017. 4 There is no space in this essay to explain further the pre-modern world vision, but the reader can find a beautiful image of this perceptive in what Serres calls “peasant philosophy”: “Immersed in being-in-the-world, indissolubly bound with-one-another, their ploughing tools at hand, their feet plunged unto death into the immemorial soil, below the horizon, they-are-there, piously hearkening to the language of being and time, when the angel passes, the hourly bearer of the word. There's nothing more or less in our peasant or forest philosophies than in nostalgic and conventional paintings. A frail bent reed, man thinks, knowing that he will die of this universe that, for its part, does not know that it is slaying him; he is more noble, therefore, more dignified than his conqueror because he understands this” (1995: 17). 53 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 most skeptical readers, whenever he has the opportunity, that no one has never materially signed Rousseau’s contract (see 2008: 5, 2014a: 236). The natural contract Serres is calling for has to be understood as metaphysical agreement to control our “mastery” over other things and beings, “[b]ecause, unregulated, exceeding its purpose, counterproductive, pure mastery is turning back on itself”; but also as a recognition of their right to exist: “[o]nce again, we must rule in the case of the losers, by drafting the rights of beings who have none.” (ibid: 34,35). The natural contract is about finding a balance between humans (and their activities) and natural entities, which we are used to call objects, that are already more and more acting like powerful social agents: “Objects themselves are legal subjects and no longer mere material for appropriation, even collective appropriation. Law tries to limit abusive parasitism among men but does not speak of this same action on things. If objects themselves become legal subjects, then all scales will tend toward an equilibrium” (ibid: 37). An equilibrium that comes to compensate the excess of our selfish – Serres uses the term “parasitic” – hegemonic behaviour and culture for the almost four hundred years.1 When I say, I should certainly be more specific by saying: we, Europeans! – or rather, we, Moderns! Without getting into an exhaustive historical study, it would be difficult to argue that Western nations – with their share of colonial and industrial domination and cultural hegemony – have a bigger material and moral responsibility in the current state of affairs than for instance the Guaraní people. The contract is about recreating a tacit bond between the object and the subject, the natural and the cultural, the world and the city; a bond that has been severely damaged by what social anthropologist Philippe Descola call “the Great Divide” in the 17th century: “What now came into existence was a notion of Nature as an autonomous ontological domain, a field of inquiry and scientific experimentation, an object to be exploited and improved; and very few thought to question this. (…) [And] the notion of culture, by which it defines the proper field of its inquiries and by which it concisely expresses all that which, in humans and their achievements, is distinct from nature and imposes meaning upon it” (2013: 69, 72) The origins of this division goes as far as the emergence of Western thought, in the times of Zeno d’Elea, Anaxagoras and Socrates,2 but has taken a decisive turn with the increasing influence of thinkers such as Hobbes and Galileo – to mention only the best known examples – which coincides with the trial of the latter and the debate that is still going on between scientists and social theorists: “The contemporary debate that opposes, sometimes violently, these two authorities – science and law, rational reason and prudent judgment – has deeply moved our flesh and our word since the beginning of our history. The history of our knowledge follows the temporal trajectory set in motion by this trial, still vigorous today, an originary source and a perpetual motor” (Serres 1995: 61) In Galileo’s time the law was represented by the Church, but once it will be liberated from the religious doxa – thanks to the noteworthy influence of the Enlightenment thinkers – it will be fully endorsed by the moral guarantors of the modern society: jurists, politics and philosophers.3 Now, as Serres points out, if there is a certain practical logic for the two first categories to hold a moral position within the paradigm of modern societies, the acting of philosophers as moralists is not as obvious as it looks:
1 On the concept of the “parasite,” see Serres eponymous book, The Parasite (1982). See also Burton, Tam 2015. 2 On the Greek origins of the division between nature and culture, Bruno Latour offers an extensive argument about the allegory of the Cave in Politics of Nature, see 2004: 10-49. 3 As a philosopher of science, Serres writes extensively about the crucial role of Galileo’s trial in the division between scientists and philosophers but does not dwell on Hobbes and the evolution of modern political philosophy. However, one can find an extensive and original study of the role Hobbes played in the division between science and (political) philosophy in Bruno Latour’s work, especially We Have Never Been Modern (1993). It is worth noting that Serres is not a systemic thinker and does not have any followers, but one can consider Bruno Latour as one of the few “compagnons de route” that have been influenced by Serres, offering exegesis of his work, trying genuinely to think with him. I have mentioned the relationship between Latour and Serres’ respective theories in a previous paper, see Bakhtiar 2018. 54 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
“How few philosophers, indeed, in the last half-century, haven't seized and enjoyed the role of state's attorney, prosecutor, accuser; they've denounced abuses, crimes, errors, hypocrisies, as if they were journalists: this is their rightful place. No, our philosophy shouldn't be called that of suspicion, but that of denunciation. But by what right does it give itself this job?” (ibid.: 69). This new role, this modern role for the thinker is the result of a tacit agreement between scientists and (political) theorists. This argument, called the “modern Constitution” by Bruno Latour, implies that: “the representation of nonhumans belongs to science, but science is not allowed to appeal to politics; the representation of citizens belongs to politics, but politics is not allowed to have any relation to the nonhumans produced and mobilized by science and technology” (1993: 28). However, this does not mean that there would not be any intrusion: as I have said, a contract implies a confrontation of viewpoints, a situation of ideological war between two powerful corpuses of knowledge, looking at each other scornfully from their respective “artificial” general headquarters: “Freed from religious bondage, the [modern scientists] could criticize the obscurantism of the old powers by revealing the material causality that those powers dissimulated - even as they invented those very phenomena in the artificial enclosure of the laboratory. (…) But the modern critique did not simply turn to Nature in order to destroy human prejudices. It soon began to move in the other direction, turning to the newly founded social sciences in order to destroy the excesses of naturalization. This was the second Enlightenment, that of the nineteenth century (ibid.: 35). The confrontation between two camps: on the one side, the religious and secular texts for the philosophers, and other other, the scientists’ private and autonomous property: the laboratories, those “places outside law, without politics or kings” (Serres 1995: 67). In a nutshell, it is this modern division – acknowledged by scientists and philosophers – that Serres’ natural contract is trying to fix. Both factions have lived in relatively good terms, putting aside a few skirmishes, for three hundred years, but the events – from Hiroshima to the ecological crisis – of the last seventy years have made a huge impression on the minds, and the bodies. Science has lost its innocence;1 and the direct consequence is that philosophers have assumed with even more fervour their self-assigned role of moralists with an esprit de sérieux that was incarnated to perfection by the constant folding and unfolding that compose contemporary Western thought, from the defenders of the modern grand narratives to their critical heirs: the so-called post-moderns of the next generation.2 About these two sides of the same coin – call it “critique” or “philosophies of suspicion” – Serres says that they are engaged into a strange game of playing policemen and robbers: “As a result, philosophy becomes like a police state; in fact, every police force requires another police force to police it. When a policing body is looking over a person's shoulder, assessing his heart and innermost workings, are we to suppose that this policing body has neither a shoulder of its own, nor heart, nor innermost workings? This launches us into a ‘detective’ logic. And the best detective is the one who is never interrogated, who places himself in a position beyond suspicion” (Serres, Latour 1995: 133) The aim then is to be beyond suspicion, as detectives that look for the best trench-coat to disguise themselves, the critique philosopher proceeds with their faces masked by putting (constructing) or taking off (deconstructing) layers of texts in a game of light and shadow that eventually tends to forget, as Latour points out, a fundamental truth, even more today than yesterday: “necessity decamps from the objective world and moves toward people” (ibid: 176). This is what makes Breughel’s Paradise look like hell on earth. “L’enfer, c’est les autres,” writes Sartre,3a catchphrases that represents magnificent example of the “philosophy of suspicion” that shines by its quality to become a police of the
1 Serres repeated in different occasions that it is the use of the atomic bomb on civilians – and the implication of world class scientists in its making – that pushed him to leave the study of sciences for humanities: “Since the atomic bomb, it had become urgent to rethink scientific optimism. l ask my readers to hear the explosion of this problem in every page of my books. Hiroshima remains the sole object of my philosophy” (Serres, Latour 1995: 15). see also Serres 2014a: 36. 2 Latour describes Serres’ philosophy as fundamentally “acritical”: “[his] ignorance introduces us to what I see as one of the first important feature of Michel Serres' philosophy. He is not part of the 'Critique' philosophical movement. He does not see philosophy as the discipline in charge of founding knowledge, debunking beliefs, adjucating territories, ruling opinions. (…) The Critique work is that of a reduction of the world into two packs, a little one that is sure and certain, the immense rest which is simply believed and in dire need of being criticized, founded, re-educated, straightened up (…) Do we really need a Critique to survive? Is the Critique the only vocation of philosophy? His answer is no. There exist many other ways, many less sterile vocations for philosophers” (1988: 85). 3 “Hell is other people.” 55 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
“others” the common people’s behaviour and thought, which are never good enough for the philosopher erected as a model of virtue: “Sartre demanded conformity to the political so as to seem a philosopher. In the age of my fathers and their successors, the sages had taken (and still hold) the place of public prosecutor, demanding condemnation in the name of the city's dominant forces” (Serres 1995: 67). What a selfish an anti-democratic act. Unlike the politicians and the judges, no one gave them the right to act as moralists of the city.1 The (post-)modern philosophers have taken the Cartesian injunction to “become masters and possessors of nature” too seriously: “Mastery and possession: these are the master words launched by Descartes at the dawn of the scientific and technological age, when our Western reason went off to conquer the universe. We dominate and appropriate it: such is the shared philosophy underlying industrial enterprise as well as so-called disinterested science, which are indistinguishable in this respect. Cartesian mastery brings science's objective violence into line, making it a well-controlled strategy. Our fundamental relationship with objects comes down to war and property” (Serres 1995: 32). It might be time to rethink this role for the modern thinker, given the paradoxical and disastrous relation humans have with nature: despite what the moderns have thought since Descartes, we are far from understanding and mastering the full effect of our actions on nature, and its response. By keeping doing critique over critique and by keeping believing the promethean myth of mastery over non-human things and beings, modern philosophy has end up being just another patronizing voice – perhaps, a more sophisticated one – among the tintamarre (hullabaloo) of commercials, blogs and social media that makes us hear the voices of all, everywhere and all the time (Serres 2012b: 58). Perhaps, it is time to stop the moralising rhetoric for a moment, and to listen to the sound and fury of the world is in response to the noise we are making. According to Serres, if we could understand them, if we could rationalise those noises into words, we could hear a huge cry for help from beings on the verge of a war – here is maybe when the term “World War” takes on its full meaning – between humans and nature. Appropriation through Filth and Noise In The Natural Contrat, Serres advocates for the necessity for humans of an agreement with nature in order to avoid the eventual consequence of a war with it: the risk of being totally excluded from it. The countless tornadoes, forest fires and floods of the last three decades have proven that nature can strike back hard and take possession of the territories humans foolishly thought they were possessors of through what Serres calls in Le mal propre,2 “hard” and “soft” pollution, or said different: dirt and noise. In this manner, he argues that the question of ecology is closely linked with the question of property; and that humans are not very different from animals; appropriation is not a conventional right, but a natural one: all beings mark their territory, from humans to tigers, and even the smallest unicellular organisms (see Serres 2012a: 21; Serres 2014a: 250). Talking about “hard” pollution, I can already hear the attentive reader arguing that this is a very simplistic understanding of the behaviour of animals and humans. Indeed, one could bring into the debate the question of the different methods, usually more sophisticated, that humans use in their way of appropriation. But as a philosopher, Serres makes it quite clear that he is not interested in the manner, but the reason of this material pollution: “[the questions about the environment], thanks to ‘hard’ sciences, as they call it, in addition of economics, they are concerned about the question how. I ask: why? Do these disasters actually happen naturally, without no one’s intention? We question our responsibility only regarding to the physical quantities. Question: what do we want, upstream [en amont], when we get the world dirty?” (Serres 2012a: 57). Most living beings do it because they do not have the choice: taking possession of a territory – land, flesh or any other kind of surface – because it is a matter of survival for them. But the reasons of the humans – and therefore, their responsibility – are much more complex and numerous. Here is where the second type of pollution – the “soft” one – steps in. Serres highlights that animals mark also symbolically their territory, mainly through sounds and noise: they bark, they roar, they
1 In Politics of Nature, Bruno Latour names this self-qualified moral expertise an “epistemological police,” see Latour 2004: 17. 2 There is now an English translation of this book: Malfeasance: Appropriation Through Pollution (2010), but all the quotes in this article are taken from the French version and are translated by myself. 56 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 spread ultra-sounds…but, for humans, modernity was built on symbolic and technological inventions. From the archetypical and most powerful sign – money – that have been polluting people’s mind since it’s invention sometime in the 5th c. B.C. to evolution and proliferation, to the “neutral” laboratories of the Galileos of the last three hundred centuries, we have been surrounded by what Serres calls “world-objects”: “Let’s give the name world-object to artifacts that have at least one global-scale dimension (such as time, space, speed, or energy): among the world-objects we know how to build, we distinguish the military ones from other purely economic or technical ones, although they produce similar results, in circumstances as rare and frequent as wars and accidents” (1995: 16-17). These world-objects are powerful technologies – the Internet, the Atomic fusion, satellites…– that have made homo sapiens the most dominant being globally: “globalized, the current pollution is the result of the struggle to possess space in its totality” (Serres 2012a: 94). Non-human beings have a physiological need of local appropriation; humans, they went global and even beyond. The modern delusion of grandeur has pushed us so far into the myth of progress and domination promoted by the grand narratives of the last two centuries that we have forgotten the true the contingent and material condition of our existence: we do not master nature, nature masters us since we need air to breath, water and earth to feed ourselves. We, moderns, have forgotten about this truth since the modern division between “nature” and “culture,” presenting humans as the central and superior being, superior to all other natural beings thanks its consciousness, its intellect, its culture: “By separating nature and cultures, have we made an error in judgment that lead to a lethal crime against ourselves and the living and non-living world? Indeed, we lonely know to deal with pollution in physical, quantitative terms; in other words, through hard sciences. Well, it is mainly about our intentions, our decisions, our conventions. In short, it is about our cultures” (ibid.: 85-86). We are now paying the consequence of this misjudgment. From Descartes to Sartre, and beyond, modern philosophers with their self-assigned role as moral keeper, have been too busy with the critique of everyone in the πόλις, and have forgotten about the world. This intellectual irresponsibility results in the apocalyptic vision represented in Breughel’s painting, which might soon become a reality. High in the ivory towers, living on a global scale, many moderns – especially Europeans – have forgotten the disastrous condition of the rest of the people: those who have to face the tornados, the floods, the wars…these are the direct consequences of the misjudgment the moderns, divided into “neutral” scientists and “moral” philosophers, between objective and subjective sciences, each of them camping in their own field – scientists with nature, philosophers with the social – without any hope for a dialogue. The result of this laissez-faire type of management is that, each side blames the other, while a natura furiosa strikes back harder everyday: “[O]bjectivity in the legal sense, as in the scientific sense, emanated from a space without man, which did not depend on us and on which we depended de jure and de facto. Yet henceforth it depends so much on us that it is shaking and that we too are worried by this deviation from expected equilibria. We are disturbing the Earth and making it quake! Now it has a subject once again. (…) Science won all the rights three centuries ago now, by appealing to the Earth, which responded by moving. So the prophet became king. In our turn, we are appealing to an absent authority, when we cry, like Galileo, but before the court of his successors, former prophets turned kings: ‘the Earth is moved.’ The immemorial, fixed Earth, which provided the conditions and foundations of our lives, is moving, the fundamental Earth is trembling” (Serres 1993: 86). Modern philosophers have left the study of nature to “apolitical” scientists,1 and now they are desperate by the material pollution, and even more desperate by the symbolic one: especially the populist leaders who respond to the crisis in a very “malfeasant” way, to use the Serrian terminology.
1 This misunderstanding between scientists and philosophers has led to what has been called the “Science Wars.” This was a series of exchanges that took place in the 1990s (mainly in the US) between postmodern thinkers and scientists: on the one side, the first are saying that science is a “theory” like any other narrative, it is a social construct (see Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions,1962). On the other side, the scientists argue that postmodernists have rejected scientific objectivity, and therefore are not only incomprehensible, but also anti-intellectual and dangerous for academia (and society) (see Levitt and Gross’s Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science,1994). The conflict peaked with the famous “Sokal affair.” Several thinkers, especially 57 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Towards a “Down to Earth” Politics I am always amazed by academics that are surprised to see the rise of radical politics in times of crisis. The historical events of the 20th century have shown us that the combination of technology, deregulated capitalism and passive governments brings emancipation only to a small few, and despair for the rest. People, pushed to the extreme, respond with violence to the symbolic and material oppressions they suffer; in regimes based on representative democracy, they support for the option that incarnated their anger and frustration. But the moderns keep criticising, moralizing, mocking the populist leaders like Trump, and by extension, the people who voted for them. Some intellectuals, in a desperate nostalgic effort, want to cancel the Brexit or find a way to impeach the current president of the United States. One could not only highlight the anti-democratic nature of such demands – who are they to say to millions of citizens that their vote does not count? Besides, this kind of behaviour does not solve the crisis; on the contrary, it is at the origin of the disastrous socio-climatic situation we are in. Most of journalists, intellectuals and social theorists are now obsessed by figures like Trump and Boris Johnson, as if getting rid of them would solve all the problems; but this is just reproducing a “philosophy of suspicion” that focus on mocking, attacking or fearing those individuals. However, the time they spend on these individuals, they do show in the background, like in Breughel’s painting, the misery and the menacing clouds that are about to send a deluge over our heads. Therefore, the first step is to understand, to do a genealogical investigation of the cause of the crisis. as Arendt’s writes in the prologue to The Human Condition: “The purpose of the historical analysis (…) is to trace back modern world alienation, its twofold flight from the earth into the universe and from the world into the self, to its origins, in order to arrive at an understanding of the nature of society as it had developed and presented itself at the very moment when it was overcome by the advent of a new and yet unknown age” ( 1998: 6). But what is new to the current crisis? One cannot help noting that ecological movements and political parties have been present for the last forty year. How come that they have been inaudible for such a long time? Serres gives part of the answer by saying that there has been a conceptual misunderstanding with the notion of environment which has been – and still is – used by ecologists. He states that this concept is convey still an anthropocentric perspective: “[F]orget the word environment, commonly used in this context. It assumes that we humans are at the center of a system of nature. This idea recalls a bygone era, when the Earth (how can one imagine that it used to represent us?), placed in the center of the world, reflected our narcissism, the humanism that makes of us the exact midpoint or excellent culmination of all things. No. The Earth existed without our unimaginable ancestors, could well exist today without us, will exist tomorrow or later still, without any of our possible descendants, whereas we cannot exist without it. Thus we must indeed place things in the center and us at the periphery, or better still, things all around and us within them like parasites.” (1995: 33). Indeed, nature is at the centre, and humans at the periphery. As mentioned earlier, this is the material condition of our existence: we need more nature, than it needs us. However, this truth has been hidden or forgotten by philosophers since Descartes and the great divide of the moderns. Said differently, the concept of “environment” is like the tail of a comet, one of the last traces of a humanistic rhetoric for emancipation that is losing its political credibility a bit more every day. Serres is also skeptical about the “Gaïa hypothesis” – the new conceptual weapon of ecological movement. He acknowledges the effort to bring some symmetry between humans and natural entities by giving a subjectivity, or rather an agency, to nature.1 However, again, it is based on an anthropomorphic reference, but this time, a positive figure: the goddess Gaïa (2014a: 248). Serres ambition, with his “natural contract” and “malfeasance,” is to present non-idealised concepts that refer to nature. As Latour points out, Serre’s philosophy is not about the substitution of the object for the subject, of the non-human for the
Isabelle Stengers, tried to bring the two sides to peace, by highlighting that the point is not to argue that scientific objects are “socially constructed” rather than “objectively true,” but precisely to get away from this binarism. See Stengers 1997, 2000. 1 Also known as the Gaïa theory, this principle was mainly developed by James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis. It defends the conception of the earth as a self-regulating system, which in times of major crisis, finds its way to equilibrium. See Lovelock, Margulis 1974. 58 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 human, of nature for culture – or vice versa; “[i]nstead of choosing camps and reinforcing one side of the divide, of the crisis, of the critique-all these words are one and the same – Serres sits on the fence” (Latour 1988: 93). Thinking from the Serrian “fence” offers a symmetrical perspective of beings and things; which does not mean that humans, animals and artifacts are identical, but rather that they are capable, depending the circumstances, of acting in a similar way. As Serres argues, humans and animals use the same strategies in their appropriation of territories. His philosophy is not a philosophy of being, but rather of capacity, of possibility.1 Looking back at Breughel’s painting, the question is then what are the possibilities today? What are the alternatives to the crisis? According to Serres, the exclusive political ecology route – in its political party format – seems to be barren: the day political militants enter a political party, they become part of a complex political system; as Europeans, we all know how difficult it is to change from inside the mechanics of our institution, well-oiled by the free market. As Latour writes in Politics of Nature, where he differentiates practices of ecology and Naturpolitik or political ecology, “[the latter] claims to be increasing in power and to embody the political power of the future, but it is reduced everywhere to a tiny portion of electoral strap-hangers. Even in countries where it is a little more powerful, it contributes only a supporting force” (21). Consequently, the European institutions have been dealing with the latest major social challenges – in chronological order, the Subprime crisis, the Greek government-debt crisis, and the European migrant crisis – it is more than clear that the effort for viable alternatives will not come from Politics, in the institutional definition of the term. European liberal democrats look at leaders like Trump very scornfully, mocking and moralising them, making clear that liberalism is different from populism, when they actually play in the same elitist playground, leaving the rest of us dealing with the garbage they throw over the fence. As Bruno Latour points out in his last opus, Down to Earth: “From the I98os on, the ruling classes stopped purporting to lead and began instead to shelter themselves from the world. We are experiencing all the consequences of this flight, of which Donald Trump is merely a symbol, one among others. The absence of a common world we can share is driving us crazy” (2018: 1-2) Of course, there are significant difference in theory and practice between liberal and ultra-conservative regime, but what Latour – and before him Serres – want to make clear is that with the truth that both liberals and conservatives deny, the material condition of our existence is changing: “the very notion of soil is changing. The soil of globalization’s dreams is beginning to slip away” (ibid.: 4). First for the poorest of us, who have a first-hand experience of hell on earth, force to move from their home and country in search for territory just to survive; for the educated middle-class – no to call it the bourgeois – who more or less know that it is next, and finally the elite, who live in their relative safe – often protected by guards, fences and barbed wire – “paradise on earth.” I say relatively safe, because it is just a matter of time, for their paradise to become hell too. Serres expresses this “intellectual amnesia” in beautiful way when he writes: “we [modern thinkers] we keep forgetting about meteors; we’re always attributing human causality to thousands of events that are actually determined by climate. (…) Meteors vanish in political philosophies” (1995: 73). Reading this sentence reminds us that it is the occultation, the negation of this fact, of this material truth that we should call “post-truth” or “alternative reality” contra the classic use of this notion by liberal intellectuals and media to discredit what they call the masses and their political choice: “When journalists talk about “post-truth” politics, they do so very lightly. They do not stress the reason why some have decided to keep on engaging in politics while voluntarily abandoning the link to the truth that (rightly!) terrified them. Nor do they stress the reason why ordinary people have decided – and rightly so, in their case too - not to believe in anything any longer” (ibid.: 24). Consequently, this notion should be used to qualify those who have decided deliberately to turn a blind eye on what is so obvious since four hundred years: even Brueghel knew the foolishness of the idea that mankind can master nature! Mundus res nullius!2
1 Serres is mainly know in the fields of STS (Science and Technology Studies) and social anthropology for the creation of the concept of “quasi-objets”: “a quasi-object, which traces or makes visible the relations that constitute the group through which it passes, like the token in a children's game. A quasi object that nonetheless remains a useful technical object, even a high-tech one, directed toward the physical world. It often happens that the most sophisticated tools play their main role socially but without losing their objective purpose” (Serres, Latour 1995: 161). See also Serres 1982: 227-228. 2 “The world is nobody’s thing”; in the sense, that it is no one’s property. 59 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Therefore, if the sole political (ecology) route is not enough, what should be done? Well, as mentioned previously the “natural contract” implies different clauses, or layer, if you prefer: one of them is to get political thinkers and scientists to get on the same table and think together. In conclusion, the alternative is not to be found in institutional politics, but in activities that built up a common world, considering the implication of our actions for the common good. I want to add my voice to the call for the assemblage of such activities, which are political by essence, that we can label “down to earth” politics – in reference to Latour’s book. These actions imply making bonds, recreating connections and “contract” with other entities. On my small level, as an academic, I believe that one way to “land”, is to be more interested in what other researchers, both in humanities and sciences, are doing and promote interdisciplinary projects. Therefore, thinking with Serres and Latour, I want to conclude this article by saying as a new injunction for us, theorists and philosophers: “when meteors vanish in political philosophies, it is about time to bring those philosophies down to heart.” References [1] Arendt, H. (1998) The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. [2] Bakhtiar, S. (2018). Concerning the Apparition of a Mobile Phone in a 17th Century Painting and its Issuefication. In European Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(3), 124-131. [3] Benjamin, W. (1969). Theses on the Philosophy of History. In Illuminations. H. Zohn (transl.). New York: Schoken Books, 253-264. [4] Burton, J., Tam, D. (2015). Towards a Parasitic Ethics. In Theory, Culture & Society, 33 (4), 103-125. [5] Delchambre J.P., Marquis, N. (2013) Les modes d'existence expliqués aux modernes, ou le monde pluriel selon Bruno Latour. In SociologieS [on line] http://journals.openedition.org/sociologies/4478 [6] Descola, P. (2013). Beyond Nature and Culture. J. Lloyd (transl.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. [7] Latour, B. (1988). The Enlightenment Without the Critique: An Introduction to Michel Serres's Philosophy. In Contemporary French Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 83-98. [8] Latour, B. (1993). We Have Never Been Modern. C. Porter (transl.), Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press [9] Latour, B. (2004). Politics of Nature. How to Bring the Sciences into Democracy. C. Porter (transl.). Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press [10] Latour, B. (2017). Facing Gaia. Eight Lectures on the New Climatic Regime. C. Porter (transl.). Cambridge: Polity [11] Latour, B. (2018). Down to Earth: Politics in the New Climatic Regime. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. [12] Le Bot, J.M. Construction sociale et modes d'existence. Une lecture de Bruno Latour. In Revue du Mauss, 43, 357-373. [13] Legros, M., Ortoli, S. (2014). Ouverture. In Pantopie : de hermès à petite poucette. M. Legros (interviewer). Paris : Le Pommier, 7-18. [14] Lovelock, J. (2006). The Revenge of Gaia: Earth’s Climate in Crisis and the Fate [15] of Humanity. New York: Basic Books. [16] Lovelock, J. E., Margulis, L. (1974), Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis. In Tellus, 26, 2-10 [17] Serres, M. (1982). The Parasite. L. R. Schehr (transl.). Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. [18] Serres, M. (1995). The Natural Contract. E. MacArthur and W. Paulson (transl.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. [19] Serres, M. (2008). Le droit peut sauver la nature. In Pouvoirs, 127, 5-12. [20] Serres, M. (2012a). Le mal propre. Paris : Le Pommier. [21] Serres, M. (2012b). Petite poucette. Paris : Le Pommier. [22] Serres, M. (2014a). Pantopie : de hermès à petite poucette. M. Legros (interviewer). Paris : Le Pommier. [23] Serres, M. (2014b). Yeux. Paris : Le Pommier. [24] Serres, M., Latour, B. (1995). Conversations on Science, Culture, and Time. R. Lapidus (transl.), Michigan: The University of Michigan.
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[25] Stengers, I. (1997). Power and Invention: Situating Science. P. Bains (transl.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. [26] Stengers, I. (2000). The Invention of Modern Science. D. W. Smith (transl.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Appendix
Jan Breughel the Elder, The Earthly Paradise, 1621, The Louvre Museum.
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Re-Questioning Green Architecture in Egypt: A Need, a Movement or a Style?
Karim Kesseiba Faculty of Engineering, Architecture Department, Cairo University
Abstract Green architecture is considered the contemporary architectural paradigm. Amid threats of the lack of non- renewable energy, the calls for environmental sustainability and sustainable development, being ‘green’ is becoming an aspiration as well as a threat for many architects. Architects to a wide extent are required to adopt one sort of being ‘green’ in their contemporary additions to the built environment. However, very limited differentiations are subjected to the difference between ‘sustainable architecture’, ‘environmentally-friendly architecture’, and ‘green architecture’. This is one side of the debate; however, the most important side is, whether this new trend in contemporary Egyptian architecture is a need, a movement, or merely a style. The other important query is whether ‘sustainable architecture’ is becoming a commodity to fulfill international claims regardless of how it is implemented. In order to answer those questions, the paper first presents the differences between notions of ‘green architecture’, ‘sustainable architecture’ and ‘environmentally-friendly architecture’ and based on literature review as well as observations from international precedents. Afterwards, those three notions are explored and analyzed in the Egyptian context to understand where precisely the claimed sustainable or environmentally friendly buildings in Egypt stand in relation to the outcomes of the literature review. Finally, the need for following those notions in Egypt are re-questioned, in order to explore whether the claims for sustainability are becoming a commodity, especially in the shadows of the misuse of previously discussed slogans. Keywords: Commodity in architecture, Green architecture, Sustainable architecture in Egypt.
1. Introduction The paper aims to explore the state of contemporary architecture in Egypt based on a group of common concepts and ideologies related to environmental architecture. In order to do so, the paper follows a methodology primarily based on literature review of the concepts of “green architecture”, “sustainable architecture” and “environmentally-friendly architecture”. Following that two cases of the local attempts are analyzed based on the main concepts and strategies of each case. A final discussion is then presented to re-question the state of the selected cases in the analysis according to the definitions explored previously. This helps is drawing a better conclusion for the paper to pinpoint the needed achievements related to the built environment in Egypt. Literature Review: Definitions Related to Study This part explores the terms “green architecture”, “sustainable architecture” and “environmentally-friendly architecture”. The aim of this part of the literature review to understand the broad concepts related to environmentalism as a dominant architectural concept. Thus, this will aid in evaluating the Egyptian experience in this field, based on points of analysis to be summarized at the end of the definitions debate 2.1. Green Architecture As Raof (2011) presents, the shift towards green design was initiated strongly in the 1970s and was a “pragmatic response to higher oil prices”. It was then that the first of the oil shocks, in 1973, increased fossil fuel prices to an unprecedented extent, and the ‘futurologists’ began to look at the remaining resources to estimate the future of energy consumption on Earth, (p. 1). Accordingly, this point of initiation of the 1970s resulted in the rise of what was called the solar house movement; homes built to use clean renewable energy from the sun, (p. 5).
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As a matter of fact, many scholars explored how in Architecture there are many ways a building may be "green" and respond to the growing environmental problems of the planet. From those are Ghani (2001), who presented the five basic areas of an environmentally oriented design. Those scopes are “Healthy Interior Environment”, “Energy Efficiency”, “Ecological Building Materials”, “Building Form” and” Good Design”. Those five scopes are further explained as follows by Ghani (2001); “Healthy Interior Environment” is related to how well insure the building materials and systems used do not emit toxic unhealthy gases and substances in the built spaces. Further extra cars and measures are to be taken to provide maximum levels of fresh air and adequate ventilation to the interior environment. As to “Energy Efficiency”, it is related to ensuring that the building's use of energy is minimized. This includes various HVAC systems and methods of construction as well, which are to be designed to minimize energy consumption. The “Ecological Building Materials” aims to provide the use of building materials from renewable sources and having relatively safe sources of production. As to the “Building Form”, this is essential to respond to the site, region, climate and the materials available thereby generating a harmony between the inhabitants and the surroundings. Finally, “Good Design” aims to provide both “Structure and Material” and “Aesthetics” are the basic attributes of defining design. They should be so integrated that the final outcome is a well built, convenient and a beautiful living space, Ghani (2001, pp. 21- 22). 2.2. Sustainable Architecture One of the most debatable concepts which emerged lately, especially with relevance to architecture is the terminology of “sustainability” and “sustainable architecture”. Thus, the vagueness of the word “sustainable” makes the term “sustainable architecture” equally vague and ambiguous. There are different dimensions of sustainability; economic, political, social, or environmental, while we have to take into consideration that what is “sustainable” for one group is not necessarily sustainable for another as Hagan (2001, p. 3) exposes. The literal interpretation of the words "sustainable environment" as Milosevic (2004) presents is the creation of an environment for human occupation, performance and the support of life to which sustenance or nourishment is continuously given, (p. 91). This includes the more wide dimension of sustainability as "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs", (p. 92). This more well-known definition is associated with modifying patterns of development and consumption to reduce demand on natural resource supplies and help preserve environmental quality. Achieving greater sustainability in the field of construction is particularly important, because building construction consumes more energy and resources than any other economic activity. Not only does a home represent the largest financial investment a family is likely to make, but it also represents the most resource- and energy-intensive possession most people will ever own. Making homes more sustainable, then, has a tremendous potential to contribute to the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Thus as Ghani (2001) explains, specifically sustainable housing design is a multifaceted concept, embracing major concepts such as : “Affordability”, “Marketability”, “Appropriate design”, “Resource efficiency”, “Energy efficiency”, “Durability”, “Comfort” and “Health”, (pp. 23-24). Guy and Farmer also classified sustainable architecture under six different categories based on the main logic and methods as: eco-technic, eco-centric, eco-aesthetic, eco-cultural, eco-medical and eco-social. One or more logic can be found in a sustainable architecture according to the main environmental problem. Definition of “sustainable” for an architecture changes depends on the logic. “Eco-technic” logic defines sustainable architecture as energy-sufficient architecture placing importance to the development of technology while in “eco-centric logic” sustainable architecture is considered to be an architecture that is a part of nature through using natural materials and has zero ecological footprint. Sensuous, stylish and creative qualities make the green architecture as sustainable for “eco-aesthetic” logic. On the other side, architecture creating “healing environment” and supporting the healthy lifestyle of the people is considered as sustainable within eco- medical logic. Also, there is an eco-social logic defining the architecture that embodies the spirit of the society, freedom and togetherness as sustainable, (pp. 262-263). 2.3. Environmentally-Friendly Architecture The term “environmentally friendly architecture” is primarily related to energy efficiency and energy economics. Taking into consideration the inter-relation of architecture with both art and science, limiting architecture to environmentally- friendly aspects limits architecture to science, technology and economics. This is related to affecting the architect’s choice to the degree to which energy efficiency and economy of means are a greater priority than any of the others involved in the design
63 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 process as Hagan (2001) exposes. If they are the most important consideration, then the architecture will inevitably reflect its supremacy in configuration, in choice of materials, in techniques and technologies employed (pp. 4-5). As a matter of fact, the environment is more than just the biosphere, into which we should adapt to or totally ignore. It is also the ‘built environment’, a cultural as well as a physical entity. Thus, the most debatable question remains whether architects pursuing sustainability can afford to address only the environmental aspect of the built environment when it is qualitative as well as quantitative? Architects view ‘environmental architecture’, like ‘green architecture’ before it, as part of yet another ‘back to nature’ movement in which we all weave our own clothes and villages. For such skeptics, ‘environmental architecture’ connotes a narrowing of horizons, an abdication of ambition and imagination, and a self- imposed restriction to a palette of twigs and thatch as Hagan (2001) questioned, (p. 11). 2.4. Summarizing the Definitions: The table below, (table 1) summarizes the main definitions explored in the previous part based on different scholars’ reviews, to aid in the classification of the Egyptian Architectural experience related to environmentalism. The table also highlights the main aspects of analysis related to each concept to be used in the analytical part. It is important to review the theoretical debate reflecting on sustainable development, in order to provide a wider scope of understanding of the issue. According to Jabrren (2008), the definitions of sustainable development are vague, and in order to understand the debates stemming from sustainable development, it is important to highlight some concepts. The concepts are related to the concept of ethical paradox, the concept of natural capital stock, the concept of equity, the concept of eco-form, the concept of integrative management, the concept of utopianism and finally the concept of political global agenda. In realtion to this discussion which will be more elaborated in the case studies analysis, Guy and Moore (2007), discuss that pluralism is related to the understanding of pluralism. For them, ‘‘Environmentalism’’ is simply a convenience, a vague label for an amazingly diverse array of ideas that have grown around the contemplation of the relationship between human beings and their surroundings. Stemming from the pardoixal debate regarding sustainability, with special reference to the Egyptian context, El-Husseiny (2011) presented how the sustainability experience in Egypt is bounded between two ends; the first is the “traditionalist” approach, claiming vernacular architecture to be the most sustainable environmentally as well as socially, and the second is the race for a LEED certificate, which became a strong marketing tool for multi-national corporates' headquarters. The environmentally friendly approach will be the main focus of the case studies analysis discussed below, which will help provide a better understanding for the current case of environmentally sustainable attempts. Analysis of The Egyptian Experience in Environment-oriented Architecture This part is concerned with exploring and analyzing the Egyptian architecture experience in the attempts towards implementing agendas related to environmentalism, either through governmental initiatives or through individual architects’ works. The two selected examples are the Green Pyramid Rating System, which was elaborated as building regulations by the government, but still not applied on a wide scale and the other case is the vernacular architecture projects related to Hasan Fathy’s school in architecture. The analysis aims to cover the main concepts and initiatives in each case, followed by a categorization of each attempt according to the previously discussed literature review. The outcomes of the analysis pinpoint the current state of the Egyptian trials to attain environmental architecture either as a way to promote architecture or real trials aiming to provide better environment. 3.1. The Green Pyramid Rating System in Egypt: The Green Pyramid Rating System (GPRS) is a national environmental rating system for buildings. It provides specific criteria by which the environmental credentials of buildings can be evaluated, and the buildings themselves can be rated (The Green Pyramid Rating System, First Edition 2011). It was drafted by the Housing and Building Research Centre (HBRC) in conjunction with the Egyptian Green Building Council (EGBC) in 2010, and the first edition was made available for public review in April 2011. The GPRS provides 4 levels of certification depending on score of the project in the weighted factors; ‘Certified’, ‘Silver Pyramid’, ‘Gold Pyramid’ and ‘green pyramid’. This rating system aims to evaluate the buildings newly added to the Egyptian environment according to a group of aspects. This rating system was supposed to be implemented and widely elaborated as a building code for all new additions to the built environment. However, its application is not yet achieved. The delay in implementation led to the neglecting of those 64 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 regulating aspects especially in the urban development boom Egypt is witnessing nowadays, since there is no regulating law for the creation of more environment- friendly buildings. On another side, this rating system was criticized for not adding any new aspects of achievement other than the already applicable LEED rating system. Thus, firms in Egypt aiming to provide a social responsibility towards the environment prefer to achieve LEED certificates. As a matter of fact, spreading green architecture in Egypt requires reshaping the current legislations and codes. This starts by revising the existing local building laws and regulations. Numerous parts of the Unified Building Law no.119 released in 2008, and its executive appendix released by the Ministerial decree no. 144 in 2009, show negligence of important green concepts. However, many of these concepts were considered in the Green Pyramid Rating System (GPRS) public review edition released by the Egyptian Green Building Council (EGBC) –which was established the same year the Unified Building Law was released- and the Housing and Building Research Centre (HBRC) in April 2011, but with no specific schedule for releasing the final rating system or a timeline for enforcing it. This schism in building legislation policies makes it difficult to determine the right strategy for spreading green architecture in Egypt. (p. 60). However, the drawbacks are that GPRS documentation does not specify any timeline for its enforcement although it described itself as legislation and although it describes the application of its contents as urgent. These negative aspects are mainly because the GPRS was made as a project for a legislation that is still under analysis and public review. However, the seriousness of the issue it addresses should have motivated the law and code makers to refer to it and give incentives for its application. (p. 63) The GPRS has a hierarchy of scores, which are: (strong > 70% - medium > 50% -weak >50%), assigned according to the extent of application of rating criteria, which includes: 1. Site sustainability 2. Energy efficiency 3. Water efficiency (minimization and efficiency of water use) 4. Resources and construction materials 5. Indoor environment quality (ventilation and lighting quality, acoustics control) 6. Innovation, inventiveness and flexibility of management and maintenance 7. Reduction of pollution and recycling of waste. All the above aspects are used in the following equation to calculate the overall percentage of Green Pyramid criteria met: total percentage of criteria met / the number of criteria. (pp. 13-14) In addition to this, The Green Pyramid Rating System is designed for use in new building works. The Rating can be used to assess individual new buildings at either or both of the following stages: at the Design Stage or at Post-Construction Stage. It will be mandatory for applicants wishing for a Green Pyramid assessment at Post-Construction stage to have first undergone a Green Pyramid assessment at Design Stage, (pp. 7-8). The table, (table 2) shows the relative weight of each aspect of the evaluating criteria. To earn Green Pyramid certification a project must satisfy all the stated Mandatory Minimum Requirements and may obtain Credit Points by meeting certain criteria. Projects will be rated, based on Credit Points accumulated, according to the following rating system: • GPRS Certified: 40–49 credits • Silver Pyramid: 50–59 credits • Gold Pyramid: 60–79 credits • Green Pyramid: 80 credits and above Projects with less than 40 credits will be classified as ‘Uncertified’. 3.2. Vernacular Architectural Attempts in Egypt as Environmentalism Experience: This part is concerned with exploring the Egyptian architects’ attempts in implementing vernacular architecture as a means of an environmental approach. The pioneer architect who initiated this movement was Hasan Fathy, through his projects calling for the cultural sustainability, continuity of space characteristics and the use of local materials and proper responses to nature through his projects in Goruna and other vernacular attempts in Egypt. New Gourna Village (fig. 1) is seen as a reinterpretation of a traditional urban and architectural setting by Hassan Fathy who is an early visionary of sustainable architecture. It provides sustainability both in culture through use of local materials
65 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 and techniques and in environment with its extraordinary sensitivity to climatic problems. It is an outstanding example of the integration of vernacular technology with modern architectural principles. Fathy brought back the use of mud brick (adobe) and with special techniques keep building cooler during the day and warmer during the night. Fathy believed that architecture was about bridging the gap between new architectural techniques and older techniques. These older techniques are sustainable and energy efficient, helping the villagers to reduce their reliance on modern technologies, which are not only expensive, but have negative effects on their culture and environment. Based on Hasan Fathy’s approach to architecture, architects like Ramy El-Dahan and Soheir Farid provided a continuation of his attempts to build with adobe, yet devoid of the cultural and social aspects of sustainability advocated by Fathy. Both architects used those techniques in touristic resorts in Gouna, as a sort of providing a new brand for architectural excellence. As a matter of fact, what initiated as “Architecture for the Poor” was transformed into “Architecture for the Rich”, (fig.2). Another important attempt for the re-interpretation of Fathy’s attempts is the work by ECCA, “The Egyptian Earth Construction Association”, a group of Egyptian architect’s whose work was focused in Sinai, to re-adapt the local building techniques and traditions in a contemporary way of building. Their most acknowledged project was a Visitors Center in “Wadi el Gemal”, a natural preservative in Marsa Alam (fig. 3), in which all building materials and techniques were derived from the direct context. The Visitors’ Center serves two main functions, first is orienting visitors and disseminating essential information about the park’s nature and inhabitants (Ababda tribes) through maps, brochures, tours, audio/visual and interpretive presentations of the surrounding features (Wadies, Mountains, Coast, Reefs, Fauna and Flora). The main purpose of the facility is to increase Visitors’ appreciation of, and sensitivity to, the distinctive natural, environmental and cultural resources of the area, and to aid the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency in securing the sustainable use of the bountiful assets of the region. Also, reception and welcoming pit-stop, that is predominantly open, serves basic Visitors’s’ needs such as refreshments, local crafts. In addition, it houses office space, a store room and provides ample uncovered parking at its front entrance. Restrooms are housed in a separate annex . The Visitors’ Center introduced in its composition the same materials used by the nomadic Ababda tribes in erecting their houses, the Bersh, the sole indigenous structure in the region. Living in a predominantly arid climate, the Ababda use local acacia tree branches as structural columns, sheet metal obtained from barrel drums and particle board as roofs and walls, in addition to woven palm tree leave mats to protect their homes from the elements. The building used local igneous Basalt stone quarried by the local Ababda tribes from nearby mountains as the main construction material for foundations, walls and columns. The prevalent architectural element that hovers over the building and conveys its main character while astutely protecting its spaces; is a large corrugated sheet metal roof covering a latticework of wooden trusses supported by thick stone bearing walls and columns. Underneath this roof a second ceiling made of modular palm tree midrib panels and wooden beams shelters the exhibition space. This double roof system, a main architectural concept, allows for the free permeation of air, thus, dissipating the heat of the desert direct sunlight. The thick bearing stone walls while acting as a latent mass for the enclosed exhibit space also shields the outdoor space from the strong prevailing northwest winds creating a comfortable shaded area through which Visitors can move freely. Openings are screened with rough tree branches to filter light. Discussion: Questioning the Commodification of Sustainable Architecture in Egypt At the beginning of the twentieth century, Le Corbusier warned, ‘architecture or revolution’. At the end of the century, we know ‘architecture’ doesn’t have the power to be an equivalent term to ‘reform’. So we can’t say in the current context, ‘architecture or pollution’. The ideas developed in architecture and discussed in this paper as definitions and attempts by local Egyptian architects for the benefit of the built environment won’t ‘save the world’, but they may help save the built environment. In so doing, architectural practice could regain a moral and practical authority it hasn’t had, (Hagan, 2001, p. 15). This is important to reflect upon in our discussion, since what the paper aimed to discuss primarily was whether the Egyptian attempts are serious enough to attain change in the built environment. The first discussed case was the Green Pyramid Rating System, which showed to be very much focused and inter-related with the concepts of “Green Architecture” and “Environmentally-Friendly Architecture”, however, as mere conceptual agendas without any applicable attempts derived. The second experience discussed, related to individual architects’ trials to provide environment sensitive architecture, were mostly ‘sustainable architecture’ attempts, however, on a limited scale, without generalization on the scale of national
66 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 projects. Those attempts also touched upon the issues of material sustainability, without much focus on the other aspects of sustainable architecture. Also, those attempts were at times used as a marketing and branding tool to promote for economic projects. Accordingly, the actual achievement of any of the previously discussed concepts of environmental architecture is still very limited in the Egyptian context, lacking laws and regulations primarily as well as general awareness among architects. Conclusion The paper presented a review of the current state of environmental architecture is Egypt based on the selected definitions explored in the literature review. The outcomes of the paper were to answer the re-questioning of the need of adopting more serious attempts towards environment sensitive architecture. The cases used in the analytical part showed the gap between the governmental attempts and the individual attempts by architects. Thus, the need is not re-categorize or re- define the Egyptian experience, but actually to provide a totalitarian agenda focused on the real needs of the built environment in Egypt. References [1] Ayyad, K. and Gabr M. (2012).Greening Building Codes in Egypt. Sustainable Futures, Architecture and Urbanism in the Global South, pp. 60-69. [2] El-Husseiny, M. (2011). The Commodification of Sustainable Architecture In Egypt. Lonaard Magazine, (7), 2, London. [3] Ghani, F. (2012). Issues in Sustainable Architecture and Possible Solutions. International Journal of Civil & Environmental Engineering, 12: 1, 21-24. [4] Guy, S. and Moore, S. (2007). Sustainable Architecture and the Pluralist Imagination. Journal of Architectural Education, pp. 15–23. [5] Hagan, S. (2001). Taking Shape: A New Contract between Architecture and Nature. Oxford. Architectural Press. [6] Jabreen, Y. (2008). A new conceptual framework for sustainable Development. Environ Dev Sustain (2008) 10:179–192. DOI 10.1007/s10668-006-9058-z. [7] Kultur, S. (2012). Role of Culture In Sustainable Architecture. Archi-Cultural Translations through the Silk Road 2nd International Conference Proceedings. Japan, pp. 262-267. [8] Milosevic, P. (2004). The Concept and Principles of Sustainable Architectural Design for National Parks in Serbia. SPATIUM, pp. 91-105. [9] Raof, S. (2001). Ecohouse: A Design Guide. Oxford. Architectural Press. [10] The Green Pyramid Rating System, (GPRS), Online Report. Tables: Table 1. Main Concepts and Analysis Aspects Extracted from the Literature Review. Green Architecture Sustainable Architecture Environmentally-Friendly Architecture Definition Architecture focusing on the use The creation of an environment for The creation of architecture of renewable energy with lesser human occupation, performance related to energy efficiency dependency on fuel and and the support of life to which and energy economics. petroleum. sustenance or nourishment is continuously given. Points of Analysis Affordability. Energy Efficiency. Marketability. Energy Economics in the Appropriate design. design process. Resource efficiency. Energy efficiency. Durability. Comfort. Health.
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Table 2. Green Pyramid Categories and Weighting. Green Pyramid Category Category Weighting Sustainable Site, Accessibility, 15% Ecology Energy Efficiency 25% Water Efficiency 30% Materials and Resources 10% Indoor Environmental Quality 10% Management 10% Innovation and Added Value Bonus
Figures:
Fig. 1 – New Gourna Village by Hasan Fathy
Fig. 2 – Gouna Resorts by Ramy El-Dahan
Fig. 3 – Wadi El-Gemal Tourists Center
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Strategic Management as Key Influencer on the Development of Textile Industry in the Country of Kosovo
Hana Gashi University of Prishtina, Kosovo Rrezarta Gashi AAB College, Kosovo
Abstract Considering the impact of strategic management, today all companies of all sectors must have a strategic plan compiled in details. In the frame of this plan, there must be included also human resources, investments in marketing, investments in technology, and noticeably the last one is recently going through great modifications. Based on statistic data Kosovo during recent years have made advanced steps toward the development of all sectors, specifically in textile sector. Therefore, this paperwork aims to step up the priorities and challenges that have the textile sector in the country of Kosovo, a country that is in transition phase.The focus of this study will be textile companies, including manufacturing companies. For the conclusion of this research will be used primary and secondary data. Primary data will be the data received directly from field work, through questionnaire that will be used especially for this research, whereas secondary data will be received by the use of foreign and local literature, also from researched made previously, that have to do with textile sector in all countries of the world. Keywords: strategic management, textile industry, advantages, disadvantages
Introduction On account of globalization, strategic management is becoming more and more important. Strategic plans are important nowadays not only for huge businesses, but also for small and medium ones. The reason of the small companies is because of the business future growth forecast. Another importance is mainly for businesses that operate in transition countries, as it is the country of Kosovo. Strategy is the core of the essence of positioning for competitive advantage in the market. In order to come up with strategic and liable alternative it must be conceptual creation, based on knowledges of the certain industry, competitions, markets, technologies and other respective tendencies (Avdiu & Gashi, 2017). In this period it would be easy to manage a business that in its sector has no great changes, which is recently impossible. Strategic management must contain some key elements (Khemesh, 2017): • Consumer tracking due totheir increased demands on the quality and variety of products • Tracking technology, due to their rapid changes being made • Tracking competitors in every possible segment • The development of the multinational enterprises and integration of traditional cultures with other cultures • The spread and facilitation of communication through internet and other information technologies. External factors that surround Kosovo businesses are still more complex to face with them. Same with the majority of market in transition around the world, same also in Kosovo, the market has almost the same actors with the same roles and “rules” that every business has (Gashi & Avdiu, 2013). Textile industry is a great contributor on the development of the country economy, including production and employment. Textile industry is one of the greatest industries in the world (Chokalingam, Maruthavanan, & Prakash, 2009).
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Considering that transition countries everyday have different difficulties to adapt to the images of globalization competitions, also Kosovo is a country in transition that is facing those difficulties. Therefore in this, a great importance will be given to the effect of strategic management in the development of textile industry, obstacles that businesses meet during the operation, advantages that those businesses have, as well as many other issues that we will discuss in the parts of research analyses. Literature review Strategic management is organized development of resources in functional zones, financial, production, marketing, technology, manpower etc. in following its objectives (Wells, 1996). Analyzation is one among main sections and one of the most important phases in the process of strategy creation. This phase is the main because of the information collection, where that information is valuable during the all processes in steps and further business way (Brecker, 1980). The first step of developing strategy is the analyzation of collected information after their collection process. Beside this there shall be determined which are the resources that currently are possessed by business or company and which will be valuable and usable to help toward the achievement of purposes and objectives defined in advance. In this phase, it is important to be required and identified other external resources. The formulation of strategy includes the issues that must be listed as priority depends on their value on achievement of the company success. After the selection of priorities, starts the formulation of strategies. Considering that business and as well economic situation are unsustainable, it is very important in this phase to be developed different alternatives methods that aim to arrive every step of the plan (Ulwick, 1999). According to author (Gasparotti, 2009), SWOT model (strength, weakness, opportunities and threats) is one of the best instruments for analyze of external and internal environment factors. Based on this model, companies’ strategies can be formulated by combining strongest and weakest points, whereas factors of the external environment, combining: possibilities and threads. Moreover one of the analyses that must be given importance during the compile of strategic plan is also PEST analyze, which includes: political, economic, social and technology factors. Based on the writing of the (Meyer, 2009), not all companies, that aim and have focus the development in global markets, they have easy expansion and operation in countries outside of where they are established, where they have created their image with products, services or both. Studies around this phenomen on of aspiration for international expansion and crossing many obstacles and difficultieshighlight the challenges and failures to reach the expansion goals in the global marketplace. But, in order that companies to achieve their goals or similar, must be kept in mind many factors, that according to some authors and researchers of globalization have concluded that must be followed is there is a wish for success in this field. In order to survive in the market, companies try to expand the process of production also in global markets, but this can cause the fragmentation of supply chains around the world, increasing the risk of supply chain interruptions. Nevertheless, new chain supplies can prevent or soften such interruptions (Sardar & Lee, 2015). The situation of the textile industry in Kosovo and countries around the world Based on the presented table as below, it can be seen that China is the greatest producer and exporter of two textiles and unprocessed clothes, whereas USA is the main producer and exporter of unprocessed cotton, they also take the price for the greatest importer of textile and unprocessed clothes.
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Source: (study.com) Based on studying, textile export of China is increased approximately 3% during 2018. China is the main country of producing textile and worth almost 1/4 of the global textile industry with an export value of more than 100 milliard $. Whereas, regarding the European Union has Germany, Spain, France, Italy and Portugal with a value of more than 1/5 of the global textile industry and actually is evaluated in more than 160 milliard $. India is the thirst greatest industry of textile and havea export value of more than 30 milliard dollar. India is responsible for more than 6% of textile total production in global level and is evaluatedaround 150 milliard $. USA now is one of the greatest consummators of textile that are responsible for around 75% of textile import in total. China, Japan, India and United States dominate in global textile industry (www.medium.com, 2018). This is the situation related to textile industry of neighbor countries. Textile industry in country of Albania is progressing year by year. In 2014 the export value has been 85.936 million €, in 2015 has been 90.091million €, in 2016 106.608 million €, whereas in 2017 there was apparently great growth, in value of 117.389 million €. The value of the export of the textile industry in2017 has 13% of the total value of export of this country (www.atlasi.al, 2018). By this is noticed that how important is this industry for the economy of this country. One of the challenges that this sector is facing, is the lack of qualified employees, because of the migration of the population toward other world countries (Shehi, 2018). On the table presented below are presented the values of the imports and exports of the country of Kosovo, since 2012 to 2018.
Textiles and textile articles (.000) 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Export 11,433 12,751 14,693 11,957 8,784 9,941 10,643 Import 82,236 87,616 120,372 122,589 136,688 139,910 162,501 Source: ( Kosovo Agency of Statistics, 2019) Based on this table is noticed that export has regressed since 2012. The most successful year of export was 2012. Whereas, the import has regressed from 2012 up to now. 2018 is the year that has the greatest value of import of such industry. Analyzing in this table, we can say that the situation of this industry is not good, same as in other countries that have progression in this direction. Since the value of import is greater that export value, than this industry need rapid interventions. Unfortunately the value of export has had increase, this occurrence is quite worrisome.
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Research methodology For the realization of this research, were used primary and secondary data. Primary data are the data that were received directly from the field.In this research are included 115companies of this industry. The research in total contains 14 questions, where some questions are with a possibility of more than one answer. The processing of those data is done through excel. The presentation of results is done graphically, where each graphic is followed with textual description. Confirming the hypothesis is made based on descriptive analyses. Research question of such research are: Should textile industry companies have qualified persons on their managerial staff? Should institutions support companies dealing with this industry, in order those companies to succeed on their development? Hypothesis of this research are: H1: Textile industries companies in Kosovo, face with the lack of qualified employees H2: Textile industry in Kosovo has lack of institutional support . Research analyses In this part will be presented descriptive analyses of the paper, as it was mentioned in previous chapter they must be presented in excel and followed by textual description
City of respodent
Prishtina Peja Gjakova Prizren Ferizaj Gjilan Vushtri Mitrovice
3% 4%
10% 24%
15%
19% 16% 9%
Graphic 1: City of respondent In graphic no. 1,were presented cities of the respondents, where the largest part of questionnaires have been distributed in capitol city, since the greatest number of businesses is focused in this city.
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Your company is:
Local company Foreign company
3%
97%
Graphic 2: Your company is: In graphic no. 2, it is seen that part 111 companies of 115 interviewed, or 97% of them are local company, whereas only 4 or 3% of them are foreign companies.
Do you have cooperation with other companies?
Yes No Sometimes
18%
10%
72%
Graphic 3: Do you have cooperation with other companies In graphic no. 3, is seen that 83 or 72% of the interviewed declared that have collaboration with other companies, 11 or 10% of them stated that they do not collaborate with other companies, whereas 21 or 18% stated that sometimes collaborate with other companies. Based on these answers we can confirm that this is very good issue, since companies of the same subject have collaboration between each other, despite their emulation.
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Does your company have a strategy designed
Yes No
0%
100%
Graphic 4: Does your company have a strategy designed Since we are living in the era globalization, every company must have a compiled strategic plan in order to survive in operating market. Fortunately, today Kosovo businesses, have approved strategy, such evidence is presented in graphic no. 4. In graphic no. 5, a question is raised “Which strategies do you use to fight the competition”, on which the answer could be made in more than one option. 91 or 31% of the respondents have stated that main strategy to fight competition they use the lowest price, 45 or 16% respondents answered on higher quality, 32 % of the respondents have been that as their main strategy to fight competition is the design of the articles, whereas 21% of the respondents have been marketing as their main strategy.
Which strategies do you use to fighting the competition Lowest price The highest quality Used marketing in all social media Design
32% 31%
21% 16%
Graphic 5: Which strategies do you use to fighting the competition
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Which strategy will you use to keep this position in the market
Lower prices Raising the quality of the articles The biggest focus on marketing Transportation of articles at home
34% 35%
13% 18%
Graphic 6: Which strategy will you use to keep this position in the market In graphic no 6, as it is seen, the main strategy to hold a position in the market is the lowest price, where 85 or 35% of the respondents have been this way. 45 or 18% of the respondents have been with the improvement of the quality of articles, 34% have been that the strategy will have the delivery of the s to the home of the client, whereas 13% or 32 of the respondents have been that their strategy will be the focus in marketing.
Where is the company's intention to invest during the year Teknology Human resources Raw material Marketing
13%
31% 26% 30%
Graphic 7: Where is the company's intention to invest during the year Whereas the question “Where is the company's intention to invest during the year “, this question have more than one answering option, the higher percentage have been that the target of the company for investment during the year is the investment in technology with 97 answers were yes 31%, and 94 or 30% in human resources. Whereas, 26% have been in raw material and 13% in marketing.
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What are the challenges you face most often
Lack of investment capita Lack of qualified people High bank interest rates Non-support institucional Lack of new technology
11%
20% 19% 26% 24%
Graphic 8: What are the challenges you face most often The most challenges that the majority of companies of this sector face are, non-support of the institutions and high bank interests. Related to the non –support of the institutions were111 answers, whereas for high interest rate answered 100 of them. Other challenges that companies face are the lack of investment capital, lack of qualified human resources, as well as lack of new technology. All those are the greatest challenges that every company face with.
What are the challenges you face in human resources
Lack of qualified persons, who are citizens of Kosovo The high costs for employing people from other countries Lack of responsibility during work
7%
32% 61%
Graphic 9: What are the challenges you face in human resources Whereas a challenge for human resources, by which face those companies, are lack of qualified persons that are citizens of Kosovo with 85 answers, 45 of them said that there are high costs of inviting a qualified person from other country. Whereas, answered the less, so by 7% in total has been the challenge irresponsibility of the employee during their working hours.
76 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Are you willing to collaborate with businesses from other countries around the world Yes No Over the next years
23%
16% 61%
Graphic 10: Are you willing to collaborate with businesses from other countries around the ëorld In the graphic no. 10, is submitted the question “Are you willing to collaborate with businesses from other countries around the world”, where 61% of them declared that they are ready to collaborate with other world businesses, 23% said that at the moment they are not ready. They will be ready after many years. Whereas 16% of the answered that they are not ready for international business.
Is your current technology level of production appropriate to compete in the foreign market
Low level Middle level High level
9%
28% 63%
Graphic 11: Is your current technology level of production appropriate to compete in the foreign market On the question that what is the level of the technology in these companies, 63% or 72 of the companies, answered that have high level of technology, 28% or 32 answered that have middle level of technology, whereas 9% have answered that the level of technology in their company is low.
77 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Do you have institutional support Yes No Sometimes
13% 7%
80%
Graphic 12: Do you have institutional support In graphic no. 12, is seen that businesses of this sector have no institutional support. The result with 80% answered NO, 7% of the answered YES; whereas 13% of them answered that sometimes have institutional support.
If you have institutional support, where will you focus on investment Investing in technology Employment of skilled workers (from other countries) Purchase of raw material 4%
39%
57%
Graphic 13: If you have institutional support, where will you focus on investment In case if those businesses would have institutional support, 45 answers or 39% of them answered that those means would direct to technology investment, whereas 57% answered that those means would invest in the employment of qualified employees from world countries, whereas only 4% of them said that will invest in raw material. In question “Did you get credit for business development” 84% of them answered that have taken credit for the development of business, whereas only 16% of them answered that they have not taken credit for the development of the business.
78 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Did you get credit for business development Yes No
16%
84%
Graphic 14: Did you get credit for business development Based on descriptive analyses, we can say that the first hypothesis has been confirmed since the majority of companies answered that have lack of qualified local employee orstaff. If they had staff with good qualification, they claimed they could compete earlier in foreign countries. This case they present as main challenge of the company. Whereas, regarding the second hypothesis, we can also say that it is confirmed, since the majority part of companies declared that have no institutional support. Such institutional non-support pushed most of them to take credit for the development of the business where then for those credits were obliged to pay high rates of interest. Conclusions and recommendations During this research we have noticed that also businesses of our country, a country under transition is following the trend. All interviewed companies declared that have approved strategy, since we know that through strategic plans every business is aware of where they want to achieve. Meanwhile, a majority part of textile industry companies declared that their main strategy to fight competition in the market, are low prices, as well as the design of products. The challenge of those businesses are many and different, the main ones are, lack of institutional support, lack of qualified persons in this direction, high bank interests, lack of new technology. Even though, most of them declared that have high level of technology, but if we do the comparison of technology which is used in developed countries, those businesses have lack of them. Moreover, another challenge is the lack of capital for investment in the development of current business. The recommendations of this research are, that those businesses to have greater institutional support, bank interests to be lower for businesses that aim to develop business. Qualified person should not migrate in different countries of the world, but to try to find employment in their country, since even here they can find good jobs, same as in other countries of the world. Since businesses are able to pay for the staff from international countries, they can give a good salary also to qualified persons that live in Kosovo. The strategy to fight the competition not to consider only the lower price but also to give a special importance to the quality of s, in order that this company to be in real competition with other countries around the world. Bibliography [1] Avdiu, A., & Gashi, R. (2017). Strategic Management Key to Success for Kosovo Companies - Expansion in International European Market. European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies , 3 (3), 149. [2] Brecker, J. (1980). The Historical Development of the Strategic Management Concept.
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[3] Chokalingam, P., Maruthavanan, T., & Prakash, C. (2009). www.researchgate.com. Retrieved July 2019, from www.researchgate.com: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284578601_Environmental_impacts_of_textile_industries [4] Gashi, R., & Avdiu, A. (2013). Strategic Management Application into the Small and Medium businesses in Kosovo. International Journal for Innovation Education and Research , 3 (4), 44. [5] Gasparotti, C. (2009). The Internal and External Environment Analysis of Romanian Naval Industry ëith Sëot Model. Management & Marketing , 4 (3). [6] Khemesh, S. (2017). Strategic Management-Basic concepts. Anadolu University. [7] Meyer, K. (2009). Corporate strategies under pressures of globalization: Global focusing. Journal of management studies and strategic change , 18 (6). [8] Shehi, E. (2018). Tekstile dhe konfeksione. Tirane. [9] study.com. (n.d.). Retrieved July 2019, from https://study.com/academy/lesson/global-textile-industry.html [10] Ulwick, A. (1999). Business strategy formulation: theory, process, and the intellectual revolution. London: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. [11] Wells, D. (1996). Strategic Management for Senior Leaders: A Handbook for Implementation. Department of the Navy Total Quality Leadership Office Publication . [12] www.atlasi.al. (2018). www.atlasi.al. Retrieved July 2019, from http://atlasi.al/industria-e-tekstileve-fason/ [13] www.medium.com. (2018). Retrieved July 2019, from https://medium.com/@jashimohan01/global-textile- industry-recent-trends-in-the-market-45d2d2b86392
80 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Il Progetto Di Ricostituzione Dell’esercito Italiano Dopo L’8 Settembre 1943. Iniziali Trattative Con Gli Americani
Francesca Somenzari Università di Torino
Dopo l’armistizio dell’8 settembre, lo Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito Italiano sperò che la famosa formula della “cobelligeranza” - promessa dagli Alleati - avesse una sua traduzione nella realtà: a questo proposito, tra il 1943 e il 1944, il generale Pietro Gazzera, prigioniero negli Stati Uniti, si fece portavoce davanti alle autorità americane di una proposta che tanto stava a cuore del governo Badoglio e cioè la liberazione dei prigionieri italiani in mano alleata e il loro successivo inquadramento, come combattenti, in battaglioni organizzati e guidati da ufficiali italiani. Così Gazzera, in una sua nota riassuntiva, aveva spiegato il punto di vista italiano: Il Governo Italiano intende fermamente che il Comando, di diritto e di fatto, sia tenuto dagli ufficiali italiani, pure essendo le unità italiane a disposizione, per l’impiego, delle Autorità Alleate. Il Governo Italiano intende fermamente che tutti i militari italiani cessino dal loro status di prigionieri di guerra. E’ da aggiungere che il Governo Italiano intende fermamente che tutti i prigionieri siano inquadrati in unità non inferiori al battaglione […]1. I tentativi di ricostituzione dell’esercito e le motivazioni del rifiuto del progetto Gazzera Non più prigionieri, ma soldati, gli italiani avrebbero potuto servire la causa alleata, prendendo parte attiva nella prosecuzione del conflitto. Per riprendere una frase badogliana di contestata memoria, “la guerra continuava”, non in maniera generica come era stato annunciato l’8 settembre, ma al fianco degli Anglo-americani. Nella prospettiva del nuovo capo di governo, così come dello stesso Gazzera, tornare a combattere avrebbe significato riacquistare un credito presso gli Alleati: la collaborazione fattiva alla guerra era, in sostanza, una carta fondamentale che gli italiani avrebbero potuto “sfoderare” alla fine per ridurre la drastica portata delle condizioni d’armistizio. Ad alimentare queste speranze del governo Badoglio e del nostro establishment militare era stata la dichiarazione di Quebec, che nero su bianco riportava le seguenti parole: La misura nella quale le condizioni saranno modificate in favore dell’Italia, dipenderà dall’entità dell’apporto dato dal governo e dal popolo italiani alle Nazioni Unite contro la Germania2. Questo memorandum aveva accompagnato il testo dell’armistizio, rappresentandone quasi una sorta di corollario: era stato concordato e firmato da Roosevelt, Churchill e Stalin proprio allo scopo di “addolcire” le impressioni negative che le dure condizioni d’armistizio avrebbero prodotto negli italiani. Lo stesso Eisenhower, all’atto della firma dell’armistizio lungo, aveva rinnovato personalmente a Badoglio le promesse di Quebec, affermando che le condizioni militari avrebbero potuto essere modificate in rapporto alle necessità belliche o all’entità della collaborazione3. Come scrive Giuseppe Conti, pur ribadendo i punti fondamentali dell’armistizio breve, questa dichiarazione riportava però qualcosa di nuovo, che avrebbe potuto cambiare almeno in parte il destino della nostra penisola4. Sull’onda dell’entusiasmo
1 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I-3 168, nota riassuntiva circa il problema dei prigionieri di guerra, Cava dei Tirreni, 26 aprile 1944, p. 4. Allegata alla nota riassuntiva, seguiva lo schema di accordo proposto dall’Alto Commissariato in dieci punti. 2 G. Conti, Il primo raggruppamento motorizzato, Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito (d’ora in avanti USSME), Roma, 1986, p. 13. 3 G. Conti, Aspetti della riorganizzazione delle Forze Armate nel Regno del sud (settembre 1943-giugno 1944) in “Storia Contemporanea”, 1975, n. 1, pp. 85-120, p. 91. 4 G. Conti, Il primo raggruppamento cit., p. 13. 81 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 e della fiducia suscitate da questo documento, il nuovo governo del Sud aveva proceduto immediatamente ad una veloce ricognizione delle forze militari ancora efficienti e disponibili sul territorio; secondo le prime stime, l’Italia poteva contare su circa 420-520 000 uomini1, suddivisi tra la settima armata, le forze armate della Sardegna e quelle della Corsica2. Le autorità, appena insediatisi a Brindisi, avevano quindi iniziato a preparare alcune unità italiane per una partecipazione attiva e su larga scala, che nell’arco di breve tempo avrebbe anche coinvolto i prigionieri di guerra italiani nei campi alleati, a partire subito da quelli in Libia e Tunisia3. Furono costituiti, una settimana dopo l’annuncio dell’armistizio, i gruppi di combattimento, in particolare il LI corpo d’armata con le divisioni Piceno e Legnano, ma il lavoro organico di costituzione doveva essere indirizzato in modo particolare su quelle divisioni che si erano maggiormente distinte, come la “Folgore”4, l’”Ariete” e la “Trento”5. Il piano di approntamento prevedeva che i gruppi fossero in grado di essere inviati sulle linee con le seguenti scadenze: il Friuli entro fine ottobre 1944, il Cremona entro la prima quindicina di novembre, i gruppi Legnano e Folgore entro la metà di dicembre, il Mantova e il Piceno un mese dopo6. Gli Anglo-americani però dimostravano un atteggiamento ambivalente verso il progetto di ricostituzione dell’esercito italiano: a parole lo incoraggiavano, nei fatti tendevano a ridimensionare l’apporto che sarebbe derivato da questo intervento. A questo deve essere aggiunto il fatto che Britannici e Americani avevano, anche su questo punto, visioni diverse che si declinavano sostanzialmente nella posizione rigida del generale Harold Alexander, comandante del XV gruppo d’armate alleate, e in quella aperta ed ottimista del generale Eisenhower: se il primo lasciava cadere l’offerta della collaborazione attiva delle forze italiane, il secondo dichiarava ufficialmente, in occasione del convegno di Malta7, che il contributo militare del nuovo governo sarebbe stato fondamentale nella liberazione della penisola8, incoraggiando anche la formazione di divisioni di elite9. All’indomani di Malta, così si esprimeva il generale Ambrosio, Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale in una lettera a Badoglio:
1 Rimando a S. Crapanzano (a cura di), Il I raggruppamento motorizzato italiano, 1943-1944. Narrazione, documenti. USSME, Roma, 1974, p. 7. Secondo Giuseppe Conti, rimanevano nove divisioni mobili dotate di scarsissimi mezzi di trasporto, dodici divisioni costiere male armate ed alcune unità minori, per una forza totale di 450 000 uomini. G. Conti, Aspetti della riorganizzazione delle Forze Armate cit., p. 87. 2 S. Crapanzano (a cura di), Il I raggruppamento cit., p. 7. Con la settimana armata, ci si riferiva ai corpi d’armata IX e XXXI nel Mezzogiorno; le forze in Sardegna erano nello specifico i corpi d’armata XIII e XXX, mentre in Corsica si trovava il VII corpo d’armata. 3Ivi, p. 11. Con i prigionieri della Tunisia e della Libia sarebbe stato più facile ricostituire le unità che si erano in passato segnalate in combattimento. Il progetto era di dare vita a queste unità sul posto, in Africa settentrionale, lontano dell’influsso della politica e in luoghi dove avrebbero potuto trovare armi, munizioni e possibilità di addestramento. 4 I reparti paracadutisti rimasti in zone libere dalla presenza tedesca e sotto controllo alleato vennero subito coinvolti in questo complesso piano di ricostituzione dell’esercito italiano. M. Di Giovanni, I paracadutisti italiani. Volontari, miti e memoria della Seconda guerra mondiale, Editrice Goriziana, Gorizia, 1991, pp. 231-290. 5 Nelle intenzioni della Commissione Alleata di Controllo, i gruppi di combattimento sarebbero stati sei e precisamente: il I Raggruppamento motorizzato e la Nembo (facenti parte del Corpo Italiano di Liberazione e poi denominati Legnano e Folgore), Cremona e Friuli, Mantova e Piceno. Era stato anche previsto il mantenimento di cinque divisioni ausiliarie per la sicurezza interna. 6 La messa a punto operativa dei Gruppi di combattimento fu molto laboriosa; seguiva un piano di addestramento diviso in cinque fasi, la cui durata complessiva variava dalle dodici alle diciassette settimane, a seconda dei risultati riscontrati dalle unità britanniche di combattimento. Il Legnano fu assegnato alla V Armata americana, la Folgore, Il Friuli e il Cremona all’ VIII Armata britannica, mentre il Mantova doveva rimanere a disposizione di quest’ultima. M. Montanari, Le operazioni dei reparti regolari italiani in N. Labanca (a cura di), I gruppi di combattimento. Studi, fonti e memorie (1944-1945), Carocci, Roma, 2006, pp. 88-91. 7 Qui si discussero problemi di natura sostanzialmente militare tra i rappresentanti dei governi alleati e l’Italia, che in quell’occasione fornì un lungo memoriale redatto in comune dagli Stati Maggiori delle tre Forze Armate sull’uso delle unità italiane da schierare a fianco degli Alleati per la liberazione della penisola. La conferenza sembrò chiudersi in modo positivo con una serie di aperture nei confronti dell’Italia, anche se la posizione alleata rimaneva nell’insieme prudente. Si tenne a partire dal 29 settembre 1943. 8 Sarebbe tuttavia un errore ritenere Eisenhower del tutto convinto sulle reali capacità italiane di tornare a combattere; in una sua lettera comunicava al generale Marshall, Capo di Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito americano le sue perplessità su quel che rimaneva delle forze militari italiane. Vedi A. Chandler (a cura di), The papers of Eisenhower: The war years, vol. III, The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1970, pp. 1411-1413. 9 G. Conti, Il primo raggruppamento cit., pp. 22-23. Sembra che Alexander nutrisse proprio una diffidenza malcelata, per non dire di ostilità, nei confronti di questi progetti. Eisenhower invece proponeva di selezionare i migliori, la “crema” dell’Esercito. 82 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
In base a quanto concordato nella recente riunione di Malta, si sta provvedendo alla preparazione di alcune divisioni scelte che dovrebbero operare al più presto accanto alle truppe anglo-americane […]. Per aumentare in futuro le possibilità di cooperazione nella comune lotta contro i tedeschi, sarebbe però opportuno provvedere alla costituzione di alcune nuove Grandi Unità, utilizzando i prigionieri di guerra1. Non si trattava quindi solo di speranze ma di veri e propri accordi di massima tra le autorità italiane e quelle statunitensi. L’atteggiamento inizialmente molto favorevole del generale Eisenhower aveva facilitato ulteriormente la nascita di un clima, per così dire, di cooperazione: a conferma di questo, non dobbiamo dimenticare che gli Alleati avevano effettivamente concesso all’Italia di essere rappresentata in armi con lo schieramento in campo del I Raggruppamento motorizzato, messo a disposizione della V armata americana a partire dal novembre 19432. Ma le ragioni che avrebbero poi portato gli Anglo-americani a limitare progressivamente l’apporto militare del governo Badoglio non erano da ricondurre solo ad una questione di rapporti di forza, che dovevano rimanere immutati e immutabili, non soggetti cioè ad eventuali revisioni, ma erano da imputare anche ad una reale ed effettiva incapacità italiana di poter tornare a combattere: la mancanza di armi, munizioni ed uniformi, nonché il già obsoleto equipaggiamento del nostro esercito3, erano motivi sufficienti ad escludere, nella visione alleata, un coinvolgimento italiano su larga scala. Il nostro stesso Stato Maggiore era consapevole di dipendere in tutto e per tutto dal contributo alleato; come ammetteva il generale Mario Roatta4, I reparti italiani sono in gran parte armati, vestiti, equipaggiati e vettovagliati da loro [gli Alleati]. Non si può proprio negare che l’atteggiamento di chiusura sia giusto, o per lo meno plausibile5. Anche il generale Giovanni Messe6, come lo stesso Gazzera, liberato dalla prigionia a seguito dell’armistizio e nominato Capo di Stato Maggiore nel 1944, riconosceva lo stato di quasi totale inadeguatezza del nostro esercito all’indomani dell’armistizio: Quanto rimaneva dell’Esercito era in sostanza un troncone, staccato da un corpo prima completo, che occorreva riorganizzare per renderlo a sua volta capace di vita autonoma. Delle unità disponibili erano ben note le deficienze di ogni genere: divisioni mobili di nome ma non di fatto, divisioni costiere male armate ed equipaggiate […]7.
1 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 165-3, lettera del Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale, Ambrosio, a Badoglio, 3 ottobre 1943. 2 Il I Raggruppamento motorizzato era nato il 28 settembre 1943 a Brindisi e doveva essere pronto ad operare dal 30 settembre. La forza iniziale era di 5000 uomini. Gli enti interessati alla sua costituzione e formazione erano stati diversi: lo Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, il Comando della 7̊ armata, il LI e IX corpo d’armata, le divisioni Legnano, Mantova e Piceno, la 210̊ divisione costiera e la Legione Carabinieri di Bari; si trattava cioè di una sorta di “rappresentanza” dell’Esercito o, sarebbe meglio dire, delle unità ancora efficienti nel Mezzogiorno. Inizialmente, a capo del Raggruppamento, vi fu il generale di brigata Giacomo Zanussi, che fu sostituito quasi subito dal generale di brigata Vincenzo Dapino, già comandante interinale della divisione Legnano. Il Raggruppamento era “qualcosa a metà” tra la divisione e la brigata; per completarne la dotazione di automezzi, lo Stato Maggiore aveva deciso di ricorrere sia alla Marina sia all’Aeronautica. Sulla nascita e preparazione tecnica del I Raggruppamento motorizzato, rimando a S. Crapanzano (a cura di), Il I raggruppamento cit., pp. 27-40. 3 E’ importante sottolineare che al logoramento di uomini e mezzi provocati da tre anni di guerra, si associava la dispersione dei reparti sui vari fronti. Alla vigilia dell’armistizio, l’Esercito era diviso in due tronconi e l’Aeronautica aveva le sue forze distribuite in vari punti del Mediterraneo. Sola la Marina sembrava ancora in buone condizioni. G. Conti, Aspetti della riorganizzazione delle Forze Armate cit., pp. 85-86. 4 Durante la Prima guerra mondiale, Mario Roatta aveva combattuto sul fronte francese e italiano, guadagnandosi tre medaglie d’argento al valore militare ed essendo promosso tenente colonnello. Nominato addetto militare a Berlino nel 1939, nel 1940 era diventato sottocapo di Stato Maggiore e capo di Stato Maggiore nel 1942. Con l’insediamento del nuovo governo Badoglio, aveva lasciato Roma insieme al Re, rifugiandosi nelle retrovie alleate dell’Italia del Sud. 5 G. Conti, Il primo raggruppamento cit., pp. 34-35. 6 E’ stato uno dei più noti generali italiani durante la Seconda guerra mondiale; come Badoglio, aveva raggiunto il grado di Maresciallo d’Italia. Tenente di stanza in Libia nel 1913, promosso capitano nel 1915, era stato poi rimpatriato perché combattesse sul fronte italiano. Nel 1939, in qualità di vice-comandante del corpo di spedizione in Albania, aveva partecipato alle operazioni per la conquista del paese; nel 1942 aveva comandato il Corpo d’Armata Speciale nella campagna greco-albanese. Nel febbraio del 1943 aveva assunto il comando della 1̊ armata in Tunisia, riuscendo a ritardare la sconfitta delle truppe italo-tedesche. Il 13 maggio era caduto prigionieri degli Alleati. Quando fu richiamato in Italia, per sostituire in novembre il generale Vittorio Ambrosio in qualità di Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale, era reduce dalla prigionia in Inghilterra. 7 G. Conti, Il primo raggruppamento cit, p. 7. 83 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Un esempio in particolare può restituirci la misura di tanta inadeguatezza: la Divisione Cremona arrivò nella penisola con compagnie di fanteria che portavano ai piedi gli zoccoli, oltre ad uniformi piene di toppe1. Nei rapporti redatti dal generale Mac Farlane, capo della Commissione Alleata in Italia2, non sarebbe tardato ad arrivare infatti un giudizio del tutto negativo, che definiva cioè l’eventuale apporto militare italiano come praticamente nullo3. Ma nella visione alleata l’impossibilità di un’efficiente ricostituzione dell’esercito italiano era legata non solo ad una questione di mera impreparazione tecnica e materiale, ma ad una serie di fenomeni strettamente connessi al contesto italiano post-armistizio; il governo del Sud era infatti un governo debole, che non era in grado di far rispettare le leggi sul reclutamento e sui richiami alle armi e che soprattutto non poteva contrastare in nessun modo il diffondersi di un sentimento qualunquistico del rifiuto al combattimento, basato sulla convinzione che l’affrontare i rischi della guerra non fosse un obbligo per tutti, ma solo per alcuni4. La riorganizzazione delle Forze Armate trovava cioè un significativo ostacolo nelle stesse condizioni psicologiche e morali dei soldati da un lato, ma anche degli ufficiali e sottoufficiali: la crisi dello Stato si ripercuoteva qui con tutti i suoi effetti e le sue conseguenze. Con l’armistizio, tutto era cambiato nei rapporti tra capi e subordinati; il legame di fiducia si era spezzato e nella maggioranza dei casi i militari si mostravano ostili alle argomentazioni dei superiori5. Il governo del Sud quindi riscontrava ogni giorno l’insensibilità dei più ai richiami patriottici e sentimentali6. L’indisciplina che caratterizzò fin dall’inizio la formazione delle vecchie divisioni era un segno inequivocabile di questo atteggiamento mentale: anche quello che doveva rappresentare il meglio dell’Esercito, il “fiore all’occhiello” dello Stato Maggiore italiano, il simbolo della volontà di rinascita e di riscossa del nostro paese, e cioè il I Raggruppamento motorizzato, non era esente da fenomeni di defezioni ed assenze arbitrarie7. I tentativi messi in atto dai comandi di Brindisi per ripristinare un clima d’ordine all’interno dei reparti non avevano avuto buon esito; rimaneva sempre un’insofferenza allo stato latente, che spesso dava luogo a casi di aperta insubordinazione sia individuale sia collettiva. Questi numerosi episodi di indisciplina, che distinguevano in modo assolutamente trasversale tutti i corpi militari del nuovo Regno, non potevano non allarmare gli Alleati, che, già dubbiosi sul potenziale coinvolgimento militare italiano alla guerra, confermavano quindi le loro predisposizioni negative verso l’affidabilità dei partner italiani. Anche i reparti paracadutisti avevano favorito il diffondersi tra gli Anglo-americani di un clima di forte sospetto. La Nembo8, in particolare, aveva suscitato incertezza e diffidenza già all’indomani della sua entrata in linea nella primavera del 1944. Pur essendo apprezzata dal punto di vista militare, gli Alleati avevano preteso al suo interno una severa epurazione, che però non aveva dato i risultati sperati: la connotazione fortemente politicizzata in senso fascista9 avrebbe continuato a caratterizzare la divisione, accompagnata perdipiù da rumor non proprio rassicuranti:
1 M. Montanari, Le operazioni dei reparti regolari italiani cit, p. 89. 2 Sir Frank Noel Mason Mac Farlane aveva partecipato ad entrambe le guerre del Novecento come soldato dell’esercito britannico, diventando poi Governatore di Gibilterrra durante la Seconda guerra mondiale. Si era arruolato nella Royal Artillery nel 1909, combattendo sul fronte occidentale durante la Prima guerra mondiale. Prima del 1939, era stato addetto militare a Berlino, dal 1939 al 1940 aveva ricoperto il ruolo di direttore del servizio di intelligence militare all’interno delle Forze di Spedizione Britanniche e di responsabile della missione inglese a Mosca dal 1941 al 1942. Dopo essere stato Governatore di Gibilterra dal 1942 al 1944, era poi stato nominato capo della Commissione di Controllo Alleata in Italia. 3 G. Conti, Il primo raggruppamento cit, p. 17. Secondo Mac Farlane, le unità erano prive di mezzi di trasporto e l’armamento era tipo 1918; mancava inoltre il carburante e il munizionamento. 4 La massa della popolazione meridionale, bombardata, ferita e demoralizzata rifiutava l’idea di qualsiasi tipo di guerra; erano gli stessi parenti dei soldati a dissuaderli dal restare in armi. M. Montanari, Le operazioni dei reparti regolari italiani cit, p. 84. 5 Anche gli inviti dei partiti che proponevano l’alternativa dell’inquadramento volontario rimanevano perlopiù inevasi. Vedi G. Conti, Aspetti della riorganizzazione delle Forze Armate cit., p. 110. 6 Lo sbandamento verificatosi in seguito all’annuncio dell’armistizio aveva provocato una vera e propria emorragia nei reparti: alla fine di dicembre il ministro Orlando valutava ancora il numero degli sbandati attorno a centomila. Di questi soltanto sedicimila erano stati recuperati e immessi nei campi di riordinamento dell’Italia meridionale. Ivi, p. 115. 7 S. Crapanzano (a cura di), Il I raggruppamento cit., p. 39. In termini generali, il numero più alto di defezioni si erano proprio verificate tra l’8 settembre e il 30 novembre 1943. 8 Era stata costituita nella specialità paracadutisti, nel clima di euforia che il Fascismo aveva suscitato, “con uomini di fegato sano, se pure raccolti senza andare troppo per il sottile, dotati della spavalderia propria dei soldati destinati ad un particolare sbaraglio: gente che in combattimento è sublime, ma che in pace procura seccature”: così si esprimeva il generale Berardi, divenuto capo di Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito in sostituzione del generale Roatta. Vedi M. Di Giovanni, I paracadutisti italiani cit., p. 234. 9 Nella Nembo c’era un richiamo evidente e diretto alla tradizione della Folgore, elemento che si sarebbe mantenuto costante per l’identità di tale corpo. 84 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
In Sardegna era corsa voce che fosse intendimento della Nembo di imbavagliare gli equipaggi delle navi che la trasportavano e di dirottarli su Livorno per offrirsi alla repubblica sociale fascista1 Gli episodi di prepotenza e di vera e propria violenza, i casi di furto nelle fattorie che degeneravano in aperti scontri a fuoco, che alla fine venivano coperti dagli alti ufficiali davanti alle stesse inchieste delle prefetture, confermavano sempre di più negli Alleati le impressioni di difficoltà di un’ immissione dei paracadutisti italiani nella guerra antifascista2. Ma, come ho già scritto, i problemi di ordine morale e disciplinare erano la marca distintiva del tentativo italiano di collaborazione militare; anche le notizie provenienti dal ricostituito gruppo della Folgore3 erano a dir poco inquietanti: danneggiamento ad una sede del partito comunista e ad una sezione socialista, atti di vandalismo, spari, abusi nel corso di operazioni su civili, con perquisizioni, forme di coercizione, minacce a mano armata4. Alla luce del quadro delineato, unito alle perplessità già nutrite dagli Alleati, è evidente che le garanzie di impegno militare del governo Badoglio non siano state prese in seria considerazione. Ecco quindi il decadere del progetto relativo alla liberazione dei prigionieri e il loro impiego come nuovi combattenti. Il 9 ottobre la missione militare anglo-americana comunicava che i prigionieri italiani sarebbero stati utilmente impiegati, ma non come soldati, bensì come ausiliari nelle retrovie, in particolare in servizi connessi allo sforzo bellico5. Nonostante questo primo segno di sfiducia, il governo italiano aveva creduto comunque di poter trovare in seguito “un varco” favorevole ai suoi desiderata. Non è un caso infatti che il successivo 29 novembre il generale Messe indirizzasse al Capo della Commissione Alleata di Controllo un promemoria in cui si avanzava nuovamente la richiesta di dare vita a unità formate dai prigionieri italiani detenuti in Africa settentrionale: l’obiettivo era di costituire, con questi elementi volontari, un paio di divisioni6. Sulla stessa linea, in contatto con Badoglio e consapevole degli orientamenti dello Stato Maggiore italiano, si poneva Gazzera, presentando una richiesta analoga alle autorità statunitensi tra la fine di ottobre del 1943 e i mesi successivi7. Pur tenendo ferma la reale intenzione di partecipare allo sforzo bellico, non si può non constatare il completo irrealismo dei progetti italiani, ma soprattutto non è possibile credere che lo stesso Gazzera, come i nostri vertici politici e militari, non fossero al corrente delle manchevolezze strutturali e disciplinari del nostro esercito o meglio di quello che ne rimaneva. In questo senso, come aveva ammesso Roatta, l’atteggiamento di chiusura alleato era assolutamente plausibile: semplicemente gli Anglo-americani non si fidavano di reparti italiani che non si preoccupavano minimamente di mascherare la loro innata fede fascista, né tantomeno intravedevano benefici nella liberazione di prigionieri che avrebbero dovuto essere armati ed equipaggiati in toto, nonché rieducati, istruiti ed addestrati ex novo. Come aveva scritto il Capo della Commissione Alleata, Mason Mac Farlane, già nel settembre 1943, al Quartier Generale Alleato, la riorganizzazione dell’esercito italiano in base a criteri moderni avrebbe comportato spese enormi, senza la certezza di un’adeguata contropartita: A parte il passaggio della flotta italiana, noi non abbiamo praticamente alcun vantaggio dall’esercito italiano; fatta eccezione per i soldati che potrebbero essere utilizzati come lavoratori nei porti e nelle vie di comunicazione.8 Il richiamo dei prigionieri migliori in Italia Contemporaneamente e funzionalmente alla ricostituzione dell’esercito del Regno del Sud, lo Stato Maggiore prima e l’Alto Commissariato dopo9 iniziarono a richiamare dalla prigionia quelli che erano considerati gli ufficiali più abili e più utili alla causa. Come è stato già detto, i primi ad essere rimpatriati erano stati Giovanni Messe, Paolo Berardi e Taddeo Orlando, ma le scelte in quel mare magnum non erano state né semplici né pacifiche. Come riportava una nota scritta a mano girata
1 A questo si aggiungevano poi le ripetute sfilate della divisione per le vie del centro di Cagliari, intonando inni fascisti e gridando “noi siamo i protettori del Duce”. M. Di Giovanni, I paracadutisti italiani cit., p. 235 e p. 247. 2 Ivi, pp. 242-243. 3 Insieme alla Nembo e al Ciclone, era nata come divisione paracadutista, durante la Seconda guerra mondiale; alla fine del conflitto, la sola unità rimasta in vita era il Reggimento Paracadutisti “Nembo”, già inquadrato nel Gruppo di Combattimento “Folgore”, che dopo anni di guerra come unità di fanteria convenzionale non disponeva più di effettive capacità di aviolancio. 4 M. Di Giovanni, I paracadutisti italiani cit., p. 269 e p. 275. 5 S. Crapanzano (a cura di), Il I raggruppamento cit., p. 14. 6 Nel promemoria si recuperava una proposta avanzata dal generale Ambrosio: le armi e le dotazioni avrebbero dovuto essere fornite interamente dagli alleati. G. Conti, Il primo raggruppamento cit., pp. 38-39. 7 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella 2256 A, lettera del 27 ottobre 1943 scritta da Gazzera al Provost Marshal General cit. 8 Citazione in G. Conti, Aspetti della riorganizzazione delle Forze Armate cit., pp. 90-91. 9 L’Alto Commissariato nacque solo nel 1944, lo Stato Maggiore iniziò questo lavoro già nel settembre del 1944. Sappiamo però che nel 1944 Messe e Gazzera cercarono di coordinarsi il più possibile nella formulazione delle richieste. 85 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 al Capo di Stato Maggiore in data 12 ottobre 1943, bisognava richiamare uomini che godessero realmente di fiducia. Anche se Badoglio non era convinto, il primo rimpatrio doveva essere quello di Messe: E’ da tener presente che oggi il maresciallo Messe è l’unico maresciallo che può godere la piena fiducia nel Paese. Si aggiunga che è assolutamente impossibile pensare di rimettere al loro posto tanti generali che comandavano difese o corpi d’armata il giorno 8: non sono più utilizzabili di fronte all’opinione pubblica: occorrono altri generali!1 Anche Gazzera era stato rilasciato on parole alla fine del 1943. Ma se per pochissimi le autorità alleate non avevano opposto resistenza, per gli altri ufficiali le procedure si sarebbero rivelate molto lunghe e complicate. Per l’intera durata dell’anno 1944, uno dei temi principali della corrispondenza con la Commissione Alleata fu proprio l’urgente necessità italiana di riavere gli elementi migliori per riordinare i quadri dell’esercito. All’inizio di febbraio, la Commissione aveva acconsentito al rimpatrio dei primi venticinque ufficiali, richiesti dallo Stato Maggiore2. Questa era la prima lista di nomi formulata dallo Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito3: Generali di Divisione De Giorgis dall’India Frattini dagli Stati Uniti De Simone dagli Stati Uniti Generali di Brigata Mancinelli dall’Inghilterra Scattini dall’Inghilterra Roda dagli Stati Uniti Colonnello dello Stato Maggiore Ruggeri Laderchi dall’Inghilterra Colonnello di fanteria Follini dagli Stati Uniti Tenenti Colonnelli dello Stato Maggiore Tramontano da Bombay Verando dall’Egitto Tenente Colonnello di fanteria Martinengo da Casablanca Tenente Colonnello paracadutista
1 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, promemoria per il Capo di Stato Maggiore generale, 12 ottobre 1943. Al suo rientro dal Regno Unito, Giovanni Messe era stato nominato Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale, carica che mantenne fino al 1 ̊ maggio 1945. Sulla carica di Capo di Stato Maggiore generale e sulla storia precedente di questo organo, rimando a Ceva, Lucio, Appunti per una storia dello Stato Maggiore generale fino alla vigilia della “non belligeranza” (giugno 1925- luglio 1939), “Storia Contemporanea”, 1979, n. 1, pp. 207- 252. 2 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, lettera del generale di brigata Duchesne (facente le veci del Presidente Delegato della Commissione Alleata di Controllo) al Capo di Stato Maggiore d’Italia Messe, 4 febbraio 1944. 3 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, lista allegata alla sopra citata lettera del 4 febbraio 1944. 86 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Camosso dall’Egitto Maggiore degli Alpini Pistotti dagli Stati Uniti Maggiore di fanteria Bianchi dagli Stati Uniti Maggiore dei Bersaglieri Nani dall’Inghilterra Maggiore di artiglieria Lucia dall’Algeria Cappellano militare padre Salza dall’Inghilterra Capitano d’artiglieria Murero dall’Algeria Capitano del genio Agostoni dall’Algeria Tenente A.A. pilota Gastoldi dall’Egitto Capitani di Fregata Moretti Adimari dall’India Guida dall’India Tenente Colonnello medico Lenza dall’Algeria Capitano del genio navale Rosati dall’Algeria Tenente di Vascello Durand de La Penne da Bombay Come abbiamo modo di constatare, i migliori ufficiali prigionieri negli Stati Uniti di cui lo Stato Maggiore avrebbe voluto disporre in tempi brevi erano esattamente sei: Frattini, De Simone, Roda, Follini, Pistotti, Bianchi. Gli altri richiesti si trovavano in Africa, India e Regno Unito. A distanza di un mese, a questa prima lista ne sarebbe seguita una seconda, una terza, una quarta, una quinta ed una sesta1: gli ufficiali prescelti che si trovavano negli Stati Uniti erano i tenenti colonnelli dello Stato Maggiore Campa e Avallone, il tenente colonnello d’artiglieria Devoto, il maggiore di fanteria Troisi, i maggiori d’artiglieria Piscicelli e Mulas (II lista); il colonnello di fanteria Pettinau, il colonnello di cavalleria Lequio, il tenente colonnello di artiglieria Terlizzi, il maggiore di fanteria Reale, i maggiori di artiglieria Tarasca, Santangelo e Peca, il sottotenente di artiglieria navale Foscari (III lista); il generale di brigata Bignami Riccardi, il tenente colonnello di artiglieria Avogadro di Vigliano, il maggiore di fanteria
1 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, liste allegate alla lettera dello Stato Maggiore alla Commissione Alleata di Controllo, 4 marzo 1944. 87 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Viligiardi (IV lista); il generale di divisione Brunetti, il generale di brigata De Vincentis, il colonnello di artiglieria Mameli, il colonnello dei bersaglieri Gherardini, i maggiori di fanteria Colliva, De Cecco, Politi, Tenca, il capitano di fanteria Serpieri (V lista). La Commissione Alleata si era infatti dichiarata disponibile a rimpatriare, per esigenze di inquadramento nell’esercito, prima venticinque ufficiali e poi altri centoventicinque, per un totale di centocinquanta uomini1. Dalle carte dello Stato Maggiore si apprende che contemporaneamente anche Badoglio e il suo governo avevano proceduto ad una serie di richieste di rimpatri di prigionieri per svariate esigenze interne, come la Giustizia Militare e l’amministrazione civile: questo aumento delle richieste di rimpatrio aveva irrigidito le Autorità Alleate della Commissione di Controllo. Messe si era visto costretto a spiegare a Badoglio la priorità rappresentata dalla chiamate dello Stato Maggiore e quindi dei suoi centocinquanta ufficiali: A S.E. Il Capo del Governo Recenti comunicazioni della Commissione Alleata di Controllo confermano che per il momento è intenzione degli Anglo- americani di restituire solo un limitatissimo numero di prigionieri, per i quali ho già inoltrato da tempo le richieste, limitandole ad elementi di provata capacità e di pronto impiego. Fino a quando gli intendimenti anglo-americani sull’argomento non cambieranno, non mi sarà però possibile dare corso alle numerose domande di rimpatrio e reimpiego che pervengono a V. E. e che terrò invece presenti a momento opportuno2. Nella pagina successiva, Messe aveva scritto a mano una nota di promemoria per se stesso: Criterio attuale degli Alleati per il rientro dei prigionieri: limitato a pochissimi elementi, sulla base di successive liste di 25. Poiché dal Governo continuano a provenirci a getto continuo segnalazioni di prigionieri da far rientrare, sembra opportuno rendere edotto della situazione l’ufficio di S. E. Gazzera, perché sia a conoscenza delle limitatissime possibilità che esistono allo stato attuale delle cose. I nomi dei prigionieri da segnalare per l’eventuale restituzione dovrebbero essere limitati ad elementi di pronto impiego per i reparti3. Sembra però che anche quella limitata disponibilità alleata a rimpatriare quei centocinquanta ufficiali delle prime sei liste fosse venuta meno; in una lettera di giugno dell’Alto Commissariato indirizzata alla Commissione Alleata di Controllo, Gazzera scriveva con tono preoccupato: Della prima richiesta di 25 prigionieri, risultano rientrati, a tutt’oggi, solo cinque ufficiali (generale di brigata Scattini, tenente colonnello di fanteria Martinengo, maggiore di artiglieria Lucia, capitano di artiglieria Murero, tenente di vascello Durand de la Penne); della seconda richiesta non è ancora rientrato nessuno. Prego cotesta Commissione di voler cortesemente prestare il suo valido interessamento. Sarebbe molto utile, qualora si potessero conoscere i motivi che ostacolano il rimpatrio di determinati ufficiali richiesti da tanto tempo, e la cui opera sarebbe molto utile (per es. i generali Roda, De Simone, De Giorgis, Beraudo di Pralormo, ecc.). Con ciò si eviterebbe di ripetere richieste a cui le Potenze Alleate non intendono dare esaudimento4. Apprendiamo quindi che in giugno non erano ancora stati rimpatriati neanche gli ufficiali della prima lista (ad eccezione dei pochissimi sopra citati), inoltrata già nel febbraio. Tra i cinque prigionieri rientrati dalla prigionia, nessuno proveniva dagli Stati Uniti. Nonostante l’iniziale disponibilità della Commissione Alleata, il rimpatrio degli ufficiali migliori non solo subiva dei ritardi, ma sembrava essere rimandato sine die, per non dire tacitamente annullato.
1 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, relazione riassuntiva dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, 15 aprile 1944. 2 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, lettera del Capo di Stato Maggiore generale, Giovanni Messe al Capo del Governo, Pietro Badoglio, 10 marzo 1944. 3 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, nota scritta a mano da Messe; segue alla lettera sopra citata. 4 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, lettera dell’Alto Commissario, Gazzera, alla Commissione di Controllo Alleata, 6 giugno 1944. 88 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Nel novembre, a distanza di nove mesi dalla richiesta di rimpatrio dei centocinquanta ufficiali delle sei liste, era il vice Sottosegretario di Stato per gli Affari Esteri, il marchese Giovanni Visconti Venosta, ad interessarsi personalmente alla situazione presso l’ambasciatore degli Stati Uniti d’America, Alexander Kirk. Ancora una volta si sottolineava l’esigenza fondamentale italiana di poter procedere ad un efficace riordinamento dei quadri e ad un potenziamento qualitativo dell’Esercito: Caro Kirk, vorrei attirare la Sua attenzione ancora una volta sulla questione dei prigionieri. Ella sa come essa stia a cuore al Governo […]. Occorrerebbe veramente affrontarla di nuovo e con criteri e animo diversi da quelli con cui è stata finora trattata. Ella sa che, per ragioni che mi sono sembrate sempre poco convincenti, i nostri soldati in Gran Bretagna e negli Stati Uniti, hanno tuttora lo status di prigionieri di guerra […]. Badi che noi sappiamo perfettamente che, salvo quelli che si trovano sotto controllo francese e le cui condizioni continuano ad essere pessime, la situazione materiale dei nostri ufficiali e soldati sia in Gran Bretagna sia, e soprattutto, negli Stati Uniti, sono sotto ogni riguardo- e ne siamo molto grati- soddisfacenti […]. Ma non si tratta qui di condizioni materiali. Scaglioni di qualche migliaio di ufficiali, che ci fossero a mano a mano restituiti, potrebbero essere facilmente reinseriti nell’Esercito italiano per potenziarlo e aumentarne gli effettivi […]. Sarei pertanto particolarmente grato alla S. V. se Ella volesse esaminare con speciale attenzione tale questione adoperandosi con la Sua alta autorità affinchè essa venga risolta nel senso qui suggerito1. Alla fine di dicembre, anche Gazzera tornava sull’argomento, indirizzando alla Commissione Alleata una lettera dai toni molto simili a quelli usati da Visconti Venosta con Kirk: Lo Stato Maggiore del R. Esercito Italiano incontra attualmente notevoli difficoltà per l’inquadramento ed il completamento, sia delle unità dei Gruppi di combattimento, sia delle altre unità varie per la medesima parte a disposizione delle Autorità Militari Alleate. Tali difficoltà sono dovute principalmente alla scarsa disponibilità di ufficiali e di militari specializzati tra le specializzazioni più richieste e di più difficile e lunga formazione. Dopo un attento esame della questione da parte dello Stato Maggiore è stato accertato che le difficoltà sopra accennate non potrebbero essere superate che col rimpatrio degli ufficiali attualmente prigionieri di guerra degli Alleati […]2. La soluzione del problema, tanto auspicata dallo Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, dall’Alto Commissariato per i prigionieri di guerra e dal Governo, non sarebbe mai arrivata: la Commissione Alleata, dopo un iniziale assenso a rimpatriare gli elementi migliori dell’Esercito italiano, aveva fatto un passo indietro. Come è già stato argomentato, le valutazioni alleate in termini di costi-benefici derivanti da un eventuale apporto italiano alla guerra erano andate in direzione contraria alle speranze e ai piani delle autorità nostrane. Come aveva spiegato in modo molto chiaro il Capo di Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, Paolo Berardi, se gli Alleati avessero mantenuto le loro promesse, il rientro in patria dei suddetti centocinquanta ufficiali e di altri successivi scaglioni di prigionieri avrebbe permesso di migliorare qualitativamente l’efficienza dei Gruppi di Combattimento e di “rimpiazzare ed estromettere gli inetti e i tarati”3. All’indomani dell’8 settembre lo Stato Maggiore aveva dovuto procedere ad una riorganizzazione “con elementi non del tutto scelti”4. Anche questo aveva contribuito ad affondare le ambizioni italiane.
1 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, lettera del marchese Giovanni Visconti Venosta all’amabsciatore degli Stati Uniti, Alexander Kirk, 7 novembre 1944. 2 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, lettera dell’Alto Commissario per i prigionieri di guerra, Pietro Gazzera, alla Commissione Alleata, 30 dicembre 1944. 3 SME, Ufficio Storico, Prigionieri ed internati negli Stati Uniti, Diari Storici, Seconda guerra mondiale 1940-1945, cartella I- 3 168, lettera del Capo di Stato Maggiore, Paolo Berardi, all’Alto Commissario per i prigionieri di guerra e al Ministero della Guerra, 21 dicembre 1944, p. 1. 4 Ibidem. 89 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Development of the Information Health Care System in Albania: The Compulsory of Health Care Insurance Fund of Albania
Rudina Degjoni General Manager Ilirjana Loxha Microbiological Laboratory Doctor of Regional Hospital
Abstract The requirement for the development of information systems in the country of Albania is considered necessary as it is directly related to the improvement and efficiency of health services provided by public hospitals. Maintaining and improving the health of human life requires the organization and operation of a social system called the "health system" in which the practice of medical science is carried out. The research is concerned with the design and development of health information systems in the public hospital care of Albania. The project that will be designed, built and deployed in the Albanian hospital should be user-friendly and meet all patient convenience and privacy requirements. The project that addresses existing approaches aimed to prevent the public hospital health care environment in Albania will operate on the basis of a new model of management of hospital technology and information communication. The information system to be built in the public hospital will have an important role to play in relations between patients, clinical and administrative staff. Users will be aware of the role of the hospital's IT and communications technologies and will significantly reduce waiting times. They will also improve communication in the hospital's micro and macro environment, improve patient awareness and reduce bureaucracy in the hospital environment. Keywords: Hospital information system, health management, health care system in Albania, public health care, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
Introduction The applications of health informatics aim at introducing information methods and systems in the administration, planning and evaluation of health care units, and particular: (i) in the management of health units hospitals, (ii) in the design of health information technology system, in the application of techniques of statistical analysis, operational research, budgeting techniques, to facilitate decision making and, (iii) in the evaluation and control of public health systems. The public hospitals have a common vision and goal, collecting and analyzing health care information (Tachinadi, 2015), so that they can make decisions and carry out assumptions based on the interpretation given by that information. Today we are talking about a distributed public healthcare environment in Albania (Roderick, 1985). The existing public health care system in Albania The Albanian health system is one of the most unequal in Europe and Asia (World Bank 2017). Albanians spend about 750 million Euros a year on medical care, but only 40% of this is covered by the government, and the remaining 60% are obligated to pay for it themselves. Albania by 2012 (WHO 2013), was the country with the lowest per capita budget, across the region, spending an average of $ 258 per capita, for 17% of Albanian families, the cost of their medical care is catastrophic, as it exceeds 10% of their income (INSTAT, 2017).
90 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Figure 1. Albanian Government expenditure on public health care / (US $)
The health system in Albania was administered centrally by the Ministry of Health, which provided and regulated all health services in the country and decided on the allocation of resources and the appointment of health professionals. The current health system of the country remains central and hierarchical. However, the public health sector still operates on the basis of this sub-division of the regions in terms of planning and management. Local authorities are involved in the health sector by setting up public care services through the funds provided by Health Insurance Fund (HIF) of Albania (Chikovani 2008). HIF, was introduced in Albania in 1995 (Memia 2014), and is funded by the tax contributions of civil servants, self-employed persons and farmers who meet the needs of the dependent population. Albania has a total population of approximately 2.8 million residents, and has been an increase in the average age of the population over the last decade to 75.7 years (73.8 years for men and 78.4 years for women). Figure 2. Albanian population by the year
91 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The public health care problems in Albania In Albania, the major provider of health care services is the government. The public hospital care in Albania is organized on three levels of care (Law no.10383, 2013): (i) the primary health care level that provided at health centers and polyclinics; (ii) the secondary health care that provided at districts hospitals; and (iii) the tertiary health care provided at the University Hospital Centre (CHU) located in the capital Tirana, where more than one fifth of the population lives. The public hospital services in Albania respect the right that patients have to inform on everything about health and the health insurance scheme. They are provided by hospitals, the majority of which are public. The proportion of hospital beds in the total population of Albania is the lowest in Europe. In 2015 they accounted for 3.1 beds per 1,000 inhabitants with a 50% usage rate. The configuration of the public hospital network shows a great inadequacy. Over 60% of Albania's hospitals are very small: 30 out of 40 hospitals have fewer than 200 beds. The system does not ensure the continuity of medical care, communication between doctors or between the public and the private sector. There is no information system and communication between public hospitals and the Ministry of Health. The statistical results are delivered in excel format. The public state hospitals have remained in an archaic system of organization and operation, resulting in service degradation and patient dissatisfaction. Per capita health costs are increasing over time, and they account for about half of the citizens' wallets. The Albanian public health information system In Albania, the public health information system has for years been a "complicated and anachronistic model", which in no way is able to effectively support and respond adequately to developments and the operation of modern health information services, with the result that the patient will be served with the old manuscript of the patient. The main causes (Koundzeris 2009) are: bureaucratic procedures, lack of information health system, unnecessary movements between operators and services, the lack of information, overlapping responsibilities, the high processing times for queries, unfriendly treatment, corruption and opacity (misuse of finances and commissions), high cost of medical operations and medication, insufficient control and failure to treat the patient as a whole. Because of the problems that have risen, the need to reorganize the public sector of health services is recognized (Lyroudi et al., 2006). In particular, the improvement of hospital functions both in terms of resources and in terms of quality and quantity of services they provide is necessary. Factors such as bureaucratic procedures, unnecessary movements, inadequate information and high processing times can be addressed to a large extent by the use of ICT. ICT in Albania needs to be renewed to allow better health management and assessment to ensure the use of health information to support and develop health-based, health-related events and planning in its country: Albania. The challenge remains to harmonize data and information from health organizations, to gain a full picture of the health status of the population. The proposal of health care operating system (ICT) Designing a fully integrated information system in hospitals is a complex task. Each piece of data has many links and their meaning and usefulness are specific to the application in which it is used. In the case of complex and ever changing structures, such as public hospitals, only first mapping critical macroeconomic structures should be committed. In this way we need to have an overview of the needs and design the core of the system. We will propose for the Albanian public hospital, (Iakovidis 2000), the design of an ICT, which should ensure the functional characteristics. The factors influencing the application of ICT to healthcare, medical and administrative health service providers should be recognized. These factors of public Albania hospital will include: (i) Albanian cultural and organizational issues related to the provision of health services (Vagelatos et al. 2009); (ii) the technological gap between health professionals and ICT specialists; (iii) Albanian legal requirements on the confidentiality of patient data; (iv) the position of the health service sector on the market; (v) the lack of vision and leadership of administrations in health care institutions, the lack of willingness to reorganize procedures to improve the quality of services provided (Sarivougioukas et al 2003); (vi) the willingness to use ICT tools by users. The introduction of an integrated ICT system is a difficult task that requires a lot of time and a high cost of financing (Vagelatos and Sarivougioukas, 2003). Conclusion The concept of ICT in Albanian health public services will include both efficiency and increased demands for credibility, enough to ensure that each patient receives an improved service, improving hospital - nurse and hospital - staff relationships. As a result, there will be monitoring and diagnosis of patients' public health, patient medical care, pharmaceutical development and optimization of hospital performance. It is suggested to introduce information health
92 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 system for the public Albanian hospitals for the following reasons; to improve the performance and quality of public health care in Albania; Review the rationalization plan of the public hospital system; the management of the public hospitals to be able to use ICT as a management tool, workers to be able to implement ICT in their day-to-day work; to evaluate the management; for the planning of a health information program, which will form the basis for the implementation of an information management system (MIS) in the public health of the country; functional health information system at the public hospital area; user access (depending on the role of the user they will be given the appropriate rights to the system); to ensure the proper functioning of the public hospital in Albania; for integrity of databases to provide mechanisms to ensure the integrity and consistency of data; controlling and modification or processing in the system; for availability of data when needed; for the financial services of the public hospitals; for procurement procedures; for technical and biomedical services; for patient management procedures; for laboratory and pharmacy procedures. References [1] Hysi E, Zyba E, The autonomy of public health insurance of Albania, 2008. [2] Berkowitz, L., McCarthy C., Innovation with Information Technologies in Healthcare, 2013. [3] Gritzalis, D. and C. Lambrinoudakis, A security architecture for interconnecting health information systems, International Journal of Medical Informatics, 73 (3), pp. 305-309, 2004. [4] Τsirintani M. A Base Plan for Tomorrow’s Patient Care Information Systems. XI International Science Conference on Health Informatics and Health Information Management, International Science Index, Vol 08, No 09 Part II, 2014; 343-346 (ISSN: 1307-6892) [5] Law no. 7870, On health insurance in the Republic of Albania, as amended, 1994. [6] Law no. 8417, Constitution of the Republic of Albania, 1998. [7] Law no. 10383, On compulsory healthcare insurance in the Republic of Albania, 2013. [8] OECD, Health policies, a list of latest publications, 2015
93 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Real Options Debate – a Brief Literature Review
Andreas Rams University of Latvia, Raiņa bulvāris 19, 1586 Rīga, Latvia
Abstract For a long time, traditional – quantitative as well as qualitative – investment valuation methods have considered uncertainty as a factor alone to be detrimental and therefore devaluing. Possible strategies for dealing with uncertainty tended to be regarded as mere risk protection measures. In particular, the management's entrepreneurial flexibility factor was not - explicitly - taken into account. In practice, however, this flexibility can often be described as a decisive success factor of entrepreneurial action. Consequently, if this is not included in the analysis, the evaluation of the investment in question – and the accompanying decision on its realisation – must probably fail. Therefore, a procedure is required to close the identified valuation gap through flexibility of action. The static value from traditional methods – for example discounted cash flow – must be appropriately extended by the long unobserved value component of flexibility of action. The resulting present value is then the sum of the static value and the value of the options available to management in its decisions.The corresponding real options approach goes back to the initial 1977 contribution by Myers. This laid the foundation for transferring the idea of already established financial options to the analysis of real options. The possible applicability of this idea is considered in particular in the case of investment decisions that are difficult or impossible to reverse in themselves, in an environment of uncertainty about their future success. In the meantime, the relevant expert discussion on this topic has developed dynamically. The ongoing debate on real options encompasses both the quantitative and – strategic – qualitative valuation of real options. This article provides a brief and selective overview of the relevant expert discussion on the topic of real options in the last more than four decades – and additionally identifies further possible research directions. These concern in particular the relationship or interaction between real options and so-called "financial real options". Keywords: literature review, real options, financial real options, investment valuation, strategic management, strategic finance
1. Introduction The idea or concept of the real option is derived from that of the financial option. A financial option is a conditional forward transaction that gives its buyer the option of buying (call option) or selling (put option) assets (underlying objects) against payment of an option premium (option price) within a certain period or at a certain future date at a price agreed in advance (strike price). The term "real options" refers to the value of the room for manoeuvre resulting from the possibility of deciding on real investment opportunities. Analogous to the financial options, this is the decision to "buy" or "sell" the investment opportunity, which means to realize or not to realize it. Generally, uncertainty and risk in investment decisions lead to different strategic positioning of companies. A passive orientation avoids a risk which, however, also goes hand in hand with the renunciation of success potentials. This also includes a diversification strategy in which critical dependencies are reduced. With active strategies, the company tries above all to shorten the reaction time to changes. In practice, however, there is often a hybrid form in which the focus is on creating action flexibility. These enable companies to react actively to unexpected future developments. This room for manoeuvre can be both offensive and defensive. An offensive room for manoeuvre gives a company the possibility to exploit opportunities. A defensive room for manoeuvre protects the company from possible losses. Due to existing uncertainties about the possible success or failure, the investment decision in question is postponed to a later point in time - provided there is the flexibility to do so. The scope for action thus leads to a fundamental change in the risk profile of investments in favour of the company: symmetrical profit-loss profiles become asymmetrical ones. These action flexibilities from the asymmetric risk or the
94 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 asymmetric payout structure (payout profile) have an own value; this is the - real - option value. However, this right and its value must first be acquired through the payment of an option premium or created in general. An investment with room for manoeuvre is therefore worth more than an investment without this flexibility. Consequently, the instruction for action is not simply yes or no, but if and when optimal. In the course of the research in question, parallels between financial and real options have been worked out. The origins of these options go back to the initial paper of Myers in 1977 (Myers 1977). In the following more than four decades, the theoretical discussion on the topic of real options – including approaches to their practical implementation – has developed dynamically. Nevertheless, – in contrast to the case of financial options – no generally accepted approach has yet been accepted. The aim of this article is to give a concentrated overview of the course of the debate so far on real options, the status and the possible further development of complementary research. The comparatively new approach of combining real options with their financing options is also taken into account. 2. Methodology The intention of this paper as a "brief literature review" is to rely only on a selected set of papers and other contributions to real options. On this basis, the debate on real options that has been ongoing since 1977 will be traced in its main lines. Against the background of the fact that Google-Scholar provides a total of 95,900 results for the search for "real options", the present contribution cannot and does not claim to be completely representative. Furthermore, the selection made was not systematic in the narrower sense, but is based on the most relevant international sources building on each other. Where deviations from this approach have occurred, this is highlighted with reasons. Therefore, this paper is written in the format of an essay rather than in the format of a genuine research paper. Four separate periods are considered in a roughly chosen chronological classification. The first of these ranges from 1977 to about 1990 – the early years. During this period, the approach of real options was discussed and further developed, especially in international finance research. In the following second period from around 1990 to 2005, the real options approach developed very actively in theory and practice. In particular, during this period high expectations were placed on the practical relevance of the evaluation of investments - both quantitatively and qualitatively. In addition to the international specialist literature, individual approaches from Germany will also be examined in order to illustrate the recognizable effort to broadly establish the real options approach. The third identified period extends from 2005 to the present. It is characterised above all by the fact that the real options approach here has simultaneously withdrawn from the previous expectation of broad and even general applicability and intensified the discussion on the more specific applicability in certain sectors or situations. Furthermore, an extensive series of empirical studies were conducted during this period. Finally, the applicability was primarily considered as an evaluation instrument as well as the applicability as a strategy instrument. Then, the fourth period should deliver an outlook into the possible further continuation of the real options debate. Firstly, the consideration of real options as a general approach, in which financial options then only represent a special case, will be presented. In addition, the - possible - connection between real options and financial real options is discussed here. 3. Real options – the early years The early years of the real options debate extend from 1977 to about 1990. The term "real option" itself can be traced back to Myers, who already in 1977 addressed the possibility of modelling the growth opportunities of a company as an option. The possible applicability of this idea is taken into account in particular for possible investment decisions that are difficult or impossible to reverse in themselves, in an environment of uncertainty about their future success. Myers suggested to break down the enterprise value into already existing values of assets in place and the present value of future growth opportunities: V = Va + Vg Va = present value of assets in place Vo = present value of future opportunities Ultimately, Myers has more or less indirectly discovered the real options approach in the analysis of specific determinants of credit financing. In doing so, he highlighted individual similarities between financial and real options. In essence, this is
95 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 the value of an opportunity – created or acquired – to invest in growth. The corresponding real option then unfolds its value against the background of risks over the possible investment success. Following on from the work of Black and Scholes (Black / Scholes 1973) and Merton (Merton 1973) on the valuation of financial options, the first phase of the consideration of real options also focused essentially on the question of their adequate valuation. The contribution of Margrabe (Margrabe 1978), which discusses the option value of the mutual change of assets, is only indirectly regarded as an early part of the real options approach. It mainly concentrated on the question of how to value the specific option to change. Ross, on the other hand, continued the approach of real options (Ross 1978). He analyzed high-risk projects, which he then further classified as real options. He also discussed possible approaches to valuing corresponding real options analogously to financial options. Cox, Ross and Rubinstein (Cox / Ross / Rubinstein 1979) developed a binomial approach to option valuation, which is used particularly in the discrete time analysis of options and may therefore be ideal for the analysis of real options. Geske (Geske 1979) evaluated a composite option – an option that leads to another embedded option – which is essentially used to evaluate – real – growth opportunities after an initial investment. Carr (Carr 1988) valued sequential compound exchange options, with one option to purchase a subsequent option to exchange the underlying for another risky alternative. Carr's contribution is to be assessed as lying between the analysis of financial options and real options. In addition to the contributions primarily focused on questions of the valuation of real options and their demarcation from financial options, contributions have also emerged in the first phase of the treatment of real options, which are affected by the more strategic side of the topic. Based on empirical research on companies' investment and investment planning decisions, Kester (Kester 1984) has concluded that future investment opportunities should be seen as analogous to conventional options to buy securities. McDonald and Siegel (McDonald / Siegel 1984, 1986) also did the transfer of the shown analogy of financial and real options. Myers (Myers 1984) himself went beyond his 1977 approach and highlighted the limits of valuation of investments using the simple discounted cash flow method. He argued that investments should often be more aligned with a company's longer-term strategy. Brennan and Schwartz (Brennan / Schwartz 1985) developed an approach in which an option for the temporary closure and reopening of a raw material mine is modelled. Based on the valuation of – marketable – raw materials, the real options approach of Paddock, Siegel and Smith (Paddock / Siegel / Smith 1988) is similarly oriented. Furthermore, Trigeorgis and Manson (Trigeorgis / Manson 1987) point out that traditional net present value or discounted cash flow approaches are used in the practice of investment analysis and valuation. However, there is sometimes a lack of ability to estimate future earnings or cash flows in an uncertain environment. Therefore, with respect to investment analysis in an uncertain environment, the present value may distort the outcome of an investment program. Then, Dixit contributed a paper on real options that analyzed market entry and exit decisions of companies in an uncertain world. In summary, it can be said that the first phase of the discussion on the approach to real options initially led to a differentiation from the financial options. Commonalities and differences in the valuation of both types of options were taken into account. The approach of the real options was further pursued – in the first steps – as an instrument for the formulation, analysis and implementation of a corporate strategy. The initial research was driven in particular by American scientists. 4. Real options – the rapid expansion The period from about 1990 to 2005 showed a rapid development of the real options approach in the theoretical literature and beyond into the practice of companies. Pindyck (Pindyck 1991) contributed to the investment behaviour of companies in an environment of uncertainty and created a much-noticed work on the further development of the real options approach. With this publication, Pindyck took up his paper from 1988 (Pindyck 1988), which was still more focused on questions of evaluation than on questions of real options for action. In 1994, Dixit and Pindyck (Dixit / Pindyck 1994) offered a further development and refinement of the real options approach including a summary of the status of the discussion relevant here in a respected book. Then the real options approach increasingly turned to practical discussion. An opening transition from theory to practice could be seen in Trigeorgis' (Trigeorgis 1995) respected editorial work, which is explicitly devoted to bridging models across strategies and then to the practical implementation of real options. Trigeorgis (Trigeorgis 1986) immediately added another book, also geared to the practical implementation of the real options approach. Luehrman (Luehrman 1997, 1998) as well as Leslie and Michaels (Leslie / Michaels 1997) contributed suggestions to incorporate the real options approach into corporate strategy practise. Then Copeland, Koller and Murrin (Copeland / Koller / Murrin 1998) presented a
96 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 groundbreaking book on corporate valuation and shareholder value that explicitly and practically incorporates the strategic possibilities of real options. Together with Antikarov, Copeland (Copeland / Antikarov 2001) issued a practitioner’s guide to real options. Next, Amram and Kulatilaka published an esteemed practical book (Amram / Kulatilaka 1999a) and other essays (Amram / Kulatilaka 1999b) on the application of the real options approach in the strategy work of companies. Among other things, Kulatilaka (Kulatilaka 1993) had previously supplied a case study on the practical application of the real options approach. In the context of considering the phase of the rapid expansion of the approach of the real options, it is helpful to also examine a further international dissemination of the topic as well as a transition from theory to – planned – practical implementation or conversion into the valuation and decision accounting of companies. Selected contributions from the relevant debate in Germany may be a suitable proof of this. One example is Meise's dissertation (Meise 1998), which examines real options as a method of investment calculation. The contribution by Crasselt and Tomaszewski (Crasselt /Tomaszewski 1999) – aimed at students – and the contributions by Hommel and Pritsch (Hommel / Pritsch 1999) and Nelles and Rocke (Nelles / Rocke 2001) go in the same direction. In addition to investment valuation, Rams (Rams 1998, 1999) also contributes on the subject of company valuation using real options. Another paper by Rams (Rams 2001) is focused on the valuation of investments in power generation. Next to this, in the editorial work by Hommel, Vollrath and Scholich (Hommel / Vollrath / Scholich 2001) some more examples for the possible practical implementation of the real options approach are discussed. Looking back again at the international - here again American – part of the real options debate, the contribution of Damodaran (Damodaran 2005) can be noted. It summarizes the possibilities and applicability of the real options approach based on a series of discussed examples. In summary, it can be said that in its expansion phase the real options approach has also found a lot of resonance, both internationally and in management practice beyond the discussion in academia. In addition to the international research community, managers, consultants and many students were also active in the topic. A comprehensive reorientation of the investment calculation was even postulated. In this case, the real options approach would then be regarded as a general approach and the discounted cash flow case would then only be the special approach for valuation and investment decisions. In retrospect, however, it must be said that the high expectations of the real options approach were not - fully - fulfilled. This may be partly due to the end of the dotcom bubble, which should be followed by concepts that are more conservative. In addition, maybe many companies have not yet found themselves in a position to implement the approach in a transparent and resilient manner. After the phase of rapid expansion, the discussion on the topic of real options has continued with high activity, but has returned from the general public to the more academic specialist discussion. Looking back today, the discussion about real options is sometimes regarded as only a trend topic to a certain extent (Schüler 2016). 5. Real options – the recent years The period from 2005 to the present shows a continued high level of activity in dealing with the topic of real options. Here it is possible to identify some basic trends in advance. The internationality that has been achieved has remained; new contributions are being made from various countries. In general, however, the discussion tends to withdraw from management practice and returns to academic expert theory. Then, narrower circles of expert discussion on real options have emerged. Overall, some observations can be highlighted for discussion: First, various empirical tests were conducted on the general applicability of real options. Second, different areas of application – with difficult delimitation – that particularly affect certain industries were examined in more detail. Thirdly, the real options approach is also further examined as an independent valuation method. Fourthly, the real options approach remains a strategic tool in the ongoing discussion. In the following, the four trend lines highlighted here are each illustrated briefly using three representative examples. Empirical research First, the question under which circumstances managers decide on IT projects based on the results of a real options valuation has been analysed empirically by Tiwana et al. (Tiwana / Wang / Keil / Ahluwalia 2007). The result of their analysis shows that managers here do not behave completely rationally and do not use the real options approach appropriately. Lee, Makhija and Paik (Lee / Makhija / Paik 2008) have conducted another empirical study. They have shown that the value of real options varies with the degree of uncertainty for the respective company.
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Then, an empirical study close to finance theory has been presented by Grullon, Lyandres and Zhdanov (Grullon / Lyandres / 2012). They have found out that the positive correlation between equity returns and volatility of corporate returns is due to the real options of the companies. They also have noted that the positive volatility-return ratio is stronger for companies with more real options. Then, the sensitivity of company value to changes in volatility decreases after companies have exercised their real options. On the basis of these and many other empirical studies, the basis is laid for using the approach of real options – modified – for practical applications. Industrial sectors For a start, Thompson, Davison and Rasmussen (Thompson / Davison / Rasmussen 2009) have shown an interesting example for the evaluation of natural gas storage facilities. In addition, they propose solutions to optimize the management of these storage facilities using the real options approach. Although their paper deals with a practical case, is appears still to be quite theoretical – as it uses nonlinear partial integro-difference equations. An important result of their study is the finding that storage management can be approached similarly to the management of financial put and call options. Next, Secomandi and Seppi (Secomandi / Seppi 2014) discuss the operation of energy conversion plants such as refineries, power plants, storage facilities and other capital-intensive infrastructures as real options on the underlying commodity prices. Their paper presents the application of basic principles of option valuation. It analyses the structure of optimal operating management of commodity conversions. Savolainen, Collan and Luukka (Savolainen / Collan / Luukka 2017) provide an analysis of the real operating options for metal mining investments by making use of a system dynamic model. Their study shows how the model can be used to analyse the impact on the profitability of three real operating options: the option to temporarily stop production, the option to stop production, and the option to increase production. In addition, the paper also shows that the choice of debt ratio can affect the profitability of the project. Valuation method The real options approach is very often used as a tool for quantitative valuations. Cortazar, Gravet and Urzua (Cortazar / Gravet / Urzua 2008) have employd a simulation method to value multidimensional American real options. Their valuation is approach appears to be relatively complex. It refers to a practical case but comes itself to the result that these kind of models may be too complex for corporate investment decisions. Then, well known and regarded is the book of Schulmerich (Schulmerich 2010) that analyses real options valuation for non-constant versus constant interest rates using simulations and historical backtesting. Real options are investigated and combined with various pricing tools and stochastic term structure models. Interest rates for real options valuation are simulated by using stochastic term structure models. Also, a demanding game theory approach is employed by Rigopoulos (Rigopoulos 2014). This contribution discusses the strategic interaction of different players - and evaluates the quantitative results. Strategy tool As already shown the real option approach is not only a tool for valuations but also one that can be used for the analysis and optimisation of strategies. In this context, Smit and Trigeorgis (Smit / Trigeorgis 2012) have published a book that uses game theory to illustrate the strategic use of investments in interaction with other market players. Next, Driouchi and Bennet (Driouchi / Bennet 2012) have demonstrated the use of real options in management and organizational strategy. They have worked out the impact of decision making in companies on their performance. Specifically, they have examined and categorized the decision and performance implications of real options within the management theories of a multinational company. A different strategic approach using real options has been presented by Leiblein, Chen and Posen (Leiblein ,/ Chen / Posen 2017). They have shown that a strategic allocation of resources – using a real options view – can help to create competitive advantages. In the course of examining the trend lines of the more recent real options debate presented here, it becomes clear that their delimitation is not easy in parts and that overlaps and additions can also be identified. The overall picture shall be summarised here that the real options debate appears to be in a phase of post-processing which takes place after the previous phase of rapid expansion. The current phase could lead to a return of the then further developed real options approach to the future theoretical and practical discussion.
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6. Real options – further research directions The examination of the debate on real options over time, based on a review of the literature, has shown how it has evolved from its beginnings through a period of rapid expansion to a period of recent consolidation and still further evolution. For the further development of the real option approach, two current perspectives towards a more general approach may be named today. First, Benoit (Benoit 2019), in applying the real options approach to climate change issues, proposes to extend the approach to a general approach, including, for example, financial options as a special case. Secondly, Ragozzino, Reuer and Trigeorgis (Ragozzino / Reuer / Trigeorgis 2016) propose to link strategy and financing - of companies - more closely using the real options approach. This view would then include so-called “financial real options”. 7. Summary The real options debate, which has existed for more than four decades, shows an impressive course. This is characterized by different waves. The beginnings of the distinction between real options and financial options were followed by a period of very dynamic development. There were high expectations with regard to the breadth and depth of the possible applicability in theory and economic practice. Recently, however, the corresponding debate - with a rather undiminished intensity of discussion - has led to a retreat into theory. There are currently prospects of a renewed attempt to broaden the real options approach. Firstly, there is discussion of understanding the real options approach as – then, nevertheless, – a more general theoretical approach, which, for example, includes financial options as a special case. Furthermore, it seems worthwhile to develop the analysis of strategy and financing of companies into a new more general understanding on the basis of the approach of real options. The outcome of this development will provide a – further – result on the real potential success and benefits of the real option approach. References [1] Amram, M./ Kulatilaka, N. (1999a): Real options — Managing strategic investment in an uncertain world. Harvard Business School Press. [2] Amram, M./ Kulatilaka, N. (1999b): Disciplined decisions — Aligning strategy with the financial markets. Harvard Business Review, January-February, pp. 95–104. [3] Benoit, M. (2019). Real option analysis and climate change: A new framework for environmental policy analysis. Springer International Publishing. [4] Black, F. / Scholes, M.S. (1973). The pricing of options and corporate liabilities. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 81, pp. 637-659. [5] Brennan, M./ Schwartz, E.S. (1985). Evaluating natural resource investments. The Journal of Business, vol. 58, issue 2, 135-157. [6] Carr, P. (1988). The valuation of sequential exchange opportunities. The Journal of Finance, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 1235-1256. [7] Copeland, T. / Antikarov, V. (2001). Real options: A practitioner’s guide, TEXERE, New York. [8] Copeland, T./ Koller, T./ Murrin, J. (1998). Unternehmenswert – Methoden und Strategien für eine wertorientierte Untemehmensführung, Frankfurt am Main, New York. [9] Cortazar, G. / Gravet, M. / Urzua, J. (2008). The valuation of multidimensional American real options using the LSM simulation method. Computers & Operations Research, 35(1), pp. 113-129. [10] Cox, J.C. / Ross, S.A. / Rubinstein, M. (1979). Option pricing: A simplified approach. Journal of Financial Economics, No. 7, pp. 229–263. [11] Crasselt, N. / Tomaszewski, C. (1999). Realoptionen: eine neue Methode der Investitionsrechnung? WiSt, 28. Jg., H. 10, pp. 556-559. [12] Damodaran, A. (2005). The promise and peril of real options. NYU Working Paper No. S-DRP-05-02, Posted: 5 Nov 2008. [13] Dixit, A. (1989). Entry and exit decisions under uncertainty. The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 97, No. 3, pp. 620-638. [14] Dixit, A. / Pindyck, R. (1994). Investment under uncertainty. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
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[15] Driouchi, T. / Bennett, D. J. (2012). Real options in management and organizational strategy: A review of decision‐making and performance implications. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14(1), pp. 39- 62. [16] Geske, R (1979). The valuation of compound options. Journal of Financial Economics, vol. 7, issue 1, pp. 63- 81. [17] Grullon, G. / Lyandres, E. / Zhdanov, A. (2012). Real options, volatility, and stock returns. The Journal of Finance, 67(4), pp. 1499-1537. [18] Hommel, U. / Pritsch, G. (1999). Marktorientierte Investitionsbewertung mit dem Realoptionsansatz: Ein Implementierungsleitfaden für die Praxis. Finanzmarkt und Portfolio Management, H. 2, pp. 121–144. [19] Hommel U. / Vollrath R. / Scholich M. (eds) (2001). Realoptionen in der Unternehmenspraxis. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. [20] Kester, W.C. (1984). Today’s option for tomorrow’s growth. Harvard Business Review, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 153- 160. [21] Kulatilaka, N. (1993). The value of flexibility — The case of a dual-fuel industrial steam boiler. Financial Management, pp. 271–280. [22] Lee, S. H. / Makhija, M. / Paik, Y. (2008). The value of real options investments under abnormal uncertainty: The case of the Korean economic crisis. Journal of World Business, 43(1), pp. 16-34. [23] Leiblein, M. J. / Chen, J. S. / Posen, H. E. (2017). Resource allocation in strategic factor markets: A realistic real options approach to generating competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 43(8), pp. 2588-2608. [24] Leslie, K. / Michaels, M. P. (1997). The real power of real options. The McKinsey Quarterly, no.3., pp. 5-22. [25] Luehrman, T.A. (1997). What’s it worth? A general manager’s guide to valuation. Harvard Business Review, May-June, pp. 132–142. [26] Luehrman, T.A. (1998). Strategy as a portfolio of real options. Harvard Business Review, September-October, pp. 89–99. [27] Margrabe, W. (1978). The value of an option to change one asset for another. Journal of Finance, No. 1, pp. 177–186. [28] McDonald, R. / Siegel, D. (1984). Option pricing when the underlying asset earns a below-equilibrium rate of return: A note. Journal of Finance, vol. 39, issue 1, pp. 261-265. [29] McDonald, R. / Siegel, D. (1986). Investment and the valuation of firms when there is an option to shut down. International Economic Review, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 331-349. [30] Meise, Florian (1998). Realoptionen als Investitionskalkül. München/Wien. [31] Merton, R. (1973). The theory of rational option pricing. The Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 141-183. [32] Myers, S.C. (1977). Determinants of corporate borrowing. Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 5. No. 2, pp. 147-175. [33] Myers, S.C. (1984). Finance theory and financial strategy. Interfaces, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 126-137. [34] Nelles, M. / Rocke, R. (2001). Realoptionsbasierte Investitionsentscheidungen. Finanzbetrieb, 02/01, pp. 93– 96. [35] Paddock, J. L. / Siegel, D. R. / Smith, C. W. (1988). Option valuation of claims in real assets: The case of offshore petroleum leases. Quarterly Journal of Economies Vol. 103, pp. 479-508. [36] Pindyck, R. (1988). Irreversible investment, capacity choice, and the value of the firm. American Economic Review, vol. 78, issue 5, 969-985. [37] Pindyck, R. (1991). Irreversibility, uncertainty, and investment. Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 29, issue 3, 1110-1148. [38] Ragozzino, R. / Reuer, J.J. / Trigeorgis, L. (2016). Real Options in Strategy and Finance: Current Gaps and Future Linkages. Academy of Management Perspectives, Vol. 30(4), pp. 428-440. [39] Rams, A. (1998). Strategisch-dynamische Unternehmensbewertung mittels Realoptionen. Die Bank, 11/98, (November), pp. 676–680. [40] Rams, A. (1999). Realoptionsbasierte Unternehmensbewertung. Finanzbetrieb, 11/99, pp. 349–364. [41] Rams, A. (2001). Die Bewertung von Kraftwerksinvestitionen als Realoption. Hommel U., Vollrath R., Scholich M. (eds) Realoptionen in der Unternehmenspraxis. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. [42] Rigopoulos, G., (2014). Investment appraisal by means of a two period real options signaling game. International Journal of Economic Practices and Theories, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 444-454.
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[43] Ross, S.A. (1978). A simple approach to the valuation of risky income streams. Journal of Business, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 453-475. [44] Savolainen, J. / Collan, M. / Luukka, P. (2017). Analyzing operational real options in metal mining investments with a system dynamic model. The Engineering Economist, 62(1), pp. 54-72. [45] Schüler, A. (2016). Aktuelle Fragen zur Unternehmensbewertung in Theorie und Praxis. Vorlesungsskript WK RECH 2016, Universität Passau. [46] Schulmerich, M. (2010). Real options valuation: The importance of interest rate modelling in theory and practice, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. [47] Secomandi, N. / Seppi, D. J. (2014). Real options and merchant operations of energy and other commodities. Foundations and Trends in Technology, Information and Operations Management, 6(3–4), pp. 161-331. [48] Smit, H. T. / Trigeorgis, L. (2012). Strategic investment: Real options and games. Princeton University Press. [49] Thompson, M. / Davison, M. / Rasmussen, H. (2009). Natural gas storage valuation and optimization: A real options application. Naval Research Logistics (NRL), 56(3), pp. 226-238. [50] Tiwana, A. / Wang, J. / Keil, M. / Ahluwalia, P. (2007). The bounded rationality bias in managerial valuation of real options: Theory and evidence from IT projects. Decision Sciences, 38(1), pp. 157-181. [51] Trigeorgis, L. ed. (1995). Real options in capital investment: Models, strategies, and applications. Greenwood Publishing Group. [52] Trigeorgis, L. (1996). Real options: Managerial flexibility and strategy in resource allocation. MIT press. [53] Trigeorgis, L. / Manson, S. P. (1987). Valuing managerial flexibility. Midland Corporate Finance Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 14-21.
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The Impact of the Perceived Service Quality on Revisit Intention in the Tourism Industry: A Conceptual Framework of Strategic Approach and Analysis
Lola Kleisari Dr. Evangelia N. Markaki
Abstract Service quality (SQ) is of strategic importance in the hospitality sector from both company’s and customers’ viewpoint. Hence, it is crucial for every organization’s function and survival in such a competitive era. As proven in the literature, competitive advantage apart of being an indicator of a firm’s successful performance, it is an indicator of a firm’s profitability. Through a review in literature there are five hypotheses formed accordingly to the five dimensions of service quality that affect guest retention. The study’s objectives are 1) to identify the dominant guest-defined characteristic of service quality 2) to examine its strategic impact on revisit intention and 3) to identify whether any differences occur between Greek and European guests in the way they perceive service quality. The aim is to provide strategic insights regarding the perceptions of service quality among Greek and European guests, as well as to clarify if there are any differences in the way their perceptions are formed in order to contribute to the literature with regard to the Greek hospitality sector. Questionnaires, based on the SERVQUAL model will be used, in order to collect data from guests that have previously visited a 4 or 5 star hotel. Upon collection, the data will be analyzed with the use of the SPSS program. This paper follows the standards of similar surveys in the industry focused on the measurement of Service Quality. Though, little attempt can be spotted in regards to service quality in 4 and 5 star hotel sector in Greece and give practical directions for strategic design and implementation of services. Keywords Customer satisfaction, Service quality, SERVQUAL, guest culture, customer retention, strategic design, statistics.
Acknowledgements: this study is part of the ongoing Dissertation Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of Master in International Hospitality Management of Derby University (Mediterranean College Campus Greece)
Introduction Service quality (SQ) is of great importance in the hospitality sector from both managers’ and customers’ viewpoint. Hence, it is crucial for every organization’s function and survival in such a competitive era(Al-Ababneh, 2016).As proven in the literature, competitive advantage apart of being an indicator of a firm’s successful performance, it is an indicator of a firm’s profitability (Kim and Oh, 2004).Due to the perishability and the nature of the services, those functions are different in manufacturing and service industry, whereas, in the latter, the relationship of the product and the guest (consumer) is formed at the same time of the consumption (e.g. direct contact of the front office agent and the guest) (Kandampully, 2006). The intangibility of the services sector can rend the measurement of objectively non-countable elements, such as quality, a complex task. The hospitality literature is full of practices that affect guest retention and concludes that it is a process that starts from “within” the organization. For example, internal communication and employee retention can be a factor that affects guest retention(Buhalis, 2001; Kim, Knutson and Han, 2015) In addition, Jung and Woon, (2013) suggest that it has a positive echo on customer satisfaction and loyalty and is related to the firm’s performance and image. (Chi and Gursoy, 2009; Jung and Woon, 2013). To begin with, a brief historical review with regard to the international tourism development, shows that nevertheless historical and political situations such as the world fuel crisis on the late 70s and the Gulf War at the late 80s, worldwide tourism kept rising, particularly in Europe, which remained the main touristic destination, regardless the fact that the less developed regions of the world faced a decline. Overall, it has been proved that the effect on tourism was for a short period
102 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 of time and moreover, the tourist product is considered as a key source for investment for both the consumer and the government (Witt and Moutinho, 1995). ‘Sea and Sun’ concept has been marking the Greek hospitality sector since 1960. However, little effort has been made to take advantage of this concept through a structured business scheme in order to diversify the Greek tourism product with the intention to expand it in all its other forms (Papadimitriou, Boussia and Trakas, 2016). By exploring the keywords: ‘service quality’ a handful of studies have been found regarding leisure and recreation tourism and more specifically sports and festivals (Barlas, Mantis and Koustelios, 2010; Costa and Glinia, 2004; Papadimitriou, 2013; Theodorakis, Goulimaris and Gargalianos, 2003). However, little emphasis has been given on how customers perceive service quality in the Greek hotel sector, which was the stepping stone for the study’s conceptualization. A SWOT Analysis performed by Buhalis (2001), demonstrates that despite the numerous strengths of Greek tourism, e.g. cultural heritage, family orientation, natural surroundings, local products, the weaknesses underlined need further attention in terms of operations like marketing and management in the industry. Given the above, this paper will focus on the marketing operations in the hotel industry, searching from the customer’s viewpoint about service expectations in a continental framework (Buhalis, 2001). A handful of studies have enriched the literature regarding guest satisfaction and quality of the services provided in the hotel industry. However, it remains an infinite debate which are the key attributes that drive the guests to return in hotels. Initially, this paper aims to identify how Greeks and other European tourists perceive service quality in the hospitality industry and then how it affects both Greek and other European guests regarding the intention to revisit. Moreover, a stimulated study by Luo and Qu (2016), found out that Western culture differs from the Eastern one in the way they perceive service quality in the hotel industry, with the first to be more likely to generate positive feedback. The current study seeks to investigate whether this phenomenon applies to guests from Greece and other European countries, towards the Greek hotel sector. This is stressed due to the fact that even within the Western culture with diverse components, differences can be found. Therefore, the research questions of the study are the following: Which are the key elements of service quality that define guest satisfaction and revisit intention? Is thenatives’ perception of the Greek hotel industry anydifferent compared to the Europeans’ one? A review in literature regarding world perceptions of service quality will be illustrated including studies from all over the world.Secondary research on the perceptions of service quality is gathered to demonstrate findings from the 5 continents. At a next stage, a reference is made upon service quality measurement tools, with emphasis on the one that the author will be using in this paper. Furthermore, the study’s conceptual framework will be formed followed by a presentation of the research methodology that will be applied in this paper,in order to conclude in the findings. Services marketing Hospitality industry is of great importance in terms of income generation and employment, however, little emphasis has been given in the relation between hospitality and services marketing, a field that lacks two-way communication as far as it concerns the literature. Hospitality is characterized by the strong human element, thus this sector should be covered more thoroughly by reviewing the constituency model that incorporates its internal and interactive marketing activities (Baker and Magnini, 2016). In the hospitality industry, “marketing is a term often used when referring to selling and advertising” (Weane and Morrison, 2013, pp.18). However, this definition does not indicate all the marketing process, instead, it refers to just two major aspects of it. The origin of the definition of the term ‘Marketing’ derives from American Marketing Association which states that:“Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large” (AMA, 2008).
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Exploring the variable of Guest’s Culture Culture is one’s belonging and heritage and it affects the way he/she perceives and experiences the world. Apart from perceptions and experiences, it affects decisions and behaviours. Thus , there is a systematic relationship between culture and the service provider. More specifically, Weiermair, 2000, explored the impact of culture in customers (tourists) perceptions of service quality and in the marketing of tourism services, concluding that an international approach should be integrated as to enhance competitiveness and to be able to meet different guests’ expectations (Weiermair, 2000). Service quality and world perceptions There is not a single definition for the term “quality”.Thus, its significance is of great importance in the hospitality industry in terms of the relationship between administration and customers. The understanding of this terminology will provide knowledge to the organization so as to improve its services and consecutively to determine its strategy towards customer satisfaction (Ghobadian, et al. 1994). Quality, as a concept, it is complex to define. It is a field that aroused gradually and steadily throughout the centuries. In the 18th and 19th century its control processes were executed in a more informal way, until it reached its recent form as “the strategic quality management”. (Garvin, 1988) “Quality control evaluates actual quality by comparing performance to quality goals and then acting on the detected differences. Based on the process control system established in the planning phase, quality control is part of the quality management process.” (Pizam and Holcomb, 2008, pp. 228) . Quality can be perceived by a consumer-based prism as well as an expert-based one. The ideal service perceived by the consumer is different from an expert, with the second to put emphasis on the standards from an internal point-of-view. In addition, satisfaction highlights the customer experience and it affects directly the consumer (Torres, 2014). Literature has shown that both employees and customers benefit from the implementation of the principles of Total Quality Management (Benavides-Velasco, Quintana-Garcia and Marchante-Lara, 2014).Various authors, by measuring hotel service quality in China, Iran and New Zealand, agree that the quality of services positively affects customer loyalty since customer’s emotions are highly influenced by the level of experience provided. Plus, positive customer’s perceptions towards service experience raise customer satisfaction (Ali, Amin and Cobanoglu, 2016; Hosseini, Zainal and Sumarjan, 2015; Kandampully and Suhartanto, 2013). Regarding revisit intention, Kandampully and Suhartanto (2013),highlighted that housekeeping satisfaction is determinant to the customer’s intention to revisit and recommend.Adding to it, authors studying the hotel sector in the UK note that room cleanliness and appearance is a prerequisite forrevisit intention (Ramanathan and Ramanathan, 2011).The above statement is in agreement with Ingram’s and Daskalaki’s assumption back in 1999, that tangibles (the personnel appearance, room cleanliness, equipment, and facilities provided along with Information Technology (IT) materials) are the ultimate satisfaction characteristic for a guest in the hotel sector in Greece, by reviewing hotels in Crete. In this way, the study’s first hypotheses is formed: H1: Customer retention relies on tangibles. This hypothesis is however, opposing to Minh, et al. (2015), in terms of the dominant dimension of service quality that positively affects guests. By measuring guest satisfaction in Vietnamese hotel industry, the above authors came to the conclusion that tangibles is the characteristic with the less consequences on guests’ satisfaction. In resort and hotel spa sector in China, reliability and responsiveness ranked as the key elements for customer satisfaction towards the service provider, whereas surprisingly, tangibles ranked as the least important factor (Lo, Wu and Tsai 2015). Furthermore, research, in the restaurant sector, reveals that empathy and reliability are the ultimate dimensions of guests’ perceptions and can enhance their satisfaction (Lee and Hing, 2015).In astudy,20 years earlier, Martin,(1995),revealed that reliability was the ultimate dimension from both management and employee viewpoint. This is also confirmed by a survey of Cappadocia's hotel industry, ranks empathy as being in the first place of guest-defined perceptions whilst evaluating service quality (Yilmaz, 2009). H3: Customer retention relies on Reliability. H4: Customer retention relies on Responsiveness
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In a theoretical framework, Pizam, (2015), explored the term “Empathy” and its implication in real-life cases between the service providers and consumers. He examined two sectors: luxury hotels and hospitals. In both sectors he found out that Empathy is not a prerequisite skill in order to deliver high-quality standards in service; thus he stated that the “mystery ingredient” is Culture. In contrast, a recent study, by Christou et al.(2019), explored the relationship between guest and host in terms of empathy and perception of emotions while interacting with the service providers (hosts). The impact on both found to be imperative. Management should protect employee and employee and guest, respectively, must set limits to their transactions (Christou, Avloniti and Farmaki, 2019). H2: Customer retention relies on Empathy. Interestingly, research by Worsfold et al. (2016) in a large global hotel chain concludes that providing a hotel with only quality services is not enough to attract and keep the customer. What customers value is not what managers think most of the time (Worsfold et al. 2016). There are more factors that affect service quality, those of service context and time. This is to say that the guests’ impressions vary according to the time frame and the context of service and should not be crystallized (Strombeck and Shu 2014). H5: Customer retention relies on Assurance. Customer’s satisfaction affect more than a part of a company. It is rather difficult to predict whether customer satisfaction derives from the quality provided by an organization, in this case a hotel. In terms of customer satisfaction, Lewis, (1987), came to the conclusion that it does not necessarily mean that a customer can be dissatisfied with the company, but, having a tendency to “succumb” to competition within the industry. Given the above statement, each company should focus on improving its services by meeting and exceeding customers’ expectations by focusing on the elements that enhance customer loyalty. Guest-defined perceptions of quality have a positive echo on customers’ loyalty with the brand as well as intention to revisit and recommend (Janinskas, et al. 2016). Furthermore, this is in accordance with a study conducted in2009 by Hu, Kandampully and Juwaheer, regarding the impact of high standards of quality on the perceived value of the firm with the one complementing the other. By increasing the competitiveness, hotels increase the customers’ perceived value, satisfaction and retention. Therefore, high standards of quality lead to high perceptions of quality. Service quality: Measurement Tools Service quality as an element of obtaining competitive advantage has been strongly argued in the field of hospitality literature. Previous studies have introduced and tested service quality models, as an effective way of measuring guest satisfaction. Spencer and Crick (2011) suggest that “QFD flowdown process” is the best model for service quality. By monitoring step-by step, both employees and managers activities in the spectrum of the transformation process (input- processes-output), it is a way to ensure the minimum level of guest satisfaction is met (Spencer and Crick, 2011). Another model, the SERVQUALOYAL, was introduced by Luo, and Qu (2016), in order to specify and categorize the findings in the loyalty frame. The aim is to measure both the expected and the experienced loyalty from the customer’s point of view (Janinskas, et al. 2016). According to Parasuraman, Berry and Zeithaml, (1988), customer perceptions of quality can be assessed by a 22-item instrument (SERVQUAL), a tool that is used in both retail and service industries. The testing of the modified SERVQUAL scale is applied in a number of studies in the 20th and 21st century in the hotel and restaurant industry, providing insights and implications on the hospitality marketing sector (Ekinci,Prokopaki and Cobanoglu, 2003; Minh, et al., 2015; Murphy, et al., 2007; Lee and Hing, 1995).Originally, the SERVQUAL scale, is divided in 10 elements (Tangibles, Reliability, Responsiveness, Competence, Courtesy, Credibility, Security, Access, Communication, and Understanding) which later on formed the term RATER, a shorter definition of Reliability, Assurance, Tangibles, Empathy and Responsiveness (Pizam, 2015). Each of thosedimensions characterizes the quality of a service: Reliability- the ability to provide what a company has promised. Assurance- the ability of the company staff to “inspire trust and confidence”. Tangibles- the personnel appearance, equipment, and facilities provided along with Information Technology (IT) materials. Empathy- emotionalattention and considerations regarding guest’s needs.
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Responsiveness- the readiness of the staff to facilitate guest’s needs with an honest “willingness” to assist them(Eshetie, et al., 2016; Pizam, 2015). Even though, the SERVQUAL instrument is widely used for assessing the gaps in service quality, many researchers argue to the extent of its validity as a measurement tool. Williams, (1998), states that SERVQUAL should be combined with other tools in order to measure service quality and should not be considered a one-way path. Gronroos, (1984), introduced another model as an attempt to find out what customers perceive as service quality. The dimensions of this model were built upon the following variables: • The perceived and the expected service. • The firm’s promises and the product performance. • The “technical quality” and the “functional quality” (Gronroos, 1984, p.39). • The firm’s image, as an important factor in the way customers perceive the organization. Perceived service quality is greatly based on the “functional quality” which indicates the way a service is delivered to the consumer. It is subjective compared to the “technical quality” which is objective. Furthermore, image is an important dimension of quality that affects the customer’s perception as it can serve as an indicator of good or bad service in customer’s mind. Satisfied customers are more likely to excuse a bad firm’s performance due to their perception of its good image. The opposite though does not apply (Gronroos, 1984). Modifications and additions have followed the original SERVQUAL instrument. An example is HOLSERV instrument, which is a format that uses the elements of the original SERVQUAL, whilst adding 8 new elements. An Australian hospitality industry study indicates that employees as the human factor, is the strongest indicator of service quality. HOLSERV is recommended for managers (Mai, Dean and White, 1999). Another model is SERVPERF which was employed to measure service quality and guest satisfaction in hotels in Cyprus (Karatepe and Avci, 2002). The Conceptual Framework Through a review in literature there are five hypotheses formed accordingly to the five dimensions of service quality that affect guest retention. As stated in the introduction, the study’s objectives are 1) to identify the dominant guest-defined characteristic of service quality 2) to examine its impact on revisit intention and 3) to identify whether any differences occur between Greek and European guests in the way they perceive service quality. Finally, this paper seeks to confirm whether this statement is indicative towards the hotel sector in Greece. For the study’s purposes, a moderated mediation model is developed to illustrate the elements that are under investigation and their impact on revisit intention examining both native and other European guests ‘perceptions. Two identical models are created , as below: Figure 1: Guests: the conceptual framework
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Methodology Research Philosophy In research, methodology is an essential process in order to collect data for analysis in the most efficient and suitable way. To begin with, two are the main philosophies that define any research attempt: positivism andinterpretivist. Methods of research, researcher’s position, sampling and data collection processes are some of the points that differentiate those philosophies. The basic difference lays on the beliefs of each one of them(Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008). The aim is to provide insights regarding the perceptions of service quality among Greek and European guests, as well as to clarify if there are any differences in the way their perceptions are formed in order to contribute to the literature with regard to the Greek hospitality sector. 4.2 Research Instrument Recent research has shown that questionnaires are widely used when measuring guests’ perceptions of service quality as they proved to be an appropriate tool for measuring guest satisfaction (Dedeoglou, et al. 2018). In the current study,data collection will be done via questionnaires which were distributed at the front desk of hotels in Athens, after gaining consent from the hotel’s management. The procedure started on June2019 and was completed by July2019, during the dissertation process. This period was suitable due to the fact that the survey was conducted in the middle of seasonality in Athens, offering space for more adequate sample. The questionnaires were distributed to current hotel guests and people who have previous 4 or 5 star experience, as to enhance the validity of the survey, as by selecting based on probability sampling, it is more likely to be able to come to a conclusion for the population during the data analysis process (Groves, 2013).Part of this procedure will take in the hotel’s premises as the study’s respondents’ environment is a variable that could provide further insights in terms of reminiscence (Greasley et al., 2013). The survey questionnaire was adapted from Akbaba, (2006), in a study measuring guest satisfaction in a business hotel in Turkey. It consist of three parts; the first part encloses statements related to service quality dimensions seeking to identify guests’ perceptions, applying a modified SERVQUAL scale introduced by Parasuraman et al. The aim is to measure both the expected and the experienced loyalty from the customer’s point of view (Janinskas, et al. 2016). Measurement will be done by using a 5-point Likert type scale, where 1=Very Low and 5=Very High. Quality dimensions will be measured based on the Likert scale measurement. The second part will be constructed in a way that reveals guests’ assessments on the overall service qualityof the hotel in question.The third part entails information regarding the guest’s gender, age, educational background, visiting frequency and nationality. Norris, (1997), researched validity, as a concept in which people understand whether what they read are trustworthy and accurate. In both qualitative andquantitative research, validity can be spotted by errors and prejudices, concepts that are subject to human nature, thus it is difficult to be predicted. Lu, et al. (2003), in order to test the parameter of validity, handed the paper to be examined by experts related to the hospitality field before starting the distribution. 4.3 Sampling The target population are guests who have visited a 4 or 5 star hotel in Greece. Due to the fact that it is rather impossible to study the whole population and in order to define the boundaries of this research, as it is mentioned in the second objective of the study, the sample will be native Greek guests and European ones, including British (Bak, 2011). In order to achieve that, the questionnaires were distributed to current and previous hotel guests as to enhance the validity of the survey, as by selecting based on random spreading sampling, the researcher can obtain adequate sample without required clustering factors (Kondo et al., 2014). Simple random sampling means that every unit of the population has the same possibilities to be selected and included in the overall sample (Bell, Bryman and Harley, 2019). One advantage of the method is that it is a more representative way to come to generalised conclusions for a population (Alvi, 2016). Lack of bias and simplicity are also considered as major advantages of the method (Investopedia, 2019), whereas time and cost are among its disadvantages. In the current study, 100 paper written questionnaires will be distributed. In order to collect data from both native and foreigner population, a transcript both in Greek and English was designed. As it is imperative the message to be appropriately transferred in both languages, the questionnaires were tested and
107 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 translated by a Certified translator, so as to be as thorough as possible while avoiding misinterpretations due to grammatical and syntax errors (Ekinci, Prokopaki and Cobanoglu, 2003). 4.4 Measurements Empathy V5. Employees of the hotel appear neat and tidy (as uniforms and personal grooming) V6. The hotel provides the services as they were promised V13. Employees give guests individualized attention that makes them feel special Assurance V11. Employees have knowledge to provide information and assistance to guests in areas they would require (shopping, museums, places of interest, etc.) V16. Employees have in-depth occupational knowledge (professional skills, foreign language, communication skills, etc.) V15. Employees instill confidence in guests V12. The hotel is also convenient for disabled guests (necessary arrangements made for the disabled) Responsiveness V7. Employees are always willing to serve customers V14. The hotel provides its guests a safe and secure place V10. The hotel provides flexibility in services according to guest demands Reliability V9. The hotel resolves guest complaints and compensate for the inconveniences guests go through V8. The hotel keeps accurate records (reservations, guest records, bills, orders, etc.) V17. It is easy to access to the hotel (transportation, loading and unloading area, car parking area, etc.) Tangibles V1. The service unit of the hotel have adequate capacity (dining rooms, meeting rooms, swimming pools, business center facilities, etc.) V2. The atmosphere and equipment are comfortable and appropriate for purpose of stay (beds, chairs, rooms, etc. comfortable, clean, and tranquil) V3. The equipment of the hotel works properly without causing breakdowns V4. Food and beverages served are hygienic, adequate, and sufficient V5. Employees of the hotel appear neat and tidy (as uniforms and personal grooming) Upon collection, the data will be analyzed with the use of SPSS using multivariable analysis, PCA and Factor Analysis. Conclusions –Discussion This paper aims to explore the relationship between the perceived quality of services and the revisit intention in the 4 and 5 star hotels in Greece. Questionnaires, based on the SERVQUAL model will be used, in order to collect data from guests that have previously visited a 4 or 5 star hotel. 5.1 Ethical considerations The ethical issues arising in quantitative research are also of importance as compared to the qualitative methods.An issue that social researchers come across when conducting research is the issue of confidentiality. Confidentiality declares the 108 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 respect of the individual’s autonomy and the importance of ensuring that disclosed information shall not be used purposely or accidentally in a way that the respondent becomes identifiable. Confidentiality is inextricably linked with anonymity. Even though, researchers often believe that they act on the best interest of the participants, it remains questioned whether by actively participate in a study they should allow the participants deliberately choose how their data will be used (Wiles et al. 2008). In the distribution of the self-completion questionnaires, a cover enclosing the details and the purpose of the study, the University’s name as well as the researcher’s information were in the front page. The issue of anonymity was highlighted and clarified in the cover page. Following the above, according to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Ethics Special Working Committee (SSHWC), several recommendations are illustrated respectfully, regarding privacy and confidentiality issues. The following: 1. “The right to confidentiality vs the right to recognition” 2. “Distinguishing “disclosure of” from “access to” information” 3. “Ethics and Law” 1. “Focus on Ethics” 2. “Matters of Conscience and Responsibility” 4. “Transparency, Openness and Accountability” (SSHWC, 2008) In order to achieve confidentiality and anonymity, a cover letter was handed to both the participants and the hotel management, asking their oral and written consent by signing the terms and conditions of the project. Their name is not revealed at any stage of the research. The only information that needed to be retrieved from the study is the participants’gender, age range, nationality and educational background. Plus, at any stage of the research, participants had the right to withdraw themselves from the process. At this point, it is worth to mention that, whereas cultural diversity is measured it is crucial for the researcher to identify where he positions himself from the research subject and in what extend his knowledge may affect the measurement of the variables (Ying Yang and Le, 2008). 5.2 Limitations In the design of this study, there are some limitations that should be taken into consideration. To begin with, the self- administered questionnaires will be filled by guests that were staying at a hotel at the time of the administration and by individuals that have previously used a hotel accommodation. This means that, there can be bias in terms in the timing of service use. Moreover, it would be adequate if there was also a qualitative research to support and implement the findings, so as to provide the reader with a more in-depth picture of the studied phenomenon. Another limitation can be found in the use of a modified SERVQUAL questionnaire, in terms of completeness of the data. Although SERVQUAL is widely used and accepted in the measurement of service quality, its modified version has received criticism in the literature and this is confirmed by Akbaba, (2006) whose words stated that “ ‘it needs to be adapted for the specific service environments and for the cultural context’’ (Akbaba, 2006 pp. 186). 5.3 Results Prospects The findings can provoke useful tools for corporate processes planning and operations reengineering in the tourism industry. References [1] Akbaba, A. (2006) ‘Measuring service quality in the Hotel Industry: A study in a business hotel in Turkey’, Hospitality Management, 25, pp. 170-192. [2] Al-Ababneh, M. M. (2016) ‘Employees’ perspectives of service quality in hotels’, Research in Hospitality Management, 6(2), pp. 189-193. [3] Ali, F., Amin, M. and Cobanoglu, C. (2016) ‘An Integrated Model of Service Experience, Emotions, Satisfaction, and Price Acceptance: An Empirical Analysis in the Chinese Hospitality Industry’, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 25(4), pp. 449-475.
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[4] Altinay, L. and Paraskevas, A. (2008) Planning Research in Hospitality and Tourism, USA: Butterworth- Heinemann. [5] Alvi M. (2016) ‘A Manual for Selecting Sampling Techniques in Research’, [Online]. Available at: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/70218/ MPRA Paper No. 70218, (Accessed: 16 December 2018). [6] American Marketing Association, (2008) ‘The American Marketing Association Releases New Definition for Marketing’ [online]. Available at: https://archive.ama.org/archive/AboutAMA/Documents/American%20Marketing%20Association%20Releases %20New%20Definition%20for%20Marketing.pdf (Accessed: 11 March 2018). [7] Bak, O. (2011) ‘The Role of Qualitative Research in a Mixed Methods Study ‐ Assessing the e‐Business Enabled Transformation in a Strategic Business Unit’, Qualitative Research Journal, 11(2), pp.76-84. [8] Baker, M.A. and Magnini, V.P. (2016) ‘The evolution of services marketing, hospitality marketing and building the constituency model for hospitality marketing’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(8), pp. 1510-1534. [9] Barlas, A., Mantis, K. and Koustelios, A. (2010) ‘Achieving positive word-of-mouth communication: The role of perceived service quality in the context of Greek ski centres’, World Leisure Journal, 52(4), pp. 290-297. [10] Benavides-Velasco, C. A., Quintana-García, C. and Marchante-Lara, M. (2014) ‘Total quality management, corporate social responsibility and performance in the hotel industry.’ International Journal of Hospitality Management, 41, pp. 77–87. [11] Buhalis, D. (2001) ‘Tourism in Greece: Strategic Analysis and Challenges’, Current Issues in Tourism, 4(5), pp. 440-480. [12] Chi, G. C. and Gursoy, D. (2009) ‘Employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and financial performance: An empirical examination’, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, pp. 245–253. [13] Christou, E. (2015) Branding Social Media in the Travel Industry. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, pp. 607-614. [14] Christou, P., Avloniti, A. and Farmakia, A. (2019) ‘Guests’ perceptions of emotionally expressive and non- expressive service providers within the hospitality context’, Cyprus International Journal of Hospitality Management, 76, pp. 152–162. [15] Costa, G. and Glinia, E. (2004) ‘Sport tourism in Greece’, Journal of Sport & Tourism, 9 (3), pp. 283-286. [16] Crick, A. P. and Spencer, A. (2011) ‘Hospitality quality: new directions and new challenges’ International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23 (4), pp.463-478. [17] Dedeoglou, B. B., Bilgihan, A., Ye, B. H., Buonincontri, P. and Okumuse, F. (2018) ‘The impact of servicescape on hedonic value and behavioral intentions: The importance of previous experience’, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 72, pp. 10-20. [18] Ekinci, Y., Prokopaki, P. and Cobanoglu, C. (2003) ‘Service quality in Cretan accommodations: marketing strategies for the UK holiday market.’ Hospitality Management, 22, pp. 47–66. [19] Eshetie, S. K., Seyoum, W., and Ali, S. H. (2016) ‘Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction in Hospitality Industry: The Case of Selected Hotels in Jimma Town, Ethiopia.’ Global Journal of Management and Business Research: E Marketing, 16(5), pp. 72-86. [20] Garvin, D., A. (1988) ‘Managing quality: the strategic and competitive edge’, London: Collier Macmillan. [21] Ghobadian, A., Speller, S. and Jones, M. (1994) ‘Service Quality Concepts and Models.’ International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 11(9), pp. 43-66. [22] Greasley, A., Lamont, A. and Sloboda, J. (2013) ‘Exploring Musical Preferences: An In depth Qualitative Study of Adult’s Liking for Music in Their Personal Collections’, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 10(4), pp. 402- 427. [23] Grönroos, C. (1984) ‘A Service Quality Model and its Marketing Implications’, European Journal of Marketing, 18(4), pp. 36-44. [24] Groves, M. R. (2013) Survey Methodology. Udo library [online]. Available at: https://www-dawsonera- com.ezproxy.derby.ac.uk/readonline/9781118627327(Accessed: 1 February 2018). [25] Hosseini, R. S., Zainal, A. and Sumarjan, N. (2015) ‘The Effects of Service Performance of Hotel Customers on Quality of Experience and Brand Loyalty in Iran’, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 201, pp.156 – 164.
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[26] Hu, H., Kandampully, J. and Juwaheer, T. V. (2009) ‘Relationships and impacts of service quality, perceived value, customer satisfaction, and image: an empirical study’, The Service Industries Journal, 29(2), pp. 111- 125. [27] Ingram, H. and Daskalakis, G. (1999) ‘Measuring quality gaps in hotels: the case of Crete’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(1), pp.24-30. [28] Jasinskas, E., Streimikiene, D., Svagzdiene, B. and Simanavicius, A. (2016) ‘Impact of hotel service quality on the loyalty of customers.’ Economic Research-EkonomskaIstraživanja, 29(1), pp. 559-572. [29] Jung, H., S. and Woon, H., H. (2016) ‘What does work meaning to hospitality employees? The effects of meaningful work on employees’ organizational commitment: The mediating role of job engagement.’ International Journal of Hospitality Management, 53, pp. 59-68. [30] Kandampully, J. (2006) ‘The new customer‐centered business model for the hospitality industry’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18 (3), pp.173-187. [31] Kandampully, J. and Suhartanto, D. (2013) ‘The Role of Customer Satisfaction and Image in Gaining Customer Loyalty in the Hotel Industry’, Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 10(1-2), pp. 3-25. [32] Karatepe, O. M. and Avci, T. (2002) Measuring Service Quality in the Hotel Industry: Evidences from Northern Cyprus, Anatolia, 13 (1), pp. 19-32. [33] Kim, B. Y. and Oh, H. (2004) ‘How do hotel firms obtain a competitive advantage?’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16 (1), pp.65-71. [34] Kim, M., Knutson, J. B. and Han, J. (2015) ‘Understanding Employee Delight and Voice From the Internal Marketing Perspective’, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 24(3), pp. 260-286. [35] Lee, Y. L. and Hing, N. (1995) ‘Measuring quality in restaurant operations: an application of the SERVQUAL instrument’, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 14(3/4), pp. 293-310. [36] Lewis, R. C., (1987) ‘The measurement of gaps in the quality of hotel services.’ International Journal of Hospitality Management, 6(2), pp. 83-88. [37] Lo, A., Wu, C. and Tsai, H. (2015) ‘The Impact of Service Quality on Positive Consumption Emotions in Resort and Hotel Spa Experiences’, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 24(2), pp. 155-179. [38] Lu, C., Berchoux, C., Marek, M. W. and Chen, B. (2015) ‘Service quality and customer satisfaction: qualitative research implications for luxury hotels’, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9(2), pp.168-182. [39] Luo, Z. and Qu, H. (2016) ‘Guest-Defined Hotel Service Quality and Its Impacts on Guest Loyalty’, Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 17(3), pp. 311-332. [40] Martin, D. W. (1995) ‘An Importance/Performance Analysis of Service Providers' Perception of Quality Service in the Hotel Industry,’ Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 3(1), pp. 5-17. [41] Mei, A. W. O., Dean, A. M. and White, C. J. (1999) ‘Analyzing service quality in the hospitality industry’, Managing Service Quality: An International Journal, 9 (2) , pp.136-143. [42] Minh, N. H., Ha, N. T., Anh, P. C. and Matsui, Y. (2015) ‘Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction: A Case Study of Hotel Industry in Vietnam.’ Asian Social Science, 11(10), pp. 73-85. [43] Murphy, J., Schegg, R., and Olaru, D. (2007) ‘Quality Clusters: Dimensions of hotel responses by luxury hotels.’ Hospitality Management, 26, pp. 743-747. [44] Norris, N. (1997) ‘Error, Bias and Validity in Qualitative Research’, Educational Action Research, 5(1), pp. 172- 176. [45] Papadimitriou, D. (2013) ‘Service Quality Components as Antecedents of Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions: The Case of a Greek Carnival Festival’, Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 14(1), pp. 42-64. [46] Papadimitriou, P, Boussia, N. and Trakas, T. (2016) ‘In Focus: Greece’, Hospitality net [online]. Available at: https://www.hospitalitynet.org/opinion/4078823.html (Accessed: 26 March 2018). [47] Parasuraman, A., Berry, L. L. and Zeithaml, A. V. (1988) ‘SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring Consumer Perception of Service Quality.’ Journal of Retailing Greewich, 64(1), p. 12. [48] Pizam, A. (2015) ‘Is empathy essential for high-quality customer service?’ International Journal of Hospitality Management, 49, pp. 149-150. [49] Pizam, A. and Holcomb, J. (2008) International Dictionary of Hospitality Management. Udo Library [online]. Available at: https://www-dawsonera-com.ezproxy.derby.ac.uk/readonline/9780080561271 (Accessed: 3 January 2018)
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[50] Ramanathan, U. and Ramanathan, R. (2011) ‘Guests' perceptions on factors influencingcustomer loyalty: An analysis for UK hotels’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23 (1), pp.7-25. [51] Social Sciences and Humanities Research Ethics Special Working Committee (SSHWC) (2008) ‘Privacy and Confidentiality’ [online]. Available at: https://www.sfu.ca/~palys/SSHWC- RecommendationsRePrivacyAndConfidentiality2008.pdf (Accessed: 25 January 2018). [52] Strombeck, S. and Shu, S. (2014) "Modeling contextually elicited service quality expectations", Managing Service Quality, 24(2), pp.160-183. [53] Theodorakis, N., Goulimaris, D. and Gargalianos, D. (2003) ‘The relationship between service quality and behavioral intentions for spectators at traditional dance performances in Greece’, World Leisure Journal, 45(1), pp. 53-61. [54] Torres, E. N. (2014) ‘Deconstructing Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction: Challenges and Directions for Future Research’, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(6), pp. 652-677. [55] Weane, N. and Morrison, J. A. (2013) Hospitality Marketing.Udo library [online]. Available at: www.dawsonera.com.ezproxy.derby.ac.uk (Accessed: 24 November 2017). [56] Weiermair, K. (2000) ‘Tourists’ perceptions towards and satisfaction with service quality in the cross‐cultural service encounter: implications for hospitality and tourism management’, Managing Service Quality: An International Journal, 10 (6), pp. 397-409. [57] Wiles, R., Crow, G., Heath, S. and Charles, V. (2008) ‘The Management of Confidentiality and Anonymity in Social Research’,International Journal of Social Research Methodology, [58] Williams, C. (1998) ‘Is the SERVQUAL model an appropriate management tool for measuring service delivery quality in the UK leisure industry?’, Managing leisure, 3(2), pp. 98-110. [59] Witt, S. F and Moutinho, L (1995) Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook, Student edn. Europe: Prentice Hall. [60] Worsfold, K., Fisher, R., McPhail, R., Francis, M. and Thomas, A. (2016) ‘Satisfaction, value and intention to return in hotels’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28 (11), pp.2570-2588. [61] Wu, H. and Ko, Y. J. (2013) ‘Assessment of Service Quality in the Hotel Industry’, Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 14(3), pp. 218-244. [62] Yilmaz, I. (2009) ‘Measurement of Service Quality in the Hotel Industry,’ Anatolia, 20(2), pp. 375-386. [63] Ying Yang, G. and Lê, T. (2008) ‘Cultural and Political Factors in Conducting Qualitative Research in China’, Qualitative Research Journal, 8(2), pp.113-123.
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Is Grit the Key Element to Improve the Life Attitude? A Study with Military Students from Argentina
María Cecilia BARNI Universidad de la Defensa Nacional (Facutlad del Ejército), Universidad Austral (Escuela de Educación) Florencia Teresita DAURA Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones en Psicología Matemática y Experimenta (CIIPME)-CONICET, Universidad Austral (Escuela de Educación)
Abstract The main goal of the study is to analyze the link between Grit and Life Attitude, and its relation with the permanence and academic performance of students from the National Defense University. This paper is mainly focused in the link between the first two constructs. Grit is defined as the passion and constancy to achieving goals, to resisting with effort and interest towards the challenges and difficulties, which is a leader’s attribute (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews y Kelly, 2007). Life Attitude based on the existential belief that life has a purpose, that persons draw meaning from a variety of sources: recreational and creative activities, personal relationships, achievements (Reker & Woo, 2011). A non-probabilistic sample was formed, for convenience, of 162 students; a sociodemographic questionnaire designed ad hoc; the Scale of Determination (Grit Scale) (Duckworth et al., 2007), which is in the process of validation (Tortul and Daura, in evaluation) and the Life Attitude Test (LAP-R (VE-AA)) in the Spanish adaptation of Barni (2017) were administered. Statistical analysis were made from the collected data, in order to corroborate if there were differences in the variables. The first results showed differences according to career and sociodemographic variables; the undergraduate students obtained higher scores in the positive dimensions of the LAP-R than in other researches made in the same geographical context. The work evidences data of interest in the training of defense professionals, for the decision making in the educational style necessary for an integral formation as a lifelong process. Keywords: Grit, Life Attitude, Defence Professionals
1. Introduction The time in which we are insert is a time of lack of the sense or meaning in life, the uncertainty and instability (Bauman, 2002) where is very difficult to find objectives and make decisions (Barni, 2013); the education is dealing with this reality and there is a need to find how to help young people in their search for meaning in life. This research, as part of a broader work, deals with the connection between Grit and Life Attitude and its relationship with the permanence and academic performance in university students of military training to answer the need of adapting the way we teach within the frame of the educational styles and their link with the life attitude. The personal meaning as a construct is conceptualized as the existential belief that life has a purpose. Reker and Woo (2011) claim that people draw meaning from a variety of sources, including recreational activities, meeting basic needs, creative activities, personal relationships, personal and academic achievements. This meaning of life is the knowledge that each person needs to know to develop their vital objectives. Grit, defined as the passion and perseverance to achieve long-term goals, implies resisting with effort and interest in the challenges that may arise, regardless of the difficulties, the monotony and any failures experienced. It is a quality shared by leaders (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly, 2007), particularly those who set medium and long-range objectives,
113 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 and who cling to them to make them a reality. As a capacity that is not innate and can be developed, the role that trainers or educators can exert to promote it is crucial. These two concepts show the great importance of this work and its importance is also shown with the fact that is the first time that they are studied in university students belonging to the armed forces in Argentina. Especially in a society that is crossed by many factors that influence the capacity of various dimensions both of the Life Attitude and the Grit scale. Other studies in Argentinian population have shown that not always the students (regardless of their stage in their vital cycles) are capable of achieve the goals they seek or to fulfil the academic aims they set themselves (Messing, 2009). From these concepts and necesities we decided the three main goals to this stage of the study (a) analyse the differences between the global Grit score and the Life Attitude Profile Revised (LAP-R (VE-AA)) according to sex; (b) examine if there are significant differences in two selected subsamples of undergraduate and graduate students in the military field in the global Grit Scale and the Personal Sense Index extracted from LAP-R (VE-AA) and (c) analyse the correlation between the global Grit Scale score and the Personal Sense Index extracted from LAP-R (VE-AA). The importance of having the results of this study underlies in the fact that this data will provide the authorities of the academic units information in order to make decisions based on empiric data and collaborate to improve the teaching styles. Besides, the students will be aware of the importance of knowing their own goals, capacities and the way to achieve them. 2. Theoretical Framework of Reference Is Grit the Key Element in Education? Grit is the theory of passion and perseverance as a significant predictor of success. In the context of this theory, it is defined as passion and perseverance to achieve long-term goals; it implies resisting with effort and interest the challenges that arise, regardless of the difficulties, the monotony and/or the experiences of failure that have to, sticking to future goals, make them come true. Therefore, it is considered as the quality shared by the great leaders (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly, 2007). Consequently, the determined person conceives the long-term goal as a marathon, not as a race at full speed (Duckworth, 2013, April) and in that context is aware that its main advantage is to have a great resistance, which leads , in turn, to conceive the process more defiantly and to develop greater persistence. This capacity is independent of the level of intelligence quotient (IQ) that a person has, a considerable number of studies had corroborated that people who excel in their profession do not do so much for their innate qualities, but for the effort and dedication they use to achieve various objectives (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kelly, 2007). The definition of the construct shows that the two variables that comprise it emerge as: interest in consistency or passion for long-term objectives and perseverance in the face of effort. What best allows to develop the Determination in people, is what is recognized as "growth mentality" (Dweck, Walaton and Cohen, 2014), it is the belief that the ability to learn is not fixed and that it can change as the person struggles to face the difficulties of any learning process; when the latter are resolved, a greater awareness of their own capacity to learn develops and the obstacles experienced are not perceived as impediments, but as challenges that can be resolved and that allow reaching higher levels of mastery in any domain. The study of this construct can help the understanding on how to prevent academic dropouts, and on the perseverance necessary to complete the studies (Office of Educational Technology, 2013); through the inquiry of some motivational and cognitive variables that are closely linked to the Determination, in particular, the intrinsic and extrinsic goals, the assessment of the task, the metacognition, the regulation of the effort and the search for help. There are also points of connection between these terms in the definition that Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris (2004) make about the behavioral commitment, which refers to the participation that is needed to reach academic goals, and about the cognitive commitment, which entails the effort necessary to master complex thinking tools. As a capacity that is not innate and can be developed, the role that trainers or educators can exert to promote it is crucial. There are numerous works in which the relationship between the Determination and the Academic Commitment is shown (Atapattu, 2015, Hodge, Wright and Bennett, 2017; Nelson, 2016), as well as with academic performance (Chang, 2014, Bazelays, Lemay and Doleck, 2016, Palisoc et al, 2017, Reed and Jeremiah, 2017, Wolters and Hussain, 2015). Regarding its relationship with learning developed by adult students, research developed by Duckworth (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews and Kellu, 2007, Duckworth, Quinn, Seligman, 2009) show the importance of deepening their study. 114 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
From this theoretical approach, is where the study of Grit and its link to the Life Attitude is studied. In this work, we focus in particular, in undergraduate and graduate students of military careers, which are developed in National Defense University (Argentina). Thereon, the present work covers a knowledge gap, since we could not find a research that would have been carried out with this population in the sociocultural context mentioned and, in the other hand, allows to establish links with previous research carried out in other countries (Borae & Joohan, 2017); Clark & Malecki, 2019; Lie, Fang, Wang, Sun & Cheng, 2018; Waring, Kernes & Bui, 2019) in which the relationship between Grit and job satisfaction, life satisfaction, self-esteem and satisfaction in emotional ties was addressed. Life Attitude Existential humanist psychology has, among its representatives, Frankl, who defines the meaning of life as '... the why, the reason, what drives you to achieve something or to be in a certain way', that is to say, what guides us. (Núñez, 2001, p.2 in Hernández Sampieri et al., 2010). PIL (Purpose In Life or Proof of Purpose of Life) is one of the first antecedents of the LAP-R and was developed by Crumbaugh and Maholick (1964, in Reker, 2007) as a form to measure the theoretical foundations of Frankl. The PIL consisted of a 20 items scale that evaluated the meaning of life and the purpose of life. It became an operational definition of Frankl's description of the concept of the will to meaning developed in 1963. Later, Crumbaugh (1977) builds the SONG (Seeking of Noetic Goals), which evaluates the degree of strength of motivation to find the meaning and purpose of life. Both instruments were considered as complementary to measure the meaning and purpose of life. PIL is considered as a one-dimensional measure to assess the discovery of meaning and the SONG to find the motivation, to discover the meaning. However, Reker and Cousins (1979) found that they had ten independent dimensions, which provided powerful evidence for the multidimensional nature of the construct of meaning and purpose of life. The PIL is made up of six dimensions called (a) life purpose, (b) achievement of objectives, (c) life satisfaction, (d) locus of internal-external control, (d) self-satisfaction, and (e) consideration of life. Within this line and in the search for the life mission or the life project, Reker and Wong (1988) define the sense of life dimension composed of dimensions: (a) knowledge of order, (b) coherence and purpose in the existence of oneself, (c) the pursuit and achievement of objectives valuable and (d) the feeling of satisfaction or fulfilment. The authors define that a person who has a high index of personal sense possesses a clear life purpose and sense of direction, feels satisfied with his past achievements and is determined to make the future meaningful. They say that the main focus of previous studies was to find personal meaning as a global construct, defined as the existential belief that life has a purpose and coherence. They claim that people have been found to derive meaning from a variety of sources including recreational activities, meeting basic needs, creative activities, personal relationships, personal achievements, personal growth and academics. To point out the pedagogical action in education, is having conscious what each person should know about their own legacy, that is, how they want to be remembered. The main objective here is to know how to work from the pedagogical point of view for the integral formation of the person. Reker, and Parker (1999) have studied the concept of existential repentance, which is defined as an interior experience of disagreement, of reflecting on missed opportunities, of not having reached one's potential, of having inconclusive undertakings and of not having respected the natural and global environment (in Reker & Woo, 2011). The authors explain that the incidence of the attitude of life has been studied and it has been found that students who showed goal-finding indexes showed a better academic performance (Dennis, et al., 2004, Dennis, et al., 2005). Not having respected the natural and global environment (in Reker & Woo, 2011) could lead to different kind of crisis. The two constructs study variables that can be related between each other and the study aims to discover if working with Grit as a developing capacity could help people to achieve their own goals and have a more coherence life style; that is to say, to have a better sense or meaning of life. 3. Methodology and Procedures The study was carried out in a National University (UNDEF) specifically two Academic Units of the Facultad del Ejército (Army College); they are the Colegio Militar de la Nación (Military College of the Nation) and the Escuela Superior de Guerra (Superior War School). The first one is where the students are prepared to be officers of the Argentinian Army and the second one prepares the officers in their postgraduate studies.
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Students who follow a university career and a postgraduate course, the first aimed at training officers of the Argentine Army and the second the officers of the General Staff of the Argentine Army. Both careers are taught by academic units that depend of the National Defense University. 3.1. Sample A non-probabilistic sample was formed, for convenience, of 185 college and university students, of which 69,73% (N=129) are male and 30.27% (N=56) are female as shown in figure 1. Figure 1 A descriptive, correlational research was carried out because the variables to be analysed were observed as they happened in their natural context at a given moment. 3.2. Purposes • Analyse the differences between the global Grit score and the Life Attitude Profile Revised (LAP-R (VE-AA)) according to sex. • Examine if there are significant differences in two selected subsamples of undergraduate and graduate students in the military field in the global Grit Scale and the Personal Sense Index extracted from LAP-R (VE-AA). • Analyse the correlation between the global Grit Scale score and the Personal Sense Index extracted from LAP-R (VE- AA). 3.3. Instruments Socio-demographic Questionnaire A sociodemographic questionnaire designed ad hoc was conceived to collect information regarding gender, age, family background and willing to achieve different university level degrees. Grit Scale To evaluate Grit, we use the original Grit Scale designed and validated by Duckworth et al. (2007), which is in the process of validation in the Argentine population (Tortul and Daura, 2019). With a 5-choice Likert scale design (5 = Very similar to me - 1 = Not at all like me), the questionnaire is made up of 12 items, which are divided into two subscales: Consistency of Interest (CI, 6 items) and Perseverance versus Effort (PE, 6 items). The first measurement, the tendency to maintain the objectives and interests that have been proposed; and the second, the inclination to work intensely in the face of setbacks and difficulties. As well, the scale allows obtaining a global level of Grit, which ranges between 1 and 5 points, corresponding to subjects with a very low level and with a very high level in Grit, respectively. For the purpose of this study, we consider that individuals have a low score if they reach a rating lower than 2.50 points because this is the average score between the minimum and the maximum that the scale throws. Life Attitude Test (LAP-R (VE-AA)) To measure the Life Attitude, the LAP-R (VE-AA)), with 40 items, will be used in the Spanish version in its adaptation of Barni (2017). The test is designed with a Likert scale design, and is made up of 5 dimensions, each one evaluates different aspects of the life attitude: (a) Coherence –consistent and logical understanding of oneself, of others and of life in general– , (b) Purpose –personal sense; have clear objectives, a mission of life and direction from the past to the future through the present–, (c) Choice/Responsibleness – describe the person's control and efforts regarding their achievements; freedom, confidence in decisions made, the will to specify them and the ability to discern and decide, (d) Existential Vacuum –it is characterized by uncertainty and not being able to find meaning in life– and (e) Goal Seeking –the person chooses new goals to achieve constantly or seeks to find barriers to overcome within their lifestyle–. Reker (2007) says that life has a purpose and extracts meaning from various sources. The test is divided into two subscales; the Personal Meaning Index (PMI) and the Existential Transcendence (ET).
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For the successive analysis that were carried out in the study, we considered appropriate to calculate the Personal Meaning Index (PMI), which provides a scale focused on personal meaning. This construct is made up of the Purpose (P) and Coherence (C) dimensions and is manifested through the selection of clear objectives that, on the one hand, are oriented to the fulfilment of a vital mission, and on the other, they are consistent with the past, present and future experienced by the subject; and that they consistently and logically understand the self, others and life in general. In order to calculate this index, we chose to use the formula proposed by Reker (2007), adapting it to obtain an average score: the dimensions P and C were added and divided by two. 4. Procedure In the first place, we requested the corresponding permission from the authorities of the two Academic Units that participated in the study. In the same way, students who completed the questionnaires were given information about the objectives of the work, the confidential and voluntary nature of their participation, and were given a document (Informed Consent) that they signed to give their consent. In the document and in the oral explanations we explained that the estimated time to complete the instruments varied between 40 and 60 minutes and asked their permission to use the date collected with educational and research purposes. The collected data were processed using the SPSS-Statistical Package for the Social Sciences program – version 23.0. 5. Analysis of Results Focusing on the sample’s composition, although there is a 30,27% of female students and that there is an important proportion of them in relaction to the male population taking into account that the female presence in the Argentinian Armed Forces dates back only few a decades; the fact, and we consider that is important to observe that the proportion of female and male students in the university level in the country is the opposite based on percentages that the Argentinean Ministry of Education shows in its document “Characteristics of the Argentine Educational System”, where it is observed that the percentage of women in higher education is 69.8% (DiNIEE, 2016). 5.1. Descriptive Statistics A descriptive analysis (minimum score, maximum score, population mean and standard deviation) of the values obtained by the students in the Grit-O and LAP-R Scales (VE-AA) was performed. Table 1 details the scores they reached on the factors that make up the Grit-O scale and the scale as a whole. According to the results, students who participated in the study are more likely to strive and work hard to achieve the goals they have set, and have greater difficulties in sustaining interest over time. Similarly, the result obtained by the sample in the global Grit score stands out, which is between the low score (2.50) and the highest score (5.00) of the instrument. Therefore, it would be convenient to work with this population, in particular, to maintain interest in achieving the objectives set out in their life project. Table 1 When analysing the other instrument, the scores reached in the LAP-R (VE-AA) (Table X), the subjects are characterized by having a clear purpose of existence, and by making choices assuming the consequent responsibility. It also highlights the score they reached in the "Existential Vacuum" dimension in which the assessment is expected to be lower, so that students would have a lower propensity to suffer disorders that are comorbid with this phenomenon, (such as depression, apathy, among others) and, simultaneously, they would find or grant greater meaning to their entire existence. Table 2 To analyse the extent to which the Grit and the Life Attitude are explained by various sociodemographic aspects, successive analysis of variance (ANOVA one way) were carried out, in which, as dependent variables, the global value of the Grit-O and the MPI of the LAP-R (VE-AA) were considered and as an independent factor the sex and the belonging career. For this last analysis, two subsamples of the total obtained were randomly selected, comprising 25 students of the postgraduate degree and 27 of the undergraduate degree.
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5.2. Comparison of levels of Grit and Life Attitude according to sex As regards the sex of the subjects who participated in the study, although no significant differences were found in the overall Grit score and in the PMI obtained through the LAP-R (VE-AA), the score achieved is highlighted by men in the first variable, which is higher compared to that of women (Figure 2). This effect, not only is coincident with those found in another study carried out in a Latin American population (Becerra, Cuitún and Mézquita, 2016), but also it would be interesting to deepening in a future research involving samples with other sociodemographic characteristics (for example, studying other university degrees). On the other hand, both women and men students achieved the same score in the PMI, which would be positive for both (Figure 3). This result could be related to those of Dennis et al (2004/2005) that found that in an African American population there were no differences in spirituality between male and female students but there were differences in the study of general population. In this specific population, these results may be due to the influence of cultural and institutional factors that favour the development and strengthening of the capacities evaluated by the Grit-O scale and by the LAP-R (VE-AA) in men. In fact, although the careers in which the study was conducted have been mixed for some decades, the training provided in them, due to their characteristics, is more closely linked to the male psychological profile and to the formation of the military profile, to the detriment of the female psychological profile, which manifests itself through affections, care, the search for warmth, effort, among other aspects Figure 2 5.3. Comparison of the levels of Grit and Life Attitude according to career The same analysis was carried out to corroborate if there are statistically significant differences in the Grit global score and in the PMI depending on the membership career (undergraduate and postgraduate). In this sense, in the total sample, two subsamples were randomly selected according to the level of the university degree: undergraduate degree, consisting of 27 students; and postgraduate career, consisting of 25 students. In this case, although no statistically significant differences were found (figure 1), the fact that postgraduate students obtained the highest score in both the Grit global score and the PMI is highlighted. This would help them both to be more persevering, as well as to maintain interest for longer than the goals they have set; in the same way, probably by stage of the life cycle in which they find themselves, to have greater clarity about the meaning that life has and to try to unify with it their existential objectives, in coherence with their life history, personal circumstances and sociocultural context in which they live. Figure 3 5.4. Correlation between the factors of the Grit-O Scale and the dimensions of the LAP R (VE-AA) The Pearson's r correlation index was calculated between the Grit global score and the PMI (as shown in Table 3), which yielded a positive and significant correlation between both variables r = (185) = 0.47 **, p = 0, 01. This result, which is consistent with the results obtained in the previous analysis, shows that at higher levels of Grit, the Personal Meaning Index develops exponentially and conversely, at higher PMI scores, the subjects are more passionate and persevering. to achieve the goals that would have been proposed. The results found are noticeable for being the first found in the Argentine Army university population. Table 3 Conclusions In our opinion, the work done on these two concepts in a population so particular as the students from a university that forms the men and women that work on the Défense of the country is important per se, but the insights of the institution and its educational styles will be of significance not only for the authorities but also for the students themselves. These careers are more than a profesion and are a way of living.
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In this line of thinking, the present work evidences data that are of interest to consider in the professional formation, for decision making in the educational style and the organizational management, that collaborates to the integral formation and the professional formation in vocations so specific and particular as those of the military life; such as character formation, leadership, etc. With these findings, the importance of conducting this type of studies for educational management was shown. Accordingly to the results we can point out that there are significant correlations between the factors that make up the Grit and the LAP variables. Only a negative correlation between the variables Election/responsibility and Existential Vacuum is presented, but we will not inform this to focus only on the correlations existing between the instruments. About differences between men and women there is a trend that was found, which does not reach significant values, in favour of men in the variables Existential Vacuum and Goal Seeking. The contrast between one result and the other would show that, although men have a greater tendency to set themselves goals, the difficulties to achieve them, would insist that they experience it with a feeling of emptiness and frustration. This could be seen in the influence of the socio-cultural and labour context of the country that should be deepened through other instruments, such as in-depth interviews or focus groups. With the random sample the only significant differences were found in the Existential Vacuum variable, in favour of undergraduate students. In all the other variables, although there are no statistically significant differences, the students of the postgraduate career have higher scores. They have a higher level of Grit and, accordingly, have a higher score in the variables Purpose and Coherence of the LAP-R (VE AA), with the exception of Election/Responsibleness, Existential Vacuum and Goal Seeking. We believe that there is an important factor to go on studying about the percentage of female population if we compare with the percentages of women in superior education in Argentina that are so different in the two academic units studied, and search if it is for the kind of career or for the cultural believes. Another important finding is the high scores the students obtained in the dimensions of the Life Attitude Test compared with the research made in the opportunity of the LAP-R validation in the country (Barni, 2017). We consider that it is important to link these results to the ones that Messing (2009) made in her own research and, after that, inquire if there is a link about the special profile and the spirituality they have and compare with the Grit scores and the academic performance and retention. There are various lines of future possible investigations in order to deepen this study. We believe that a better understanding of oneself is very important to the decision-making process and the way you take them to practice and the logic consequences you have to live with. The links between Grit and Life Attitude are very relevant to determine the possibilities to elaborate and develop a life project that is so necessary in our society. References [1] Barni, M. C. (2013b). Life project and pedagogical strategies in young adults. Buenos Aires: IV Congreso Internacional de Psicología FIUC. [2] Barni, M. C. (2017). Educational Styles and Life Attitude, in early and middle adulthood. (PhD Thesis). Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina. Buenos Aires. [3] Bauman, Z. (2002). Liquid Modernity. Oxford. Polity Press [4] Becerra, Cuitún and Mézquita, (2016). Validation of the tenacity scale in Oaxaca students: an exploratory study. XVI Mexican Congress of Social Psicology Memories, in the VII International Congress of Personal Relationships and the V Latinamerican Congress of Transcultural Psicology, days 7, 8 and 9 of Septembre in Villahermosa, Tabasco. [5] Borae, & Joohan, J. (2017). Grit, Basic Needs Satisfaction, and Subjective Well-Being. Journal of Individual Differences, 38, pp. 29-35. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000219. [6] Clark, K. N. & Malecki, C. K. (2019). Academic Grit Scale: Psychometric properties and associations with achievement and life satisfaction, Journal of School Psychology, 72, 49-66, DOI: Https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.12.001 [7] Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism: The psychometric approach to Frankl’s concept of noogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 200–207.
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[8] Chen, P.D., Kuh, G.D. & Gonyea, R.M. (2008). Learning at a distance: Engaged or not? Innovate Journal of Online Education, 4(3). Consulted June 5th 2013 in https://goo.gl/zGZ5XG. [9] Dennis, D., Muller, S. M., Miller, K. & Benarjee, P. (2004). Spirituality Among a College Student Cohort: A Quantitative Assessment. American Journal of Health Education, 35 (4), 220-227. Consulted on september 14th 2017 in: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ792783.pdf. [10] Dennis, D., Hicks, T., Banerjee, P., & Dennis, B. G. (2005). Spirituality Among a Predominately African American College Student Population. American Journal of Health Studies, 20(3), 135-142. Consultado el 14 de septiembre de 2017 en: http://digitalcommons.uncfsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=soe_faculty_wp. [11] DiNIEE. (2016). Obtained December, 2nd 2016 in the “Dirección Nacional de Información y Estadística Educativa”: http://portales.educacion.gov.ar/diniece/wp- content/blogs.dir/37/files/2016/09/Caracter%C3%ADsticas-del-Sistema-educativo-argentino-1.pdf. [12] Duckwort, A. L. (2016a). Chapter one. In Duckworth, A. Grit. The power of passion and perseverance (pp. 3- 14). New York: Scribner. [13] Duckwort, A. L.; Peterson, C.; Matthews, M. y Kelly, D. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. [14] Duckworth, A. L. (2013, abril). Grit: the power of passion and perseverance. TED Talks Education. Consultado en https://goo.gl/RgCZ6r [15] Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2009). Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness. Journal of Positive Psychology, 19, 540–547. [16] Duckworth, A.; Peterson, Ch.; Matthews, M y Kelli, D. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. [17] Duckworth, A.L.; Peterson, C.; Matthews, M. D. y Kelly, D.R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long- Term Goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087-1101. [18] Duckworth, A. L. (2016b). Grit: by Angela Duckworth. Summary & Analysis. Instaread. [19] Hernández Sampieri, R.; Fernández Collado, C. & Baptista Lucio, P. (2014). Investigation methodology (6th ed.). México: McGraw Hill. [20] Lie, J.; Fang, M.; Wang, W.; Sun, G. & Cheng, Z (2018). The Influence of Grit on Life Satisfaction: Self- Esteem as a Mediator. Psychologica Belgica, 58(1), pp. 51–66. [21] Ion, A.; Mindu, A.; Gorbanescu, A. (2017). Grit in the workplace: Hype or ripe? Personality and Individual Differences, 111(1), pp 163-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.012 [22] Messing, C. (2009). Demotivation, dissatisfaction and abandonment of projects in young people. Vocational guidance and family ties. Buenos Aires: Noveduc. [23] Reker, G. (2007). Manual LAP-R. Life Attitude Profile-Revised. (5ª Ed.) Trent: Trent University Press. [24] Reker, G. & Woo, L. (2011). Personal Meaning Orientations and Psychosocial Adaptation in Older Adults. SAGE Open, 1-10. [25] Reker, G. & Cousins, J. (1979). Factor structure, construct validity and reliability of the seeking of noetic goals (SONG) and purpose in life (PIL) tests. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35(1) 85-91. [26] Tortul, C & Daura, F.T. (in evaluation). Adaptation and validation of the Grit scale. A pilot study in a university population of Argentina. [27] Waring, A.; Kernes, J.L. & Bui, N.H. (2019). The Role of Attachment Anxiety, Attachment Avoidance, and Grit on Life Satisfaction and Relationship Satisfaction. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 1–29. Consultado en https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0022167819844692?casa_token=lL682xxWL3wAAAAA:azgcMA MVW-45O-7AlOI1tgtXezs3YMtrUBAtTF-oHodjV0ZPNznKcK88jDc6aZtY3FbF79dVCwzeyg Tables Table 1 Descriptive of the factors that make up the Grit-O Scale and the total Grit score Factors Minimum Students Maximum Score Media SD Score Perseverance of effort 185 2,50 5,00 4,06 0,56 Consistency of interest 185 1,83 4,67 3,36 0,52 Global Grit 185 2,58 4,83 3,71 0,42 Source: own elaboration from study’s results 120 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Table 2 Descriptive of the LAP-R (VE-AA) Variables Minimum Students Maximum Score Media SD Score Coherence 185 2,38 5,00 3,80 0,55 Purpose 185 3,00 5,00 4,18 0,49 Goal Seeking 185 2,25 5,00 3,77 0,49 Existential Vacuum 185 1,00 4,50 2,30 0,75 Choice/Responsibleness 185 3,00 5,00 4,19 0,47 Source: own elaboration from study’s results
Table 3 Correlation matrix between the global Grit score and the PMI Variables Personal Meaning Index Grit Global Score 0,47** ,000 Source: own elaboration from study’s results
Figures Figure 1 Sample composition by sex
Source: own elaboration from study’s results
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Figure 2 Differences between women and men in the overall score of the Grit and the Life Attitude
4,50 3,99 3,99 4,00 3,69 3,72 3,50 3,00 2,50 2,00 1,50 1,00 0,50 0,00 Global Grit Female Male PMI Global
Source: own elaboration from study’s results Figure 3 Differences between undergraduate and graduate students in the global Grit and Life Attitude score
4,50 4,00 3,50 3,00 2,50 4,09 2,00 3,85 3,77 4,06 1,50 1,00 0,50 0,00 Grit Global Personal Meaning Index
Postgraduate Career Sample Graduate Career Sample
Source: own elaboration from study’s results
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Implementation of the Acquis Communautaire in Albanian Judicial System
Arben Shehu University of Tirana Albania, Law Faculty, Criminal Law Department
Abstract The implementation of the acquis communautaire in countries that are not yet part of the EU do not necessarily entail direct application, priority and political and state responsibility for violations of its provisions. These aspiring countries to be part of the European family included Albania prepares to implement this legislation regardless of the time this will be realized. All of this makes the judicial system in each of the Western Balkan countries outside of the EU to face some challenges. So without losing national identity, the judges of these countries should feel and behave like being part of the European judicial community. An effective judiciary system is an absolute prerequisite for EU accession. This system would include: organization of an independent and impartial judiciary; recognition and implementation of these regulations in European law already in force. Determining the consequences of the admission to the judiciary system and the preparation of the legal staff. The implementation of the acquis communautaire is first of all human resources matter. The judicial system needs to be trained and informed about the new legal system starting from the pre-accession phase. In their daily practice, legal professionals dealing with internal law issues and their violations should not forget that institutions and Community decisions affect them, regardless of the fact the Community legislation isn’t still a source of national law. Keywords : acquis communautaire, international, legislation, judiciary, system
Introduction Acquis Communautaire Acquis Communautaire is the set of EU laws and obligations, from 1958 to present.The french term "acquis", means "what is provided or achieved" and "communautaire", means "community".The process of approximation of national legislation with the EU law serves as one of the main filters that a candidate country needs to pass to join the EU. Formal sources includs legal and binding legal acts which, according to the respective legal procedures, have received the appropriate normative powerMaterial resources includes the understanding in a broader perspective, embracing the doctrine in the field of judicial case law Sources of EU law are classified into two major groups, where the European Union's activity is based: "Primary" legislation, which consists in voluntary and democratic treaties by all member states whose principles and goals derive from "secondary legislation", which includes rules, directives, decisions, opinions and recommendations, agreements EU international law, conventions between member states. In addition to primary and secondary legislation, the sources of EU law also include the supplementary law, which is part of the general principles of law, international law and the decisions of the Court of Justice based on the legal precedents. Primary legislation:EU founding treaties, together with their annexes, appendices and protocols contain the basic provisions and arrangements on EU objectives, principles, organization and modes of action of the Union law. Secondary legislation:Legislative Acts, Delegated acts, implemented acts and other legal acts drafted by EU institutionsincludes international agreements, agreements between member states and interinstitutional agreements.Their enforceability is straightforward, their transposition into domestic law is not necessary. The unwritten sources of the law are:
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(1) General principles of law The European Court of Justice and the national courts of the Member States in establishing the legality of legislative and administrative measures within the Union. The European Court of Justice has, inter alia, defined as general principles of EU law fundamental human rights, proportionality, legal certainty, equality before the law and the principle of subsidiarity. (2) Proffesional experience, which implies the practices followed and accepted, on which the primary and secondary legislation is modified; (3) Agreements between member states Hierarchy of legal norms of the European Union The hierarchy of Union legal norms has been discussed and was the subject of important discussion at the Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice Summit. Before the Treaty of Lisbon Community legal norms were regulations, directives and decisions. There was essentially no hierarchy of Community legal norms, and it was the EU institutions themselves that determined which of these legal measures to use. Currently, there is a hierarchy of acts and norms in community law. This change occurred with the Lisbon treaty, which defined the hierarchy of European Union legal acts in order to ensure a better separation of powers, using a characteristic element of domestic law internationally. This feature of European law created a new distinction from the legal system of international law, which is not hierarchically organized. Today community law has a very clear, hierarchically structured organization. Every act takes its place in the legal order and must respect the highest levels. If this obligation is not fulfilled, the Court of Justice may declare it invalid. Acts at a lower level must match those at a higher level. Specifically their hierarchy is as follows: 1. Founding Treaties 2. General principles of law; 3. Normative acts: regulations, directives or decisions; 4. Delegating acts; 5. Implementing acts. Direct effect. The EU law gives to the individuala effective rights.Courts of member states are obliged to recognize the principle of "direct effect" which gives to the individuals the right to rely on a European provision before a national or European court, thus ensuring application and effectiveness of European law in EU countries. The doctrine of direct effect was articulated by the European Court of Justice for the first time in the case of Van Genden Loos vs. Nederland Administratieder Belastingen, on 5 February 1963, where it was decided that : “a citizen is able to request from the state a right to given by the European Community, as EU law sets not only obligations for Member States, but also rights for their citizens. The Court of Justice also set out the criteria for direct effect placement, which is often referred as "VanGend criteria" and according to them, the provision of the article should be clear, be a negative obligation rather than a positive one, be unconditional, it must not contain reservations by the member state and be independent of any national implementing measure. The right in question may be imposed on national courts only if these criteria are met.The direct effect of European law, is a fundamental principle in European law. Albania as an aspirant of the European family In the case of Albania, which has not yet become part of the European Union, there is no place for the direct effect rule of Community norms. The relationship between the internal law system and the community law at this stage should be understood according to the hierarchy of the norms of law in the Republic of Albania. Definition of the place that community law occupies in the hierarchy of legal norms of a state is important to avoid conflict of norms. The basic principle of the hierarchical rate system is to force lower-rate norms to conform to higher-order legal norms. Nowadays international law is for the most states in a higher level than domestic laws, and below the constitution.
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Specifically, the Republic of Albania has resolved this issue in Article 116 of Constitution, where provides for what are the normative acts which have effect throughout the territory the Republic of Albania and their hierarchy. Pursuant to this provision, international agreements ratified, stand second, after the Constitution. Only the European Convention on Human Rights has a special status as Article 17 of the Constitution of the Republic of Albania has a specific provision which seems to give it the same importance as the basic constitutional act. International law defines it’s supremacy over domestic law, but does not abrogate the latter one even if it is inconsistent with it, as it does not have the legal capacity to do so. Only states have the right to decide on this matter. However, it is important to keep in mind that if a state makes the necessary changes to its legislation, it is not simply responsible for international responsibility for this fact. He will be held responsible if, in a specific situation, he fails to fulfill his international obligations. The principle of the supremacy of international law over domestic law is also known by international jurisprudence. For example, in the decision of 1925 on the exchange of Greek and Turkish populations, it was stated that: "It is a generally accepted principle of international law regarding the relationship between states that are contracting parties to a treaty that the provisions of domestic law cannot prevail over those of the treaty." The European Court of Justice also sets out how states should act in the event that domestic law is an obstacle to the application of international law by reasoning that: "… every state that has international obligations is obliged to make such changes in its legislation as are necessary to ensure the fulfillment of its obligations." Applicability of community law by Albanian national courts The EU legal order is an autonomous legal order of both domestic and international law. For the European law, the need to affirm and reaffirm the principle of autonomy arises because of national provisions, at the same time to guarantee uniform implementation throughout the Union. If this were not the case, then any national provision would be able to perform a limited interpretation of Community norms, avoiding uniform application in the territory of the Member States of the European Union legal provisions. Enforcement of Community law by a state is entrusted to the judicial system. Courts are not only the key mechanisms for the enforcement and interpretation of the law, but also a complete overview of how a national legal system operates and builds relationships with systems. The national courts must also be aware of the impact that their activity may have on the development of a coherent international law system. The European Court of Justice treats community law as "an autonomous legal order". Some of the norms of the European Treaties are the foundations of the Community and can never be altered, even by the procedures provided in the Treaties themselves for their amendment. According to the unchanging jurisprudence of the Court of Justice, treaties Community institutions have established a legal order in which States restrict their sovereign rights in ever-expanding fields. Subjects of this Community law are not only the Member States, but also their nationals. Its main features are in particular the advantages over the rights of Member States, as well as the direct effect of a whole series of provisions applicable to their nationals and their nationals. The relationship between community law and that of other states is not a coordination relation, as is usual between international law and that of internal, but more of an integration relationship, in the sense that it brings them closer together and then makes European law part of the internal law of the member states. In the Marleasing case 1, the European Court of Justice ruled that the courts of the EU member states have a duty to interpret national norms in the light of unfulfilled EU directives: “…In the application of national law, regardless of whether the legal norms in question have entered into force before or after the directive, the national court which it has been required to interpret must, as far as possible, act in the light of the words and the purpose of the directive, to achieve the result required by the latter (directive)."
1 Case C-106/89-106/89, European Court of Justice Marleasing, Decision November 1990 125 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Despite Albania's current status, it has realized that the approximation of national legislation with that of the Community is a process that will bring it closer to its goal. Even the Albanian courts, despite not having a formal obligation, are increasingly referring to the Community legislation and attitudes of the Court of Justice. The Albanian Constitutional Court has referred directly to Community legislation in decisions no. 24 of 24.07.2009, as well as in the decision no. 3 of 05 February 2010. In particular, the Constitutional Court assesses whether the restriction of economic freedom imposed by the decision under consideration is in accordance with the Stabilization and Association Agreement. Pursuant to this agreement, the right of the State to intervene in the regulation of the exercise of the freedom of economic activity recognizes a new restriction laid down in point 2 of Article 33 thereof, which provides that,: “From the date of entry into force of this Agreement, no new quantitative restrictions are imposed on imports or exports, or new measures having equivalent effect, nor are any further restrictions on existing trade between the Community and Albania implemented. may restrict the exercise of economic freedom insofar as no further restrictions are placed on existing trade between the European Community and Albania. "355. Whereas in the other decision the Constitutional Court directly assesses a European Union Directive if it is in compliance with the domestic legislation. More specifically, the Court stated that:“……. The Court considers that this claim is also unfounded and must be rejected. Referring to the EU Directive on statutory auditing in EU countries, Article 32 states: “Member States shall establish an effective system of public oversight of accounting experts and firms that carry out audits, based on the principles set out in pg.2-7. All accounting experts should be subject to scrutiny. The system of public oversight should be run by non- practitioners who are knowledgeable in audit-related fields or areas. Members of the public oversight authority are elected through an independent and transparent procedure357 ”. The Court finds that the wording contained in Article 4 of the law under consideration is in line with this EU regulation. ” The Albanian Constitutional Court has judged whether Albanian domestic law is directly in line with EU legislation. Not only the Constitutional Court but also The Supreme Court of the Republic of Albania, which in its Unifying Decision on the development of the activity of the Civil Service Commission, stated that: “Approximation of legislation is of great importance today the acquis communauitaire and its effective implementation. Our country should strive to ensure that its existing laws and future legislation move gradually towards alignment with the acquis communauitaire. Albania will ensure that existing and future legislation is properly implemented and enforced (Article 70 of Law No.9590, dated 27.07.2006 “On the Ratification of the Stabilization and Association Agreement between the Republic of Albania and the European Communities and the Member States”). their member ")". In these decisions Albanian Highest Court recognizes the value of the SAA as directly applicable to the applicable system as well as the need to “comply with the acquis communauitaire” as its basic element. At this rate, we hope that the legal and judicial Albanian system has done its part well enough to deserve participation in the European family as soon as possible. Bibliography [1] Lezioni di Diritto Pubblico , CEDAM, Padova, Itali, 2001. [2] Besselink L., “The Separation of Powers under Netherlands Constitutional Law and European Integration “European Public Law 1997. [3] Bognetti Gio vanni, “Federalismo - Federalizmi”, UTET – Torino, Italy, 2003. [4] Chirico A., “La soveranita monetaria tra ordine giuridico e processo economico CEDAM, Padova, 2003 [5] Decision November 1990 Marleasing, C-106/89-106/89, European Court of Justice [6] Decision no. 24 of 24 July 2009 of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Albania [7] Decision no. 3 of 05 February 2010 of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Albania [8] Civil Unifying Decision Nr. 1 of 17 January 2011 of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Albania
126 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Credit Worthiness and Repayment Performance Among Small – Holder Farmers in Sri Lanka: Application of Probit Model
B. Sivatharshika A. Thayaparan
Abstract The objective of the study is to examine the factors which determine the credit worthiness and loan repayment performance among the small-holder farmers in Vavuniya district in Sri Lanka. A sample of 113 small –holder agricultural loan borrowers from five villages who get the loans from SANASA TCCS served as the respondents in the study. A set of structured questionnaire was used to collect the primary data from the respondents who lives in the five villages located in Marukkarambali GS division in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka during the period of 2018/2019. The dependent variable is the credit worthiness measured as binary variables where it takes as one for defaulters and zero for non - defaulters and the selected demographic characters, farming characters and farmers’ attributes were taken as explanatory variables in the study. To identify the above characters on the credit worthiness of the farmers’ descriptive statistics, and binary probit model were employed. The results of the descriptive statistics revealed that, 43.4% of the respondents belonged to the defaulters while 56.6% of them belonged to the non – defaulters in the study. Estimated results of the probit model suggest that among the demographic characteristics, age of the farmers, levels of education, number of family members positively influenced the loan repayment performance of smallholder farmers, while among farming characters, income, farm size, land ownership, farming experience, off-farm activities, purpose of loan and possibility of crop failure were positively impact on credit worthiness and repayment performance at different significant levels. On the other hand, knowledge about the loan and responsible guarantors were the major factors of farmers’ attributes influencing the repayment performance in the study. The overall findings of the study may help to the farmers as well as to the micro finance institutions to predict the repayment behaviour of the new loan applicants and to make the decision to grant loans in future. Keywords: Repayment performance, Defaulter and non-defaulter, Pobit model
Introduction Sri Lanka is an agricultural background country where the agricultural sector plays a predominant role as the third largest contributor to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) .It helps to achieve the economic development in order to fulfil the countries’ demand for food, supplying raw materials for industries, generating employment opportunities, and earning foreign exchange. In Sri Lanka, agricultural sector contributes 7.0% to the GDP and generates 32.6% employment opportunities (National Accounts of Sri Lanka-Census Department 2018). Among the developing countries especially in Sri Lanka the farmers are playing a key role to the growth of GDP and most of them are farming based on the credit finance than their own money. Especially in developing countries mostly the farming and investment activities are still not modernized because of the financial barriers and problems. To invest more money on their farming or to adapt new techniques their financial background is not support them. Thus, they mostly depend on the agricultural credits for their cultivations. The government is providing loans for the farmers through various Micro Finance Institutions (MFI) and they are the one of the main financial institutions contributing many ways in the rural community. In recent years, the number of financial institutions starts to function and thus many chances to access the agricultural loans that are emerging among the farmers especially who are living in North and East provinces in Sri Lanka. Even though the requirement to the agriculture credits are high and most of the banks seem to be reluctant to issue credits to farmers due to the prior experience on poor recovery of agricultural loans. According to Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Bank of Ceylon and People’s banks fail to recover 17% and 45% of agricultural credits in 2009 respectively.
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In Vavuniya district, among the banks and other financial institutions SANASA TCCS established mainly focus to promote the living standard of rural people and to support to the poor farmers by lending the loans them. They mostly consider the societies, and through the groups they motivate poor people to practice the micro finance systems especially the compulsory saving for the members and provide farming loans and some special loans with the aim to promote the sustainable development among rural farmers in the district. When the SANASA TCCS provides loan mostly on two types one is farming loans for paddy cultivation and other loans such as cow loans and special loans at low level interest rate than the other financial institutions. However, SANASA TCCS provides facilities some of the farmers reluctant to repay the loans with in the effective time duration. The inability of the borrowers to repay the loans according to the loan terms will create number of problems to the borrowers and also to the lending institutions. In this current scenario, there is an instant need for the remedial actions have to be taken in order to reduce the number of defaulters among the farmers in SANASA TCCS and to educate the borrowers to perform in a correct way to reduce the loans burden in future. Objectives of the study The study has mainly the two objectives. They are, To identify the association between credit worthiness of the farmers and demographic characteristics, farming characteristics, farmers’ attribute in SANASA TCCS in Vavuniya district, Sri Lanka. To analyse the impact of the above three major characteristics on the repayment performance of the farmers in the study area. Literature Review Ajah E.A,Eyo E.O. and Ofem U.I (2014) examined the credit worthiness among the poultry farmers in Nigeria. They found that the nearly 51% of the respondents were credit worthy.120 poultry farmers were used in this study, the results revealed that older farmers with adequate supervision were credit worthy than the farmers with better educational level and with the large farm size. Finally recommended that older and experience farmers should be taken into consideration when loan applications are received. Furthermore Aniekan Jim Akpaeti. (2015) examined the agricultural loan default and repayment performance among Farmers in Nigeria: Simple random sampling technique was used to select a total of 100 loan beneficiaries. Tobit model was used to analyse the explanatory variables influencing default rates loan beneficiaries ,namely marital status, household size, off-farm income, total farm cost, enterprise profitability, debt-asset ratio, ratio of amount request ,and number of visits of supervisors were significant factors influencing loan repayment among the beneficiaries. This study revealed somewhat different point of view than other as, It is recommended that Government should organize regular training programmes for the bank Supervisors to enhance effective supervision and appraisal of the agricultural projects Kapila Premarathne (2017) examined the Factors affecting to loan repayment behaviour and credit risk of farmers in Kotiyagala village in Monaragala District in Sri Lanka. This study was carried with randomly selected 100 farmers. Primary data were collected through the structured questionnaire and small group discussions. A multiple regression model was used in the process of data analysis. The study concluded that the demographic characters like age, income and family size have strictly significant impact on the loan repayment. Finally the researcher suggested the need to create an Awareness regarding the problems regarding the un-credit worthiness and where the rural farmers are needed to introduce proper micro credit facilities and affordable interest rates to overcome from the loan burden and from the perusing inefficiencies in the loan repayment. Another study was carried by Dr. W.P. Wijewardana, H.H.Dedunu (2017), on the topic of Loan Repayment Ability of Farmers in Sri Lanka: Exploring North Central Province dependent variable was loan repayment and independent variables were information about income, information about loan amount, background investigation, time taken to lend money and information about guarantee. The collected data were analysed by using reliability test, descriptive analysis, correlation analysis and multiple linear regression analysis. The result was generated from answers taken from 125 randomly selected borrowers . Finally this study concluded that background investigation and information about guarantee are the factors which significantly affect for the loan repayment. Hamid Safaynikou, Mohammad Taher Ahmadi Shadmehri, at el (2017) provided empirical evidence from Iran to modelling the effective factors on bank loans default rate using Delphi and they applied structural equation modelling and Tobit techniques on the case study of branches of Melli Bank in Khorasan Razavi
128 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 province. For this purpose, a set of data about loans made to 300 small and medium enterprises were selected between years 2004 to 2015 and the results showed that 48 factors affect the default ratio in Iran. Osman Yibrie and Ramakrishna, R (2017) has analyzed the determinants of loan repayment performance in ACSI using fourteen variables and out of them eight variables were found to be statistically significant. Those data were analysed with maximum likelihood estimates of multinomial logit model which showed that sex, age, level of education, loan size, interest rate, loan tenure, training and monthly sale were significantly affecting loan repayment performance of borrowers of ACSI. Factors influencing loan repayment performance: A Case study of lift above poverty organization micro-credit agency in Nigeria evaluated by Olatomide Waheed Olowa, Omowumi Ayodele Olowa (2017). They used Tobit model to analyze the data and their results of the analyses showed at 0.92 repayment rates and 0.08 default rates, and borrower experience, positive effects of the volume of loans borrowed, number of borrowers, number of credit agency staff, and volume of loans repaid. Determinants of smallholder farmers loan repayment performance in Assosa District, Western Ethiopia was investigated by Gebre-Egziabher Fentahun Destaw Kefale Yasin Ahmed (2018). For this study a total of 1571households’ credit users and from these 94 households were selected randomly followed by probability proportional sample from Assosa woreda with primary data which was collected by direct interview of sample respondents whereas, secondary data also collected from published and unpublished documents. In their study descriptive statistics were used to summarize the demographic profile of the respondent and logistic regression model was employed to identify factors influencing loan repayment performance of farmers. Out of the total thirteen explanatory variables included in the model, livestock ownership, age, family size, income from crop product, get extension agent, off farm income, and sex were found to be statistically significant in determining loan repayment performance of smallholder farmers. Another study conducted by Girma Gudde Jote (2018) to determine the loan repayment in the case of Microfinance Institutions in Gedeo Zone, SNNPRS, Ethiopia. Out of total population of 6662 which consists of 1610 defaulter and 5052 non-defaulter borrowers, 364 representatives from borrowers are selected by using stratified random sampling techniques. A total of ten explanatory variables were included in this model and out of these, six variables namely educational level, method of lending, nearness of borrower’s residence to the institutions, family size, and income from activities financed by loan and training were found to be statistically significant to influence the probability of loan repayment in the country. Nwafor Grace O.et al. (2018) examined the loan repayment behaviour among member of multipurpose cooperative societies in Anambra State. The study was investigated the socioeconomic factors affecting the farmers’ credit repayment ability and ascertained major problems affecting the farmers in loan repayment using t-test statistics and a multiple econometric model of the Ordinary Least Square (OLS). Findings of the study revealed that there is a significant difference between the amount of loan received and amount repaid by the cooperative farmers and the joint effect of the explanatory variable in the model account for 91.9% of the variations in the factors affecting the farmers’ credit repayment ability. Four variables such as educational qualification, farm size, loan application cost, and collateral value are significant whereas, age, membership duration and income of the farmers are not significant but they show a positive relationship with loan repayment. Based on the study, they recommended that among others cooperative societies should endeavour to educate the farmers on financial discipline and management because it has proven to significantly influence loan repayment. Methods of Analytical tools The population of this study comprised the farmers who borrower the loans from SANASA TCCS in Vavuniya district in Sri Lanka during the period of 2018 December to 2019 January. The relevant primary data were gathered with a set of questionnaire using simple multi - stage sampling technique. Out of 25 districts in Sri Lanka, Vavuniya was selected as the major study area which has 4 Divisional secretariats (DS) divisions in the district. The 4 DS divisions have many Grama Sevaka (GS) divisions and out of them, only Marukkampalai GS division was selected in the study. Several villages located in the division and out of them finally, 113 total small – holder farmers were selected randomly from five villages in the study. To examine the impact of demographic characters, farming characters and farmers’ attributes on credit worthiness, different analytical tools as descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, chi-square test (χ2), probit model with marginal effects were employed in the collected data.
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Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data and provide the simple summaries about the sample and measures in terms of mean, median and standard deviations of the variables used in the study. Frequency Analysis The frequency analysis is a way to explain the data which gives more attraction and helps to give clear understanding of the study. Credit worthiness whether the borrower belongs defaulter or non- defaulter, selected demographic, farming and farmers’ attributes were analysed using frequency analysis in the study. Chi-square test The cross table and chi-square test is used to examine the association between credit worthiness among the small- holder farmers and some selected characteristics related to demographic, farming and attributes of the farmers on loans in the study. Probit model or Binary Probit model Addition to the above analytical tools, this study adopts probit model to investigate the impact of different characteristics on the credit worthiness among the small – holder farmers in the study area. Credit worthiness measured by binary variables namely 1 for non- defaulter and 0 for defaulter taken as dependent variable and as the dependent variable in the form of zero or one probit model is more applicable than the multiple regression. The probit model is applied into three models where the explanatory variables have three main characteristics and their impact on credit worthiness was examined by estimating the following models. Demographic characteristics: ...... Model 01
Yi = β0 + β1age + β2 gender + β3 education + β4 civil status+ β5 family members + εi Farming characteristics: ...... Model 02
Yi = β0 + β1 income + β2 farm size + β3 land ownership+ β4 farming experience + β5 off-farm activity + β6 purpose + β7 crop failure + β8 weather + εi Farmers’ attributes...... Model 03
Yi = β0 + β1 knowledge about loan + β2 type of loan security + εi Where,
Yi = the borrowers’ credit worthiness, which was categorized as. 1 if the borrower belongs to a non - defaulter 0 if the borrower belongs to a defaulter
β0 = Constant term
β1, β2, β3, β4, β5...... β8 are the coefficients of each respective independent variable.
εi = Error term Marginal Effects After estimates the probit model, marginal effect was calculated which measure the expected instantaneous change in the dependent variable as a function of a change in a certain explanatory variable while keeping all the other covariates held constant. The co-efficient of the marginal effect in probit model explains the effect of independent variable on dependent variable in terms of probability.
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Results and Discussions In the beginning, the collected data were examined using descriptive statistics and frequencies which are the basic statistical tools analysed for selected variables used in the study. Results of descriptive statistics analysis In this section, some selected demographic and farming characteristics of the 113 borrowers in the sample were analysed using the following descriptive statistics. Table 01: Results of descriptive statistics Variables N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation Age 113 21 80 46 14.595 Family members 113 2 8 4.04 1.326 Income 113 10000 50000 25946.9 7873.8 Farm size 113 1 13 4.96 2. 737 Farming experience 113 1 50 15.44 12.517 Source: Calculated by author, 2018/2019 Results of descriptive statistics reveal that, an average age of the famer is nearly 46 years old and this age group peoples were listed out by the World Bank as an effective work force among the Asian countries (Labour market statics 2017). Age of the sample respondents ranges from 21 to 80 years with the standard deviation age of 14.59. The average number of family member is 4 which is an indication of the household ensures that the availability of huge family support for their farming activities. As an average income per month they are earning Rs 25946/= by producing agriculture products with nearly 5 acres of land and of 15 years of experience in the farming. Results of frequency analysis Frequency is the way of analytical tool which illustrates the basic features of the demographic and farming characteristics used in the study. Table 02: Frequency of the variables Variables Frequency Percentage (%) Credit worthiness (a) Non-defaulter 64 56.6 Defaulter 49 43.3 Gender Male 63 56 Female 50 44 Civil status Married 89 79 Unmarried 24 21 Education Uneducated 17 15 Primary 46 41 Secondary 50 44 Land ownership
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Own 88 78 Tenant 25 22 Off-farm activities Yes 65 58 No 48 42 Purpose of getting loan For agriculture 70 62 For others 43 38 Crop failure Yes 38 34 No 75 66 Weather Yes 36 32 No 77 68 Knowledge about loan Yes 69 61 No 44 39 Types of loan security New members 42 37 Responsible members 45 40 Irresponsible members 26 23 Note :(a) indicate the dependent variable used in the study Source: Survey data, 2018/2019 Table 02 shows that, out of 113 sampled borrowers 64 of the borrowers belong to non-defaulters which accounts nearly 57% while 49of them belongs to defaulters which accounts nearly 43% in the study area. Frequency analysis across demographic variables specially gender and civil status refers that, 56% of the borrowers were males whereas 44% of them were females. In case of civil status, majority (79%) of the respondents were married while21% of them were single. Only 15% of the farmers not educated while 41% and 44% of them acquire primary and secondary education levels respectively. Ownership of cultivated land represents that 78% of them cultivating the crops on their own land and rest of them used tenant land. Even agricultural is the main income earning sector in the study area, 58% of them have off - farm income while 42% of them mainly depends on farm income. In similar way, frequency of other variables also explained in the above table. Results of Chi-square test To verify whether there is any significant association between credit worthiness and the selected demographic and farming characteristics of the samples, chi – square test was analysed in the study. Table 03: Estimated results of chi-square test Variables Non- defaulter (%) Defaulter (%) χ2 Significant
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Off-farm activity 12.44 0.000* Yes 70.8 29.2 No 37.5 62.5 Type of land 13.92 0.003* Own 65.9 34.1 Tenant 24.5 76.0 Gender 0.68 0.795 Male 55.6 44.4 Female 58.0 42.0 Civil Status 0.54 0.460 Married 58.4 41.6 Unmarried 50.0 50.0 Education 11.32 0.003* Uneducated 23.5 76.5 Primary 54.3 45.7 Secondary 70.0 30.0 Purpose of loan 8.26 0.004* For agriculture 67.1 32.9 For others 39.5 60.5 Note: * represent the 1% level of significant. Source: Survey data, 2018/2019 In the above results in table 03 suggest that all the variables have statistically significant association with credit worthiness except gender and civil status. The borrowers who have engaged in off-farm activities, out of them 70.8% of the borrowers belong to non-defaulters while 29.2% of them belong to defaulters. This indicates that when the borrowers have other income sources, they are able to repay their loans on time and the default ratio is lower than others who don’t have off – farm income. The chi- square value for types of land has significant at 1% level reveals that, the farmers whether they cultivate own land or tenant significantly associated with credit worthiness where the borrower belongs to defaulter or not. According to the results, 65.9% the farmers who are cultivating the crops on their own land belongs to non-defaulter while 76% them who are cultivating on the tenant land belongs to defaulter. These findings conclude that, own land cultivators have more motivation to settle their loans without any time delaying than tenant cultivators in the study area. However, among the three demographic characteristics only level of education has significantly associates with credit worthiness whereas gender and civil status of the borrowers have no associated with credit worthiness. Further, 76.5% of the farmers who have uneducated belong to defaulters but most of the primary educated (54.3%) and secondary educated farmers (70%) belong to non – defaulters respectively. Chi- square value for purpose of loan has significant at 1% level indicates that 67.1% of the farmers, who got the loans for agricultural purpose, belong to non- defaulters while 60.5% of them received for other purposes become as defaulter in the study.
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Regression outcomes of the binary probit model Binary probit model was applied to satisfy the second objective of the study to investigate the impact of demographic characteristics of the borrowers, farming characters and farmers’ attributes on the credit worthiness whether the particular borrower is a defaulter or non – defaulter in the study. Total independent variables belongs to three sets of different aspects, three models were employed in the analysis. Table 04: Estimated results of probit model for demographic characters Number of observation = 113 Log like hood =- 54.89 Probability > Chi2 = 0.000 Pseudo R2 = 0.29 Variable Coefficient Standard error z P > (z) Marginal effects Age 0.041 0.01 3.20 0.001* 0.011 Gender 0.041 0.29 0.14 0.889 0.011 Primary 0.837 0.40 2.06 0.040** 0.228 Secondary 1.638 0.42 3.89 0.000* 0.448 Civil status 0.536 0.37 1.43 0.152 0.145 Family members - 0.422 0.13 - 3.21 0.001* - 0.115 Constant - 1.493 0.86 - 1.72 0.085 ...... Note: * and ** represents the 1% and 5% levels of significant respectively Source: Survey data, 2018/2019 Table 04 represents the estimated results of probit model for demographic characteristics of the borrowers and out of six variables, four were found to be statistically significant impact on credit worthiness of the borrowers while gender and civil status have insignificant in the model. Log likelihood test of the probit model which is equal to the 54.89 with the probability value of 0.000 suggest that the model is good fitted one. Based on the statistically significant coefficients secondary education and age of the farmers and family size have 1% level of significant whereas, primary education has significant at 5% level in the model. The coefficient of age has positive sign reveal that, as age increase the farmers will have more likely to repay the loan and thus their repayment performance also increases. In other words, young farmers have less likely to repay the loan than elder farmers which indicate that, young farmers have less responsibility in settle the loans than elders. These results conclude that, elder farmers belong to non – defaulters while young farmers mostly belong to defaulters. The same finding represented by the marginal effect of the age and it has 0.011 which shows that elder farmers have 1.1% of more probability to repay the loans than young farmers. The coefficients for both primary and secondary education levels have positive sign with the marginal effects of 0.228 and 0.448 illustrates that, the borrowers who have primary and secondary educational qualifications, the probability to become as a non- defaulter increases by 22.8% and 44.8% respectively. Thus, educated farmers who borrow the loans from the bank will have more likely to repay the loans than uneducated farmers. Negative sign of the family members shows that, the respondents who have more members in the family, the probability to repay the loans is less and they mostly become as non – defaulter. The impact of farming characters on credit worthiness was examined using probit model and the results were depicted in table 05. Table 05: Estimated results of the probit model for farming characters Number of observation = 113 Probability > Chi2 = 0.000 Log like hood = - 29.72 Pseudo R2 = 0.61 Variable Coefficient Standard error z P > (z) Marginal effects Income 0.321 0.074 3.41 0.021** 0.051
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Farm size 0.340 0.088 3.83 0.000* 0.049 Land ownership 2.143 0.555 3.83 0.000* 0.308 Experience 0.048 0.020 2.40 0.016** 0.007
Off-farm activities 1.535 0.444 3.46 0.001* 0.220 Purpose 0.724 0.401 1.80 0.071*** 0.104 Crop failure - 1.079 0.544 - 1.98 0.048** - 0.155 Weather - 0.276 0.519 - 0.53 0.594 - 0.039 Constant - 4.573 0.977 - 4.68 0.000 ...... Note:*, ** and *** represents 1%, 5% and 10% significant levels respectively. Source: Survey data, 2018/2019 According to the table 05, goodness fit of the binary choice probit model was measured by the pseudo R2 which is equal to 0.61 refers that 61% of the variations in dependent variable explained by the above explanatory variables in the study. Also, the estimated results of probit model for farming characters were shown in the above table and out of eight farming related variables, seven were found to be significantly influencing the probability of being defaulter or non – defaulter at different significant levels. Coefficient for borrowers’ income was found to be positive as expected sign and its marginal effect has 0.051 means that, as their income increased the probability of being non defaulter is increased by 5.1% assuming that other factors held constant. Farm size is one of the major significant factors which determine the credit worthiness and according to its marginal effect suggest that the farmers who cultivate with large farm size, the probability of repayment also increase by 4.9%. Thus, the larger farm size cultivators belong to non – defaulters compared to smaller farm size cultivators in the study area. Marginal effects of land ownership is 0.308 reveals that, the farmers who cultivate the crops in their own land, the probability to happen to non – defaulter will increase by 30.8%. In other words, tenant land cultivators have 30.8% of less probability to repay the loans on time and they fall into defaulters. The coefficient of farming experience has 0.048 with its marginal effect of 0.007 shows that the borrowers who have more years of experience in farming, the probability to belong to non- defaulter also increase by 0.7%. This may be due to the fact that when the borrowers had enough experience in farming, they already know the potential risks that they will face in the farming and able to make remedial actions. According to the results, borrowers who engaged in other off –farm activities they were the best loan re- payers than others who depends on agriculture only. When they have other income sources the probability to become as a non –defaulter also increases by 22% and this variable also significant at 1% level. The loans given by the bank mainly focused on two purposes like for agricultural and other purposes and the probit results reveal that, the farmers who received loans for agricultural activities have better repayment performance and their default risk is less compared to the borrowers who get the loans for other targets. Repayment performance may depends on whether the farmers face crop failures or not and according to the coefficient of crop failure which has negative sign proves that, crop failure discourage them to pay the loans and they belong to defaulter in the study. Finally, credit worthiness of the farmers influence by their attributes and the estimated results from probit model given in the following table Table 06: Estimated results for the Farmers’ attributes Number of observation = 113 Probability > Chi2 = 0.000 Log like hood = - 47.47 Pseudo R2 = 0.38 Variable Coefficient Standard error z P > (z) Marginal effects Knowledge about loan 1.261 0.328 3.84 0.000* 0.298
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New member 0.710 0.427 1.66 0.097** 0.168 Responsible members 2.088 0.436 4.79 0.000* 0.494 Constant - 1.666 0.38 - 4.43 0.000 Note: * and ** represents the significant levels at 1% and 10% respectively Source: Survey data, 2018/2019 The above results suggest that, all three variables related to attributes of the farmers statistically significant at 1% and 5% levels and they have positively impact on repayment performance and when they have positive attributes on these aspects make them belong to non- defaulters in the sample. Conclusion This study intended to examine the impact of demographic characteristics of the borrowers, farming characters and attributes of the farmers about loans on credit worthiness in Vavuniya, Sri Lanka. For this purpose, descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, chi-square test and binary probit model were employed in the study. The probit regression outcomes indicated that, among demographic variables age, primary and secondary education levels and family members were significantly influence the credit worthiness while among farming characters, income, farm size, land ownership, experience in farming, availability of off – farm incomes, purpose of receiving the loans and possibility of crop failure were the significant determinants on credit worthiness in the model. On the other hand, all three attributes about loans have positively impact on credit worthiness among the small-holder farmers in the district in Sri Lanka. Finally, the micro finance institutions and banks should focus on the repayment challenges and issues which found by the researchers and take remedial actions to improve the repayment performance among the small holder farmers in the study area. Micro finance institutions to take more precautions before granting the loans with regard to the farmers who face the crop failure with large members in the family and they mainly can provide their services focusing on the farmers who have more income with other off – farm income cultivating the crops in large size of farm using own land and farming experience. Thus, this study recommended that those financial institutions have to consider the above factors and issues in granting the loans which may help them to improve the recovery loan repayment ratio in future. References [1] Aiah,E.A, (2014). “Loan repayment among bank of Agricultural loan beneficiaries in Nigeria” International Journal of livestock production, vol.5 (9), pp 155-164, sep 2014. [2] Assifaw Lemessa, and Adeba Gemechu (2016). Analysis of Factors Affecting Smallholder Farmers’ Access to Formal Credit in Jibat District, West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia, International Journal of African and Asian Studies, Vol.25, 43-53. [3] Hamid Safaynikou, Mohammad Taher Ahmadi Shadmehri, Ahmad Sabahi and Mohammad Javad Razmi (2017). Modelling the Effective Factors on Bank Loans Default Rate Using Delphi, SEM and Tobit Techniques (Evidence from Iran). Modern Applied Science; Vol. 11(4), 13-22. [4] Kapila Premarathne (2017) “Factors affecting to loan repayment behaviour and credit risk of farmers in Kotiyagala village in Monaragala District in Sri Lanka”. [5] Osman Yibrie and Ramakrishna, R (2017). Determinants of loan repayment performance in ACSI. international Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. Vol. 6 (4). [6] Olatomide Waheed Olowa, Omowumi Ayodele Olowa (2017). Tobit Analysis of Factors Influencing Loan Repayment Performance: A Case Study of Lift Above Poverty Organization (LAPO) Micro-Credit Agency in Nigeria. Mathematics Letters, PP.58-64. Retrieved from http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ml. [7] Gebre-Egziabher, Fentahun Destaw Kefale Yasin Ahmed (2018). Determinants of a. Smallholder Farmers Loan Repayment Performance in Assosa District, Western Ethiopia. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development. Vol.9(5), 46-57. [8] Girma Gudde Jote (2018). Determinants of Loan Repayment: The Case of Microfinance Institutions in Gedeo Zone, SNNPRS, Ethiopia. Universal Journal of Accounting and Finance. Vol. 6(3), 108-122. [9] Nwafor Grace O, Agu Aguiyi Fortune, Anigbogu Thersa and Umebali E.E. (2018). Loan Repayment Behaviour among Member of Farmers Multipurpose Cooperatives in Anambra State. International Journal of Community and Cooperative Studies. Vol.6 (1). pp.28-49. [10] W.P. Wijewardana, H.H.Dedunu (2017), “ Loan Repayment Ability of Farmers in Sri Lanka”
136 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Literary Texts in Teaching German as a Foreign Language
Brunilda Vërçani Enkela Bezati
Abstract For years into the teaching of foreign languages, the main focus has been the communication in real situations with the aim of comprehension and using of language abilities. But the teaching of foreign language, in our case the german language, cannot be understood on only one function: the communication in real situations. Learning foreign languages means that the learner have to know the history, the culture and the spirit of a nation. A way to achive that, is the literary text inclusion on the foreign language learning whose functions are more than mentioned. Literary texts can motivate the learners to arouse their curiousity and interest. This help them to understand the culture of the foreign country and to stimulate their abilities to make comparisons. The use of literary text, into the teaching of foreign languages in based on several steps, that are related to the phase before, during and after textanalysing. An important role play the criteria of the text selection, principles, learning objectives and working methods with literary text into the teaching of foreign languages. Keywords: literary texts, german as a foreign language, text selection, textanalysing, learning objectives.
Introduction In recent years, foreign language learning has been focused mainly on communication in everyday life situations, with a view to successfully understand and make excellent use of language skills. However, language learning cannot be limited to just one specific function, which is that of communication. Language learning plays an informative role by enabling us to learn about the country’s history, culture, tradition and heritage.(Weller 1989: 254) These fundamental elements will keep us hooked on the learning process. Therefore, it becomes vitally important that in foreign language learning, in our case German language learning, we should rely not only in authentic texts which include everyday life situations but also literary texts from German writers. Through these texts students will get acquainted with a wider world of feelings and thoughts. Encountering literary texts can awaken their desire to read, but proper precautions should be taken so as not to overcome the extent to which these literary texts should be included. Otherwise foreign language learning will become less attractive for students. We must bear in mind that in recent years there is a decline in the desire to read. It is teacher’s responsibility to determine how much literature he can offer to his students to maintain and further develop their desire to read. Each student has his own way of reading, understanding, interpreting or evaluating a text that is closely related to their social, cultural, and their personal values. (Bischof M./Kessling V./Krechel R., 1999 :20) On this basis, students discuss and converse, by making possible to express themselves (Scheibler 2007:183) in German language. In addition to the interaction between the readers, an interaction between the reader and the text is created, where the reader brings to his attention preliminary knowledge, his expectations regarding the text and then he tries to read between the lines to understand the meaning of the text. (Bischof M./Kessling V./Krechel R., 1999 :20) All his thoughts, assumptions, judgments, and assessments on what he reads will bring him into conversation with other students. (Bauer 2003:284) Literary texts represent reality from one's own point of view, therefore, the reader needs to discover these perspectives and make proper comparisons so as to distinguish social and cultural differences. The cultural information that a literary text conveys to the reader helps him to know and understand the culture of German- speaking countries. Being rich in cultural themes and information, they provide a way to know and learn more about these countries. Such opportunity is especially beneficial for those who have not had the opportunity to know and visit them closely.
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Working with literary texts in German language learning, among other things, helps motivate students, raises interest, and encourages them to deal with meaning. This helps them develop the four language skills required while learning a foreign language. The student reads the text or listens to it while being read by the teacher or another student, or even on CD as it is possible for a part of German books, then they talk to one another about the text and finally they write about it. Since literary texts often ask questions, they are not always explicit and address readers not only cognitively but also emotionally. This makes the reader to get involved in what he reads, become part of it, work on imagination, think critically, react, recognize, distinguish, evaluate and bring his experiences in this wide cultural dimension of literature.(Brusch 1985:362) This will promote and further develop intercultural learning and their speaking skills in foreign language. However, including literary texts in German language learning cannot be reached so easily. There are difficulties and disadvantages on the other side of the coin. One of them which was also mentioned above was that the student may be bored (Koppensteiner 2001: 14) and not attracted by reading literary texts as he is not inclined towards reading. The language of these texts is difficult, requires a lot of work from the learner to understand and good language skills. In addition to these, interpretation skills as well as knowledge from other areas: social, cultural, historical etc. are needed. Again, teacher’s work and assistance is needed so as to prevent the above mentioned from appearing as an obstacle to German language learning. The difficulties do not only appear for the student, but for the teacher as well. The teacher has to introduce a literary text which does not always allow him to do grammar exercises. As a result the teacher has to work harder in advance in designing these exercises. Also, it takes a great deal of work to create and customize vocabulary exercises, as well as discovering opportunities to exercise listening. On the other hand writing and speaking is easier to be organized. To overcome the difficulties and problems and to reach the desirable objectives of learning German successfully it comes handy to us to carefully select the literary texts. Literature offers all of its genres so as to be integrated in the German language learning. However, different factors should be considered and properly weight while selecting them. (Bischof M./Kessling V./Krechel R., 1999 :23) One of the factors to be considered is the age of the students. Selected texts have to be in line with their age. Different ages have different desires and interests. Based on this, the literary texts should fit with the students' interests. They should address topics that motivate them, with which they can also be identified. Teachers should carefully evaluate even the language of the text so as to adapt to it the age of the students. But language is not only related to age, it needs to be tailored to the language level in which the student is (Koppensteiner 2001:42), so as not to become a barrier to learning German. Language should be used as a tool to expand and deepen language knowledge. Another influential factor in the selection of literary textbooks is the cultural information they carry, so as to be an incentive to make cross-cultural comparisons. A significant factor while selecting the literary text gives the reason why students are learning German. Whether it is just learning a foreign language among or whether they are learning to pursue studies in Germany, whether they are learning it for professional reasons or for a possible stay in Germany. Even the factor time should be considered while determining and selecting the literary text in the lesson. How to work with literary texts in German language learning? The work done with literary texts in German language learning is divided into several phases, which are related to preliminary work, the work done before reading the text, the work done while reading and writing, as well as the work performed after reading the text. In the first step, before reading the text, students are given the opportunity to be presented with the subject of the text. This is accomplished through sociograms of key words separated from the text, through any question we can ask students about the phenomenon that is being discussed by the text. Another useful strategy is making the students read some extracted passages and guessing what the text offers, by letting them listen to some verses or lines cut off from the literary text. Another way is to present different pictures related to the text and its theme. After discussions and guesses are made by students we can go to the next step: reading the text. Initially, students get acquainted with the text, and then make comparisons with their previous assumptions and ideas. Afterwards, we work with
138 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 the text in which we exercise all types of reading: global, selective, and detailed. Students perform different types of exercises prepared by the teacher beforehand. At this stage reading and speaking are widely practiced. As a third step comes the text reading, where the learners can write on a certain topic related to the text, can create a dialogue, play role plays, or stage any part of the text. They can also make comparisons in social or cultural terms. They bring their perspectives, knowledge and experiences and compare them to what is presented in the text, reflecting their personal response to the world and reality. Below you will find briefly an example of how a poem can be used in teaching a foreign language. We chose a poem by Timo Brandt taken from the link below: www.lyrikmond.de/gedichte-thema-14-140.php#1349 Abseitsgedicht Ich schrieb, wir könnten uns heute noch sehen, du schriebst zurück, du hättest da noch was zu erledigen, in der Stadt, hättest ziemlich viel zu tun. Ich habe einen Witz gemacht und du schriebst “Haha”, ich habe dich gesehen, (du weiβt es ja nicht) wie du es ernst und gründlich eingetippt hast, bevor du in die U-Bahn nach Hause stiegst. Love in the offside I wrote that we could still see each other today, you wrote back, you still have something to do there in the city, you have a lot to do. I made a joke and you wrote “Haha”, I saw you, (but you do not know) how you typed the letters seriously and thoroughly, before you got into the subway home. As a first step during the lesson plan could be the appearance of a photo that has a smartphone in it. Pupils try to guess what it is all about, talk about the smartphone, discuss how present it is today in their lives, how dependent they are from it. Another version could be writing the word smartphone on the board so as the pupils could collect word-related associations. After that, students are provided only with the title of the poetry. Then, they try to make the link between the title and the photo and make different assumptions. The next step is to work with the text. We provide the students with the opportunity to read the text. They compare their assumptions with what poetry expresses. - Then we can discuss questions like: - Were you surprised by anything specific during the reading? - Who addresses to whom? - What were you mostly impressed by?
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- How would you interpret the title in relation to the poetry? - What is your personal opinion upon this conversation? -What connotation does the expression "You have a lot to do" have? - What kind of feelings does the answer "haha" bring to you? How honest are we when we use it? How do we interpret it when we read it? - Why has he said: “how you typed the letters seriously and thoroughly"? - How honest are the interlocutors with each other in this poem? As far as grammar is concerned, one idea could be to do Reported Speech exercises since the first verse provides us with an example of it. Nevertheless, not in every single lesson can we include grammar exercises. After reading the text and discussing about it, we can pass on questions that are directly related to the pupils, for example, what is their relationship with the mobile phone. In this way, every student would have the opportunity to share their experiences and express themselves in foreign language. Another topic of discussion could be: How much does the mobile phone help in love matters? Does it make people be near each other or does it separate? Here pupils exchange their thoughts, ideas and experiences. In addition, students can come up with arguments about the topic "How honest are we when writing on the phone? In order to make students develop the skill of writing they will be assigned the task of writing a poem that would be a kind of answer to the poetry that they read during the lesson. All we ever tried to achieve in here was to make a proposition of how we can work with such a poem in teaching German. Of course, it is every teacher’s duty to adapt it accordingly. References [1] Bauer A. (2003). Literatur im DaF-Unterricht: Die Verwandlung Franz Kafkas und ihre didaktische Aufbereitung für russische Studierende. In : Germanistisches Jahrbuch GUS “Das Wort” [2] Bechtel,Ch., Simson ,E. (1984). Lesen und Verstehen. Ismaning. [3] Bischof, M., Kessling V., Krechel, R. (1999). Landeskunde und Literaturdidaktik. Berlin [4] Brusch W. (1985). Literarische Texte im kommunikativen Fremdsprachenunterricht. In: Heid (1985) Literarische Texte im kommunikativen Fremdsprachenunterricht, New Yorker Werkstattgespräch München [5] Ehlers S. (1996) Literarische Texte lesen lernen. München [6] Fricke D., Glaap A.R. (1990) Literatur im Fremdsprachenunterricht – Fremdsprache im Literaturunterricht. Frankfurt am Main. [7] Kast B. (1989) Jugendliteratur im kommunikativen Deutschunterricht. Berlin [8] Koppensteiner J. (2001). Literatur im DaF-Unterricht. Eine Einführung in produktiv-kreative Techniken. Wien [9] Scheibler O. (2007). Märchen im frühen DaF/ DaZ-Unterricht – ganzheitlich und handlungsorientiert In: Fortschritte im frühen Fremdsprachenunterricht. Auf dem Wege zur Mehrsprachigkeit. Tübingen. [10] Weller F. (1989). Lesebücher, Lektüren, Anthologien, Textsammlungen. In: Handbuch Fremdsprachenunterricht. Tübingen [11] Westhoff G. (1997), Fertigkeit Lesen. Berlin Internetlinks [1] www.lyrikmond.de/gedichte-thema-14-140.php#1349 [2] https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/mag/20492952.html
140 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Positive Impact of a Portuguese State-Owned Company that Invested on Consumers Nutritional Education – the Case of Fish and Docapesca
Ana Oliveira Madsen Católica Porto Business School, Portugal Valentina Chkoniya University of Aveiro, Portugal
Abstract A human common need is the security of an adequate diet, which will provide energy and the various nutrients necessary for metabolic functioning. This paper presents the case of a company that considers food quality, safety, health and nutrition as a priority: Docapesca – Portos e Lotas, SA. This state-owned company (operating in the Portuguese fish sector) has taken under its wing the task – and also the responsibility – of educating consumers’ preferences regarding fish. Portugal ranks number 3 in the world consuming fish which is fantastic since fish is a fabulous source of easily digested, high quality animal protein. Fish is high in lysine and sulphur amino acids, provides vitamin A and vitamin D, and (above all) contains a very powerful, almost panacea-like nutrient-called “Omega-3 fat”. According to Sørensen (1996), fish provides security and it is considered a very healthy product. The company analysed in this paper, Docapesca – Portos e Lotas SA, provides the public service of organizing the first sale of fish (on mainland Portugal), and also supports the fishing harbour sector. But besides that, one of the company’s main objectives include consumers’ education, nutritional education and knowledge transfer on healthy food and diet. Social responsibility, quality guarantee, cooperation with society and environmental and civic responsibility are also part of its mission. To write this paper we have had access to privilege State information and we have made an exhaustive detailed analysis of the different strategies implemented by Docapesca – Portos e Lotas, SA (in-depth interviews to key decision makers in the company were the way to reach all this exclusive data). This study gathered information from entire Portuguese population but gave special attention to the young generation (16 to 34 years old). Findings showed that, as a result of all the work that has been made towards educating consumers on fish, Portuguese consumers perceive fish as more than just fish. Keywords: Consumers education, Fish product preferences, Fish benefits, Children’s food habits, Nutritional Education
Introduction Who is Docapesca and why is it’s work so relevant? This paper is based on data collected by Docapesca – Portos e Lotas SA, a State-Owned company that provides the public service of organizing the first sale of fish (on mainland Portugal) and supports the fishing harbour sector. But Docapesca does more than this; the company’s main objectives also include consumers’ education, nutritional education and knowledge transfer on healthy food and diet. Social responsibility, quality guarantee, cooperation with society and environmental and civic responsibility are also part of its mission. The company was a pioneer in trying to educate youngsters. For a long time Docapesca has studied fish consumption by targeting the whole Portuguese population but in the last few years, the company has given special attention to the young consumers, trying to educate consumers’ preferences regarding seafood. Culture and its habits are deeply rooted in the food experiences of children; so the formation of children’s food habits is of major interest. Docapesca’s strategy intends to educate the country’s population, starting with the education of its children. The constant investment in the inclusion of fish into children’s meals had a very positive outcome: children’s domestication of fish into their eating habits. Fish and Seafood are present in children’s meals, not just at home, but also in all kinds of school meals. 141 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
It is of extreme importance for children to see it (eating fish) as something normal, consumed all the time, by their parents, family and teachers and also very important, consumed by their peers. Why is it so important for countries to invest in campaigns to increase fish consumption? Human beings share a common need to meet certain fundamental conditions for survival. The ways in which these similar requirements are met are hugely diverse (Fieldhouse, 1986), but a human common need is the security of an adequate diet, which will provide energy and the various nutrients necessary for metabolic functioning. There are many ways in which careful planning of the daily balance in our various foods can improve our health and many consumers know that there are benefits on having a “daily spoon” of fish liver oil. In a special way, the sea may give us these polyunsaturated fatty acids and lessen our overreactions to the stresses in our lives on land. The protein quality of fish assessed in terms of net protein utilization (the proportion of nitrogen intake that is retained in the body) is lower than for eggs but similar to that in chicken, meat, milk, and cheese (Holt, Sidney, 1978). Most fish contains around 15 to 20% protein by weight (Kent, 1987). Portuguese consumers give value to fish because the market system created that value and sustained it as part of Portuguese traditions. It is this knowledge and relevance given by the market that makes consumers perceive the product as more than just fish. It is a part of Portuguese identity and a way that helps consumers understand themselves in the world. Fish give a big contribution to the alleviation of malnutrition in many parts of the world and, according to Sørensen (1996), fish provides security and it is considered a healthy product. Fish is generally free of contaminants, particularly of the kinds of chemicals, which are sometimes used to produce meat (Schell, 1984). Fish provides preformed vitamin A and vitamin D if its oil is ingested. Fish bones, which may be eaten in small fish such as sardines, are particularly rich in calcium. Marine species are the best source of iodine (Masayoshi, 1984). Of course the appropriateness of fishery products for alleviating any sort of nutrition deficiency depends on particular local circumstances, taking into consideration issues such as their acceptability, availability, and cost in relation to alternative sources of the required nutrients (Kent, 1987). Almost any attempt to replace some of our foods with seafood products seems likely to alter our average diet in a beneficial manner. Fish contains a very powerful, almost panacea-like nutrient-called Omega-3 fat. When eaten regularly, these fats improve physical and mental health and prolong life. We know that humans once ate much more fish and other sources of 0mega-3 (wild animals, nuts, berries) than we do today. They remained largely free from many of the ailments that plague us today, such as heart diseases, cancer, arthritis, psoriasis, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, and even mental illness. Often called good fats, Omega-3 is found in seafood and flaxseed products and, to a lesser extent, in certain oils and nuts. Omega-3 fats are considered essential fats, because our body cannot manufacture them, we can get them only from foods we eat. Omega-3 are used to create signalling molecules called prostaglandin that direct blood vessels to dilate, encourage blood to stay fluid, and reduce the inflammation response associated with ailments such as heart disease and psoriasis. Omega-3 also become embedded in various cells throughout the body, making them healthier and more pliable. Most people in Western industrialized countries tend to consume more calories than their bodies use, and these extra calories accumulate in the form of fat and cholesterol (Lands, 1986). One of the attractions of replacing meat with fish is the opportunity to decrease the amount of total fat and saturated fatty acids in the diet (Kent, 1987). Consumers should try to alter the composition of polyunsaturated fatty acids (table 1) to balance eicosanoid1 formation, while at the same time cutting the total caloric intake and the percentage of calories in the form of saturated fat Table 1: Polynsaturated fatty acidsin fish - Expressed as grams per 100 grams of food Fish Total fat Tuna (albacore) 6.8 Anchovy 6.4 Herring 6.2 Mackerel 9.8 Salmon 13.2
1 Eicosanoides- A term designating any of a large family of hormonelike compounds, which contain twenty carbons, for which the most common precursor is the 20-carbon acid, arachidonate. The eicosanoids include two major types of biologically active agents: prostaglandins (Prostaglandins are type of compound derived from a polyunsaturated fatty acid by oxidation and rearrangement. Prostaglandins contain a five-member ring of carbon atoms and three or more oxygen atoms) and leukotrienes (is a class of polyunsaturated eicosanoides, that is formed following the action of a lipoxygenase. These compounds have their double bonds rearranged to adjacent locations within the carbon chain and do not have the cyclic ring system that is present in prostaglandins. 142 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Tuna (blue fin) 4.7 Halibut (Pacific) 2.0 Flounder 1.2 Cod 0.73 Haddock 0.66 Source: Kifer and Miller (1969) Oil from the livers of large fish is high in vitamin A, and can be taken in capsule doses. Traditionally, cod liver has been used for this purpose, but the liver oil from other species can be used as well. In some cases synthetic concentrated vitamin A may be provided in capsule form. Fish protein concentrate is a stable protein supplement prepared from whole fish, usually fish of low market value (Kent, 1987). A research project from the Cambridge University (2002) discovered that eating oily fish such as mackerel or salmon regularly could protect against asthma. It is the latest in a long list of benefits ascribed to this type of fish. ” Oily fish has already been linked with protection from heart disease, arthritis, psoriasis and dementia, (…) and it is safe to say that eating oily fish in moderation every week as part of a well-balanced diet could help reduce the risk of asthma” ;“As asthma has become more common (in the UK) the amount of oily fish in the diet has declined” Dr. Bipen Patel1. Fish is for sure a healthier food than sugar and sweets, or meat with hormones and fat. It has many advantages to a healthier life, it reduces cholesterol and breathing problems, it has vitamin A and so on, and is for sure one possible ingredient in a healthier diet. One can be positively certain that fish helps preventing obesity (Thorsdottir et al., 2008), as well as other major health problems like arrhythmia, blood clot, bad cholesterol, asthma, Alzhaimer (table 2). And when comparing the nutritional values and contaminant levels in other protein sources, fish becomes a better and safer option. Table 2: Advantages of Omega -3 fats – Resume Research has shown that Omega-3 fatty acids:
# Decrease risk of sudden death and arrhythmia # Decrease thrombosis (blood clot) # Decrease triglyceride levels # Decrease growth of atherosclerotic plaques # Improve arterial health # Lowe blood pressure # Lowe the levels of bad cholesterol # Protects against asthma # Lowe risk of dementia (including Alzheimer’s) # DHA (essential for building nerve cells in the brain)
The need for Consumers Nutritional Education to fish products Institutional feeding meals (kindergartens, pre-schools, high schools, universities and hospitals feeding programs) are a fantastic mean for helping youngsters eat fish. Without spending a lot of money, simply by directing it to more fish than normally, government can make a big impact in the population’s diets. It is for sure agreed by everyone that the food served in public places should be healthier to eat than the food that it is sold at fast food restaurants - not less safe (Schlosser, E. 2001, pg. 263). Governments (through its start owned companies like Docapesca) should insist upon the highest possible food safety standards from every company that supplies food to schools or other public food suppliers. Public feeding cantinas should be the first one following the public founded campaigns. Seafood should be no exception. It is the government and its public feeding institutions that have the responsibility, power, duty and social function to change it, by educating their citizens. If the authorities want consumers to eat more fish, they have to teach them first. Directives should be given as to include (at the least) fish twice a week. Young people spend most of their time in schools, so it is only natural that schools should be used as one of the pivots for the “normal inclusion” to occur. The Council of Europe and World Health Organization (World and Health Organization) has given the topic high priority and has opened a debate on the importance of healthiness and institutional feedings, since it is also through the food supplied by the schools cantinas that many of the future adult’s preferences and habits are being formed.
1 Lead author, and clinical epidemiologist at Cambridge University. British Thoracic Society. 143 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Portuguese students spend 5 days a week in school, which makes improvements in food diet and nutrition at schools an important element in a strategy towards healthier eating among children and adolescents (Mikkelsen, 2006 pg 8). The food offered available to children will be, in the future, part of the individuals’ mental classification of the acceptable options. Government should have in consideration that educating a nation’s eating is in its hands. And please, stop blaming the bones; children can be taught to like the taste of fish not minding the bones. The school’s influence in transmitting a message with the importance of fish is huge. School activities already include nutritionists talking about healthy food - with fish included-, and children pay attention and enjoy the lecture. And it becomes instilled from childhood. It is not when they are adults that suddenly someone comes and says that fish is fantastic; it has to be while they are creating habits. Starting soon, in their education, will make it normal. It is also a fact that children have a growing influence in family decision making – they actually choose the products they want. They are influenced by and influence the parents; if they learn in school that fish is good, they will ask the parents to do it at home. Children end-up affecting the food choices at home. Young generations and consumption - Alvin Toffler´s point of view Alvin Toffler was a visionary. Probably one of the last “real” gurus of modern times. According to him, we live in a fast and extremely unstable world - we might even use the term turbulent if we follow Alvin Toffler’ thoughts. He mentioned that somewhere in the future there would be a generation that had to live in permanent adaptation if they wanted to survive. In his capacity to predict the future, Toffler taught us (25 years ahead) the rule for surviving: constantly adapt to the immense changes that occur in the world. To him, change is the process by which the future invade our lives. To the XXI century generations, change is… normal. This is because the world is now an open system (with people, raw materials, interest rates, trends, social campaigns, environmental statements, etc.). And so Toffler recommends new generations to be extremely vigilant, always aware, always in contact with everything and everyone (Coelho et al., 2019). Following Toffler’s permanent adaptation survival rule, it is vital to the food supply chain (in our case, seafood and fish) to rapidly understand that the future of consumption is in the hands of the new generations. What are their preferences regarding fish, how is that they buy fish products, how is that they consume fish, how is fish perceived and included into their meals? For sure the way fish is perceived, bought and consumed has changed drastically when comparing with their grandparents and parents; Docapesca has analysed that changed and interpreted the new ways of understanding and consuming fish. And so, following Toffler’s permanent adaptation survival rule, it is vital to seafood dealers and national governments to rapidly understand that the future of consumption is in the hands of the young generations. Acknowledging that, Docapesca has, for many years, given a special focus on building a support for the coming generations, towards the Consumers Nutritional Education, which focus on fish and seafood products (Coelho et al, 2018). The Consumers Nutritional Education focus especially on young Portuguese consumers, and, for this specific paper, especial attention will be given to consumers with ages between 16 and 34, through a 1 year evolution. We are going to understand how (if) consumers’ perception of seafood has changed during that year, and look at the differences within the general population. Methodology To write this paper we have had access to privilege State information and we have made an exhaustive detailed analysis of the different strategies implemented by Docapesca – Portos e Lotas, SA (in-depth interviews to key decision makers in the company were the way to reach all this exclusive data). Findings showed that, as a result of all the work that has been made towards educating consumers on fish, Portuguese consumers perceive fish as more than just fish. This paper studies two analysis made by Docapesca: comparison between 2 specific years (2017 vs 2018) for the young generations and also the comparison between the young generations and the total of the Portuguese population (2017 vs 2018). Procedure and sample To analyse the evolution of the Fish sector in Portugal we used Docapesca Portos e Lotas S.A’s data. Two surveys were conducted (each with 1000 respondents - representative of general of the Portuguese population), one in 2017 and the other one in 2018, using plenty of variables that turned out to be extremely valuable data to market analyses and allowed a very strong comparative analysis. Data was collected using quota sampling, representative of Portuguese population according National Statistics Institute (INE), as non-probability sampling technique, by using a socio-demographic variable such as sex (49,1% Male and 50,9% Female), age (16/24 years with 9,1%, 25/34 years with 16,8%, 35/44 years with 18,5%, 45/54 years with 18,1%, 55/64
144 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 years with 16,6%, 65 years or more with 20,9%), and region according to Nuts II (35,2% of North, 25,0% of Centre, 27,7% of Lisbon, 8% of Alentejo, 4,1% of Algarve). In terms of the descriptive statistics it represents a demographic profile with following Education level 2017 vs 2018: Primary (19,2% vs 13,8%), Secondary (48,8% vs 48,2%) and Higher (32,0% vs 38%). Since the Consumers Nutritional Education had a special focus on young people, for better understanding the impact, we made a filter for young people (16/34 years). Comparison analyses was made considering one-year evolution in young generation perception about seafood and also looking at the difference with population in general. The questionnaire about seafood consumption patterns was anonymous in order to guarantee a higher level of participation and honesty. Each question was debated by a multidisciplinary team composed of nutritionists, marketing and survey specialists, representatives of commercial companies, statisticians, and people experienced in the seafood sector. Furthermore, the attained preliminary questionnaire was sent to a group of twenty individuals outside the expert group with the purpose of assaying the clarity, simplicity, and appropriateness of the various questions. During this process, several alterations were introduced, but the overall architecture of the five sections was kept in the final form of the questionnaire. The fish products were chosen on the basis of consumption importance in Portugal. In order to reach a large universe and different ages and geographical regions of the country, a telephonic medium was the natural option. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was carried out using the SphinxIQ software (Sphinx Company, Montréal, Canada), which enabled to analyse the overall distribution of respondents as well as the consumption preferences and frequencies affected by the independent variables. The difference of means between pairs was resolved by using confidence intervals in a Tukey HSD test. Level of significance was set for p < 0.01. Results and Discussion Concern about the origin of the fish Young Portuguese people, as well as population in general, are more and more careful with the origin of the fish they consume. Concern ranged 2,75 and 3,27 by 5-point Likert type scale with 34,4% and 48,6% respectively for TOP 2 boxes (agree/totally agree) answers in 2017 vs and 3,37 and 3,62 with and 48,1% and 59,3% respectively for TOP 2 boxes in 2018 (p = 0.00 Khi2=231.63, dgl=4(MS)). Noticing that the attention that young Portuguese people pay to origin of the fish, grows quicker than for population in general. Perception of the Portuguese fresh fish Portuguese young consumers aged 16 to 34 perceive Portuguese fish as the best fish in the world, ranged 3,83 by 5-point Likert type scale with 63,1% for TOP 2 boxes (agree/totally agree) answers in 2017 vs 4,37 with 81% for TOP 2 boxes in 2018 (p = 0.00 Khi2=1158.19, dgl=4(MS)). Noticing that in 2017 Portuguese population in general gave a higher score to Portuguese fish (4,05) than young people (3.83), showing a gap in perception between different generations. In 2018, Portuguese perception of fresh fish grew significantly (in general), and even then, it became almost the same for different generations (4,37 for population in general vs 4,3 for young people), showing an impressive result of Consumers Education Campaign conducted by Docapesca in one year only. Portuguese waters are abundant in different devalued species. Based on creating sustained value for society concerns it becomes important to understand the sustainability issue for different species, by giving proper Consumers Nutritional Education about fish species of higher stock (Docapesca, 2018). It becomes especially challenging, when it comes to Portuguese population, a population that is very traditional regarding fish consumption (Coelho et all, 2018). Availability for transfer of consumption for fish of higher stock The data reveals that young Portuguese population shows bigger availability of transfer of consumption of fish of lower stock, ranged 3,07 by 5-point Likert type scale with 39,3 % for TOP 2 boxes (agree/totally agree) answers, in 2018 vs 2,91, 32,9 % for TOP 2 boxes for population in general (p < 0.01, Khi2=39.51, dgl=4(MS)). Noticing that in 2018, after a Horse Mackerel Campaign, 50,1% of young people recognized that they started to purchase Mackerel more often and, in 2017, 40% confirmed that they were buying more horse mackerel after the campaign.
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Knowledge about the fresh fish market in the Portuguese population In 2017 only with 23% for TOP 2 boxes (agree/totally agree) answers, young people considered themselves fish connoisseurs, ranged 2,73 by 5-point Likert type scale against 3,24 with 38,9 % TOP 2 boxes for population in general (p = 0.00 Khi2=177.43, dgl=4(MS). Even less of Portuguese population considered themselves fish connoisseurs in 2018, ranged 3,14 by 5-point Likert type scale with 37 % for TOP 2 boxes, when we notice increase among young people with 2,74 and 25,8% for TOP 2 boxes. Another relevant information taken from the analyses is that 28,5% of young people confirm that they discover new things about Mackerel after the 2018’s Campaign and 20% about Horse Mackerel after the 2017’s Campaign. Various market reports indicate that population in Portugal often look for healthy food solutions and perceive seafood as a fundamental part of it (Coelho et all, 2018); that is why it is so important that Horse Mackerel is recognized by young people as “good for health” (3,8) in 2017 and with even significantly better results about Mackerel in 2018 (4,47 by 5-point Likert type scale). However, Mackerel and Horse Mackerel are considered by young people as suitable for varying their meals ranged 3,8 and 3,35 respectively. It is very important to continue to pay attention to the education of the Portuguese population regarding seafood – with focus on young generations – since almost 50% of them actually enjoy cooking and enjoy being creative in the kitchen; 7.7% love to cook and consider themselves as experts; 31.1% simply do not mind cooking - it's just one of the things they do. On the other hand, less than 12% do not like to cook (it's an annoyance) (p<0.01, Khi2=174.69, dof=3(VS)). The global world brought new products into our tables and created new interpretations of what a meal is and young people are like to explore new fish preparation solutions (3,18). This is why it is so important to give them the best source of information. The best source of information about seafood People that today have 34 years, make part of the first wave of the digital generation born into the world of technology. They are highly qualified in digital knowledge therefore it is easy for them to quickly acquire the use of new tools and devices in ICTs (Bencsik et al., 2016). The data collected indicates that for young people social media (Facebook, Instagram e etc.) become the most important source of information regarding seafood for young generations with 56,3% in 2017 vs 65,8% in 2018, when for population in general, TV continuous to be the one with 60.1% in 2017 vs 61,7% in 2018. (p = 0.00 Khi2=9852.88, dgl=20(MS). Place of purchase of the fresh fish in the Portuguese population Concerning place of purchase of the fresh fish, the universe of young respondents clearly continuous to prefer supermarkets as well as population in general, 67,4 and 54,1% respectively in 2017 vs 52% and 49,8% respectively in 2018 (p < 0.01, Khi2=632.44, dgl=3(MS) – even though it is possible to notice a slight purchase transfer from supermarkets to local markets, which goes in line with fresh food purchase, in general. This transfer is noticeable for younger generations. Preference for local markets grew 7% in one year (from 12% in 2017 to 19%in 2018). Conclusions: Docapesca, a Portuguese state owned company, has implemented many national fish campaigns, and has helped forming food preferences of young consumers. This State Owned Company has taken under its wings the role of educating consumers on fish, a product that helps preventing many diseases like thrombosis, arrhythmia, dementia (Alzheimer’s), asthma, and many more. Therefore, it should be a known fact that fish should be more consumed world-wide (especially in the Occidental modern world full of fast food and processed foods. Taking into account the quantitative contributions collected, this papers shows how, from one year to the other, changes have occurred when it comes to young people’s knowledge, attitudes, perceptions and intentions associated to fish products. One thing that this paper illustrates is that there is an impact when consumers are exposed to fish campaigns, and that it is possible to mould young consumers’ food habits. Fresh new data on young consumers (16 to 34 years old) regarding perception of fresh fish, availability for transfer of consumption for fish of higher stock, knowledge about the fresh fish market in the Portuguese population, the best source
146 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 of information about seafood and place of purchase of the fresh fish in the Portuguese population where some of the concepts analysed and that show obvious change. References [1] Bencsik, A., Horváth-Csikós, G., Juhász, T. (2016). Y and Z Generations at Workplaces. Journal of Competitiveness. Vol. 8, Issue 3, pp. 90 – 106. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2016.03.06 [2] Coelho, Teresa; Chkoniya, Valentina; Madsen, Ana Oliveira (2018): “The (R) evolution of the fishing sector in Portugal. Building a support for the coming generations" Georgiant Technical University and University of Foggia (2018) ISBN 978-9941-28-403-8 [3] Docapesca 2018. In Coelho, Teresa; Chkoniya, Valentina; Madsen, Ana Oliveira (2018): “The (R) evolution of the fishing sector in Portugal. Building a support for the coming generations" Georgiant Technical University and University of Foggia. ISBN 978-9941-28-403-8 [4] Fieldhouse, Paul (1986): “Food and nutrition: Customs and culture”- London, Helm [5] Holt, Sidney (1978): “Marine Fisheries” in Elisabeth Mann Borgese and Norton Ginsburg, eds., Ocean Yearbook 1, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.pp-66 [6] Kent, George (1987): “Fish, food, and hunger: The potential of fisheries for alleviating malnutrition”- Boulder, Colo: Westview Press [7] Kifer, R.R., and Miller D. (1969): “Fish oil-fatty acid composition energy values, metabolism and vitamin content”. Fish Industry. Vol 5, Nr. 25. [8] Lands, William E.M (1986): “Fish and human health” - Academic Press, Inc [9] Masayoshi, Sada (1984): “Fish Calcium” Infofish Marketing Digest, No 1/84, pp: 29-30 [10] Mikkelsen, Bent E (2006): ”Er Fødevareindustrien parat til udfordringen?”. Produktudvikling. Plus Proces nr. 1. [11] Schell, Orville (1984): “Modern Meat”, New York: Random House [12] Schlosser, Eric (2001): “Fast Food Nation”- Allen Lane, The Penguin Press. [13] Sørensen, Elin; Grunert, Klaus G; Nielsen, Niels Asger (1996): “The impact of product experience, product involvement and verbal processing style on consumers’ cognitive structures with regard to fresh fish”- Aarhus School of Business. MAPP working paper no 42. [14] Thorsdottir, I; Birgisdottir, B; Kiely, M; Martinez, J; Bandarra, N (2008): “Fish consumption among young overweigth European adults and compliance to varying seafood content in four weight loss intervention diets”. Public Health Nutrition: 12(5), 592-598. [15] Toffler, A. (1970). Future Shock. Random House
147 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Market or Public Sector - Which One Better Promotes Development?
Oriola Musa PhD (C.), European University of Tirana, Faculty of Economics Branch: Sustainable Economy & Development
Abstract Throughout the last 30-year transition period, various discussions, alternatives or positions of political leaders, economic experts, etc., have constantly supported an open profile of liberal positions in absolute favour of the market, or in other positions in favour of a large presence and intervention of the State in economy. The dominant subject of political debate still remains the following one: what should be the guarantor of the development in Albania, the Market or the State? (In most cases, by State we mean the government). For the same concerns and objectives regarding the country's socio-economic development: "the free market and economic freedom ..., since the State and the public sector are the main obstacles to the development ...., and the State should help the development as a moderator and not as a player... The market is a priority, since the goal of the State and society is to support the market and not the contrary", the right side supporters generally say. On the other side, the left side supporters argue that "the State and the public sector, as the most important actors or players, in a completely free market may become dangerous to the society ... the State as an important development factor". This dichotomous logic, which in economic sciences is defined as "Neoclassics against Keynesians", is often associated with deterministic types of judgments and conclusions, such as "State = Efficiency", "Market = Crisis" or "State = Crisis" and "Market = Efficiency". In most cases, international experience is confirming that the logic of "State everywhere" or "market-only" is limited to provide sustainable development. Microeconomic theories point out many restrictive conditions for the market to reach an optimal balance, while the analysis of technical progress and social development clearly recognize the importance of public interventions in favour of development. And, the modern political economy shows that the State can not be the only instrument of development. The alternation of interventionist strategies with the liberal ones is no longer a fatality. Keywords: Free Market, Public Sector, Government, Financial Crisis, Economic Growth.
Introduction Many economic experts, when talking about the State-market dichotomy, refer to the founder of modern sociology Durkheim1, saying that "at the core of every regulation lies the guarantee of the true freedom of market forces, because at the foundation of any market freedom is the concept of finding and applying the right adjustments". The role of the State in the economic and social development of each country is historically one of the most discussed issues, and it is currently one of the most controversial issues in political, economic and academic environments. Thatcher and Reagan2, two of the prominent figures of liberal conservatism supported the view that "the State is not the solution of development ... but it is the problem." On the opposing side stands one of the great Chinese reformers, Teng Siao Ping, who would often repeat that "the market is a very precious bird, but to enjoy its lovely tweets, it must be carefully kept in the cage as it can fly and escape." Meanwhile, Robert Wade (London Schools of Economics) in his book "Governing the Market" (2003)3 admits that the most important thing is to know "how to govern the market". The conclusion lying at the heart of this debate is that "development should not be limited to economic growth and increase of material goods globally ... but it should be judged in line with the
1 See especially the letter dated to June 1897 (Durkheim 1998, 71). 2 The myth of a "Churchillian" relationship between Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher; the "special" bond between the United States and Britain. 3 Published originally in 1990; Winner of the 1992 Best Book Award from the American Political Science Association. 148 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 improvement of the quality of life of various social groups. ... with improvement of the quality of life and collective welfare for each country ". Analyses by some international organizations, through the "Human Development" indicator, prove this concern to be international. The key to the solution is to come back to the assessment of the role of the State in relation to economic and social development: should we give priority to the centralized and dominant State (the cases of some Latin American countries seeking absolute control of economic life and development by the State and power); the liberal State of Anglo-Saxon type; the State giving great autonomy to the regional powers and the tendencies of continental unification (such as the EU case); or "totally open" State aspiring to benefit from the effects of globalization without taking much care of social or regional differentiation? An ongoing debate: What should the State do? Several centuries ago, when the focus of public discussions was not as it is today on relations between "State vs development", but as "State vs market", Qusnay1, a French expert in economics, founder of the first school of economics, then called the "school of physicists", supported the idea that "full freedom of trade should be protected ... and that any restrictive and regulatory attitude towards internal or external trade would violate the principle of competition and would therefore violate the well-being of the country and the State." Adam Smith2 also confirmed his free market position by pointing out that "any government that is contrary to the market … that wants to give the capital a different direction from its natural direction ... becomes an oppressive and tyrannical government and State." Later, Ricardo, through his "Comparative Advantages" Theory, emphasized that the duty for all States was to discover them and lead the country's development towards those branches and sectors that were in line with these comparative advantages. Another German expert in economics, Friedrich List3, when commenting on relations and role of the State in economic development of the country, repeatedly criticized the "constant strategy of British domination, based on the concept of free trade and non-interference in the market issues, actually pursuing the policy of constant destruction of the entire manufacturing industry of colonized countries". Also, Perroux4, a French economist in the 1960-s, emphasized that England, which today is "a champion of liberalism, has at the foundation of its success an energetic State intervention initiated by the most famous "Navigation Act", construction of transport channels, incentives for the domestic industry using free raw materials coming from colonies, etc.". (René S, 2009, pp. 57-68). Like England, the USA, Germany, Japan, France, etc., built their industrial power through a long-term engagement of the State in economic life. Before Americans were recognized as champions of the free market, they experienced many decades of a massive State intervention in the defence of national economy. New winds blew after the end of the Second World War in this regard. Socialist economies based on a centralized planning applied to the former Soviet Union, across the eastern bloc of central and eastern European countries or in China, Vietnam, Korea, etc., marked the largest State intervention in the economy throughout economic and political history of the world. But, in a certain way, even the Keynesian inspired policies applied in many Western European countries after the Second World War were a version of State intervention in economic life and determination of forms and direction of development. But, all these experiences, instead of consolidating a certain model, they actually opened up more debate and discussions about the State relations with the development. Which one should be more responsible for the outbreak of crises or restriction of development: the State or the Market? Market deficiencies and inability to control the markets? ... Or …, the great intervention of the State and the abandonment of neoliberal policies leading to market asphyxiation? Often, opinions are diametrically different to each other. According to a more dominant view, absolute freedom of market can produce a catastrophe avoided only by the "safe" intervention of State institutions and public sector. Self-correcting and self-regulating forces in the market economy system range from Adam Smith's "invisible hand" and Keynes's "public power untouched by material and financial interests", that is, the State intervention.
1 In Tableau économique he explained the causes of growth which paved the way for classical economics and, in particular, for Adam Smith. 2 Adam Smith, who latched on Quesnay's workto Physiocratic notions of free trade and the preeminence of the agricultural sector. 3 He was a forefather of the German Historical School of Economics. 4 His illuminating views on asymmetry, domination and power, carried out later by the American realist and neo-realist approaches to power and concept of structural power. 149 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Meanwhile, Milton Friedman1 underlined that "if we comply with market laws, the economy is spontaneously balanced by the law on demand and supply ... making the economy both efficient and social." At the end of the day, the aim of any democracy is "creating well-being and benefits for all citizens". Any policy contrary to the "market interests" is at the same time an anti-democratic policy. The example of “developing capitalist State” In the second half of the twentieth century, Japan and other Southeast Asian countries introduced into the economic and political life a new element never known or applied earlier: an accelerated economic growth "under the custody of the State". For Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, the so called "Asian dragons", "gaining the wasted time and reducing the development gap" became a national obsession. During the 80-ies of the last century, Korea, that 20 years before had a GDP level equal to Cameroon, managed to equalize and exceed Greece; Taiwan exceeded Spain, while Hong Kong and Singapore managed to exceed the vast majority of Western European countries. Analyses and comments of this success have identified some basic elements: highly selective industrial policy, very strong and defensive customs tariff and non-tariff systems, creation of national investment funds, very preferential interest rates for loans used in branches or activities evaluated within the range of comparative advantages, etc. The State was present at every stage of industrialization protecting and assisting domestic businesses to overcome obstacles and promote development, and especially create an active protection for these new industries to make them better prepared for coping with international competition. These methods were the antipodes of the Anglo-Saxon model, according to which "the State had to make sure about the specification of the play rules and guarantee their compliance with the rules, because the State is responsible only for creating conditions that stimulate development." (Civici A, 2007, p.95). The Asian experience introduced for the first time the notion of "development of State capitalism" whose main strength was the cooperation between State bureaucracy and business. The State does not give orders, but provides cooperation and influence through an "administrative orientation" system, a system that requires close and transparent contacts between administration and businesses. According to Y. Higuchi & C. Sautter (1990): "Japanese State is a state that can be simultaneously qualified as a defender, producer, predictor and planner of the development ... ". The Asian model of the "Developing Country" is now recognized as an effective instrument to guarantee accelerated economic growth. Even the World Bank, having for a long time defended the idea that the "development is a result of the free play of market forces", has made a reassessment of the role of the State and interventions in markets. In one of its reports, the "Miracle of South-East Asia"2, the World Bank recognizes the effectiveness of State intervention, while in its report devoted to development issues, "States in a Changing World"3, there is a formulation that: “an efficient and competent State is preferable to a minimal State", or the conclusion that "a development without the active presence of the State is destined to fail”. “The Iron Triangle”: State-Banks-Business relations Over the last 20 years, the role of the State is again on the focus of the attention. The debt crisis emerged in the 70s and 80s of the twentieth century had only a response by IMF and World Bank, in the form of "Structural Adjustment Plans" whose key words focused on "liberalization and reduction of the role of the State"4. Collapse of Berlin Wall in 1989 was
1 "How can we keep the government from becoming a Frankenstein that will destroy the very freedom we establish it to protect?" Freedom is a rare and delicate plant. Our minds tell us, and history confirms, that the great threat to freedom is concentration of power.
2 The report examined the public policies of 8 high-performing Asian economies (HPAEs), Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan (China), and Thailand from 1965 to 1990. It uncovered the role those policies played in the dramatic economic growth fast development. 3 In the annual series assessing major development issues. The report is devoted to the role and effectiveness of the state: what it should do, how it should do it, and how it can improve in a rapidly changing world. The report presents a state reform framework strategy with examples of successful and unsuccessful states illustrations. 4 For more than 70 countries have been subjected to 566 IMF and World Bank stabilization and "Structural Adjustment" programs (SAPs). 150 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 also accompanied by a wave of liberal reforms of the "Shock Therapy"1 type in most eastern communist bloc countries. The 1997 crisis that touched south-east Asia put the State and its actions on the dock. South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Japan, experienced an erosion of the organic system of cooperation between the State, Banks and Enterprises, a system proven to be highly positive for more than 30 years. This "iron triangle" was the major factor for these countries to create a modern industrial base, which is already becoming the main factor of degradation and crisis: banks, private or public, were transformed into help desks of state orders and political power, without any autonomous capacity of project evaluation and risk analysis; the State administration was heavily burdened and greatly affected by the phenomenon of corruption; the business became familiar with State protection and began to experience difficulties in international competition. The State and its action were severely criticized. Debates and new positions began to arise in literature and economic practices. Today, it is widely recognized that poorer countries, which continue to be poor or show no signs of rapid development, are not judged to be in such a situation due to lack of national resources, but firstly because of State weaknesses or lack of an effective State. The market economy in the developed Western countries was not "built in one day", but it was preceded by a long history of building a stable legal and political system. There are many examples proving that direct State intervention continues to exist and still be effective in the development of these countries. State intervention in the construction of major works in infrastructure, industry, etc., has not disappeared. In addition, while the "power market" has already given much evidence of its failure to guarantee a correct orientation of available productive resources, "a modern, transparent, renewed and competent State still plays an irreplaceable role for generation of a sustainable socio-economic development”. (Civici A., 2007, p.85). The XXI Century – New role of the State in relation to market and development. Economic experts seem to be in unison with the fact that the new roles of the State in this modern Era of the Twenty First Century are characterized by a dominant liberal vocation and inevitable effects of globalization, which should be re- conceptualized and consolidated in several key directions and concepts, such as: a stabilizing role providing the necessary control in order to avoid the negative consequences of a total opening of economy and trade; a guarantor role of transparency, stability of financial system, banks and other financial institutions; a promotional role and spread of information especially for activities of development and construction of comparative and competitive advantages; an active role related to the discovery and consolidation of national effective resources of growth and development, because the State is the only national actor to engage all other actors for a long-term sustainable vision; an organizing and guaranteeing role of national solidarity and social policies, instead of creating differentiations or contradictions between social, occupational or differentiation of groups of various regions of the country through preferential development policies based on political support; a management role in what is called "prudent market governance". Small or effective State? Bill Clinton's book "Back to Work - Why We Need a Smart Government for a Strong Economy"2 is making the world's tour as a best seller about the analysis and advice for a "developed, sustainable and stable economy". In the position of a "liberal centrist," the former President Clinton provides a full scanner of the current financial and economic crisis, especially
1 The report highlights the IMF's role during the transition. But the IMF was only one of a number of agencies that have supported these countries over the past 25 years. While the IMF took a lead role in the early phases of transition, other key players such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), European Central Bank (ECB), European Investment Bank (EIB), and World Bank impacted the reforms & development of these countries. The report was prepared by a team of IMF’s offices in the region.
2 “I wrote this book because I love my country and I'm concerned about our future; Americans need victories in real life.” writes Bill Clinton.
151 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 in the US, but also the extension and the "favourable environment" it has found throughout the world. Why are we at this point? Can a lesson be learned about the future of this "big mistake" leading the world to the brink of catastrophe? Clinton seems to have an answer for this: the pursuit of a totally liberal alternative, together with an absolute uncontrolled market power and freedom, and the diabolism of the State and the government are the major causes that produced the greatest crisis in the history of modern capitalism. Clinton's lecture, which analyses the world's most successful economic and financial experiences in the last three decades, is integrated in the notion of "no to the presence of the State anywhere and no to an unlimited market, but yes for a quality public-private partnership, which is the key to the development and economic sustainability of every country. "Anti-State" or "Market-Only" type ideologies are as equally dangerous and non- effective as "State-Only" ideologies”. President Clinton who led the White House for two consecutive presidential mandates during the periods 1993-2001, and opinion polls, not only in the US but around the world, continue to show that memories and assessment for this presidential runs are very good. The Democrat leader, Clinton, stands on the list of the ten most popular US Presidents throughout the history. And not just for his many human qualities extraordinary rhetoric oratory, but above all for his healthy and sustainable economy, the level of life and consumption provided to American citizens. With his already famous expression "It's the economy, stupid", used successfully in the 1992 election campaign, he put the economy in the centre of the campaign and convinced the Americans to cast their vote for his choice, while a few months ago over 90% of the electorate were in favour of his opponent. This, because Bill Clinton identified the economy and finances as the biggest challenge of politics. During his two presidential mandates, the economy recognized years of a significant growth largely supported and driven by the impact of new technologies and innovations, while unemployment reached its lowest historical levels. Inflation was completely under control, budget deficit was kept at low levels, while at specific moments, the US recognized surpluses of their public finances. The expression "the degradation or the collapse of the US economy" disappeared from the vocabulary. Of course, part of this success is also "dedicated" to the highly stimulating monetary policy pursued by Alan Greenspan, the Federal Reserve's historic president (American Central Bank). This policy is considered as one of the main wrong policy of the real estate credit crisis and financial ball that exploded in fall 20081. This book provides a careful and detailed analysis of the main features and philosophy of this period of Bush's governance, underlining the fact that "it was dominated by an unrestrained and extreme liberal refrain". By philosophy, USA suffers from the great presence of the State, while "the State is the problem itself", that "the government is the main enemy of economic performance” and those taxes kill the freedom of business and economic development. George W. Bush was faithful to the pure economic model operating entirely under the "invisible hand" effect of the market that regulates everything, a federal government that, although making a lot of spending, especially military, had to collect as little taxes as possible, to provide as few services as possible, and leave everything to the market. The spirit of public finance is well summarised by a statement of former Vice President Dick Cheney that “budget deficits are of no importance ..."2. The end of this logic, with focus on diabolic condemnation of taxes, over evaluation of absolute freedom of market, minimization of the role of State and government in the economy, led to the outbreak of the financial crisis in September 2008. And, when the crisis broke out, paradoxically, most American citizens found guilty the government and the State, and asked them to intervene to stop and correct the crisis and related consequences. In fact, this would be applied with public money, with savings and income of American citizens, the vast majority of whom not only did not gain anything from this crisis, but rather, they were in debt and suffered more economic hardship from the crisis. After more than 30 years dominated by an anti-State ideology, "pro-small government", "the king market", one can not both avoid the crisis and ask the State to change the situation and promote development.
1 The super-low interest rates Greenspan brought in the early 2000s and his long-standing disdain for regulation are now held up as leading causes of the mortgage crisis. The maestro admitted in an Congressional hearing that he had "made a mistake in presuming" that financial firms could regulate themselves. 2 Dick Cheney, once reportedly said, “Reagan proved deficits don’t matter.” President Ronald Reagan embraced enormous tax cuts with the simple idea that the resulting growth would pay enaugh for them. The Republican maxism that debt and deficits are actually necessary to have a stable money supply; the public debt is the people’s money!
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To stabilize and promote economic growth, to create a steady growing trajectory, public attention and action should focus on innovation, investment and production, by leaving behind the theory and practice of financial and monetary speculation, as a source of enormous profits but temporary or even dangerous for the future and stability of each country. The State and the government should be firmly engaged in supporting policies and actions in favour of education, health, infrastructure, research and development of social and intellectual capital, etc. Not only large and developed countries, such as the United States, China, etc., but even small and very small countries have many positive examples to be considered "for the special role they have given to the State and its presence in the economy", and for a "successful basis of a very effective public-private partnership", etc. Under a solid logic of "comparative economic policies," Bill Clinton is referring to many smart applications of comparative examples. "Countries that are considered successful in this first decade of the 21st century have today a solid economy, a strong and effective State". Referring to a group of countries considered as similar or competing with US, it is noted that, beyond the image of "often brighter than reality" US enjoys in the world, these other countries are ahead of US in the field of training and education, new technology and innovation, modern infrastructures, research and development, high quality technology products, and so on. Many of these countries have a lower unemployment rate, faster growth in job creation, a lower social inequality level, a more stable middle class, and so on. As an example, Singapore, which has only 5 million people, with low fiscal and high- income financial indicators, has invested over 3 billion US$ from State funds to set up a modern biotechnology centre. Clinton highlights that this amount is greater than any amount mobilized by the US for the same purpose. Biotechnology will serve Singapore to create millions of new jobs in the next ten years. Quite interesting are references about Germany, underlining that although Germany has less sunny days than the US or England, it has become the world's first solar power producer. How could this be possible? Thanks to State goals and appropriate funding in this regard. According to a Deutsche Bank study, it turns out that in this respect, the Germans have been able to create 300,000 new jobs. If the US adopts this German policy, it could create over one million new jobs, perhaps twice as much as referring to their solar power generation capacity. Further, Clinton describes “… Certainly, many people, especially the enthusiastic supporters of economic liberalism, will accuse me "as a European social-democrat willing to add taxes, willing to impose the presence of State, and a non-believer of American example and liberalism ..." But, this "has no sense". When I was the Governor of Arkansas, I raised taxes to provide finances for education, but I lowered a considerable part of taxes when it comes to stimulating the creation of new jobs and private investment. "I eliminated taxes for 25% of Arkansas's poorest population by becoming the second lowest State tax base across the US, but on the other hand, Arkansas became the country with the lowest unemployment rate and a favourite country of industrial investment". Conclusions The economic and financial crises of the last 20-30 years and modern economic theories have laid the foundations of a new original concept for the XXI century: "The complementary relationship between the State and the Market in the framework of sustainable institutional arrangements and the completion of the arsenal of coordination instruments is expected to be the basis of socio-economic and environmental development in this new century." In fact, theoretic discussions and best international practices of the last two decades, especially in the context of the global financial crisis starting in 2007, have reached the conclusion that radical black and white attitudes about the relations between the State and the market should leave the place to more relaxed positions: both the State and the market have already shown their limits and it is better to combine their synergy than oppose to each other. The State should deal with strategic level decisions, while the market should play the role of daily capital allocation. We can not blame the State for inefficiency and reduce its role to the minimum in the name of the market and its invisible magic hand; on the contrary, we should build an effective State capable of taking on its responsibilities, and in partnership with the market, become a promoter of development. A strong and sustainable economy requires a strong and stable State, while an efficient economy requires an equally efficient State and governance.
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References [1] Birdsall, Nancy M.; Campos, Jose Edgardo L.; Kim, Chang-Shik; Corden, W. Max; MacDonald, Lawrence. (2011). The East Asian miracle : economic growth and public policy : Main report (English). A World Bank policy research report. New York, NY : Oxford University Press. [2] Civici, A. (2007). Development dilemmas: models of economic and social development facing globalization. Tirana, Albania: GEER. [3] Civici, A. (2010). Financial or Global Crisis. Tirana, Albania: UET Press & MAPO Editions. [4] Clinton, B. (2011). Back to Work: Why We Need Smart Government for a Strong Economy. USA: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. [5] Durkheim, Émile. (1998). Correspondance avec Marcel Mauss. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. [6] Ellen, B. (2011, Jun 26). Cheney Was Right About One Thing: Deficits Don’t Matter. The Huffington Post. Retrived from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/cheney-was-right-about-on_b_853925 [7] Friedman, Milton, 1912-2006. (19631962).Capitalism and freedom. Chicago :University of Chicago Press. [8] James R., Ruben A., Bikas J., Krzysztof K. (2014). 25 Years of Transition Post-Communist Europe and the IMF. Regional Economic Issues Special Report. Retrieved from International Monetary Fund Website: [9] https://www.imf.org/~/media/Websites/IMF/imported-flagship- issues/external/pubs/ft/reo/2014/eur/eng/pdf/erei_sr_102414.ashx [10] List, F. and Henderson, W. (2017). The natural system of political economy. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. [11] Martin, W. (2016, October). Was Alan Greenspan to blame for the financial crisis? Financial Review. Retrieved from https://www.afr.com/news/economy/monetary-policy/was-alan-greenspan-to-blame-for-the-financial- crisis-20161002-grt48o [12] Nikolaos, V. (2013). What do IMF Structural Adjustment Programmes Achieve? The Journal of Law and Economics, 60(2): 94-113. doi: 10.1007/978-94-009-1487 [13] René Sandretto. (2009). François Perroux, a precursor of the current analyses of power. The Journal of World Economic Review. [14] Ricardo, David, 1772-1823. (1911). The principles of political economy & taxation. London : New York :J.M. Dent; E.P. Dutton. [15] Robert, Wade. (2018). Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization. Princeton University Press: Kindle Edition, 456p. [16] Smith, Adam. (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Cannan ed.), in 2 vols. [17] The Times, USA. (2019). 25 People to Blame for the Financial Crisis. The good intentions, bad managers and greed behind the meltdown. Retrieved from http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1877351_1877350_1877331,00.html [18] Wapshott, N. (2007). Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher: A political marriage. New York, N.Y: Sentinel. [19] World Development Report. (2017). The States of Disruption: Measuring Governance in a Changing World. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrived from World Bank Group website: https://www.worldbank.org/en/events/2018/05/15/states-of-disruption [20] Yoichi, H. & Christian, S. (1990). L'Etat et l'individu au Japon. Paris: Ed. de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales.
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Digital Transformation in the Classroom: Storytelling and Scriptwriting in Instructional Designing of MOOCs
Halvdan Haugsbakken Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Abstract Over the years, a body of studies on online learning has documented low completion rates in MOOCs among learners, an educational challenge that has created the phenomenon “funnel participation”. This educational challenge refers to that thousands of online learners register but only small groups complete MOOCs they signed up for. Normally, persons who complete online courses have a demographic background, ambitious males in their 30s with a master-degree working in IT or business and management. Such factors raise concern among researchers about the overall quality of MOOCs and how they are designed to foster engaging learning experiences. Recent research concludes that the instructional quality of MOOCs is low and that MOOC designers need to re-think how they create future online learning experiences. In light of this matter, this working paper forwards a conceptual approach on how online course designers can use storytelling and scriptwriting as pedagogical strategies to enhance the instructional quality of MOOCs. This subject matter is exemplified by outlining the course design of a MOOC aimed at preparing teachers to use digital technologies in a classroom setting. The learning material of the MOOC is research based and builds on a field study that explored how a teacher used digital technologies in foreign language training at a Norwegian high school. Keywords: Storytelling, scriptwriting, course design, digital competence, MOOC.
Introduction Since the inception of MOOCs in 2008, a growing research stream pays attention to record the social dynamics of learning communities materializing in large online courses. For example, it is now widely established knowledge that MOOCs have large dropout-rates at almost 90 per cent, and the completers are often proficient learners, in many cases, males in their 30s holding a master's degree and working in IT or business and management. This educational weakness creates a challenge for the MOOC community, a matter researchers for some time has called “the funnel participation” (Clow, 2013). Therefore, low completion rates in MOOCs spawn a series of new studies attempting to discover and predict the behavior of online learners on the verge of dropping out and what strategies can be used to retain them (Dalipi, et.al 2018; Henderikx et.al., 2017; Hong, 2019 et.al; Hong, 2017 et.al.; Li, 2018; Onah, et.al. 2014). Meta-studies conclude that the instructional design of MOOCs is of low quality (Margaryan, et.al. 2015), meaning that online course designers need to put more focus on how MOOCs are designed and develop effective pedagogical strategies for online learning. Recent studies, however, start to experiment with new pedagogical designs and strategies to enhance the learning experience in MOOCs. For example, work-in-progress studies show that course designers embed warm-up exercises into discussion forums (von Schmieden, et.al. 2019) or design enigmas into online exercises (Bruillard, et.al. 2019). The above pushes the MOOC community to put focus on instructional design processes of online courses. The challenge is to find approaches to keep learners interested in learning and motivate them to complete courses. This can be solved by using gamification (Abu Bakar et.al., 2017; Chang et.al., 2016; Karsenti et.al., 2016), but other pedagogical strategies should be considered. For example, an approach can be to use storytelling and scriptwriting in instructional designing of MOOCs. Here, course designers can use story techniques as plots, characters and narrative point of view, and embed such elements into the overall course design of online courses as a way to create engaging learning environments. In this way, course designers would use storytelling techniques as applied in documentary films to tell a particular theme. Such approaches can help to create authentic learning experiences that online learners can identify and engage with, and perhaps boost the instructional quality of online learning.
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Nevertheless, producing a MOOC by use of storytelling techniques would demand considerable planning and designing from MOOC course creators. But it would perhaps constitute a more engaging learning experience than only using video lectures and group exercises to disseminate knowledge about a particular topic. Therefore, the main goal of this working paper is to establish a conceptual perspective on how a MOOC might look like, by using storytelling and scriptwriting as pedagogical strategies in instructional design processes of online courses. This objective is completed by providing a brief outline of the course design of a MOOC and account for how storytelling and scriptwriting are planned used in it. These aspects are exemplified in the course design of a MOOC aimed at preparing teachers to use digital technologies in a classroom setting. The conceptual perspective is developed over the paper’s various parts. In the first part, I discuss how storytelling and scriptwriting can be applied as pedagogical strategies in instructional design of MOOCs. In the second part, I exemplify how storytelling and scriptwriting can be used in the design of a MOOC, while the third part briefly discuss the paper’s conceptual analysis before the paper is concluded. Part I: A need for storytelling and scriptwriting in instructional design of MOOCs In a highly provocative and normative study of the instructional quality of online courses, Margaryan, et.al. (2015) conclude that MOOCs score essentially low on instructional design principles. Based on sample of 76 randomly selected MOOCs, Margaryan, et.al. (2015) develop a quantitative approach for quality criteria for MOOCs, quality criteria based upon the First Principles of Instruction, a framework that builds on the work of Merrill (2002;2009; 2013) and Margaryan (2008) and Margaryan, et.al. (2005). For example, for a MOOC to be regarded as qualitatively decent, the learning activities should include ten principles essential to learning. First, online courses need to be problem-centered, in the sense that online learners work best when they learn about real world problems. Second, MOOCs should include elements of activation, meaning that learning takes place when online students activate a skill and knowledge to form a new skill. Third, learning activities in MOOCs must involve the ability for demonstration, meaning that learners can observe the skill they are going to learn. Fourth, online learners must have the possibility to apply what they have learned to solve a problem, entailing that application is quintessential for learning activities in MOOCs. Fifth, integration is the possibility where learners can discuss and defend a skill they have just learned. Sixth, MOOCs should contain the prospect for students to contribute to an online community’s with collective knowledge. Seventh, online learners should have the possibility to work together with others by forms of collaboration. Eight, a MOOC appears to be of quality when online learners possess the option to work across different settings with different learning resources, meaning access to differentiation. Ninth, online learners should have the possibility to have access to learning resources coming from a real-world setting, implying the principles of authentic resources. Tenth, for learning to take place in MOOCs, students need to have feedback from expert instructors and peers on the assignments they perform. In the analysis to follow, we can read about how Margaryan, et.al. (2015) complete a rather systematic analysis and demonstrate that MOOOCs score very low on the First Principles of Instruction, rendering an idea that MOOCs are seldom designed to facilitate learning in the best possible way, but is more aimed at branding and monetizing. Nonetheless, Margaryan et.al. (2015) can be right or erroneous, but their analysis raises a fundamental concern about how MOOC creators should design online courses and craft sustainable learning experiences that will motivate learners to complete MOOCs. And this work is very much completed in the designing of them. In this regard, Margaryan et.al. (2015) offer an important “checklist” on what type of elements should be included to safeguard for learning, but they give little clues to the how’s and what’s on how to apply the First Principles of Instruction in practice. For example, there seems difficult to find a template or standard explaining how a MOOC based on the First Principles of Instruction should look like. The challenge lies within finding a tangible structure and examples that MOOC creators can use. This would be helpful to many online educators. Nevertheless, there are many other challenges to overcome than just claiming that MOOCs miss the ten principles for learning. One challenge of many, however, lies in how to structure the principles for learning into a particular organizing for learning consisting of engaging learning activities and learning resources that would make up an online course. This is considerable harder work and demands a lot of teamwork and creativity. To achieve that goal, the MOOC community needs a comprehensive toolbox with suggestions to make MOOCs of high quality. Therefore, an approach to solve instructional design flaws in MOOCs, one can begin with looking at how MOOC creators can use storytelling and scriptwriting as pedagogical strategies in instructional design processes of online courses. Here, one can for example connect storytelling and scriptwriting to the ten principles of learning and relate them to Bruner’s (1991) theoretical framework of narratives. Although it is broad, Bruner (1991) argues that narratives can be a powerful mean not only to represent but to constitute reality. For example, narrating the story of a teacher who has tried out digital technologies in the classroom – represented and told in a MOOC – can be a mean that will talk more directly to the reality of learners. If
156 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 a novice teacher learns the practices, success and failures of a peer, it can be plausible to assume that this can create the basis for personal identification to engage with the story of the digital classroom teacher. Potentially, this can create engagement in online learning processes. Even more, when MOOC learners engage with such a powerful story, one touches upon two of the ten principles for learning, problem-centered and authentic resources. The challenge that remains to be solved is how to create learning activities related to the told story. For example, this can be achieved by using digital storytelling, which I see different from storytelling. Digital storytelling is praised as a pedagogical strategy that can empower learners to become creative and critical thinkers (Robin, 2008). Learners can select a random topic of interest and carry out research and present interesting stories by use of digital technologies. In this way, they are content producers and learn from co-creation and collaborative processes. With the advent of social media apps, this adds further affordance to this aspect. Now, learners can engage in network learning interactions on global platforms and be part of online learning communities and receive feedback from peers. Web 2.0 technologies facilitate for this, as they allow everyone to be content producers. In future MOOCs, for example, this means that course designers are challenged to conceive learning designs where learners work continuously with digital content throughout a learning process than working with learning material consisting of videos, texts, and tests. This gives another boost to summative and formative assessment. Nonetheless, MOOC course designers cannot solemnly rely on storytelling but need to think through how they script instructional design processes of MOOCs. Therefore, I argue that scriptwriting needs to be devoted attention in instructional design processes of future online courses. By scriptwriting, I mean how motion pictures and documentary films use a variety of storytelling techniques to tell stories to engage an audience. For example, it is common with protagonists and antagonists, a good story, plot, themes, character development, plot points, a turning point, etc., characteristics that have transferable value to how MOOCs are designed. Elements from storytelling offers similar strategies used in scriptwriting (Robin, 2008). In the instructional design processes of MOOC, course designer can focus on: (1) a point of view, and ask what is the main point of the story; (2) ask a dramatic question, and explore a key question that keeps the learner’s attention to the story; (3) emotional content, and direct attention to a serious topic as a mean to connect the story to the MOOC audience; (4) use the gift of the voice, which means to personalize stories in MOOC as a mean to better explain the learning objective, (5) use the power of the soundtrack, so that music or sound support the learning process; (6) economy, a measure to tell the relevant material to tell the story; and (7) pacing, a strategy that can be used to tell story either slowly and quickly to make a coherent and meaningful progression in a MOOC. Nonetheless, few studies attempt to explore storytelling and scriptwriting in MOOCs (Phan et.al., 2016). In an interesting conceptual paper, for example, Roy (2017) explores the use of storytelling in a Canadian MOOC about business start-ups and entrepreneurship. Instead of providing an instruction based “recipe” to be implemented by learners, storytelling is used in context of creating authentic learning experience based on real-time examples. Here, the course designers invite persons who have started up their own businesses and they tell their stories on how they managed the various phases of becoming business entrepreneurs. By inviting them, one can play on authenticity and develop the educational strategy authentic learning techniques. This learning strategy is supported by focusing on real-world, complex problems, using role-play exercises, problem-based activities and participation in online communities. Part II: An example of using storytelling and scriptwriting in instructional designing of a MOOC As the previous part established that storytelling and scriptwriting as pedagogical strategies for creating engagement in instructional design processes seem not to be well-developed, considering an example of practical use in a MOOC pertains. The planned MOOC we will consider is called, “The Digital Transformation in the Classroom”, and is based on a sociological fieldwork conducted in a classroom at a Norwegian high school. The fieldwork lasted nine months, starting in August 2011 and ending in March 2012, a period covering the start of the school calendar and almost the entire educational loop. At the high school, the author of this working paper investigated how a female teacher used digital technologies in foreign language training. This allowed the author to obtain insights on what happens and the challenges transpiring from using digital technologies in the organizing of learning. The MOOC is based on a PhD-dissertation, conference proceedings and journal articles (Haugsbakken, 2016; 2014a; 2014b; Haugsbakken & Langseth 2014). The motivation for creating the MOOC, is related to a goal to explore an alternative way of disseminating research knowledge, which would be through scientific papers. It is more likely that practitioners will engage with an online course than reading scientific papers. Therefore, the main objective with the MOOC is to pique the curiosity of teachers to become interested in using digital technologies in the organizing of learning in a classroom setting, and to equip them with an introductory understanding on how such a classroom practice might look like. The planned MOOC wishes to defy the notion of a “traditional” classroom practice, which is assumed to be teacher-centered and use blackboard and textboard as main tools for organizing
157 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 classroom practice. By taking the online course, one hopes that the participants might reconsider what happens to one’s classroom practice, if a teacher chooses to adopt digital technologies. Also, the MOOC intends to introduce learners to the meaning of digitalization and how this effects teaching practice in an educational setting, as a mean to enhance the digital competence of teachers. In that case, the MOOC’s theoretical inspiration does not build on established pedagogical perspectives on digital learning. Instead, it is motivated by organizational research and sociological perspectives on the relationships between technology and the organizing of work (Leonardi et.al, 2010), and the MOOC takes a social constructionist perspective on technology. In this research stream, a theoretical framework studies how ICTs are implemented in organizations and uses a practice perspective on technology (Orlikowski, 2000). Then, in what ways are aspects from storytelling and scriptwriting used in the MOOC course design? Recursive core theory-action-reflection model: The MOOC is planned to run on the international MOOC platform FutureLearn and uses FutureLearn’s template and approach to learning, which is rooted in a social constructionist approach to social learning. The online course lasts for three weeks. Each week has four to five subthemes which are called “activity” and each week consists of 15 to 20 “steps”. A step, according to the FutureLearn platform framework, means a web page containing an online learning activity, which can be a text, quiz, video or a question for discussion. In every step, FutureLearn has embedded a discussion feature, which is the main tool for facilitating social learning and building a community of practice. Overall, the MOOC contains about 50 learning activities. The main challenge in the instructional designing of the MOOC, nonetheless, is to convert research knowledge to a coherent online course consisting of many different unique building blocks that uses many different media modalities like text, video, pictures, sound, animation, etc. This work involves a de-bundling of academic texts to re-bundling an interactive and engaging learning setting. The greatest challenge is to “break-up” the linear written storyline and vernacular of an academic text and reassemble them in an empty MOOC framework designed for online social learning, where the latter part needs to be based on a set of principles for learning. The overall approach adopted to work with storytelling and scriptwriting used in the MOOC to create forms for online engagement, however, is to develop what I call a recursive core theory-action-reflection model. This is displayed Figure 1. Figure 1. Recursive core theory-action-reflection model.
The basic idea behind the recursive core theory-action-reflection model, nonetheless, is that learners have an ongoing possibility to have quick access to perform a learning activity where they apply and reflect upon a theoretical concept they have just learned. The recursive core theory-action-reflection model follows a three-step logic. First, the learner completes a leaning activity that involves being introduced for a theoretical concept related to the course material. Second, the learner applies the theoretical concept on a learning activity designed to be a practical assignment. Third, the learner performs a learning activity where he or she reflect and discuss the two learning activities they have just performed. This recursive core theory-action-reflection model is repeated and embedded into all three weeks making up the MOOC. The motive for designing the recursive core theory-action-reflection model, however, is related to that general engagement with digital technologies often involve an action of some sort. For example, technology users use social media apps to scroll, chat, touch, etc., meaning continuous engagement with the technology. Technology users seldom engage with digital technologies like reading a book, which is a different from of interaction with technology. It would not be ideal for an online course that learners have to read a lot of text before they complete an assignment. For such reasons, in instructional design processes, MOOC designers need to break down learning activities to smaller parts, which means to have learning activities consisting of short and accurate learning texts and videos lasting no longer than five to seven minutes. This core idea is scripted and integrated throughout each activity in the MOOC’s 3 weeks. A story about authentic use of digital technologies: The way to use storytelling and scriptwriting in the MOOC is to connect them to a story about a teacher who has used digital technologies in a classroom setting. In the MOOC, the learners get to know a female Norwegian high school teacher, Inger, who has tried out digital technologies in foreign language training, which the research is based upon. Inger teaches French, English and Spanish and has an interest for digital technologies. Inger has worked in the Norwegian high school system for three decades. Inger has no formal training in ICT
158 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 but has for many years used digital technologies in her classroom. She is an “early adopter” of new technologies and has harvested her experiences by a trial-and-error approach of using digital technologies in her classes. Inger surfaces in the MOOC videos and is followed and explained by the course instructor, Halvdan, the researcher who was present in Inger’s classes. In this way, the learners are introduced to real-time challenges in using digital technologies in an educational setting. Then, the story asks; what is Inger’s experiences and how does she create learning activities in the classroom by use of digital technologies? What does Inger’s classroom practice look like and how does she organize her teaching practices? Learners are invited to learn and engage with the story of Inger’s digital classroom practice. Table 1. Content for Week 1 in MOOC, understanding digitalization. Week 1 Activity Step Name of step 1.1. Welcome 1.2. Who is Inger? 1.3. What to learn in week 1?
1.4. Behave with the mobile The 4th industrial revolution 1.5. From Steam to Data 1.6. The rise of the Platforms 1.7. What have you learned? 1.8. Technology determinism 1.9. Production technologies Technologies and work 1.10. ICT in the office Understanding digital transformation 1.11. What have you learned? 1.12. The network society 1.13. The fishing net article The social network 1.14. Your social network discussion 1.15. What have you learned? 1.16. Disrupting workflow Adoption and implementation 1.17. The implementation 1.18. Emergent practices article 1.19. Recursive use 1.20. Recap of week
Relating digitalization to teaching practice: The story about Inger’s digital classroom practice is divided into the three weeks which makes up the MOOC. In this sense, one can argue that the MOOC consists of three modules. In general, the story about Inger’s digital classroom practice has many overlapping challenges one finds in adopting and implementing new technologies in organizations. This means that the learners are mainly introduced to particular strategies they can use in planning and implementing digital technologies in classroom setting, which are modelled after Inger’s approach. As the MOOC is called “The Digital Transformation in the Classroom”, the course tries to deconstruct the ambiguous term “digitalization” and relate it to work practice. This aspect is reflected in the overall course structure. For example, the first week approaches the concept “digitalization”, while the story about Inger is devoted attention in week 2 and week 3. Addressing the learning material in each week, the first week aims at activating knowledge and raise awareness of the digital era and relate this to the world of the learner by exploring sub-themes. The module gives the learner an analytical vocabulary on how to address the meaning of digital technologies. Learners are among other introduced to sociological perspectives on social networks, the network society, and organizational perspectives on implementing new technologies and the organizing of work. Week 2 introduces Inger to the learners and examines how she plans her classroom practice. Here, an important theme is modelling, and challenges teachers to think differently about how they plan and prepare for a digital classroom practice. The learners are introduced to four strategies to master the mentioned topic, which Inger used in her classroom practice. Week 3 sets emphasis on the challenges on implementing a digital classroom practice and introduces the learners to the theme of enacting of technologies. One wishes to raise awareness on that although Inger planned well ahead, when a plan is set into practice, the use of technologies can turn out differently than expected. Therefore, the module shows different strategies Inger used to tackle the mentioned challenge. Table 2. Content for Week 1 in MOOC, planning for digital transformation. Week 2 Activity Step Name of step Designing a digital classroom practice 2.1. What to learn in week 2
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2.2. Modelling the classroom 2.3. Decouple and reconnect 2.4. What have you learned? 2.5. Selecting and creating article Choosing the digtech kit 2.6. Inger’s digtech kit video 2.7. Node-mapping Mapping social networks 2.8. What learning goes on Planning for digital 2.9. Share your experience transformation 2.10. Create knowledge Forming knowledge 2.11. Themes over chapters 2.12. Working with themes 2.13. Acts for engagement 2.14. The news round Meaningful learning activities 2.15. Share your experience 2.16. Blog and YouTube 2.17. Recap week 2 The use of videos: The MOOC has approximately 40 videos, 28 are self-made videos and the remaining are embedded YouTube videos. Each video has a learning objective and are related to the overall course. The videos are planned in the story’s progression and fit into the overall course structure. The videos can be divided into three sub-genres, which gives better clue to what purpose they serve in the MOOC. First, the MOOC uses talking head videos. These are predominantly instruction-based and are used to explain theoretical concepts. The course leader start talking into the camera and explains a learning strategy Inger used, for example, and later the learner hears the course instructor talk by use of voice-over and see pictures, illustrations and edited video parts. For example, some videos explain the meaning of the strategy node- mapping while other focus on how to work with themes. These videos last between three to five minutes. Also, talking head videos are used to explain the learning objectives for each week and ask questions to the learners intended for the discussion forum. Second, the MOOC has several interview videos. The interview videos explore how Inger planned her digital classroom practice and the outcome of using them, focusing on benefits and challenges. The interview videos are edited according to a three-point approach, which means that they attempt to tell three essential experiences related to the learning activity in which the video is made to be a part of. For example, in an interview video Inger explains some of the learning activities she designed, like the newsround and how she uses reflection as a method to understand the consequences of using digital technologies. Third, the use of YouTube videos are embedded videos from the social media platform YouTube. Such videos can be recorded lectures, animation, and instructions videos. Table 3. Content for Week 3 in MOOC, enacting digital transformation. Week 3 Activity Step Name of step 3.1. Welcome to week 3
3.2. Enacting in the classroom Enacting the digital classroom practice 3.3. Growth in processes 3.4. Establishing trust Trust management 3.5. Success and flop of blog 3.6. Share your experience 3.7. Reflect on your actions Enacting digital transformation 3.8. Situated changes Reflection-on-technology-in-practice 3.9. Reflect by debriefing 3.10. What did you learn? 3.11. Emergent practices Emerging from enacting 3.12. Enacting the newsround 3.13. To be self-organized Supervision and self-organization 3.14. Share your experience 3.15. Recap week 3 The instructional design of learning activities: Depending of use of definition, the MOOC has many learning activities, 53, that are essentially connected to the same number of steps. The instructional design of learning activities are intended to engage and involve learners in the story about the teacher Inger and foster a learning community in how teacher can use digital technologies in their classroom. The learning activities break down the course’s main story and introduces the learners to authenticity and real-complex-problems about using digital technologies in the organizing of learning. However, as the MOOC uses the FutureLearn platform, the course designer has limited possibilities in creating engaging learning
160 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 activities. By simply using the features in the FutureLearn platform, for example, course designers have merely two options to create engaging learning activities, to ask questions and create quizzes or tests. The FutureLearn platform do not have peer-review features or means to submit work. To use such features, course instructors needs to use third-party solutions and embed them into the FutureLearn platform. In this sense, course instructors can only create online courses that favor social learning and use the discussion forum as a main venue for social interaction. In this regard, the instructional design of learning activities are interlinked and framed within in the activity section of the platform. In each activity section, two or more steps interlink learning activities intended to spark social learning. There are various ways the learning activities interlink. For example, in some activity sections, the learner first reads a text or watches a video, and then completes a quiz related to the learning activities she or he just performed. In this instructional design, the quizzes work as formative assessment, allowing the learner to validate theoretical concepts. This instructional designing of learning activities is used in week 1 of the MOOC. The instructional designing of learning in week 2 and 3, however, seldom uses quizzes but ask many different questions to learners. The questions serve the goal of involving and engaging the learner into the story about the teacher. Also here, the learner either start an activity section to read a text or watches talking head or interview videos and are then asked a question. The learner’s answer is intended to be posted in the discussion forum and contribute to social learning and building a community of practice. Part III: Discussion Although the field of instructional design is well-established, the craft of instructional designing of MOOCs seems to be in the making. The MOOC field needs to boost and put more focus on the instructional design of MOOCs as a mean to increase quality, as indicated by Margaryan et.al (2015). A place to start, can be to work with storytelling and scriptwriting, as suggested in this working paper. However, efforts need to be redirected elsewhere and across different fronts. One site can for example be on the pedagogical management of online courses. And there is a reason for stating this argument. Today, many MOOCs are based on self-directed learning, meaning that online learners sign up for MOOCs without any having real course leaders present while the course runs. If they are present, they are designed into the course, as a digital illusion. This aspect means limited expert feedback but also that MOOCs seldom have real educators to supervise and organize learning when the course takes place, implying failure to satisfy aspects of First Principles of Instruction. Also, the challenge with MOOCs is that they become what they are, massive, which causes other conundrums like information- overload problems in the managing and organizing of discussion forums. Such factors increase the odds that creating an effective online community based on social learning can fail drastically. In contrast, the MOOC field therefore needs to develop instructional design strategies not for only for how MOOCs are created but have the same for the organizing of pedagogical online processes, for both synchronous and synchronous MOOCs. In other words, the MOOC community can put future focus on developing effective pedagogical strategies for effective online learning. This means foremost that educators should create a professional teacher identity of being digitally present and acquire concrete strategies for organizing social learning. In this regard, case studies have showed that when educators are authentically present while online courses run, completion rates are higher (Haugsbakken & Langseth, 2019; Engeness & Nohr, 2019). This means that the craft of instructional design of MOOCs should develop across to fronts. On the one hand, how they are designed, while the other, how they organized and managed with educators digitally present. Conclusion The goal of this working paper is to mark the start of a research project by suggesting a conceptual framework on how a MOOC can look like by using storytelling and scriptwriting as pedagogical strategies to boost the quality in MOOCs in the instructional design of online courses. This can be one of several design strategies that MOOC creators can use to motivate learners to stay in the learning loop than dropping out. References [1] Abu Bakar, N. F., Yusof, A. F., Iahad, N. A., Ahmad, N., & Ieee. (2017). Framework for Embedding Gamification in Massive Open Online Course (MOOC). In 2017 5th International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems. [2] Bruillard, E., & Baron, G.-L. (2019). Collective Resolution of Enigmas, a Meaningful and Productive Activity in Moocs, Cham. [3] Bruner, J. (1991). The Narrative Construction of Reality. Critical Inquiry, 18(1), 1-21. [4] Chang, J. W., & Wei, H. Y. (2016). Exploring Engaging Gamification Mechanics in Massive Online Open Courses. Educational Technology & Society, 19(2), 177-203.
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[5] Clow, D. (2013). MOOCs and the funnel of participation. Paper presented at the ACM International Conference Proceeding Series. [6] Dalipi, F., Imran, A. S., Kastrati, Z., & Ieee. (2018). MOOC Dropout Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques: Review and Research Challenges. In Proceedings of 2018 Ieee Global Engineering Education Conference (pp. 1007- 1014). [7] Engeness, I., & Nohr, M. (2019). Videos as teaching and learning resources for developing of pre- and in-service teachers' professional digital competence in the ICTMOOC Paper presented at the EMOOCs-WIP 2019: EMOOCs 2019 Work in Progress Papers of Research, Experience and Business Tracks, Proceedings of Work in Progress Papers of the Research, Experience and Business Tracks at EMOOCs 2019 [8] co-located with the (European MOOCs Stakeholders Submmit 2019) Conference., Naples, Italy. [9] Haugsbakken, H. (2014a). Connecting the dots by YouTubing Tutorials. Proceedings of EdMedia: World Conference on Educational Media and Technology(1), 2009-2018. [10] Haugsbakken, H. (2014b). The Student Learning Ecology. Proceedings at KEYCIT 2014 – Key Competencies in Informatics and ICT, 87-98. [11] Haugsbakken, H. (2016). Using social media the inside out: A qualitative study about four stories on use and local models of organizing of social media in organizations. (PHD), NTNU, Trondheim. [12] Haugsbakken, H., & Langseth, I. (2014). YouTubing: Challenging Traditional Literacies and Encouraging Self- Organisation and Connecting in a Connectivist Approach to Learning in the K-12 System. Digital Culture & Education, 6 (2), 133-151. [13] Haugsbakken, H., & Langseth, I. (2019). Pedagogical Strategies for Creating an Online Community. Paper presented at the EMOOCs-WIP 2019: EMOOCs 2019 Work in Progress Papers of Research, Experience and Business Tracks, Proceedings of Work in Progress Papers of the Research, Experience and Business Tracks at EMOOCs 2019 [14] co-located with the (European MOOCs Stakeholders Submmit 2019) Conference., Naples, Italy. [15] Henderikx, M. A., Kreijns, K., & Kalz, M. (2017). Refining success and dropout in massive open online courses based on the intention-behavior gap. Distance Education, 38(3), 353-368. [16] Hong, B. W., Wei, Z. Q., & Yang, Y. Q. (2019). A two-layer cascading method for dropout prediction in MOOC. Mechatronic Systems and Control, 47(2), 91-97. [17] Hong, B. W., Wei, Z. Q., Yang, Y. Q., & Ieee. (2017). Discovering Learning Behavior Patterns to Predict Dropout in MOOC. In 2017 12th International Conference on Computer Science and Education (pp. 700-704). [18] Karsenti, T., & Bugmann, J. (2016). Supporting the motivation of the participants in the MOOC: What roles for gamification, mobility and social aspects? International Journal of Technologies in Higher Education, 13(2-3), 133- 149. [19] Leonardi, P. M., & Barley, S. R. (2010). What’s Under Construction Here? Social Action, Materiality, and Power in Constructivist Studies of Technology and Organizing. The Academy of Management Annals, 4(1), 1-51. [20] Li, Y. J. (2018). Feature Extraction and Learning Effect Analysis for MOOCs Users Based on Data Mining. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 13(10), 108-120. [21] Margaryan, A. (2008). Work-based learning: A blend of pedagogy and technology. Saarbruecken: AV Akademikerverlag. [22] Margaryan, A., Bianco, M., & Littlejohn, A. (2015). Instructional quality of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Computers & Education, 80(C), 77–83. [23] Margaryan, A., & Collis, B. (2005). Design criteria for work-based learning: Merrill's First Principles of Instruction expanded. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(5), 725-738. [24] Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43- 59. [25] Merrill, M. D. (2009). First principles of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. Carr (Eds.), Instructional design theories and models: Building a common knowledge base (Vol. 3, pp. 3-26). New York: Routledge/Taylor and Francis. [26] Merrill, M. D. (2013). First principles of instruction: Identifying and designing effective, efficient and engaging instruction. Hoboken, NJ Pfeiffer/John Wiley & Sons. [27] Onah, D. F. O., Sinclair, J., & Boyatt, R. (2014). Dropout rates of massive open online courses: Behavioural patterns. In L. G. Chova, A. L. Martinez, & I. C. Torres (Eds.), Edulearn14: 6th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies (pp. 5825-5834). [28] Orlikowski, W. J. (2000). Using technology and constituting structures: A practice lens for studying technology in organizations. Organization Science., 11(4), 404-428.
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[29] Phan, T., McNeil, S. G., & Robin, B. R. (2016). Students' patterns of engagement and course performance in a Massive Open Online Course. Computers and Education, 95, 36-44. [30] Robin, B. R. (2008). Digital storytelling: A powerful technology tool for the 21st century classroom. Theory Into Practice, 47(3), 220-228. [31] Roy, V. (2017). Digital storytelling for start-ups: A canadian MOOC design experience. Paper presented at the CEUR Workshop Proceedings. [32] von Schmieden, K., & Meinel, C. (2019). Utilizing Warm-Up Games in MOOC Discussion Forums. Paper presented at the EMOOCs-WIP 2019: EMOOCs 2019 Work in Progress Papers of Research, Experience and Business Tracks, Proceedings of Work in Progress Papers of the Research, Experience and Business Tracks at EMOOCs 2019 co- located with the (European MOOCs Stakeholders Submmit 2019) Conference., Naples, Italy.
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Women Emancipation in Albania Transitioning to Modern Society
Dea Bashkurti PhD Student
Abstract: My study is focus on women social status and rights throughout the Albanian history. There are three main phases through which the woman status and rights have been developed. First phase is related with the communist regime. The second phase is related with the post communist period, mostly focused on the beginning of transition. The third phase includes last period of society transformation based on human rights and therefore in modern post feminism. This society evaluation faced a lot of challenges determined by political, economic, social and cultural transformation. The paper intention is to clearly identify the status, the role and the evolution of women in Albanian society in these historical transformation phases andto better understand in which of the phases the role of women in the Albanian society was more advanced and realized. In order the paper to be argued I have used survey statistics in term of quantity methodology. On the other side I have considered some quality sources based on reports and analysis carried out in different periods and by different institution in Albania and abroad. The paper has been mainly focused on three issues regarding the women status, role and rights and participation in democracy: women integration in politics, education and employment. Keywords: equality, women, men, modern, society, integration, progress
Introduction The paper intends to make an analysis of women status in Albanian society throughout the modern history phases from communist regime to democratic transformation process after 1990 and further on in the last phase of transition after 2013. The study is focused in the progress of the women emancipationduring the long-term process through government politics and public policies and social action and movements over all Albanian society. The analysis of emancipation process of women in the Albanian modern society is focused on following main issues: political representation and participation, education and employment. The paper is based on several reports, surveys, data and statisticsmostly from 2013 to 2018 prepared and carried out by public institutions and civil society organisations. Womenposition and role in politics is analyzed by considering their representation and participation and decision-making process both in central institutions and government as well as in local municipalities and regions. Education and employment are two other important issues with a great impact in developing a socio-economic status of women, in a modern society. The study emphasizes the difference between women status in different political regimes and between women generations both in employment and education. These analyses have been considering two abovementioned issues, women education and employment in urban and rural areas. The women emancipation, gender equality and fundamental freedom varied in different levels and areas that show the lack of social and territorial cohesion in the Albanian society. It means that the women issues should remain long term priority for Government politics and public policy in Albania. Literature review: The research carried out by me is theoretically based on many authors that use to deal with women, gender and equality, with education, political representation and participation as well employment and domestic violence against women. This theoretical foundation is helpful to use relevant theories, scientific concepts, most similar and most different design and a proper analytical methodology.
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Definition of gender and equality has changed over time and history has contributed into more modern definitions nowadays. Before the concept of gender was a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relationships of power (Scott, 1986, p. 1067). In the ideology of socialist societies women were one of the social subjects of emancipation and revolutionary change. (Miller, R. E., & Wilford, R, (Eds.), 2004, p. 105) In post-socialist societies the women became the targets of re-delegation into ‘mothers who should ensure the biological survival and moral progress of the nation’, ‘the guardians of the home’, and the ‘guardians of privacy’. Thus, instead of the former (mostly economically enforced) ‘proletarization’ and (politically enforced) ‘emancipation of women’, we are now dealing with the domestification of women which is also economically and politically enforced. (Miller, R. E., & Wilford, R, (Eds.), 2004, p. 105) The essential characteristic of nationalist ideologies and socio-political strategies of the domestification of women is that they do not accept women as individuals with their own ways of life and needs but rather as the bearers of roles defined in advance. The social scientists have developed theories even after socialist societies constructed based on Marxist-Leninist ideology collapsed. It was the time of development of post-socialist societies. In her article ‘Women’s Rights in East Central Europe: Back to Cinderella?’ (1990) Barbara Einhorn argued that …we are dealing with the triumvirate of rational values: the home, the homeland (nation) and God; these illustrate the search for new spiritual and ethical values in post-socialist societies. In fact, we are dealing with the rebirth of the values that the old regime violently repressed and which were (in themselves) legitimate. However, what is dangerous is that they are being used to manipulate; that is, the revived values serve as the ideological backbone for the reduction of the already achieved and well-settled economic, social, health and political rights of women (Einhorn). Historically the women have scientifically been defined as gender issues. On this aspect there were different approaches. “Gender must be understood as a social structure. It is not an expression of biology, nor a fixed dichotomy in human life or character. It is a pattern in our social arrangements, and the everyday activities shaped by those arrangements (Connell, R., & Pearse, R., 2015, p. 11)”. Political science has heavily shaped the legacy of positivism and the understanding that good social science was supposed to be objective and value-free. Issues of women and gender have been usually ignored, with women relegated to the private sphere and ‘low politics’, while men have been associated with the public sphere and ‘high politics’. (Lowndes, V., Marsh, D., & Stoker, G. (Eds.), 2017, p. 93) There have been times where political scientists have fallen back on sexist stereotypes. Mostly women were considered different from men in their political behavior, rather than more emotional, conservative, sensitive to personality, emotional and aesthetic of political life. (Verba, Sidney, and Gabriel A. Almond., 1963, p. 325) As social category women has been very impacted by social activity such as the education. By the history the women and education are considered interlinked as part of society and family. Education as a social institution is constructed, in both structure and outcomes, by a variety of actors and ideas in national and international environments (Bradley, K., & Ramirez, F. O., 1996). Cultural reproduction theorists call attention to the ways in which educational structures mirror and reproduce the contested relations and values that shape society at large, including those concerning gender (Grant, L., Horan, P. M., & Watts-Warren, B., 1994). Pressures are exerted at the global and national levels to equalize the participation of men and women in activities in the public sphere, with particular emphasis on widening access to education and employment. Such efforts build higher chances for women to be able to success. Once the barriers to access are removed, women will make educational choices similar to those of men (Bradley, 2000). Higher education is the route to better-paying, higher status position, one might expect that women would enroll in and graduate from programs of study that lead to better paying occupations in the future. (Bradley, 2000) Scientifically women definition and its role and position in family and society have been developed in correlation with several factors including education, culture, profession, skills, economic standard and social position, as well as in relation with men, in family ties, in public and private sector. The complexity of women issues sometimes have been very contradictory under the life philosophy, social mentality and gender psychology, conditioned on circumstances, environment and socio- economic development. All these complex factors have in one level or another provoked violent behavior against women in family and society. Cultural factors for example, beliefs in the society on the superiority of the man and the notion in the family as the private sphere and under male control. Economic factors, women’s economic dependence on men and limited access to employment opportunities. Legal factors as for example, insensitive treatments of women and girls by police and judiciary. Political factors, under-representation of women in power, politics, the media and in the legal and medical professions. These factors all perpetuate domestic violence (Heise, L. L., Raikes, A., Watts, C. H., & Zwi, A. B, 1994).
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Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women (Assembly, 1993). There are many factors that perpetuate domestic violence. The case study on “Women emancipation in Albania -Transitioning to Modern Society” is a unique case considering the Albanian history, political systems, economic development, social structure, culture, multi-religions, mentality, traditional psychology and a long time self-isolation from the West and East societies. Therefore the above mentioned literature review with theories, concepts, examples and case study have been helpful to better understand the Albanian unique case study in the frame of modern social and political sciences. Case study: Albania a history of women participation The Communist regime – Socialist feminism The communist regime in Albania for forty-five years has been very influential process building a different societycompared to the previous system. Interestingly, it was the new Soviet Union government in 1918 the first in the history to approve women’s emancipation in its legislation (Hoffman, J., & Graham, P., 2015). The Albanian communist leader Enver Hoxha followed the Soviet Union policy toward women emancipation. August Bebel wrote a very influential book – Women under Socialism (1878) – which developed the arguments that women could only be emancipated through a proletarian evolution which resulted in their economic independence and the collectivisation of housework and childcare (Hoffman, J., & Graham, P., 2015). The image of women in Albania was being redefined compared to the old inherited tradition. Socialist feminism was the dominant ideology. After the Communist Party came in power, the population of Albania was in a very poor condition of health system, low level of education and lack of laws. More than 80% of the population was illiterate and female illiteracy stood above 90% (Gjonca, A., Aassve, A., & Mencarini, L., 2008). One of the strategies of the Party of Laborof Albania was emancipation of women. The new Constitution of March 14th, 1946 includes gender equality rights between men and women (Aboim, S., & Vasconcelos, P., 2014).It was based on Lenin thought about the Russian Revolution that stated ‘proletariat cannot have complete liberty until it has won complete liberty for women’ (Rowbotham, 1972). The campaign for the emancipation of women was launched officially in 1967 by communist leader of party and state, Enver Hoxha. (Aboim, S., & Vasconcelos, P., 2014)The main objectives of Hoxha regime to emancipate women in the society were to achieve higher education and employment. According to my research, I can say that the implementation process was very successful. Female illiteracy was declined from 92% in 1945 to less than 8% in 1989, and by 2002 it was less than 5%. In 1960 the percentage of women in the total number of the employed population was 36%; it increased to 45% in 1970, 46.7% in 1986 and 47.4% in 1989 (Gjonca, A., Aassve, A., & Mencarini, L., 2008). Emancipation of women in education and employment it followed with integration in the political life. The highest percentage in history, of women participation as members in the Parliament was in 1974-1978 with 35.2% (Aboim, S., & Vasconcelos, P., 2014). This political strategy of the communist regime, particularly in women’s rights and emancipation can be considered as a real progress in the Albanian society. The employment of women led to anew dependency and burdened women instead of offering economic emancipation. Thepolitical activation of women resulted in their formalistic and ritualistic participation inthe lower strata of the power structure, whereas toward the top of the political pyramid ofpower their participation was drastically minimized (Rener, 1985). In addition, womendid not have any special reason to participate in such empty and ritualized politicalactivities which only ate up their already tight ‘spare time’ (Miller, R. E., & Wilford, R, (Eds.), 2004). 1.2. Transitioning in 1990 – Post Communism In 1990 with the fall of the Berlin Wall, as a symbol of the end of the communist regimes in the Eastern Europe, Albania also started the transition process toward democracy.One-party system was replaced by pluralistic system, human rights and market economy. The transition toward democracy was a very difficult process for Albania. The communist heritage was not only a matter of political system and market economy but mostly it was a matter of mentality and social construction. Democratic principles were adopted legally, and the state institutions were transformed modeled on new Western democratic system, but the real challenge that would take a lot of time was the mentality and the society. The state legislature was accomplished, and democratic system was built on the Western style democracy but society itself and law implementation capacity were not really prepared to absorb the rapid rate transformation. For a plenty of time 166 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 democracy, its values and institutions existed together with backward tradition.In this transition women were still perceived like Aristotle contended the relation of men-female as naturally that of superior to inferior. (Lowndes, V., Marsh, D., & Stoker, G. (Eds.), 2017). Participation of women in political life after the fall of the communist regime decreased. Women members in the parliament declined dramatically, from 30% to 4% in the first post-1991 parliament and 5.7% in the following legislature. (Aboim, S., & Vasconcelos, P., 2014) The decentralization of the state power affected negatively in the development process of the Albanian society. One of the striking features of the aftermath of the fall of communism was the withdrawal of women from the economic, political and social life (Aboim, S., & Vasconcelos, P., 2014). Women’s rights weren’t considered as important due to economy downfall, property rights, migration and democratic elections. Despite the transformation of system from dictatorship to democracy, because of chaotic transition the position of women in post-communist societies has worsened. (Hoffman, J., & Graham, P., 2015) 1.3. Entering the Modern Feminism 2013 and ongoing The state policy regarding women’s rights and emancipation took a positive turn. The Socialist Party who won the elections in 2013, in the political had a priority for women in Albanian society. Firstly, the new government promised to increase women participation as members of the Parliament. Though the Gender Equality Law and Electoral Code ratified and target a minimum of 30 per cent of elected and nominated positions to women. Women made up only 18 per cent of Albania’s Parliament at the end of 2013 (Stana Tadić, Violeta Anđelković, Sofija Vrbaški, 2016). Education, employment and political integration are still big challenges ahead. The paper studies which of the factors are the stepping stone to further face other challenges, in order to achieve progress by increasing the awareness of the importance of human rights and therefore gender equality. Continuously it is neededmore effective influence of the state regarding women emancipation. Maybe it is inherited from the communist regime that Albanians needs the interference of the state in the society to implement new modern perception of women. In the next chapter the focus will be on how these major issues coexist and theirimpact increasing or decreasing during this Modern Feminism phase. Overview of statistical Data on women emancipation in Albanian modern society 2.1. Political integration of women in Albania - from 2013 and ongoing One of the lessons learned from emerging democracies is that gender disparities can’t be addressed only by legal changes. The extent to which legal changes are successfully implemented depends on how such changes are received by the population, among others (Marsela Dauti, Edvin Zhllima, 2016). By many reports, this is the biggest challenge in Albania. There are two levels of integrating women in political life: the first is high level representation and participation in decision making processes and the second is the representation and participation of women in local/municipality and regions councils. In my analysis I pay attention to the levels of integration, representation and participation of women in politicsboth in central and local government starting from 2013 and on. Representation of women in politics and their participation in decision-making process is one of the key indicators of gender equality in a society (Milena Lazarević and Katarina Tadić, 2018). In a high political position, women can publicly address the gender issues in our society. In 2017, the number of women representative as Parliament Members wasup to 40 (28.5%) (Comission, 2018), but it does not meanthat women members are being treated the same and their opinion has been equally powerful like men members in Parliament.Women must be considered fully integrated in the political system of Albania when they can make or influence public decision-making process in the same wayasmen.According to the report of Gender Issues in the Western Balkans 2018, women occupy the lower positions in their parties therefore they are underrepresented in the high decision-making bodies. Year Men Women Men % Women % 1920 37 0 100 0 1921 78 0 100 0 1925 75 0 100 0 1928 57 0 100 0 1945 76 6 93 7 1950 104 17 86 14 1958 171 17 91 9
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1970 192 72 73 27 1974 167 83 67 33 1982 174 76 70 30 1990 169 81 68 32 1991 199 51 80 20 1997 144 11 93 7 2001 131 9 94 6 2005 130 10 93 7 2009 117 23 84 16 2013 115 25 82 18 2014 111 29 79 21 2015 108 32 77 23 2016 107 33 76 24 2017 99 41 71 29
There are a very few examples across the region of a woman leading a political party (Milena Lazarević and Katarina Tadić, 2018). For example, in Albania, we have a political situation where for the first time we have a female leader of a political party. The credibility is questionable for a couple of reasons. First, the political party is the third party by the representation in Parliament, so it is considered a small party. Second issue isthe way that she is being perceived by public opinion regarding her role as the head of the party found and strongly supported by the ex-head of this party and currently the Head of State. There are perceptions that it is a tricky situation because she is mostly considered an appointed rather than elected as the part leader. It seems that there are prejudges even when women do occupy any the decision-making positions, that their power lies somewhere else (Milena Lazarević and Katarina Tadić, 2018). But it is the first time, in our political history as a democratic state, that a woman is designated as the chairwomen of a political party. Integration of women in the local/municipal and regional councils is the second dimension to further understand the women representation in politics and their participation in decision-making process. In local governance, winning candidates for mayor were 15.0%women and 85% men at the end of December 2017 (INSTAT, Women and Men in Albania, 2018). Based on traditional mentality the women are still considered being incapable of making rational decisions and providing strong leadership. Women are facing perceptions and attitudes that severely impede their chances of obtaining higher participation in local politics (Stana Tadić, Violeta Anđelković, Sofija Vrbaški, 2016). Political parties in Albania do not want to risk losing the local elections by appointing women as their candidate, because the society does not believe that women cannot be perceived as a strong political figure to represent them. So, from 28.5% of 140 parliament members there are 15% out of 61 municipalities that women are being elected in local elections. Anyway, Albania is developing the women integration in politics.The trend is improving day by day in the politics toward gender equalities in Albania. The percentage of women representation is being more impressive and the women participation in decision-making process is going to be more positively recognizedby the entire society. But still the fact that women representation is higher than their active participation in decision-making process means that the changes are mostly quantitative rather than qualitative. The difference between women political representation and their participation in decision-making process is a clear indicator to show that the women impacts is not so much influencing policy-making and its implementation in both levels central and local. Political the parties are most responsibleinstitution to involve more women as candidates in municipals and regional councils, especially in decision-making bodies.On the other side the public policies should be focused more on the integration of women candidates in local governments. They must contribute in raising awareness of gender equality in Albanian society by increasing women representation and especially their strongly and actively participation in policy-making and decision-making process. 2.2. Educationand its impact on women emancipation from 2013 and ongoing The education has a great importance on women qualification and skills in Albanian society. By improving the women education, they increase their socio-economic contribution on the entire society, strengthen the family relations, emancipate gender equality within family and as a result it can reduce domestic violence. The lack of territorial cohesion has impacted education level of women generation and in all territories. I found official data and compare the gender gap statistics in women generation and in the urban and rural areas.On the other hand,the lack of social cohesion is quite present in the education level differencesbetween the women generations. My observation is that the education of women in the new generation is higher and therefore it can influence the future development of women role in society. Education is the
168 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 foundation in the society to close the gap in gender inequalities and to fight traditional mental stereotypes. Of course, it takes time, because it starts with the young generation and on all territories by educating the knowledge and awareness of the rights and freedom and responsibilities of women toward a modern society. The lack of social and territorial cohesion on women education is the main drawbacks in a modern society, it can generate further problems and more negative consequences will emerge.One of more significant phenomenon that reflectsthe lack of education is the violent behavior in Albanian families. It is deeply rooted in patriarchal traditions and customs that shape the society negative syndrome such as strict gender identities and roles, patriarchal authority in family and society, adherence to an honor-and-shaming system, customs of hierarchical ordering within the family and intergenerational family control (Stana Tadić, Violeta Anđelković, Sofija Vrbaški, 2016). Education is essential for women emancipation into society, for increasing their awareness on the importancein all fields of life, strongly based on their fundamental freedom and human rights. On this issue my observations are based on the INSTAT 2018 Report Women and Men in Albania.The statistics indicate that the educational attainment of population in Albania according to age group has a very interesting outcome. Level of education ofthe age group from forty years old to sixty-four (retiring age) with secondary education of women are 36% in comparison with men 45%. Further the level of graduating in universities of women is 11% compared to the men of 12%. This age group of the population is the less culturally developed and generate more problems because they were inherited part of the difficulties ofradical transition in Albania. On the other hand, the population from twenty-five years old as the part of new generation embarked contemporary development of the Country and the future of Albanian society. In this new generation the education in secondary level of women is 22% and men 35% lower than the previous age group. Optimistically, in the new generation we have higher women graduates in universities with 30% compared to men that are 22%.Overall this report shows that the gender gapsdifference in education, due to new generationis narrowing and women are advancing in higher education. As far as the urban and rural areas situation on gender issues the statistics indicates the considerable differences. In the above mentioned paragraph, the report I cited did not includedthe comparison of women’s education in urban and rural area. My observation is thatthe rural areas aremore backward because of traditional and more patriarchal mentality. The report of INSTAT in 2013 titled ‘Domestic violence in Albania’ mentions that the education ofwomen in rural areas reached up to secondary education by 33.9% and then when it came to higher education(university), only 5.2% graduate’s university studies. As far as the urban area is concern the same report of INSTA 2013, Domestic Violence in Albania, stated that the level of education is much higher. So, 47% of women had finished the secondary education and 23.2% of them graduate the higher education. The negative legacy of our tradition and patriarch families, the lack of social and territorial cohesion and the challenges of socio-economic transition have directly impacted the women situation in the entire society. 2.3. Employment –its impact on women emancipation from 2013 and ongoing Women employability is determined mostly by education level. The education increase women qualification, professional and skills and therefore prepared them for marked demands. But there are contradictory opinion and perceptions. So a report regarding Albania, 70 percent of respondents in 2015 research agreed with the statement “It is better for the whole family if the husband has a job and the wife takes care of the family” (Milena Lazarević and Katarina Tadić, 2018). This indicates step backs on women emancipation in the Albania and in my opinion the high percentage include that not only men but also women agree with this dominant traditional stereotype in Albanian society.
“It is better for the whole family if the husband has a job and the wife takes care of the family” 3% 14% 24% 14% Strongly disagree Disagree 45% Neither agree, nor disagree Agree Strongly agree
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Employment of women should be consideredas one the most important features of modern society. Women, who have higher education, good professions and skills have more job opportunities and generate more income that leads to socio- economic contribution, more independence and less reliance on the partner. In 2017, approximately one million and four hundred people were employed in Albania. In the labor market, women make up 42.6% whereas man 56.8% (INSTAT, Labour Market, 2018). Employability of women is multi-valuable. It makes women increase socio-economic contribution to the country and society, it creates opportunities the women to develop enterprise culture, it leads to equal economic contribution in family and therefore it increases the independence of women. Woman employability side by side with their better educationstrength the family ties and relations on equal bases and therefore can lead to avoid the cases of domestic violence. The opposite happen the unemployed women become more isolated, more dependent on men and the subject of frequent domestic violence. Though, the lack of economic independence cannot encourage the women to denounce their suffering of abuse andit leads to continuing domestic violence. The statistic confirms that in 2013, the victims of domestic violence were 55% unemployed and only 45% employed (Bozo, 2016). Regarding the situation of women employment in urban and rural areas the statistics indicates that there are a lot of differences. This is because the lack of social and territorial cohesion that mostly effects women status. So according to INSTAT report in 2013, Domestic violence in Albania, it is quite evident that women in urban areas work outside the home by 51%, unlike women in rural area that work outside home by 34.3%. Further based on the same report unemployed women are 65% in rural unlike women in urban area that are unemployed by 48%.Unemployment rate results in lack of socio-economic contribution and independence of women in the Albanian families and society. So, the development of women emancipation, their freedom and rights, their representation and participation in the society is far from being satisfactory. Domestic violence – consequence in Albanian society According to Societal Structure Theory, domestic violence is caused by an underlying power imbalance that can be understood only by examining society. The theory focuses on patriarchy or male domination especially over women through physical, economic, and political control. (Wolfe, D. A., & Jaffe, P. G., 1999) Domestic violence in Albania is the consequence of the lack of implementation of legal framework that protects women’s life and rights. Gender inequality is embedded in the culture of our society and this reflects the reality. Another obstruction to an Albanian modern society is its history with the inherited traditional mentality.I analyzed and emphasized how political emancipation, education and employment progress as a unit can fight domestic violence. Based on UN report Gender Equality in Albania reflects the social development in society. During the questioner they asked Albanian society if ‘a good wife should obey to her husband preserving family peace and well-being’. The data show a mass confirmation of the duty of women to obey to the men. Comparing the urban and rural areas, of course the rural areas prevailed by 81% of the population endorsing the women role as obedient in the relationship.
Urban Areas - “A good wife should obey to her husband, preserving family peace and well-being”
10%40%9%6%35%
Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree, nor disagree Agree Strongly agree
Resource: Gender Equality in Albania Report, 2016 http://www.al.undp.org/content/dam/albania/docs/STUDIMI_PERCEPTIMET_eng.pdf
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Rural areas - “A good wife should obey to her husband, preserving family peace and well-being”
3%6% 10% 41% 40%
Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree, nor disagree Agree Strongly agree
Resource: Gender Equality in Albania Report, 2016 http://www.al.undp.org/content/dam/albania/docs/STUDIMI_PERCEPTIMET_eng.pdf Another fact observed regarding the rising phenomenon of domestic violence in Albanian family is due to lack of education in our society. Statistics indicate that the education level of the victims in domestic violence is very low. According to Aurela Bozo, during 2013 the level of education of the domestic violence victims were 57.7% with primary education, 26.8% with secondary education and the least the higher education with 6.4%. Education is a process that takes time to build into society, but it is the most influential investment that laid the strong foundation of the modern development regarding democracy, gender equality, fundamental freedom and human rights and women representation and participation in all sectors of modern society.
Education – College and above “A good wife should obey to her husband, preserving family peace and well-being”
5% 16% 30% 34% 15%
Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree, nor disagree Agree Strongly agree
Resource: Gender Equality in Albania Report, 2016 http://www.al.undp.org/content/dam/albania/docs/STUDIMI_PERCEPTIMET_eng.pdf Factors contributing to these unequal power relations include: socio-economic forces, the family institution where power relations are enforced, fear of and control over female sexuality, belief in the inherent superiority of males, and legislation and cultural sanctions that have traditionally denied women an independent legal and social status (UNICEF, 2000). Based on official reports the unequal power relations between men and women and the male authoritarian attitude, is reflected in extreme of disparity in number of cases regarding domestic violence in Albania. Domestic violence perpetrators by sex in 2017, in Albania:
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2000 1500 1000 500 0 2015 2016 2017 Men Women
Source: INSTAT report, Women and Men in Albania 2018 Conclusions and Recommendations During modern history the Albanian society has gone through difficult challenges in different phases. The first phase began during the communist regimethatin the revolutionary spirit prioritized the emancipation of women in society. Based on Soviet Union model of women emancipation during inter war periods Albanian communist regime from 1945 to 1990, among other revolutionary measures took e several initiatives and social movements to transform the status and role of the women in Albanian socialist society. The main intention of the communist regime was to realize a revolutionary women emancipation led by the Organization of United Women of Albanian under the Communist Party Leadership. The revolutionary women emancipation during the communist regime was in substance the collective women rights in politics, economy, social and culture and family life. This revolutionary process did ignore the democratic principles and fundamental freedom and human rights. It was a policy for the best interest of the communist state. Then after the collapse of the communist regime, the transition to a democratic system wastraumatic for the society, facing severe political, social and economic issues. In this traumatic phase of transformation, the gender equality issue was put on hold. The country changed political system from one-party system to pluralistic system, from centralized economy to free market economy, from dictatorship to human rights and from isolation to Euro-Atlantic integration. By the time, after1998 new Constitution of Albania, the public policy re- considered again women status and role in the light of European values and European Charter of Human Rights. After 2013 in accordance of several reports carried out by state and civil society that I have analyzed there are positive confirms that the main challenge of Albania are in implementation process. Integration of women in politics has very interesting outcome, both in term of representation and participation in decision making. From 2013 an on, there are higher representation of women in central political institution, in parliament and government.But in my observation I have realized that women representation has been considerably improved from 2013 and on, but this is not the case in the decision-making positions still dominated by men. As far as the local institutions is concern both in municipality and region council the women integration process varied in different territorial administration. INSTAT report and several surveys during 2015-2018 have mentioned that women participation in local election and therefore in the elected government where far behind men. So the public policy priority on women issues launched by Albanian Government is not been fully implemented in cohesive way in all administrative constituencies.Due to territorial fragmentation the women representation and participation in local government clearly indicate the backward mentality of periphery society and the lack of social and territorial cohesion overall the Country. The women education should be the main focus of Albanian public policy and of the society. It is Governments policy and public policy to maintain priority on women education in the times to come. It will be a long-term process which will bring the outcome in the new generations. The reports and data I have studied so far it is clear evidence that there is lower percentage of primary and second education of the new generation compared to generation who finished school during the communist regime. The positive side is the growing percentage of women that graduates the high education (university) by also passing men.Furthermore when it came to compare the progress in rural and urban area there is also a difference in the level of education. The cause may also be the lack of economic and social cohesive development in the rural area.
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Employment should be another priority in the short term in Albania. The government politics and public policies should be more focused to narrow the gender gap of employment,to fight gender discrimination in work, to increase job opportunity for women and to improve financial treatment. These policies can directly and indirectly influence the situation of women regarding the domestic violence.Employability of women side by side the increasing education level will create the awareness andpromote their courage to be able to denouncethe violent behavior in family and society. The women emancipation, gender equality, fundamental freedom and human rights as well as women increasing representation in public and private institution and active participation in decision-making processes remain priority for Government politics and public policy in Albania. The entire society should raise awareness in order to be conscious about the importance of gender equality in democratic system and societies. The women role needs to be seriously considered by state and society because the women have great responsibility taking care of their children and family and also to give their own contribution in politics, economy and culture in the society. References [1] Aboim, S., & Vasconcelos, P. (2014). Gender, Sexuality and the Body: critical perspectives (collection of papers). ICS ESTUDOS e RELATÓRIOS , 48-58. [2] Assembly, G. (1993). United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. [3] Bozo, A. (2016). Gender based violence, indicator of inequalities and social trends. Tirana, Albania. [4] Bradley, K. (2000). The incorporation of women into higher education: Paradoxical outcomes? Sociology of education , 1-18. [5] Bradley, K., & Ramirez, F. O. (1996). World polity and gender parity: Women’s share of higher education, 1965– 1985. Research in sociology of education and socialization , 63-91. [6] Comission, E. (2018). Albania Report. Strasbourg. [7] Connell, R., & Pearse, R. (2015). Gender Norms–Are They the Enemies of Women’s Rights. [8] Einhorn, B. Women’s Rights in East Central Europe: Back to Cinderella? Glasgow: University of Glasgow. [9] Gjonca, A., Aassve, A., & Mencarini, L. (2008, July 1). Albania: Trends and patterns, proximate determinants and policies of fertility change. Demographic Research , 19, pp. 261-292. [10] Grant, L., Horan, P. M., & Watts-Warren, B. (1994). Theoretical diversity in the analysis of gender and education. Research in sociology of education and socialization , 71-109. [11] Heise, L. L., Raikes, A., Watts, C. H., & Zwi, A. B. (1994). Violence against women: a neglected public health issue in less developed countries. Social science & medicine , 1165-1179. [12] Hoffman, J., & Graham, P. (2015). Introduction to political theory. Routledge. [13] INSTAT. (2018). Labour Market. Tirana. [14] INSTAT. (2018). Women and Men in Albania. [15] Lowndes, V., Marsh, D., & Stoker, G. (Eds.). (2017). Theory and methods in political science. Macmillan International Higher Education. [16] Marsela Dauti, Edvin Zhllima. (2016). Gender Equality in Albania. Tirana, Albania: United Nations Development Programme. [17] Milena Lazarević and Katarina Tadić. (2018). Gender Issues in the Western Balkans. Civil Society Forum of the Western Balkan Summit Series. [18] Miller, R. E., & Wilford, R, (Eds.). (2004). Women, ethnicity and nationalism: The politics of transition. Routledge. [19] Rener, T. (1985). Yugoslav women in politics. International Political Science Review , 347-354. [20] Rowbotham, S. (1972). Women, Resistance and Revolution . London: Allen Lane/Penguin. [21] Scott, J. (1986). Gender: A useful category of historical analysis. American Historical Review. [22] Stana Tadić, Violeta Anđelković, Sofija Vrbaški. (2016). Women's rights in the Western Balkans. The Kvinna till Kvinna Foundation. [23] UNICEF. (2000). Domestic violence against women and girls. Florence, Italy. [24] Verba, Sidney, and Gabriel A. Almond. (1963). The civic culture: Political attitudes and democracy in five nations. [25] Wolfe, D. A., & Jaffe, P. G. (1999). Emerging strategies in the prevention of domestic violence. The future of children , 133-144.
173 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Analysis of Competition and Market Positioning
Demir Lima
Abstract This paper provides an analysis of the positioning of companies in local and international markets using different theories and thoughts on the use of different marketing and positioning strategies. We argue that considering the high degree of competition and the power of market dominance, enterprises need to concentrate on meeting customer requirements and needs. Choosing the operating strategies should be done with caution considering also the competitor’s strategy. Companies need to choose which competitors will fight or attack and who should avoid it, depending on the strength and size of the competitors. If the company chooses to fight with big and strong competitors, the risks can be enormous. Also companies should not avoid competitors of the same type or competitors competing with the same products because it depends on how they will approach consumers, after all they run after the same dollars and the same customers. Companies should explore the market and, based on their research, come up with new products and services, meeting the needs and demands of consumers. Companies should also try to go to the distant markets so-called "corner markets" to be as close to customers. Also in this paper will be given an overview of the telecommunications market of operators in Kosovo and their positioning in the market. Keywords: Market, positioning, competition, customer, products.
Introduction Today is being talked more and more about competition and how economies perform in the context of globalization. What is the competition in fact? There are multiple debates about the concept of competition, Porter M. (1990) argues that competition shouldn’t be seen as a business concept. A nation should not be considered as a major competitive company in world markets. While the notion of a competitive company is clear, the notion of a competitive nation is not clear (Porter M, 1990). According to Krugman (1994), competitiveness is a pointless word when applied to national economies and obsession with competitiveness is wrong and dangerous. Competitiveness among firms is defined as their capacity to increase the presence in international and local markets by developing specific sectors and value added activities and high technology. Companies today face a wide range of competitors and they can define competitors like all companies that produce the same product or product class, in the widest sense, competitors may be all companies competing for the dollars of same customer. In this way, companies can find competitive advantages and disadvantages, identify competitors, and select which competitors to fight and which will be avoided. Once competitors are identified, marketing management ask questions: What are the objectives of competitors, what does each of them require in the market? What is the competitors' strategy? What are the strengths and weaknesses of competitors and how will each react to the actions the company can take? Each company has its own objectives and goals, so recognizing the competitor's objectives reveals whether the competitor is satisfied with his current state of affairs and how he can react to different actions of other competitors. Each company also has the purpose of evaluating the value for the client to determine the benefits of the product that evaluate the customers and how the customers evaluate the product offered by other competitors. In doing this customer value analysis, the company first identifies the key features of the product that customer value and the importance that customers give to these features. 1.1 The competitors' analysis To plan effective marketing strategies, the company needs to analyse the environment around its competitors. It should constantly compare its marketing strategies, products, pricing, product distribution channels, and promotions to those of nearby competitors. In this way, the company can look at competitive advantages and disadvantages.
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Figure 1.1 presents competitor analysis which includes first identifying and evaluating competitors and then selecting which competitors to attack and avoid. Fig 1.1 Steps in analyzing competitors
Companies today face a wider range of competitors. The company can define competitors like all firms that produce the same product or product class. For example, the telecommunications company Vala would see itself as a competitor against all other telecommunications companies. Even more widely, competitors can be all companies that sell the same products and provide the same services. Finally, in the widest sense, competitors may be all companies competing for the same customers' money. Companies should avoid "myopia against the competitor". A company is more likely to be "buried" by its latent competitors than by existing ones. For example, they were not the direct competitors who ended Western Union telegram businesses after 161 years; these were cell phones and the internet. Then Kodak's competitors were digital imaging and online image transmission services. Perhaps the classic example of myopia against the competitor is the British Encyclopedia. Companies can identify their competitors from the industry standpoint. They may consider themselves to be in the petroleum industry, the pharmaceutical industry or in the beverage industry. A company needs to understand the motives of competition in its industry if it wants to be an effective "player" in the industry. Companies can also identify competitors from the market standpoint. Here they define clients as companies that strive to satisfy the needs of the same customer who owns it or build relationships with the same customer group. From the point of view of the same industry, Pepsi can see its competition with Coca Cola, Dr. Pepper, 7UP and other manufacturers of other brands of refreshing drinks. But, from the market standpoint, the client really wants to "quench thirst". This need can be supplemented with bottled water, energy drinks, fruit juice, ice tea and plenty of other juices. 1.2 Identify the competitors' objectives Each competitor has a series of goals. The company seeks to know the relative importance that a competitor attaches to current mobility, market share growth, cash sales, technological leadership, service leadership and other objectives. Knowing the competitor's objectives reveals whether the competitor is satisfied with his current state of affairs and how he can react to different actions of other competitors. For example, a company that targets a low cost leadership will react more potentially when it discovers a reduction in the cost of a competitor's production, rather than the increase in advertising by that competitor. Also, a company needs to monitor its competitors' objectives for different segments, if the company sees a competitor discovered a new segment, this may be a chance. If the company sees that competitors plan new moves into segments that are now served by it, it will be announced in order to take action to move forward. 1.3. Identify competitors' strategies The more a company's strategy matches the strategy of another company, the more competition between them grows. Concrete case of competition between telecommunications companies in Kosovo, Vala, Ipko and z-mobile and finally the introduction of a Serbian operator for the northern part of Kosovo. In most industries, competitors can be classified into groups that follow different strategies. A strategic group is a group of companies in an industry that pursues the same or similar strategy in a target market. From the identification of strategic groups emerge some important ideas. For example,
175 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 if a company joins one of the groups, members of that group become its main competitors. Since competition is too large within a strategic group, there is also a rivalry between the groups. The company must see all the dimensions that identify strategic groups within the industry. It should understand how each competitor delivers value to its customers. It should recognize product quality, features and product mix, customer service, pricing policy, distribution coverage, sales force strategy, and promotional programs of each of the competitors. It should also study the research / development details of each competitor, production, purchasing, financial strategies etc. 1.4. Evaluating strengths and weaknesses of competitors Marketing specialists should assess the strengths and weaknesses of each of the competitors in order to answer a crucial question: What can our competitors do? As a first step, companies can collect data on each competitor's objectives, strategies and performance in the past years. Undoubtedly, some of this information will be difficult to get. Normally, companies learn about the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors through secondary data, personal experience, and people's words. They can also develop a primary marketing study with customers, suppliers, and sales agents. Or they can standardize themselves to other firms by comparing company products and processes with those of competitors and leading firms in other industries to identify "best practices" and find ways to improve quality and Performance. Standardization means finding point of reference, this has become a powerful tool to increase the competitive capacity of a company. 1.5. Evaluating the competitors' response The company seeks to know: What will our competitors do? The objectives, strategies, strengths and weaknesses of a competitor greatly help to explain its possible actions. They also suggest its possible reactions to company moves, such as price reductions, promotional increases, or new product presentations. Each competitor has some philosophy of doing business, some kind of internal culture, and leadership conviction. Marketing managers need to know the mentality of a given competitor if they want to face the actions and reactions of the competitor. Competitors react differently. Some do not react quickly and force to a competitor's movement. They may feel that their competitors are loyal, they may be slow to move or may lack funds to react. Some competitors react only to certain types of movements and not to others. Other competitors react swiftly and forcefully to any action. Thus, P & G does not allow a new detergent to come easily on the market. Many firms know P & G's tough reaction when challenged, avoid direct competition with it and require a more easily "victim". In some industries the competitors live in relative harmony with one another; in the other they are constantly struggling. Knowing how the major competitors react, the company also knows how to better attack them or how to better protect their current positions. 1.6. Selection of clients to be attacked and those to be avoided A company selects its core competitors mainly through previous decisions on its targets to clients, distribution channels, and marketing mix strategies. Once the selection is made, the leaders have to decide which competitors to compete more vigorously. 1.6.1. Strong or weak competitors The company can focus on one or several competitors. Most companies prefer to compete against weak competitors. This requires less resources and less time. But during the process the company can win a bit. You can argue that the company can compete with powerful competitors in order to sharpen more its skills, Moreover, even powerful competitors may have weaknesses and when it succeeds, the company provides bigger profits. A concrete example was the virtual company of Vala (Telecom of Kosovo), z-Mobile, attracting Vala customers with the best offers, lowering prices more than the Vala parent operator and gaining clients, increasing revenues and dominating the market, this wild competition of this virtual company has lasted from 2012 to 2014. A useful tool to evaluate the competitor's strengths and weaknesses is customer value analysis. The purpose of the client value analysis is to determine the product's benefits and how customers value the product offered by other competitors. In conducting customer value analysis, the company first identifies the key features of the product that customer value and the importance that customers give to these features. Then evaluate the performance of the company and the competitors for the estimated product properties.
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Fig 1.2. Determine the most lucrative strategic position facing the competitors
The key to winning competitive edge is to handle every customer segment and examine how the company's bid compares to that of its major competitors. The company wants to find a "most lucrative strategic position" - a place where it meets the needs of customers in a way that rivals do not. If the company's offer is of greater value, exceeding the competitor's bid for the main product properties, the company may require a price and gain more market share. But if the company is seen to perform at a lower level than its main competitor with some important product features, it should invest in improving these features or in finding other important attributes that gives an advantage over the competitor. 1.6.2. Close or distant competitors Most companies today compete with the closest competitors, the ones that resemble the most, and not with distant competitors. For example, Nike is more competitive against Adidas than against Timberland and Keen. At the same time, the company may want to avoid trying to "destroy" a nearby competitor. So weak competitors are forced to sell to big companies to withstand strong competitors. 1.7.3. "Good" or "bad" competitors One company, in reality, has needs and benefits from competitors. The existence of competitors gives rise to some strategic benefits. Competitors can share the costs of market and product development and help legitimize of new technologies. They can serve less attractive segments or lead to more differentiation of the product. Finally, competitors can help increase overall demand. For example, we may think that an independent cafe, surrounded by "Prince Coffee" stores, may have trouble staying in business. But often it is not like this: However, a company can’t see all of its competitors as beneficial. An industry often contains "good" competitors and "bad" competitors. Good competitors play according to industry rules. Unlike these, bad competitors break the rules. They try to buy part, instead of gaining it, and take on great dangers, so they play according to their own rules.
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II. Finding uncontested market spaces Rather than compete head-on with stabilized competitors, many companies seek unacknowledged positions in uncontested market space. They try to create products and services for which there are no direct competitors. Called the "blue ocean strategy", its goal is to become unimportant competition. Companies have long been engaged in face-to-face competition in search of beneficial growth. They have come together for a competitive edge, sometimes fighting for market breakdown and struggling to try to show the difference. But in today's overcrowded industries, uncompromising competition results only as a red "bloody" ocean of rivals fighting in a puddle where profits shrink. In their book "Blue Ocean Strategy" (2005), two marketing professors W. Chan Kim and Renee Mauborgne say that although most companies compete within the red oceans, strategies are unlikely to create profitable growth in the future. Leader companies of tomorrow will succeed not by competing with competitors, but by creating the "Blue Ocean" of uncontested market space. Such strategic moves, called "value innovations", create strong growth in value both for the company and its buyers, having a whole new demand and making rivals outdated. By creating and pulling blue oceans, companies can bring the rivals out of the game. 2.1. Composing a competitive intelligence system We have mentioned the main types of information that companies need for their competitors. The information needs to be collected, processed to be distributed and used, all this, has a high cost, and the company has to compose its competitive espionage system in a cost-effective way. The spy competing system initially identifies the vital types of competitive information needed and the best sources of this information. Then, the system continuously collects information from the field (from vending forces, distribution channels, suppliers, market research companies, trade companies, web sites) and from published data (government publications, speeches, articles, etc.) . After that, the system controls the information on validity and reliability, interprets it and organizes it appropriately. Finally, it sends the key information to the right decision- makers and answers the investigations by managers for competitors. With this system, company managers will receive timely information and will always be informed about the business moves of competitors. 2.2. Competitive Strategies After identifying and evaluating its core competitors, the company must develop broad competitive marketing strategies, through which it can gain competitive advantage through greater value to the client. But what broad marketing strategies can a company use? Which strategies are the best for a particular company or for different divisions and products of the company? 2.3. Approaches to marketing strategy There is no good strategy for all companies. Each one needs to determine what is most beneficial to her having clear her position in the industry, her objectives, chances and resources. Even within the company, a company may find that different strategies are required for businesses or different products. Marketing strategy of Kosovo Telecom is focused on providing and promoting services that position of Vala as a brand is oriented towards the values of Kosovo's families, which in the overall consumer experience represent quality, security and innovation at all points of contact with customers. Although we are very aware of price sensitivity in the telecom industry and the marketing strategy in the Kosovo environment is not focused on being "cheaper" but the best value in money for every segment we have access to. The main objective is to create competitive advantages based on customer satisfaction. This strategy is in line with the positioning strategy of the brands of Telecom of Kosovo. Marketing strategy of Vala is to achieve customer experience which includes 4 categories divided into 8 types of customer value. These eight types of customer value are: efficiency, excellence, status, respect, play, aesthetics, ethics, and the state of mind. Johnson & Johnson also uses a marketing strategy for its leading brands in enduring consumer markets such as BRAND-AID, tynelol, or Johnson's products for babies, and a different strategy for its businesses and healthcare products, high technology such as Monocryl surgical yarns, or Neuflex equipment for unit joining of boxes, drawer shelves etc. Companies also differ from how they approach the strategic planning process. Many large firms develop formal competitive strategies and put them into life faithfully. While, other companies develop the strategy in a slightly more formal and orderly way. Companies such as Harley-Davidson, Virgin Atlantic Airways and MINI Cooper units, BMW have been successful breaking the marketing strategy "rules". Such companies do not operate with large marketing departments, do not develop costly marketing studies, do not submit elaborate competitive strategies, nor even spend large amounts of money on the advertisement. Instead, they develop dynamic strategies, squeeze their limited resources, live next to their customers, and create more satisfying solutions to their needs. They form buyer's clubs, use verbal marketing, and focus on gaining customer loyalty. It seems that not all marketing has to follow the footsteps of
178 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 marketing giants, like IBM and Procter & Gamble. In fact, approaches to marketing strategy and practice often go through three phases: entrepreneurial marketing, formulated marketing, and intersecting marketing. Entrepreneurial Marketing. Most companies have started from individuals who live in their minds. They visualize an opportunity, build flexible strategies, quickly and without thinking about the details, and knock on any port to attract attention. Gary Hirshberg, who started the Stonyfield Farm yogurt business, shows that this is not about pouring millions of dollars into marketing and advertising. But this has to do with company blogs, with stylish packaging, with environmental protection responsibility and free distribution of yogurt. His marketing strategy: building strong customer relationships, using guerrilla marketing (Low cost marketing, developed according to concepts and nonvolatile tools, based not on money but on time, energy, dynamism and imagination). His idea is that "Companies can do better with less advertising, less marketing studies, more guerrilla marketing, and more in-house actions." Using this strategy Hirshberg has turned Stonyfield Farm into a $ 320m company. Formulated Marketing. By succeeding, small companies inevitably relocate to a well formulated marketing. They create formal marketing strategies and act according to them. Intermediary Marketing. Many big companies do not leave well-formulated marketing. They look at market research reports and try to synchronize with their strategies and competing programs. They need to refresh their marketing strategies and try new approaches. Their brand and product managers must go out of office, start living with their customers, and find new creative ways to add value to the lives of their customers. 2.4. Competitive Base Strategies Almost three decades ago Micheal Porter suggested four competitive base positioning strategies that companies could follow - three winning strategies and a loser. The three winning strategies are: • Total cost leadership: A company works hard to achieve the lowest production and distribution costs. Low costs allow product prices to be lower than competitors and the company gains a large market space. Texas Instruments, Dell and Wal-Mart are the main practitioners of this strategy. • Differentiation: A company focuses on creating an extremely differentiated product line and marketing program, in order to succeed as a class leader in the industry. Most customers would prefer to own a brand if its price is not too high. IBM and Caterpillar pursue this strategy, namely in information technology, services, and heavy construction equipment. • Focus: A company focuses its effort for good service in a few market segments, rather than following the entire market. For example, Ritz-Carlton focuses on 5% of the peak of corporate travelers and those who travel in free time. Tetra food supplies 80% of the food to the fish kept at home. Also, Holmer owns 85% of the accordion market. Companies that follow a clear strategy - one of the ones we listed above - are able to perform well. The company that pursues the best the chosen strategy, will gain more profits. While companies that do not pursue a clear strategy, so those who follow a middle course do not have any success. Sears and the Holiday Inn have had tough times, because they did not even stay at cost reduction, not being better either in perceived value or in serving some market segments. Those who follow the middle path try to be good in all strategic aspects, but ultimately they do nothing good. Two marketing consultants Micheal Treasy and Fred Wieresema offer a more competitive customer-focused marketing strategy. They suggest companies should gain leadership position by delivering superior value to their customers. Companies can follow each of the three strategies called value discipline, to deliver superior value to the client. These are: Operational Excellence: A company provides superior value, leading its industry in price and convenience. Family friendliness with the client: A company provides superior value by precisely segmenting its markets and adapting its products or services to match exactly those with customers' needs. Product Leadership: A company provides superior value by providing continuous creation of advanced new products and services. It aims at constantly creating new products, making her own products old and competitor’s products too. Product Leadership is constantly open to new ideas, new products, pursuing new solutions and working to quickly bring new
179 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 products to the market. This leadership serves customers seeking contemporary products and services, regardless of price or inconvenience. Such leadership today has Apple and Samsung. III. Competitive positions Companies competing in a given target market at any time are distinguished from their objectives and resources. Some companies are large, others, small. Some have many resources, others are tightened for funding. Some are struggling for a rapid growth of market share, others aim for long-term profits. So, companies occupy different competitive positions in the target market. Figure 3.1 presents positions and roles in the competitive market
3.1. Market positioning of mobile telephony companies in Kosovo There are four mobile phone companies operating in Kosovo, the fifth company is in the phase of establishment and procedures and will mainly operate in the northern part of Kosovo inhabited by a majority of the Serbian community, there is a political agreement for the establishment of this company. Public Operator, Kosovo Telecom - Vala; Private operator, Ipko Telecommunications, Virtual Operator Z-mobile Virtual operators D3. Below we present the graph of penetration of mobile telephony services for the period 2010-2016
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Penetration of mobile telephony 120% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Penetrimi 75 71 74 70 84 81 88 85 85 88 96 96 95 93 98 91 87 88 97 95 92 90 97 98 97 97 10 11
Source: http://arkep-rks.org/ We will also present the market positioning of mobile phone companies by users in the period 2010-2016, Graph 3.2
Mobile Telephony - market sharing by users 80,00% 60,00% 40,00% 20,00%
0,00%
TM1 TM3 TM1 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM2 TM3 TM4 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Vala Ipko Z-mobile D-3
Source: http://arkep-rks.org/ Mobile phone market segment according to revenues from 2010-2016, Graph 3.3
Mobile telephony - market share by revenue 80,00% 60,00% 40,00% 20,00%
0,00%
TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 TM3 TM4 TM1 TM2 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Vala Ipko Z-mobile D-3
Source: http://arkep-rks.org/
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According to this position, it is noticed that mobile telephony Vala - Kosovo Telecom, owns most of the market, as result is the leader in the communications market, market positioning is a result of the strategies selected by Vala Company, customer access, the most favorable offers and providing with customers. While the IPKO operator can be considered as a market challenger that attacks the leader in front and indirect way, while Z-mobile and D3 mobile are trying to cover vacant spaces from the two main operators. 3.2. Balancing customer and competitor orientations A company, whether a leader, a challenger, a follower or a corner market, should closely follow its competitors and find a competitive marketing strategy that places it more effectively. It needs to adapt its strategies to the rapidly changing environment. But it comes out of this question: Can the company spend much time and energy in tracking down competitors, damaging its client's orientation? The answer is yes! A company can become so focused on competitors, to lose concentration, even more important, to maintain profitable relationships with customers. A company focused on competitors is a company that spends most of its time tracking the movements of competitors and market shares and trying to find strategies to cope with them. This approach has positive and negative sides. The positive side is: the company creates a martial orientation, seeks the weaknesses in its position and seeks to reveal the weaknesses of competitors. On the negative side, the company becomes responsive, instead of developing its own customer strategy, it bases its moves on competitors' moves. A customer-focused company, a company that in the composition of its strategy focuses on customer developments and delivering superior value to its target customers. A market-focused company that pursues customers and their competitors, but should not allow competitors to persuade them to hinder their focus on customers. Over the years, companies are oriented in four directions: In the first phase, they were product-oriented, paying little attention to customers and competitors. In the second phase, they were oriented to clients and began to pay attention to them. In the third stage, they began to pay attention to competitors. Today, companies need to be oriented towards the market, paying close attention to their customers and competitors. Rather than pursuing competitors and trying to overcome them in the current ways of doing business, companies need to follow customers and find innovative ways to build up lucrative relationships with them, giving more value to the client than the competitors. As noted earlier, marketing begins with good customer and market recognition. 3.3. The global market today With the arrival of faster communication, transportation and financial flows, the world is rapidly decreasing. Products developed in one place are exciting enthusiasm in other countries. International trade is booming. The number of international corporations has risen from 30,000 in 1990 to 60,000. Some of these multinational corporations are really giant. Of the 150 largest economies in the world, only 76 are states. The other 74 are multinational corporations. Wal-Mart, the world's largest company, has annual revenue greater than the gross domestic product of all countries except 24 countries with the highest GDP. Many US companies have long been successful in international marketing, such as Coca- Cola, GE, IBM, Colgate, Caterpillar, Ford, Boing, McDonald's and other US firms have made the world their market. Although the need for companies to go abroad is greater today than in the past, the risks are bigger. Global companies can face governments and volatile currencies, with restrictive government policies and regulations, and with high trade barriers. Corruption is also a growing problem, officials in some countries often accord business not to the one who has the best offer, but to the one who gives the highest bribe. A global company is one that, operating in more than one country, gains marketing, production, research / development and finance advantages, which are not available to pure local competitors. Global economy considers the world as a market. It minimizes the importance of national boundaries and creates "transnational" brands. Such a company assists in capital, provides material and parts and produces and trades its goods wherever it can do the best job. "Such are the boundaries in the 20th century," says a global marketing expert. . "Transnationals become stateless at the next level" 3.4. Sustainable marketing strategies Sustainable market position requires to meet the current needs of consumers and businesses, while investing from now on for maintaining and increasing opportunities for future generations to meet their needs.
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Figure 3.2 compares the concept of sustainable marketing with other marketing concepts.
The concept of marketing recognizes that organizations grow from day to day, determining the needs and wishes of target groups of customers and meeting those needs and desires more efficiently than competitors. While the concept of social marketing takes into account future consumer well-being and the concept of strategic planning takes into account the future needs of the company, the concept of sustainable marketing takes into consideration both of them. Sustainable marketing presupposes responsible actions towards society, actions that meet both immediate needs and those of the future of customers and the company. IV. Conclusions Today more than ever competition has become wild and unmanageable in rules that govern the functioning of the market. Large companies use their network and power to swallow markets and make monopolies in local and international markets. Thinking strategically means far more than responding to long-term or short-term problems and opportunities; it has to do with the creation of the future of the organization. Is is not reactive, but proactive. To avoid unfair competition, companies need to design marketing strategies and market penetration by avoiding strong and breakthrough competitors by attacking the weakest and most remote competitors by always offering value and stimulating customers while drawing value from Customers and increasing profits. Companies should also go to those so-called "corners" markets to fill any market gaps by offering their products and services even where big companies have been neglected. The key to winning a competitive edge is to handle every customer segment and examine how the company's offer compares to that of its major competitors. The strategy that must be implemented and developed by the entrepreneur needs to be a sustainable marketing strategy that seeks to meet the current needs of consumers and businesses, while investing in the future to maintain and increase opportunities for future generations meeting their needs. References [1] Berenstain P, “Wikipedia and Britannica: The Kid’s All Right (And So’s the Old Man)”, Searcher, (2006 March), p. 16-27; “Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc,” Hoover’s Company Records, (2008May); http://corporate.britannica.com, (2008 October). [2] Clark T, “Who’s Afraid of the Big Bad Starbucks?, The Week,(2008 January) p.46. [3] Copeland V M., “The Mighty Micro-Multinational”, Business 2.0, (2006 July); http:// cnnmoney.com; “Fortune 500”Fortune,( 2008 May); List of Countries By GDP”, Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_Countries_by_GDP_%28nominal% (2008 July). [4] David J. Collins Micheal G. Ruckstad (2008, April); Harvard Business Review. 89. [5] Global Economic Prospekt,( 2007); World Bank, (2005 june); www.worldbank.org; CIA, The world factbook,
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https://www.cia.gov. (2008 June); dhe Johnatan Lynn, “World Trade Growth To Slow Further This Year”, www.reuters.com, (2008April); www.reuters.com/article/topnews/idUSL1692469520080417. [6] Hamm S, “Borders Are So 20th Century”, Businessweek,( 2003 September), p. 68-73; and “Otis Elevator Company”, Hoover’s Company Records, (2008June), p. 56332. [7] http://arkep-rks.org/; [8] http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2797/stat-e-transportit-tm4-2016.pdf; [9] http://bqk-kos.org/index.php?id=97; [10] http://www.kosovotelecom.com/tk/; [11] Kotler P& Armstrong G (2013);Principles of Marketing 13th edition [12] Kotler P& Lane Keller K; Marketing Management, 12th edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006); p.14. [13] Krugman, P. (1994); Competitiveness: A dangerous obsession: Economic Affairs [14] M. Hindin E, (2006, August) “Learning from Leaders: Questions to Ask and Rule to Follow”, Health Care Strategic Management. [15] Menge M, “Guerilla Marketing Works for NH Stonyfield Farm”, New Hamshire Union Leader, (2005 November), information From Seven Cows in a Leaky Barn to the World’s Top Organic Yogurt Marker”,PR Newswire, (2008April); www.stonyfield.com, (2008 September). [16] Porter M, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance (New York: Free Press, 1998); [17] Porter M, Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors (New York: free Press, 1980), Porter, “What is Strategy?”, Harvard Business Review, (1996 November), p. 61-78. [18] Porter, M. (1990); The competitive Advantage of Nations [19] Porter, M. (2000); Location, competition and economic development: Local clusters in a global economy, Economic Development Quarterly, Vol. 14 No.1, p. 15–34 [20] Richard A et al,” A Comparison of Competitive Strategies in Japan and the United States”, S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, (2006December); p. 24-36; Stefan Stern, “May the Force Be with You and You Plans for 2008”, Financial Times, (2008January), p. 14. [21] Treasy M & Wieresema F, The Discipline of Market Leaders: Choose Your Customers, Narrow Your Focus, Dominate Your Market ( New York: Perseus Press, 1997); [22] Treasy M & Wiersema F, “Customer Intimacy and Other Value Disciplines”, Harvard Business Review, (1993 January), p. 84-93: [23] W. Chan Kim & Renee Mauborgne,” Blue Ocean strategy”: Making the Competition Irrelevant” www.blueoceanstrategy.com/resourses/press.php, (2008 June); Blue Ocean Strategy (Boston: Harvard Business Scholl Press, (2005); [24] Wiersema F, Customer Intimacy: Pick Your Parillers, Shape Your Culture,Win Together (Santa Monica, CA:Knowledge Exchange 1995); [25] Wiersema M, Double-Digit-Growth: How Great Companies Achieve No Matter What (New York Portfolio, 2003);
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Current Managerial Challenges in Romanian Public Hospitals
Carmen Marinela Cumpat Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iasi, Romania Muthana Zouri Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
Abstract The role of hospitals is constantly changing in the context where each healthcare system is operating under various paradigm shifts, and in order to ensure universal access to health services by the public. In an effort to provide greater operating quality and improved responsiveness to patients, management of public hospitals in some countries, such as Romania, have been reconfigured by hiring people with professional skills as managers. The main purpose of this paper is to highlight the characteristics of healthcare management from Romania, taking into consideration the healthcare system of this country. For the last 30 years, Romania`s healthcare system has been involved in a reform process. Significant efforts have been made to make it more effective and to provide the best possible services to the public. Although Romanian public hospitals are under the oversight of a number of legislative provisions, and in theory, benefit from a series of modern management tools, many problems remain unresolved in practice. Compared to many countries from the European Union, managers from Romania lack autonomy over a certain range of decisions. In order for Romania to benefit from an efficient and effective medical system, more work need to be done to ensure that healthcare managers have the tools and decision-making ability to achieve the desired goals. Keywords: management, decision making, healthcare
Introduction During the communist period, Romania implemented the Semasko system where the Ministry of Health represented both the authority at the central level and the decision-making body for the local authorities. The medical services in Romania were characterized by severe underfunding, inadequate and outdated medical equipment, wide inequities in providing medical services in different areas of the country, poor quality of health services and medical treatment, all which caused a negative impact on the health status of the population (Stoina, 2012). Reform efforts started in the early 1990s to change the organizational and operational structure of Romania`s healthcare system. Since then, the health system has been managed under the auspices of a large decentralization process that targets the entire public administration. Under these circumstances, the health sector is governed by a legal arsenal of regulatory norms. One of the first steps of the change of Romania`s healthcare system was the establishment of the National Health Insurance House (NHIH). According to the law, NHIH is an autonomous institution that manages the social health insurance system with a tripartite leadership with representatives from trade unions, employers and state authorities. NHIH role is to implement and develop various national health programs, and is responsible for ensuring, monitoring, highlighting and controlling the funds allocated to the health sector. Furthermore, NHIH is responsible for monitoring, controlling and evaluation of the efficiency of the above programs by analysing a variety of indicators through the local health insurance houses. The main source of financing of the Romanian healthcare system is represented by the public social healthcare insurance system, assuring the public access to a package of basic medical services. Healthcare social insurance ensures the achievement of the objectives of the healthcare system. Romania`s healthcare system provides both public and private services, although the public services prevail in terms of the complexity of medical service offered and the number of patients receiving these services. Romania`s private healthcare is represented by hospitals, clinics, primary medicine surgeries, medical laboratories, dentistry, and ambulatory units. The payment method preferred by the private healthcare
185 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 units is the direct one, either by patients, or by the private insurance system, meaning that the financial flow is different from the public healthcare (Stefanescu et al., 2011). Considering the current state of the Romanian healthcare system, the aim of this paper is to identify the characteristics of the healthcare management of this country, focusing on the decision-making process, compared to different countries from the European Union. Vulnerabilities of Romanian`s healthcare system Despite various decartelization efforts, a few regulatory functions of the healthcare system from Romania have remained quite centralized. The reform of the Romanian healthcare system, although constant, has been often ineffective due to a high degree of political instability (Vlădescu et al., 2016). Recent changes have focused on the introduction of cost-saving measures. For instance, by attempting to shift some of the healthcare expenditures to the public, through co-payments, and to the drug manufacturers, through claw-backs. Current Romania`s healthcare system is characterized by functional and organizational deficiencies, disproportionate coverage of health services, insufficient funding of real needs, and a high level of corruption. Also, there is an inadequate public access to emergency care, especially in rural areas. At the same time, there is an unbalanced distribution and an insufficient number of general and medical care units, as well as very long distances to district hospitals (Besciu & Cazacu, 2018). Among the many problems faced by the Romanian medical system the low salaries of the medical staff influence negatively the quantity and quality of healthcare service delivery and motivate the medical staff to migrate out of the country. Other notable differences compared with other countries in European Union are unequal access to health services and the lowest consumption of medicines, per capita (Stanciu & Jawad, 2013). At the same time, the Romania`s healthcare system strives to cope with underfunding and the decline in the number of physicians. Currently, the country occupies one of the last positions in the EU Member States in terms of the percentage of health expenditure in GDP (Fig.1). The main cause of the funding problems can be related to the inappropriate management of public hospitals. For example, incorrect selection of services, reduced service efficiency, oversized operational costs, and failed investment could bring the institution into a permanent situation where spending is higher than income, and the actions of a sub-optimal management prove insufficient to correct this situation (Maxim et al., 2015). In essence, it can be stated that the public healthcare system sums up inadequate organizational policies, applied progressively over the last several decades, where the accentuated administrative bureaucracy operated at the expense of a flexible system that could have allowed a more focused approach to the medical act quality improvement. At the same time, Romania is at the bottom of the European Union ranking in terms of health expenditure per capita and spending on patients in hospitals. The budget allocated for health per capita is one third of the European average and is up to five times lower than in Luxembourg, which allocates the most money for health from this point of view (Fig 2). Moreover, the existence of medical centres of excellence, that leads to an inflow of patients, regardless of the area they live in a potential strength of Romanian`s healthcare system (Cicea et al., 2011). In terms of quality of care, hospitals are facing challenges in developing and implementing systems to improve service quality. Most issues are connected to the hospital employees who are reluctant to change to anything new. Also, there is poor professional training of the new personnel, and a shortage of employees dedicated to quality (Angheluta et al., 2012). Additionally, the underfunding of healthcare makes it hard to apply best practices and procedures, to acquire modern diagnostic and treatment materials and equipment, dealing with cases of high complexity. The management of Romanian hospitals According to the law, Romanian hospitals are autonomous institutions and their activities are coordinated by a manager; the administrative board; and a steering committee, which includes the manager, the medical director, the chief financial officer and the director of care. In order to ensure the proper administration of a healthcare organization, the manager signs a management contract with the Ministry of Health, the ministries or institutions within their own health network or with the corresponding University of Medicine and Pharmacy, represented by the Minister of Health, the head of the ministry or the institution, and the president of the University of Medicine and Pharmacy, as may be the case, for a maximum of 3 years. The hospital management process is initiated through careful and detailed planning, as the first step that summarizes the
186 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 decisions regarding the definition of the objectives and its structural components, the determination of the succession of the circumscribed actions to be carried out, the allocation of resources in accordance with the stages of the operational process, and its timetable or schedule of activities. Planning is the managerial tool through which an effective alignment of management's vision with allocated resources is achieved, based on the analysis of risks associated with medical activities. In this context, the managers of the Romanian hospitals have multiple and various responsibilities. From the perspective of Human Resources policy and organizational structure, the manager establishes and approves the number of personnel, by categories and jobs, according to the personnel norms in force, approves the organization of competitions for the vacancies, appoints and dismisses the staff of the hospital, approves the work schedule, proposes the organizational structure, the reorganization, the change of the headquarters and the name of the unit, and appoints and revokes, under the law, the members of the steering committee. From the economic and financial management perspective, the manager is responsible for the monthly and quarterly reporting of the hospital's budget revenue and expenditure and ensures the publication of this report. Lastly, the most important responsibilities of a healthcare manager from the perspective of medical services management are the following: • elaborating, based on the needs of the public in the area served, the hospital development plan, as a result of medical board proposals and submits it to the hospital's board of directors; • approving the annual medical plan drawn up by the Steering Committee on a proposal from the Medical Board; • drawing up and makes available to the administrative board reports on hospital activity and applies the health strategy and policy development policies of the Ministry of Health, adequate to the needs of health services for the population served; • in the case of ministries and institutions with their own health network, applying specific development strategies in the medical field; • guiding and coordinates the prevention of nosocomial infections; • deciding on the measures necessary to achieve the performance indicators of the activity assumed under the management contract; • ensuring the proper conditions for quality medical services by the hospital medical staff; • proper implementation of the medical practice protocols at the hospital level, based on the recommendations of the medical council; • negotiating and signing, in the name and on behalf of the hospital, collaboration protocols and/or contracts with other service providers to ensure continuity and enhancement of the quality of medical services; • negotiating and signing the contract for the provision of medical services with the Health Insurance House; • complying with the legal provisions in force regarding the patient's rights and taking the necessary measures when they are found to be violated; • ensuring, under the law, the quality of the medical act, the observance of the accommodation conditions, hygiene, nutrition and the prevention of nosocomial infections, as well as preventing medical errors. In summary, the managers of public healthcare facilities are entrusted with a multitude of tasks, this being a challenge for their success. It is common that managers do not complete the recommended management training, which limits their ability to perform the core responsibilities effectively. The management training is a required certification for all newly hired public health organization's managers, however the program is not offered regularly and the capacity is limited when it is offered. Therefore, managers don`t have enough support to improve management structures and practices, including, monitoring, negotiating, contracting, and capitalizing on staff competencies. The performance of Romanian healthcare system and public hospitals is not a major objective at a national level. The performance of public hospitals is not assessed by means of an exhaustive model, and it is essentially conditioned by the
187 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 manager’s quality (Stefanescu et al., 2011). However, because in Romania hospital managers are appointed to positions after passing a public examination, and then sign a 3 year contract with the Ministry of Health, contracts that can be extended or cancelled as a result of an annual evaluation carried out on the basis of performance criteria defined by the Ministry of Health, they have a major responsibility to run a well performing hospital, as their position is always threatened (Baba et al., 2008). In terms of performance, additional issues such as a reluctance of the managers to use modern management techniques and methods for evaluating employee performance, assessing medical technology in hospitals and assessing service quality. Also, there is no managerial vision of attracting additional sources of funding such as: sponsorship contracts, medical research contracts, renting hospital spaces, leasing of medical equipment, thus affecting the performance of the hospitals (Besciu & Cazacu, 2018). Hospital decision making Healthcare professionals, the managers of hospital units have a great deal of pressure to make the best use of the resources available to achieve excellent results. In addition, they must ensure a high quality of care at a lower and more competitive cost. Healthcare managers shape the unit they lead by the important decisions they make. These decisions concern staff recruitment, technology acquisition, allocation and spending of financial resources. Hospital managers decide how to lead and organize others, how to control processes in the system, and help others make their own decisions. Managerial decisions do not just focus on delivering the best patient services, but also on meeting established performance goals. Finally, they have to be aware that their decisions affect the hospital unit as a whole. Even though, according to the law Romanian healthcare managers have autonomy over a wide range of decisions, including HR, organizational structure, financial management and healthcare services management, in fact hospital managers have limited authority. In many cases, they need the approval of the Ministry of Health or the local authorities. For instance, hiring new employees for already approved positions in the organizational chart needs approval from the Ministry of Health or a change in the ward structure can be obtained only through long lasting procedures (Duran et al., 2019). However, this is not specific only for Romania's healthcare decision making. Many public hospital units from Europe have inherited the form of vertically integrated hierarchies with strict controls over funding and staffing decisions made by national or regional tiers of government administration. Therefore, that translates into a high level of the formal management within hospitals (Kirkpatrick et al., 2016). On the other hand, a country like the Czech Republic sets a good example of autonomy in decision making. Since many hospitals have moved their status from budgetary institutions to semi-autonomous entities, the hospital manager has gained more independence, being able to negotiate contracts with payers and free to outsource some operations or initiate internal control and motivation systems (Saltman, R.B., et. al., 2011). Given the fact that the Romanian medical system is designed and operates on the basis of a considerable territorial dispersion, in the sense that it has a wider area of action (county, urban health units, etc.), managers must use the information flows instead of direct observation, which usually alters or delays relevant information that is so necessary in substantiating and adopting optimal decisions. From this point of view, at national level there is no integrated system for collecting and managing medical information and independent information flows provide information that does not consolidate decision-making or operational function, as they are not subject to an integrated processing process (Stoina, 2012). By comparison, at the level of the European Union, information on clinical efficacy and economic aspects are considered the most relevant when deciding on investing in new health technologies, and below is information on safety, organizational issues and patient health issues. Moreover, interviews with managers from nine European countries revealed that the relationship between investing in new medical technologies and the strategic objectives of hospitals is significant in decision-making. As far as economic aspects are concerned, hospital managers are specifically focusing on the budgetary impact ((Kidholm et al., 2015). Conclusion The healthcare system from Romania has been under constant reform since the end of the communist period, therefore it is still affected by a series of vulnerabilities, among which the most significant is underfunding. This combined with organizational issues and a certain level of corruption negatively impact the quality of the delivered services. Under these circumstances the role of hospital managers is of major importance. If in theory hospital managers have autonomy over a
188 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 wide range of decisions, in practice their decision-making power is undermined by a burdensome legislation and bureaucracy. References [1] [1] Angheluta, C. et al. (2012). “Study on quality processes in hospitals from the perspective of decision makers and health professionals”, Management in Health, 16(3):14-20. [2] [2] Baba, C. et al. (2008). “Assesment of the Reform of the Romanian Health Care System”, Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 24 :15-25. [3] [3] Besciu, C.E., Cazacu, F. (2018). “Performance Management of the Romanian Hospitals: A General Radiography of the Quality of Emergency Services”, Proceedings of the 12th International Management Conference “Management Perspectives in the Digital Era”, 195-201. [4] [4] Cicea, C., Buşu, C., Armeanu, E. (2011). ‘The Swot Analysis of the Romanian Health Care System and the Key Elements for Resources Allocation’, 2011, Management Research and Practice, 3(3):32-41.1 [5] [5] Duran, A. et al. (2019). “Assessment of Public Hospital Governance in Romania: Lessons From 10 Case Studies”, Int J Health Policy Manag, 8(4):199-210. [6] [6] Kidholm, K. et al. (2015), “Hospital managers' need for information in decision-making: An interview study in nine European countries”, Health Policy, 119(11):1424–1432. [7] [7] Saltman, R.B., et. al. (2011). Governing Public Hospitals. Reform strategies and the movement towards institutional autonomy, European Observatory on Health Systems and policies [8] [8] Stanciu, M., Jawad, A.D. (2009). “Public Health Services in Romania in Terms of European Policies”, Journal of Community Positive Practices, XII(1):26-44. [9] [9] Stoina, C.N. (2012). “Managementul reformării sistemului de sănătate publică”. Management in Health. 16(1):4-13. [10] [10] Stefanescu, A. el al. (2011). “Performance measurement in Romanian public hospitals”. African Journal of Business Management Vol. 5(2):552-576. [11] [11] Vlădescu, C. et al. (2016). “Romania: Health system review”. Health Systems in Transition. 18(4):1–170. [12] [12] OECD/EU (2018). Health at a Glance: Europe 2018: State of Health in the EU Cycle, OECD Publishing. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/health_glance_eur-2018-en [13] [13] Ordinul Nr. 1384 (2010) Retrieved from: https://lege5.ro/Gratuit/geztqnbvge/ordinul-nr-1384-2010-privind- aprobarea-modelului-cadru-al-contractului-de-management-si-a-listei-indicatorilor-de-performanta-a-activitatii- managerului-spitalului-public
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Figures Figure 1. Healthcare expenditure as a share of GDP in the European Union in 2017
Adapted from Health at a Glance: Europe 2018 State of Health in the EU Cycle
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Figure 2. Health Expenditure per Capita in the European Union in 2017
Adapted from Health at a Glance: Europe 2018 State of Health in the EU Cycle
191 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Implementation of TQM in Manufacturing Industries of Developing Countries - Case Study: Albanian Companies
Jonida TETA Eralda XHAFKA Ilo Bodi
Abstract Manufacturing industry in Albania has been grown significantly over the last decades due to increased public demand, Government’s initiatives, and the investors increased interest in the manufacturing sector. Unfortunately, quality of product is still an important issue for the locally produced goods. Only a few manufacturers are producing high quality products with higher customer satisfaction. Many of them are holding quality certificates but a few has reached a stage of product development where they are able to apply modern quality principles and techniques effectively. Research on product quality improvement shows that meeting customer satisfaction, increasing profits and reducing losses to a minimum level can be attained through the application of modern quality philosophies and principles such as Total Quality Management (TQM). Understanding the tools and techniques of TQM is considered to be significant in order to get useful results. A better understanding is required to investigate the current status of TQM implementation. This research article presents a survey on current quality control practices within the manufacturing industries in Albania to assess the potentiality of implementing TQM technique and principles in order to improve the customer satisfactions and market share. Keywords: Quality, Total Quality Management, Albanian Manufacturing Industry
1. Introduction The proper application of quality management systems in all productive stages of industrial products is very important in the industrial development. Many companies promote quality as the central customer value and consider it to be a critical success factor for achieving competitiveness [1]. Because of huge competition, market globalization, and public demand, it has become necessary for managers, engineers, crews, and other employees to know not only the methods of controlling the quality of products but also to know how to improve quality continuously. Manufacturing industry in Albania has been grown significantly over the last decade due to the increased level of investors in manufacturing sector. There are more than 1,900 manufacturing companies established in Albania [2]. Many of these are small to medium-sized companies. Huge expenditure of time, money, and resources (both human and material) are wasted each year because of inefficient or non-existent quality management systems (QMS). Implementation of Total quality management (TQM) system within the Albanian manufacturing companies might result in better customer satisfaction, increase in profit and decrease failure of the companies. This may result in improving productivity, as well as enhancing competitiveness in national and international markets. Implementation of TQM is a management decision that requires many considerations such as company’s operations, strategy, staff and customers. It has been shown that a commitment to TQM is essential for industry’s top management to floor level employees to compete against competitors. There is a need for properly documented study and project survey on how TQM can be properly implemented in manufacturing companies. Understanding the tools and techniques of TQM is considered to be significant in order to get useful results. A better understanding is required to investigate the current status of TQM implementation.
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The objective of this study is to investigate the current level of implementation, prospects and barriers in implementing TQM in manufacturing industries in Albania. A survey questionnaire was developed and distributed to different manufacturing companies. This research article presents the survey result on current quality control practices within the manufacturing companies in the industrial part of Tirana. Section 1 of this paper discusses the significance of implementation total quality management system in the Albanian manufacturing Industry. Section 2 defines the TQM and a very brief literature review on TQM in order to justify its importance. Investigation methodology is described in the Section 3. Section 4 analyses and discusses the survey results. Finally, the contributions of this paper and the future works are described in the Section 5 2. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT Definition and Concept of TQM have been explained over the past years. TQM is a way of thinking that turns out to be a centre piece of an organisation. It is defined as a management tool, philosophy and a set of principles which guides every member of organisation who involved in the continuous improvement process to meet customer satisfaction. The TQM concept involves all the members of the organisation in decision making because their participation and contribution is considered as a critical role in all business activities for providing services to customers with high quality products [3]. However, there is no ordinary method of how TQM should be implemented. The organisation is dedicated to customer satisfaction through continuous improvement that varies from organisation to organisation and also from country to country. This process has common principles that can be applied to secure market share, increase profits and reduce costs [4]. In brief, TQM is the management of quality throughout all members of organisation. The organisation must satisfy internal and external customer needs and then use strategic planning including all functional areas to achieve strategic goals. The key idea of TQM is that quality control must be an integral part of the production process. It includes continuous improvement to remove waste, doing things right first time (removing the need for inspection), and quantitative measurement to analyse deviations from quality. The purpose is to reduce costs by preventing unnecessary rework jobs and to conform customer needs by satisfying expectations of high quality [5]; [6]. Development of TQM Culture in the Organisation Culture has a strong influence on people’s behaviour and is not easy to change. It includes beliefs, values and premises which underline and govern personal behaviour [7]. The successful implementation of TQM, requires a change in organisational culture to create the quality culture. The adaptation of TQM principle in the organisation begins with an effort by management to make the culture supportive since management is capable of changing and creating a culture for successful TQM implementation. It can be done in two ways: the organisation may choose an approach that fits the existing organisational culture, or manage a cultural change. It is important to integrate the quality principles and techniques into the organisation culture which is capable of contributing in continuous and consistent improvement in the organisation. TQM dictates that the culture of an organisation can be changed by developing and improving all aspects of customers and supplier’s relationship and assessing them on a regular basis, practicing teamwork at all levels organisation, involving all employees at all stages of the improvement process, educating and training the employees to change their attitudes and behaviours, and improve their skills, recognising that change is continuous and must be embedded in the organisation culture [8]. A cultural change needs commitment from the leaders and all other participants and may create a cooperative teamwork at all levels in an organisation. It is necessary for top management to ensure the participation of the employees in quality improvement process, and to develop a quality culture by changing perception and attitudes towards quality [9]. Need for TQM Implementation in Albanian Industry Research studies suggested that TQM implementation can improve organisations competitive abilities and provide strategic advantages in the market and adoption of TQM practices can allow organisations to compete globally [10]; [11]; [12]. Raegan [13] showed that a 90% improvement rate in workers relations, operating procedures, customer satisfaction, and financial performance can be accomplished through the implementation of TQM system. Although the Albanian manufacturing industry has been grown significantly over the last ten years, the quality of the most of the products have not been improved with the same pace. This results in low customer satisfaction (less reliable product with high costs) and loss in both local and global level competitions. To overcome such challenges in the Albanian manufacturing industries, it is important to adopt proper modern quality control and management technique and philosophies such as Total quality management. In the long run, a substantial improvement is expected to be achieved if they implemented TQM properly.
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3. SURVEY METHODOLOGY The objective of this study was to investigate the level of implementation of TQM in manufacturing companies in Albania. Many of these are small to medium-sized companies. It was not possible to investigate all the companies due to time and cost constraints. So, this study chooses a number of medium to large size manufacturing companies in the industrial area of Tirana. The first part of the questionnaire was used to gather general information about respondents such as company and personnel details business type etc. The second part of the questionnaire deals with the concepts of TQM. These are: leadership; supplier quality management; vision and plan statement; evaluation; process control and improvement; product design; quality system improvement; employee participation; recognition and reward; education and training, and customer focus. The questionnaire uses a multiple points Likert scale - the respondent were allowed to select among a range of alternatives along pre-specified continuum such as strongly agree, partially agree, disagree, strongly disagree, and I don’t know. 3.1 Data Collection A list of 100 manufacturing companies in the industrial region of Albania obtained from the Chamber of Commerce and Industry were chosen. About 100 manufacturing companies, those who were applying to quality programs in their business were selected initially in the study. Out of the 100 manufacturing industries 76 (76%) responded. About 12 responses were excluded due to unreliable and incomplete data. 4. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS The first part of the survey presents general information about the participants of this survey. The second part of the questionnaire exhibits statements which related to TQM implementation. The analysis of Survey is described in as follows: Part One: General Information A percent wise analysis shows that among the respondent, 28.3 % were top management level personnel, 60 % were medium level management and 11.7 % were first line management or shop floor level personnel. The investigation also found that 70 % of organisations have employees ranges from 200- 1000, 18.3 % of the organisation have workforce ranging from 1000 to 2000 and 11.7% have work force ranging from 50 to 200. 91.7% of the respondents indicated that quality managers are responsible for quality applications whereas 8.3 % reported that logistic managers are responsible for quality control. Concerning the size of the served customers/ users, it was identified that 45.8 % of the organizations served between 201-1000 customers, whereas 39 % of the organizations served 1001-5000 customers and 15.3 % of the organizations served ranges from 20-200 customers. This implies that most of the organisations (84.8 %) serve medium to a large number of customers. The study also found that 47 of organisations were more than 11 years old, whereas 5 organisations were in the business between 6-10 years. This implies that most of the responded organisations have a good experience in managing quality problems and issues. The survey found that 61.7% of the organizations have suppliers number ranging from 21-100, whereas in 36.7% have suppliers between 5 and 20. It is seen that most organizations were interested to use a relatively large number of supplier to create a competition among the suppliers with a view to receive quality supplies. The respondents were asked whether they had business partnership or not. It was noticed that 48.3% of the organizations in this study have partnership with regional partners, whereas 46.7% they have partnership with international partners, and only 5% they have no partnership. The respondents were asked whether they implement any type of quality tools in the organisation. The outcome showed that 95% of respondents were implementing ISO 9001, whereas 3.3% were considering for implementation of Total Quality Management, and only 1.7% were implementing other systems. This implies that most of Albanian manufacturing companies are interested only in ISO 9000 system for their business. Part Two: TQM Statements The respondents were asked in the second part of survey to what extend they agree to the TQM statements. Most of the respondents stated that top management strongly encourages employee involvement in quality management activities (68.3 % of respondents strongly agree whereas 28.3% partially agree, and 2.3% were disagree). It can be seen from these results, managements were conscious about the quality improvement through employee’s involvement in quality
194 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 management activities. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that top management can play a key role in implementing TQM in the organisation. A total of 50 % of the respondents were strongly agreed that top management arrange adequate resources for employee’s education and training, while 46.7% partially agree and 1.7% disagree and only 1.7% were strongly disagree with the statement. This implies that top managements initiative for employee education and training is just but not adequate and need more to increase the awareness and knowledge of quality conception among the employees towards the achievement of high class quality. The respondents were asked about the importance of establishing long term cooperative relation with suppliers. 46.7% of them indicated that they strongly agree whereas 45% were partially agreed, and 8.3% were disagreeing to keep long term cooperative relationship with the supplier. This result implies that only few organisations have positive responses about the establishment of long term cooperative relation with suppliers. The respondents were asked whether the organization regularly conducts supplier quality audit, 43.3% of them agreed strongly, 35% were partially, 6.7% were disagree, and 13.3% were strongly disagree with this statement and only 1.7% do not know actually. This indicates that only a moderate number of the organisation conduct supplier quality audit. It was observed that inadequate number of organisations (40%) use quality related data to evaluate the performance of all departments and employees, and they conduct inspections effectively. Most of them use quality control tools extensively for process control and improvement. Generally, the organisation often participates in new product development and the product designs are thoroughly reviewed before marketisation. The study indicated that about 90% of organisation use ISO 9000 as guideline for establishing the quality system and they have a clear quality manual, procedure documents, and clear working instructions. 75% of the responded those who are using ISO 9000 strongly agreed that they were facing difficulties in implementing ISO 9000QMS due to the increase in the amount of paperwork, the difficulties in controlling too many suppliers, and understanding different terminologies used in the standards and presence of full time quality manager. Only 12% of the respondents found themselves alright with the ISO 9000 QMS. It is noticed from this study that most organisation implement employee’s suggestions after an evaluation. About 39 % of respondents strongly agree that employees were committed to the success of the organization whereas 52.5% were partially agreed, 3.4% were disagreed and 5.1 % strongly disagreed. This indicates a poor management employee relationship. The respondents were asked whether the employees were encouraged to accept education and training within the organization. The results were 50% strongly agreed, 44.8% partially agreed, and only 5.2% disagreed. A total of 44.1% of respondents in this study strongly agreed that most employees in the organization were trained on how to use quality management methods, whereas 40.7% partially agreed, and 8.5% disagreed, and 6.8% strongly disagreed. It was observed that most organization collects extensive complaint information from customers and quality related customers complaints are treated with priority. The study demonstrated that 66.7% of respondents stated that organization conducts a customer satisfaction survey every year, whereas 30% were partially, and 3.3% were not at all. Therefore, it can be concluded that most respondents strongly agreed that the organizations conduct a customer satisfaction survey every year. 5. CONCLUSIONS This paper presented an investigation result on current quality control practices within the manufacturing industries in the industrial part of Tirana to assess the prospects of implementing TQM technique and principles in order to improve the product quality and customer satisfactions, and overall improvement of market share. It was found that many companies have a low-level awareness of TQM implementation and its benefits. This is because of emphasising on the one aspect of quality program ISO 9000 QMS. The result of the survey pointed out some of the major difficulties of implementation of ISO 9000QMS such as increase in the amount of paperwork, difficulties in controlling too many suppliers/subcontractors, and understanding different terminologies used in the standards and need for full time quality manager. To obtain a better and more representative result a further investigation can be conducted throughout the country. This investigation only used an MCQ type questionnaire for the survey. In the future in addition to this, some other forms of survey tools such as personal interview, descriptive questionnaire etc can also be used to come into a more accurate conclusion.
195 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Form Follows Function? Re-questioning the Dilemma of Form Vs Function in Contemporary Egyptian Architecture
Karim Kesseiba Faculty of Engineering, Architecture Department, Cairo University
Abstract Based on the debate continuously raised by architects and theorists regarding the dilemma of “form Vs function”, it is important to reflect on the issue in regards of contemporary architecture. Stemming from Le Corbusier’s manifesto, “The house is a machine to live in”, many interpretations have been made, with one group arguing the importance of demolishing all aspects other than functionality when dealing with an architectural addition to the built environment. The other group adopt the philosophy that “International Architecture” was tailored for a specific time, which has to be dir-regarded now in order to fulfill contemporary architectural needs. The debate which the paper will discuss is based on understanding the origins from which the competition between form and functions stemmed. The paper also questions whether form is currently a function in the era of Globalization in the shadows of branding and starchitects signature designs. This debate will be reflected on major iconic buildings in Egypt; The Grand Egyptian Museum, Museum of Egyptian Civilization and Alexandria Bibliotheca. Those three cases were specifically selected since they were major state-led competitions which influenced the trends of architecture in Egypt for decades. The methodology of the paper is based on primarily explaining the origins of the manifestos by pioneer architects calling for the victory of function over form. Following that, a discussion based on critical observations from contemporary architecture will be presented to show how form is currently considered a function, especially when politicians aim to produce iconic architecture. Finally, the three case studies will be analyzed according to the relevance of form to function and how the iconic effect produced influences after completion. The case study will demonstrate that form and function are the two sides of one coin, and instead of urging to prove one is prior to the other, it is more important fulfill what the goals of the architectural product. Keywords: Contemporary architecture; form follows function; Egyptian Architecture.
Introduction The paper raises the long debate between architects around whether form follows function or the contrary. This debate is raised here from a different perspective relevant to the age of globalization, especially in the shadows of iconic effects of consumerism architecture. From this point of view, major state-led architectural projects are re-interpreted in the Egyptian context, in order to relate the selection as well as implementation of the projects with regard to the previous debate. This is important in order to understand the state of contemporary architecture in Egypt which is highly influenced by the three selected projects, Alexandria Library, The Grand Egyptian Museum and The National Museum for Egyptian Civilization. The methodology used in the paper is first to present the debate around the supremacy of form over function or the contrary, after that analysis of the impact of globalization and iconism on this debate. The three local cases are then analyzed based on the theoretical debate to relate to the state of contemporary Egyptian architecture. Review of the Origins of the Debate between Form and Function in Architecture Form follows function is one of the most famous concepts of “modern architecture”. As Cruz (2012) argues, this concept symbolizes modern architecture’s ascendancy and its decline. The former is assumed when Sullivan manifested in 1896, “Form ever follows function, …,this is the law”, and the latter when Venturi’s postmodern theories turned away from modern functionalism by declaring, “We no longer argue over the primacy of form or function (which follows which)?”. Sullivan first presented his arguments that form follows function in 1896. Sullivan’s objective in the essay was to answer the question: “How do you give form to something that has never existed before?” He did not mean give form to a specific
196 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 building or an individual design project but to a functional building type – the modern high-rise office building (i.e., the skyscraper). Sullivan thought that social conditions had granted architecture a historic privilege, a task worthy of the architects who first built the Greek temples or Gothic cathedrals, and equal only to architecture as a living art, (Cruz, 2012). From this regard, Raof (2001) exposes the twentieth-century architecture was influenced by the single analogy referenced to Le Corbusier. He proposed that ‘the building is a machine for living in’. However, she argues that a building is very different because, although it is true that it can be controlled by its occupants, the driving force that acts upon the building to create comfort and shelter is the climate and its weather, neither of which can be controlled, predicted or turned on and off. Machines are fixed, static objects, amenable to scientific assessment. Buildings are part of a complex interaction between people, the buildings themselves, the climate and the environment, (Roaf, 2001). It is important in this respect to associate the inter-relation between the debated slogan of “form follows function” to the new trend of “Globalization”. As a matter of fact, since the early twentieth century, architects have sought to link design symbolically to express a particular analysis of society and its future direction. This analysis has often been technological, but it has also been spiritual, psychological and even cosmological. But this view can be reversed; society can be made a mirror to architecture. In addition to this, in architecture, the historical development of globalization corresponded very closely to the ascendancy of Modernism. Founding Modernist ideals had always been global in ambition. In 1919 Gropius predicted, “One day there will be a worldview, and then there will also be its sign, its crystal – architecture.” By 1932 it had been identified as the “International Style” and, although this was really a development of “parallel experiments” between nations, it was presented as a “contemporary style, which exists throughout the world, .., unified and inclusive.” By 1948, the year the foundations of globalization were finally laid, Modernism had so obliterated traditional architecture that it came to be described as simply “modern”. Finally, Adam (2008) adds that Modernism was a north-Atlantic cultural phenomenon. It was based on the ideals of the same Western Enlightenment thinking that informed globalization: rationality, scientific innovation, progress and the end of tradition. Analysis: Globalization Effects on Architecture; is Form a new Function in Contemporary Architecture As Ren (2008) presents, in the age of globalization, state politicians and bureaucrats have increasingly adopted a global architectural language to rebrand their cities and nations. Although using prominent architects for place marketing is not an entirely new phenomenon, it has taken on a new significance in degree, if not in kind, as cities compete for international recognition and investment. Sklair (2006) also assumes that the ‘starchitects’ responsible for designing major iconic statements express much of architecture’s paradoxical autonomy, as they have the closest links with the capitalist class. The paradoxical ‘autonomy’ of those architects is expressed in the landmark commissions, in which the architects seem to struggle over symbolic values rather than politics or economics. Since the 1970s, cities have been transformed from production sites into consumption sites with strong business service and entertainment functions. In the strong competition between nations, local governments have increasingly employed the strategy of hosting mega events and constructing state-led architectural projects to create a positive urban image to attract residents, visitors, and investment. In the process, signature designs from internationally prominent architects are especially sought after by local private and public clients in order to put their cities on the iconic architectural map. In the past two decades, a large number of high-profile architectural projects have been built in many global and globalizing cities, to list but few, Guggenheim Bilbao Museum in Spain, The Jewish Museum in Berlin and Opera Sydney, (Ren, 2008). Strom (2002) also argues that the attributes the construction of iconic museums add to the increasingly important role of consumption in urban economies, the financial imperatives of cultural institutions in the new market economy, and the blurring boundary between low and high culture. Sklair (2006) further connects the production, marketing, and consumption of iconic architecture to the agents of the transnational capitalist class.According to Sklair (2006), the transnational capitalist class in and around architecture include multinational architectural firms with great delivery capacity, globalizing politicians and bureaucrats who commission and regulate architectural projects, professionals in the engineering, finance, and real estate sectors, as well as merchants and media, who are responsible for the marketing and consumption of architecture. Sklair (2006) argues that in the global era architecture tends to be driven by the transnational capitalist class of the corporate interest and by the cultural ideology of global consumerism. Although many have examined the economic imperatives and impact of iconic architectural projects, social scientists have just begun to explore the linkage between nationalism, political identity, and construction of architectural projects under
197 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 conditions of globalization. McNeill (2000) examines the impact of globalization on European territorial politics by analyzing the debates about the opening of the Frank Ghery’s Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao. He argues that the construction of the Guggenheim Museum is not only an economic initiative to revitalize Bilbao’s de-industrialized urban economy, but also part of the political maneuver by the ruling party in the Basque region to compete with other oppositional institutions and to enhance its relative strength within Spain. Thus, architectural form in this sense is used for an important economic and political image oriented function. Frampton (1991) observes that the quest for media attention, leads to a context of ‘over-aestheticisation’ in architecture, in which architects pursue a “succession of stylistic tropes that leave no image unconsumed, so that the entire field becomes flooded with an endless proliferation of images, …, increasingly designed for their photogenic effect “. This is highly relevant in the competition of the Alexandria Library, to be discussed in the next part of the analysis, where the entries, especially the winning entry, were flooded with metaphoric images related to the resurrection of knowledge as well as contextual metaphors. This image-oriented approach was again present in the Egyptian entries of the Grand Egyptian Museum reflecting the fascination with the creation of image-architecture, argued to create icons which would attract international architectural attention. Local Case Studies Selection and Analysis Criteria The selection of the case studies in the local case is based upon their important role in the Contemporary Egyptian Architecture. The three cases selected are the Alexandria Bibliotheca, the Grand Egyptian Museum and the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization. They all represent major state-led commissions, in which the architectural image was used politically to place the cities where the projects are implemented on the iconic architectural map. The analysis is based on the architectural concept of the project, whether the project achieved an icon or not and the role of the governmental support to the success of the project. 4.1. Alexandria Bibliotheca: The consequent "success" of the iconic projects; to list but few; Opera Sydney, Centre Pompidou, The Jewish Museum in Berlin, led many cities all over the world, to replicate the experience in an attempt to achieve the same "iconic city effect", such as the current local case in Egypt. It can be observed that most state led projects tend to adopt the iconic and star- architects’ systems, yet, more precisely those with a metaphoric dimension, in order to attract international attention and increase funds and external financial support. This was the case in the competition for the Library of Alexandria, where the jury stated clearly that the reason for selecting the first runner-up was the iconic effect it would provide to the city of Alexandria resembling that created by Opera Sydney, neglecting all the calls concerning the adequacy of the design to the economic and technical abilities of a developing country such as Egypt. This looked for icon was used as a fundraising tool by the former political regime, which collected donations from several countries under the cover of the Library. However, as Amin (2012) argues, the series of competitions in Egypt were suspiciously led by the former regime, without clear guidelines for selection, nor clear visions for implementation, leaving much floor for corruption and misuse of the Egyptian competition process. The competition was originally initiated in 1974, when the University of Alexandria started internal research work to investigate the process and benefits of the library both on the national and international scales. After completing the research, the idea gained a lot of attention and enthusiasm from the Egyptian Government, as well as from the UNESCO and the Program of Development in the United Nations. Then, in June 1988, the project gained the approval from the government, and in September 1988, the international competitions was announced, open to all architects from all parts of the world, and issued under the supervision of the UIA. The competition attracted almost 524 entries from various parts of the world, of which only 24 Egyptian architects presented entries. The site chosen for the new library lies adjacent to the approximate location of the ancient one where a Conference Centre was already present. The land assigned has the area of 40,000 msq, in the heart of the city, directly located in front of the Mediterranean Sea, thus needing special treatment due to the sensitive context. The jury took into considerations while choosing the winning entries the sensitivity of the location and the value of the rebirth of the old library, thus dealing with the issues of regeneration of an old icon, not only important locally but also internationally. Taking into consideration the plurality of architectural trends at that time, the chairperson exposed that the jury was searching for a design that reflects the contemporary architecture of the 20th century, yet at the same time preserve the
198 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 relations with the past. It was required to search for an icon, which would provide the library with its required unique identity, not a replica of any other style or historic building, so that its value would extend for ages to come. The first prize winner provided the jury with its required image in the form of the direct metaphor used in the great tilted sun that rises up from the ground, in addition to using the external wall of the inverted cone mass as a huge stone inscription board, which includes all calligraphy from various civilizations, in a clear reflection to the universality of cultures adopted by the Bibliotheca (fig. 1). It has to be taken into consideration that only the entry by the 1st prize winner included such direct metaphorical signs, which was the main reason for selection from the jury’s part. The debates raised were mainly between two groups, one supporting the selected proposal, regarding it a major change in the course of contemporary Egyptian architecture, and in the international trends as well. Accordingly, any construction or economic difficulties have to be disregarded for the sake of achieving such a building that will turn into a national icon and a symbol for Egypt as a whole. Moreover, the supporters accuse those rejecting the idea that they eventually do not understand the new language presented in the proposal, and only look from a very narrow angle, not grasping the whole image as it should be. They regard the proposal as one that succeeded in solving the long debated issue of preserving national identities while using the era's technologies and concepts, while the rejecters are not up to accepting new technologies and contemporary architecture and want to stick to old traditional ways of thinking as well as building. On the other hand, the rejecters accused the project of not fitting into the assigned function, and perhaps the proposal is ideal for an exhibition, or even a sports arena but not for library. Moreover, they presented a point of view which is the disassociation between the form of the building and its meaning, recalling that the sun metaphor of the building has nothing to do with the Egyptian identity, and were never a symbol for Egypt or its civilization. Besides, even if the metaphor was accepted, it will not be appreciated or even understood, unlike that of Opera Sydney which the supporters provide as an example, since most of the building will be immersed under the ground, and the image and concept required would not be understood, except upon explaining. On the other side, the opposers presented the claim that the introduction of the new contemporary mechanisms in this project will not really have an impact on the prosper of the Egyptian architecture, since all the technologies, mechanisms, and even labor would be imported from outside, which means working in an island that would not benefit Egypt or the Egyptians, but increase their consumer qualities only. 4.2. Grand Egyptian Museum: The competition for the Grand Egyptian Museum was initiated in January 2002, under full governmental support. The competition decided upon was an international one, open to all architects around the world and organized under the supervision of the UNESCO and the UIA. The client for the museum was the Egyptian Ministry of Culture. The location of the museum lies in a unique site neighboring the Pyramids of Giza. The project is to be constructed near the Giza Pyramids belonging to a larger archeological area, precisely to the "UNESCO World Heritage Site: Memphis and its Necropolis", which extends in a north-south direction for about 30 km from Abu Rawash to Dahshour including Abu Ghorab, Abu Sir and Saqqara archeological areas. The first-prize winner, Heneghan Peng, (fig. 2), was the only one who utilized the Pyramids' visual presence to the fullest as argued by the jury. The concept of maximizing 'view' is strongly felt and consistently practiced throughout the program logistics. The museum design is structured totally along sight lines leading to the Pyramids. This is not just through the organization of geometry, but also through the spatial experience. It is felt by visitors reaching the permanent exhibition area. This floor is above the ground parceled into five thematic zones of the museum program with all main thorough-fares leading to the Pyramids' view. The proposal also aimed to form a new "edge" to the Plateau, by creating a gentle slope as a thin veil of translucent stone structured by fractal geometry opening and closing like folds within the desert sand. The newly inscribed surface of translucent stone constructs a dynamic identity, yet from within the museum this surface traces a new visual trajectory towards the pyramids. The wall of the museum can be understood as a rhythm of structural (physical) and spatial (effective) folds within the plateau face, "architecturalizing" and intensifying its timeless surface. The jury highly appreciated the simple elegance and the refined expressive qualities of the project. It was praised for its functional clarity, poetic statement and delicate and discrete approach to the site and to the architectural program. Moreover, the layout of the exhibition galleries is aligned in a way that allows it to cover the visual lines to the Pyramids 199 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019 through a prism of light. The museum is situated at the intersection of two cones of vision, one is directed towards the pyramids and the other is directed towards the city of Cairo. Accordingly, the design pays special attention to the physical solution for the proposed pedestrian way to the Pyramids plateau. A strong iconic power was maintained in spite of the delicacy and technical sophistication of the translucent stonewall. Thus, again, the main goal for implementing this selected project was to enhance form over function as a way for promoting the project as well as the renovations and developments to the whole site. However, many political and financial problems were associated with the delay in the completion of the project, especially after the revolution in 2011, which changed the political agenda in Egypt totally. Accordingly, the complete analysis associated with the project can be re-implemented after its opening to evaluate the iconic city effect it offers. 4.3. National Museum for Egyptian Civilization: The first museum of civilization in Egypt, the “NMEC” is located on the archaeological site of El-Fustat in Old Cairo, overlooking Ain El-Seera Lake. The Museum was designed by Egyptian architect El Ghazzali Kesseiba. The exhibition spaces are being designed by Japanese architect Arata Isozaki. The “NMEC” is aspired to showcase Egyptian civilization from prehistoric times to the present day, using a multidisciplinary approach that highlights the country’s tangible and intangible heritage. It has to be taken into consideration that civilization museums differ from archeological museums in their nature and objectives. Archeological museums are assigned to a certain period of time without being related to a previous or succeeding periods to it. The objective in such museums is mainly to present and highlight the artistic value of the displayed artifacts. This is not the case in this case study, in which the architect had to deal conceptually with different layers of civilizations in Egypt, and represent them within a setting of architecture which helps to provide an added value humbly and doesn’t interfere with the display. Thus, in this project, function was intended to overcome form to help in the continuation of the architectural concept over various decades. As Abdel Moneim (2005) explains, the site is visually connected to all historical urban sites of Greater Cairo. It is the meeting point of many cultures. In the south, the Helwan and Al Ma’aadi cultures represent the prehistoric period in Egypt. In the far west, the Saqqara pyramid and the Giza pyramids symbolize the Pharaonic period. In the near west, stand the Babylon castle from the Roman period and churches from the Coptic period. Islamic historic Cairo in the north and the nineteenth century Mohammad Ali Citadel in the north-east complete the cultural and visual landscape of Egypt up until modern times. The site also includes a rare natural lake, Ain Al Seera. The composition of the museum adopted a series of exhibitions, (fig. 3), (fig. 4). The Core Exhibition will highlight the main achievements of Egyptian civilization in a chronological approach featuring eight main time periods: Prehistory, Archaic, Pharaonic, Graeco-Roman, Coptic, Islamic, Modern, and Contemporary. The Thematic Galleries are organized according to six themes: Dawn of civilization, The Nile, Writing, State and Society, Material Culture, Beliefs and Thinking. Finally, the Royal Mummies Gallery containing the remains of great pharaohs will be the climax of the museum and will recreate the experience of visiting one of the Royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. The main concept which the architect presented was to offer timeless architecture to embody the different layers of history and civilization in Egypt. Thus, no iconic was targeted, but rather a minimalistic statement to allow for the intermingling of the different layers of history. As a matter of fact, the success of the functional setting, the clarity of the display as well as the strength of the architectural meaning were the main reason for the selection of the project in the competition which took place in the 1980s. The timeless architecture aimed to be presented by the architect played a strong role in the validity of the design in spite of the excessive delay which took place on the implementation due to political problems. However, this is a two-fold problem, since the lack of the creation of a strong iconic image was one of the reasons behind the delay of the completion of the museum construction. Conclusion The paper presented how the debate regarding form and function can be re-interpreted in the shadows of globalization and iconic city effect. This association between the two concepts was highlighted in the analysis of the case studies focusing on major state-led architectural projects in Egypt to represent how the creation of the icon played an important role in those projects, leading to the use of architectural form itself as a new function for buildings.
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References [1] Abdel Moneim, A. (2005).The National Museum of Egyptian Civilization, Museum International, Blackwell Publishing, Vol. 57, No. 1–2. [2] Abdel Raaouf, A. (2001). Contemporary Egyptian Architecture, Critical Issues and Innovative Trends, Al Benaa, 128, KSA, (p.28). [3] Adam, R. (2008) Globalisation and architecture: The challenges of globalisation are relentlessly shaping architecture’s relationship with society and culture. The Architectural Review , 223, 1332, (pp. 74-77). [4] Amin, G. (2012), Whatever Happened to the Egyptian Revolution? Dar Al-Shorouk, (pp. 50-51). [5] Asfour, K., (2003). The GEM and the Egyptian architects—bad luck? The Architectural Review, UK [6] Cruz, C. (2012). Wright’s Organic Architecture: From “Form Follows Function” to “Form and Function are One”, Wolkenkuckucksheim, 32, pp. 27-36. [7] Farhat, A. M., (1990). Evaluating the Winning Project in the Alexandria Library Competition, Ala’m El Benaa, 109, Egypt, (pp.23-29). [8] Frampton, K. (1991). In Jones, P. (2009), Putting Architecture in its Social Place: A Cultural Political Economy of Architecture, Urban Studies, 46, (p.2527). [9] Ibrahim, A. B. (1989). Lessons from New Alexandrina Library , Ala’m El Benaa, 105, Egypt, (pp.8-12). [10] McNeill, D. (2000). McGuggenisation? National identity and globalisation in the Basque country. Political Geography, 19, 4, (pp. 473–494). [11] Mettam, G. R., & Adams, L. B. (1994). How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In B. S. Jones, & R. Z. Smith (Eds.), Introduction to the electronic age (pp. 281-304). New York: E-Publishing Inc. [12] Raof, S. (2001). Ecohouse: A Design Guide. Oxford. Architectural Press. [13] Ren, X. (2008), Architecture And Nation Building In The Age Of Globalization: Construction Of The National Stadium Of Beijing For The 2008 Olympics, Journal Of Urban Affairs, 30, 2. [14] Sklair, L. (2006). Iconic Architecture and Capitalist Globalization, City, 10, Routldge. [15] Strom, E. (2002). Converting pork into porcelain: Cultural institutions and downtown development. Urban Affairs Review, 38, 1, (pp. 3–21). [16] Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. [17] Van der Geer, J., Hanraads, J. A. J., & Lupton, R. A. (2000). The art of writing a scientific article. Journal of Scientific Communications, 163, 51 - 59.
Figures:
Figure 1: Alexandria Bibotheque by Snohetta.
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Fig. 2 – GEM Winning Competition Entry.
Fig. 3 – NMEC, Overall View
Fig. 4 – NMEC, Current Construction Phase
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An Epistemological Examination of Interdisciplinary Computing
Fr. Antoine Melki
Dr. Amine Bitar
Department of Computer Science, University of Balamand, Lebanon
Abstract
The 21st century carried a change in the definition of knowledge and its dissemination. Consequently, the content of students’ learning and the corresponding processes had been revised. Higher education had to acknowledge that enough knowledge lies outside traditional structures and it should be sought. Accordingly, it had to respond to its external environment without destroying its existing structures. This endeavor brought the concept of interdisciplinarity that requires working with knowledge from multiple disciplines, interacting with knowledge from different branches and its integration. This concept contributed to the production of a huge literature. Despite the relatively not short history, confusion still exists between interdisciplinarity and multidisciplinarity, especially that university curricula are commonly structured by academic disciplines. Tasks like developing interdisciplinary courses, sustaining interdisciplinary initiatives, and financing interdisciplinary programs are difficult specially that faculty members in general stand more at ease in their respective disciplines and norms.
Keywords: epistemological, examination, interdisciplinary, computing
A short review
In the case of computing education this actuality gets more troublesome. The reason for troubles is that many program of studies emerged from the integration of computing in traditional fields of studies. A range of enabled traditional programs appeared linked to different domains of the market, creating a demand for graduates with the field competencies enabled by non-technical computing skills, like computational thinking and systems analysis. At the end, appeared the interdisciplinary computing major. An increasing number of universities and colleges are announcing offering this field by twinning between Computer Science and some other discipline, with sometimes unexpected combinations.
A new issue is raised at the epistemological level. A definition for interdisciplinary computing is needed. A set of questions is raised: is any integration of computing with some other field a representation of interdisciplinarity? What are the limits of enabling? What are the requirements of integration? Does the product of interdisciplinary computing remain computer science? These questions are urgent and answers should be provided especially that the number of such degrees is increasing accompanied by a growing demand on these jobs, as reflected on jobs and opportunities websites.
This paper attempts to answer these questions based on the huge literature available on interdisciplinarity in general, and interdisciplinary computing in specific. Special reference to career opportunities will be made.
This study will be completed using document analysis examining the related documents as the data source of a qualitative research. A phenomenological study will be used to understand the meaning different schools are appropriating to interdisciplinarity. Enough documents will be consulted to extract the common themes and build a sufficient data set of emerging themes to validate the findings.
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While the phenomenological study aims at describing the essence interdisciplinary computing, grounded theory methods will be used to formulate an explanation or theory behind the different offerings. This study is expected to better inform on the design and understanding of how different schools are managing their offering.
Some explanatory, exploratory, or descriptive case study involving multiple types of data sources will be explored to acquire a deep understanding and provide support of the findings.
The paper concludes with a set of criteria defining interdisciplinary computing and reflecting its educational aspects and respecting technical norms.
204 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
BlackFace, Bullying and Freedom of Expression: What Legal Education Means for Law Student Welfare
Samuel V. Jones Associate Dean and Professor of Law John Marshall Law School, Chicago
Abstract Today, law student safety is a serious but often missed objective in American law schools. According to a recent survey, the typical American family wants to know their law student is safe even more than they want their law student to acquire a first-rate legal academic experience. Despite the importance of law student mental health to student performance, and cultural objectives unique to legal education, law students are not only highly vulnerable to acquiring mental health challenges during law school but are prone to be overlooked, and perhaps blamed or condemned for their mental health challenges, albeit unintentionally. My work asserts that despite the chief objective of law schools being to educate knowledgeable, competent, legal professionals, and provide them with the necessary skills to resolve complex legal essentials for corporations and government, as well as advance social justice, and to promote equal treatment for all, inherent in the nature of legal education, is a seemingly widely accepted risk of compromising law student mental health. Relying on qualitative studies and journalistic reports, my work will demonstrate that law students experience high incidents of personal depression, anxiety, extreme sadness, loss of interest or desire, feelings of guilt or low self-esteem, disturbed sleep or appetite, low energy, poor concentration, and a myriad of other mental and physical calamities, all of which greatly exceeds that of the law faculty, and surpasses levels experienced by medical and graduate students at American schools of higher education. My work further acknowledges that law student anxiety and depression are inextricably linked to the rigorous academic demands of legal education. Still it argues and set forth that law student mental health is related to avoidable conditions and patterns in the law school environment that enable or fail to account for the law student’s inexperience with coping with intense stress, emotional uncertainty, geographical isolation from loved ones, strained financial resources, poor job prospects, family strife, drug or alcohol abuse, homelessness, or lack of a culturally responsive learning environment. Granted, the legal profession is not for everyone. My work argues that law schools cannot turn a blind eye to the plight of law students as if no degree of accountability and responsibility lies with the law school. Indeed, law schools, albeit unintentionally, may be some of the chief investors in patterns of conduct that compromise the physical, emotional, and mental safety of law students. Recognition of a law school’s duty to students, in my view, requires law schools to resist the rhetoric of self-exceptionalism. Law schools, have an obligation, reluctantly or not, to concretely curtail repeated patterns of professional abuse, neglect, dereliction of academic duties, social domination, and student exploitation, that are uniquely embedded in the culture of legal education. Simply put, law student safety needs, coupled with the intricacies and unforgiving consequences of today’s competitive legal job market and high cost of legal education, warrant that law schools resist the impulses that prioritize institutional-preservation and subordinate student mental health under the guise of teaching students the harsh realities of the legal profession and preparing them for legal practice. My work argues that student physical, emotional, mental and academic safety should, and must become a critical component of legal education. Keywords: BlackFace, Bullying, Freedom of Expression, Legal Education Means, Law Student Welfare
205 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Religious and Secular Spiritual Existential Coping with Cancer: Portugal Study
Fereshteh Ahmadi Department of Social Work and Psychology, Faculty of Health and Occupational Studies, University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden Rita Tavares Center for Psychology at the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Paula Mena Matos Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Carla Tomás Psychology Department, Instituto Superior Manuel Teixeira Gomes, Algarve, Portugal Nader Ahmadi Swedish Agency for Work Environment Knowledge, Stockholm, Sweden
Abstract The article is based on an international study on meaning-making coping aimed at understanding the role of culture in coping in different cultural settings. The study has been conducted among cancer patients in ten countries, among others in Portugal. The article is confined to the results obtained in the Portugal study. The main aim is to investigate the impact of culture on choice of coping methods. Thirty-one participants with various kinds of cancer (e.g., breast, testicular, lymphoma) were interviewed. Nine different kinds of coping methods related to religion and spirituality emerged from analyses of the interviews. These methods, which are categorized on the basis of RCOPE’s five basic religious functions (Pargament, 1997), are: Seeking Spiritual Support, Spiritual Connection, Spiritual Discontent, Benevolent Religious Reappraisal, Punishing God Reappraisal, God’s Trust in Personal Strength, Support from Clergy or Members, Self-Directing Religious Coping and Active Religious Surrender. Eight different kinds of coping methods related to secular existential coping emerged from analyses of the interviews. These methods are: Self-image, Positive solitude, Nature, Positive attitude, Transformation, Family relationship, Social and emotional relationships, Activities. Keywords: Meaning-making coping, Portuguese with cancer, Religious and spiritual coping methods, secular existential coping
206 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Short-term sojourns abroad and intercultural growth
Paweł Sobkowiak
Abstract Studying abroad as opportunities not only to expand professional knowledge, but also to develop foreign language proficiency and to immerse in a foreign culture, has become increasingly popular among students. In a globalized world such experience is useful since it raises individuals’ capabilities for both observation and successful adaptation to new, culturally diverse settings. However, the findings of extensive research into students’ mobility impact on their intercultural development are conflicting. Whereas some researchers are convinced that optimal intercultural learning stems from direct contacts (Kormos & Csizer, 2007; Mak, Brown and Wadey, 2014; Simpson, 2008), others claim that students may return home more ethnocentric and less willing to interact with foreigners (Jackson 2015; Vande Berg 2007). In this presentation I will report on qualitative research examining to what extent sojourns abroad engage their participants in intercultural interactions and whether or not such experience translates into students’ intercultural growth. The results of the study demonstrated that studying abroad did not provide participants with ample opportunities to immerse into the local community and fully discover a new cultural environment. However, students surrounded by local and their fellow international students met foreign cultures, which motivated them to explore and interpret the encountered cultural differences, and thus equipped them with knowledge about foreign cultures, sensitizing them to cultural diversity. The findings revealed that if capacity of sojourns is to be fully utilized, students have to be offered intercultural training prior to departure. Keyboard: short-term sojourns abroad, intercultural growth
207 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Military Effectiveness Project: Office of Net Assessment.
Allan Millett Dr. University of New Orleans
Abstract Sponsored by the Office of Net Assessment of the Office of the Secretary of Defense (U.S.), the Military Effectiveness Project used vertical and horizontal historical analysis to investigate how seven complex military organizations of modern 20th century industrial states waged and prepared for war, 1914-1945. The case studies explored military activity in four dimensions: political, strategic, operational, and tactical. The studies revealed that strategists consistently confused ends (war aims) with means (strategy) and failed to adjust strategy to operational capability. The political culture of the belligerents created different problems, but all of the belligerents faced serious problems in adjusting war aims to strategy and military capabilities. In addition to its insights, the Military Effectiveness Project spawned additional studies over the next thirty years that improved the use of historical case studies to explore military activity on a global basis. Keywords: military, effectiveness, project, office, net, assessment
208 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Military Effectiveness: The Study Heard Round the World
Allan R. Millett Prof. Dr. University Research Professor; Ambrose Professor of History; Director, Eisenhower Center for American Studies, University of New Orleans
Abstract For my conference presentation, I propose to review the organization of the Military Effectiveness Project as a set of historical case studies that produced in inter-disciplinary study of policy relevance. From 1983-1996, Dr. Williamson Murray and I conducted a group research project, investigating the nature of military effectiveness. The results of this study continue to shape research throughout the world on military organizations. Our subject was the experience of the seven nations who were the major belligerents in both World Wars: Germany, Japan, Italy, Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. We invented a four-level matrix of analysis of military activity divided into political, strategic, operational, and tactical activity. We drew upon our academic historical research and our personal experience as field grade officers in planning and education positions in the U.S. armed forces. The first phase of the project produced three volumes of essays written by twenty-eight different historians of international stature in Military Effectiveness (1988). None were devoted to writing history that aimed at social science generalization or theory. Yet we imposed an analytic structure that enabled generalization after the national studies were completed and which allowed Dr. Murray and me to make generalizations, following summative essays by Russell F. Weigley and Lt. Gen. John Cushman, U.S. Army (Ret.).The Military Effectiveness Project led to other group projects published as Calculations (1992), Making Strategy (1994), and Military Innovation (1996) that explored the borderlands between history and social science and the utility of such work in officer education and policy analysis. Keywords: organization, military, effectiveness,
209 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Pupils’ Needs, Teachers’ Support, and Motivation in a Middle School
Nadera Boukhatem Dr. Ecole superieure de Management ESM TLemcen
Abstract The most difficult time that teachers encounter is when their struggle is related to motivational aspect. Their frequent question is: How can I motivate my pupils in learning? In fact, this question has always been raised by teachers either in middle school, secondary school or in higher education because they feel that it is beyond their influence and capacity. More recent studies have mostly shown researchers attempting to increase pupils’ learning motivation and academic achievement levels for many years. This study investigated the relationships between the social support, motivation and achievement in a sample of 857(301 females, 565males) middle school students (Cherif Moulay Idriss). The study was conducted using social support data. They were collected via the pupils and teachers. The material to be covered makes the pupils in continuous animated discussions, The teacher is thoroughly energized, thinking about how the material to be covered next builds on that day’s class. Hence this attempt has mostly focused on the role of the educational environment in these patterns of pupils’ motivation. Keywords: academic motivation, engagement, school belonging, teacher support, family support
210 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Suicide Prevention
Stella Michael-Makri Ph.D LPC, NCC (Columbus State University, GA, USA) Ms. Oula Majzoub-Weaver M.Ed. (Columbus State University, GA, USA)
Abstract Suicide is a serious worldwide public health problem as it affects people in different nations, cultures, religions, age, genders and socio-economic classes. The World Health Organization (2018) is reporting that approximately 800, 000 people die due to suicide each year, and it is the second leading cause of death among adolescents and young adults (15 to 29 years old). The rates of suicide are alarming worldwide; for example, just in 2018 Lithuania had 913 death by suicide (31.9 suicides per 100k), Russia 44,607 (31 suicides per 100k), Guyana 229 (29.2 suicides per 100k), South Korea 13,810 (26.9 suicides per 100k), The United States 50,351 (15.3 suicides per 100k), and Belgium 2,393 (20.7 suicides per 100k) (World Health Organization, 2018). In addition, there has been an increase in suicides in the United States, as suicide rates have increased from 26,869 completed suicides in 1980 to 44,965 in 2016 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). American colleges and universities are not foreign to these trends: Scheyett and Rooks (2012) noted that more than 30% of American college students reported severe depression, 6% suicidal thoughts and 11% mood disorders. The Center for Collegial Mental Health (2016) annual report indicated that the prevalence rates of “threat-to-self” have been increasing for the last six years, representing a persistent trend, accompanied by increasing demands for therapy at college counseling centers. Fifty percent of students who sought therapy had prior counseling, 33% were prescribed medication prior to entering therapy and 10% had been hospitalized previously (CCMH, 2016). The Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) identified that 8% of college students contemplate suicide at least once within a year, and 1% to 2% attempt suicide (CDCP, 2015). These percentages represent triple the percentages reported in 1994.To prevent suicides from occurring on Columbus State University Campus (Georgia, USA), Cougars End Suicide, a suicide prevention program has been developed. The focus of this program is early detection of factors leading to suicide by implementation of a community healthcare approach where each member of the Columbus State University plays an integral part. Through training of faculty, students, and staff on detection of suicidal factors and signs, reaching out to those in distress and motivating them to seek out help, the Columbus State University community will come together and act as a gatekeeper to this preventable problem.This purpose of this presentation is to highlight the formation and dissemination of the suicide prevention program implemented at Columbus State University, with the aim of increasing attendees’ awareness of suicide and suicide prevention, as well as offering strategies on how to address this problem in their institutions, schools, place of employment and community. Keywords: suicide, prevention, program
211 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The B.O.S. Model
Rosalie M.H.E.G. Van Baest Dr. Fontys Hogeschool Engineering, Eindhoven Holland Research at: Tilburg University, faculty Human Studies
Abstract The practical, exploratory research (2017) takes place in the context of Higher Engineering education which is often cognitive and practical oriented. Affective education is of significance in a process of conscious personal development. The key-question of the research is: “how” can one stimulate Engineering students to open up for conscious intra-personal development? The research resulted in the formulation of the “B.O.S. model” (Bewust Ontwikkelen Stimuleren. In English: S.C.D. model: Stimulating Conscious Development). The B.O.S. model consists of two parts.Part 1. (preliminary research) a field experiment: the SCS module (Social and Communication Skills). An experiential, student-centered lecture series with a focus on intra-personal development. The objective of the SCS module is to stimulate engineering students to open up for their personal attributes and to develop them. The SCS module also provides an opportunity to learn with others (interpersonal skills). A written reflection serves as a link between lectures. During the SCS process the Research terms were set down. They are the basic principles of part 2.Part 2. A case study: a small-scale, in –depth study which includes three interviews with ten engineering students spread over a longer educational period. The case study focuses on the perspective of the ten students, who participated voluntary and outside school hours in the research. The attitude and communication skills of the experiential lecturer-researcher are of significance during the research, both in part 1 and in part 2. Keywords: higher engineering education, conscious personal development, intra-personal, experiential, process, student- centred.
212 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Freedom of Opinion and the Civil Participation of the Youth
Lindita LUTAJ Dr. University “Aleksander Moisiu”. Education Faculty, Department of Pedagogy, ALBANIA
Abstract This study treats the importance that the education and civil formation of the youth has. The real possibilities that they have in expressing their free opinion and their active participation in civil actions. Relating to the experience of other countries and our country in this direction the results and possibilities for interventions need to be indicated. The goal of the study is to evaluate what is the level of the free expression of the opinion, what prevents the youth to express their opinion freely, to assess how the university curricula help them in education and equipping them with active citizenship, if they believe that situation of the future will change and the areas and possibilities created for active participation in society. The study included 258 university students (Bachelor and Master programs) of the Education Faculty in the university “Aleksander Moisiu” Durres. The students filled in a questionnaire with 21 closed questions. The study evaluated the problems that the students encountered, their possibilities to freely express their opinion and the factors that prevented them to do so. The study indicated that the free expression of the opinions and the active participation of the students is not in satisfactory levels. These levels are not enough for the actual requirements, and for this is required open mindness, collaboration, and funds to enhance the active citizenship. We need to accept the reality as it really is with the belief that it belongs to the present, and we should try to change the future in order to increase the youth trust in this direction. Keywords: active citizenship, participation, freedom of opinion, democratic citizenship.
213 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Impact of the New Media on Raising Social Awareness Among Saudi Youth
Inaam Ahmed Hamid Ibrahim Assist. Prof. Dr. Faculty of arts and Humanities, Departments of press and information Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education Jazan university
Abstract This research is: The effect of the new media on raising social awareness among Saudi youth (field study on a sample of young people in Jazan region). A study was conducted to measure the impact of new media on young people. The aim of this study is to identify the impact of social networking sites on the values of Saudi youth and to expose the motives of Saudi youth to use the new media, as well as to identify the type of new media used by Saudi youth. The second study deals with the concept of social awareness among young people. Then comes the role of media in raising social awareness in the third subject. The problem of the study goes on to answer the following question: Does the new media and its different forms play an effective role in raising social awareness among Saudi youth? Many research questions have been associated with the study and have been taken into account in the design of the instrument, such as: Does the new media contribute to raising awareness among young people? Are new media working on finding solutions to misconduct? What obstacles that hinder the users of the means of the new media in the fulfillment of their requirements? What is the new media that most young people are exposed to? The sample used was the random sample distributed to the target audience electronically number 300 form. The study showed that 87.6% of the sample believes that the new media affects the behavior of youth. The study revealed that the new media contributes to finding solutions to negative behaviors by 58.6%. The study proved that the social character most used in the new media is social consciousness. The study found that the new media provides the needs of young people in order to achieve their scientific goals. The study pointed out that Snap Chat is one of the most popular new media among Saudi youth, with 60%. The main recommendations made by the research were to intensify the awareness-raising programs of Saudi youth using the new media. The relevant bodies should follow up the huge amount of information that is being put on the social networking sites because they have a significant impact on the youth. Intensify the work of interactive media between young people and the media. Use all technical templates to edit topics that contribute to raising social awareness among young people. The need to give young people confidence in themselves through the introduction of topics motivating them. Keywords: effect, new media, raise, social awareness, youth, Saudi
214 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Traditional Meals and Sense of at-Homeness – Finnish Immigrants with Dementia in Bilingual Residential Care in Sweden
Sirpa Rosendahl PhD, Institution of Health Sciences, University of Skövde, Sweden.
Abstract Immigrants with dementia will lose their second language and gradually the native language and with advanced stages of the condition the person needs to be admitted to residential care. For a person from another ethnic background it can be a cultural challenge regarding communication and daily activities such as meals. In a few cities in Sweden care is offered in an ethnic familiar setting and therefore the aim of this study was to explore a Finnish-speaking care home for immigrants with dementia from the perspectives of care staff and family members in Sweden. Method: A qualitative design was chosen to understand personal experiences of the care provided to Finnish immigrants with dementia. Of the 18 participants, 10 professional caregivers and eight family members were chosen by purposive sampling. The interviews were based on a semi-structured interview guide, data was analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Two main categories (meals stimulating the appetite/ meals as a cultural reminder and with respective sub-categories emerged. Results: Serving food that was well- known and something that the older persons with dementia was used to was important for nutritional reason and to stimulate the appetite. Finnish dishes were served regularly, several times a week, and the food was cooked by the nursing staff: It was considered meaningful that the food served was what the residents had eaten all their life, and which they recognized. Finnish dishes were a reminder of their cultural identity as well as one of the aspects contributing to the feeling of at-homeness. Keywords: dementia, explorative, finnish immigrants, home, meals
215 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Micro-Level Analysis of Resilience and the Relationship Between Firms and the Region
Dr. Franzelle Pertilla Assist.Prof. Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College, Tifton, Georgia
Abstract Globalization continues to accelerate the forces of technology shifts and fluctuating economies that shape the rise and fall of companies. This research explores organizational resilience in four worldwide manufacturing firms in four regions of the State of Georgia, USA. Recognizing that limited micro-level empirical research has been conducted in the organizational context, I chose a qualitative multiple-case study approach to look at resilience attributes that measure capacities and resources such as human capital, economic capital, social capital, and political capital. The business landscape has become much more complex and continues to experience emergent conditions of uncertainty. This paper facilitates modern discussion about the relevance of regional connectedness to building strategies that counterbalance risk and ways to support resilience in firms and communities. Keywords: organizational resilience; firm performance; change; capacity; economic systems
216 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Higher Education in Georgia and the Role of International Students in the Development of the University: The Example of University of Georgia
Manana Sanadze Giuli Alasania
Abstract The paper offers a historical overview of the evolution of the system of higher education in Georgia through centuries, the challenges, the role, internal and external political factors as well as the major milestones, and dwells on issues like, the invention of the alphabet; creation of a rich body of original and translated literature; education remaining a privilege of the high social strata in certain historical epochs; teaching-learning based on trivium-quadrivium; monasteries – serving as ecclesiastical, educational and cultural centers - founded by Georgians abroad; Renaissance, Reformation, Guttenberg’s innovation speeding up the dawning of a new era in education; printing reaching Tbilisi by 1709; introduction of a new educational system after the annexation of Georgia by Russia in 1801 - a three-level education: the parish school, the public school and the 4-year gymnasium; the foundation of the first university in Georgia - no longer a part of Russian Empire - on January 26, 1918 and the subsequent emergence of other higher learning schools. The paper highlights positive changes in the system of education following the Rose Revolution (2003): the introduction of life-long learning; full membership of the Bologna Process; a project “Strengthening of Opportunities for Fulfilling the Tasks of Bologna”; teaching information technologies from the early school years; bringing 1000-1500 native-speaker volunteers to teach English in schools; participation in international Olympiads, introduction of the Unified National Exams which ensure an equal access to education; authorization and accreditation of higher educational institutions and standards developed by the National Center for Educational Quality Enhancement. The work also offers information on the stages of higher education, types of higher education institutions and enrollment. A focus is made on the role of education in today’s world which is facing a socio-economic and biosphere misbalance. Attention is drawn to the challenges faced by higher education, which has to preserve and transmit national traditions and promote openness and international cooperation in the area of research at the same time. Increasing mobility is determined as one of the issues on the agenda. In this regard, special attention is paid to the importance of balanced mobility. It is shown that the goal of higher educational institutions in countries with small education markets should be to increase the number of international students, which will promote multicultural dialogue, sharing experience, exchanging professionals and contribute to the local economies. The article presents benefits derived by the University of Georgia from the internationalization of curricula and the continuous admission of international students to these programs. The advantages have been both direct and indirect: the direct benefit of the university has been a significant increase in financial strength, while the indirect one - the impact of the multicultural environment: local students have the opportunity to communicate with people from different religious and cultural backgrounds, which is crucial to expanding horizons. This way, Georgian students make friends with their peers from abroad, and after graduation enjoy the opportunity to use these connections in their careers both in Georgia and in the countries of origin of their friends. Keywords: higher education, Georgia, role, international, students, development, university
217 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Incipit and Explicit in the Italian Translations of Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre
Paola Gaudio Università degli studi di Bari “Aldo Moro”
Abstract The XIX century English classic Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Brontë, was translated into several languages only a handful of years after its first publication. Among the first translations there are the French, German and Italian ones. As a matter of fact, this canonical novel was brought to the attention of the Italian audience already in 1874, by means of a play based on the German translation of the original novel. In the following centuries more and more translations appeared – some were translations proper, some were rather rewritings in the form of reductions and adaptations – mainly for young women – others instead were intersemiotic translations into plays, TV series, movies, radio shows and even photo stories. Albeit similar, all of these translations are somehow different, therefore the reader’s experience of the book is bound to be slightly different depending on the translation of choice. In particular, the translations of the beginning (incipit) and end (explicit) of a novel are extremely important because if the former grasps the reader’s attention by setting the tone of the novel, the latter wraps the story up, leaving the reader with that swirl of emotions and reflections so cunningly raised by the author. This paper aims at presenting a contrastive analysis of the incipit and explicit from several Italian translations of Jane Eyre in order to determine if and what changes. Such analysis is based on the assumption that each translator has a poetics of their own, influenced not only by personal choices but also by the context in which each translation takes place, and that sometimes these choices turn out to be rewritings and manipulations of the source text rather than translations proper. Keywrods: english, classic, literature, Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte
218 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Did not Linguists do Linguistics in Brazil? Reflections and Questions
Tamires Bonani Conti
Master and PhD student in Linguistics by the Postgraduate Program in Linguistics1
Roberto Leiser Baronas
Professor in the Department of Letters - DL and in the Program of Postgraduate in Linguistics2
Abstract
In December 2008, the French magazine Pratiques: linguistique, littèrature et didactique, dedicates an entire number - 139/140 - on popular linguistics - whose title in the form of an interrogation is precisely "Linguistique populaire?" < https://journals.openedition.org/pratiques/1171>. The organizers, Guy Achard-Bayle and Marie- Anne Paveau, initially discuss the question of the absence of popular linguistics in French geography as a specific domain of language studies, especially in the argument of the presentation of the issue entitled La linquistique: "hors du temple" , compared to the Anglo-Saxon and Germanic contexts, in which this domain is well implanted with already dense reflections; then, based on related domains and related problems such as normative grammar, purism, work on norms, metalanguage, or the notion of epilingualism, the organizers seek to define the field of popular linguistics in the French context; Finally, researchers seek to open a field of reflection on profane (non-scientific) knowledge about language as opposed to the scientific knowledge produced by linguistics, trying to answer for example, what would be the role of the insights of profane (non- linguists) in relation to the scientific knowledge produced by linguists? The thirteen pieces of work by French, German, Swiss, Austrian, Canadian, Portuguese, Spanish and American researchers seek to deal with the three problems presented by Guy Achard-Bayle and Marie-Anne Paveau: forms and domains of popular linguistics; validity and legitimacy of spontaneous theories and popular linguistics and language teaching. In this communication, supported both in the discussions proposed by Guy Achard-Bayle and Marie-Anne Paveau, as well as in the other authors of the issue, and especially in the latter author's article entitled "Do linguists do linguistics? an anti-aliminative approach to popular ideas, "on the one hand, we seek to propose an initial discussion about the existence or not of popular linguistics in Brazil: a geographical space still very lacking in this type of reflection and, on the other hand, based on data from the Brazilian context, we questioned the typology proposal about popular linguistics, elaborated by Marie-Anne Paveau in her article.
Keywords: General linguistics; popular linguistics and profane linguistic knowledge.
1 - PPGL - UFSCar. FAPESP scholarship process number 2018/05275-1. 2 - PPGL of UFSCar, in the Program of Post-Graduation in Language Studies - PPGEL of UFMT and Researcher of Productivity in Research of CNPq, level 1D 219 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Social and Communication Competences of Students – Future Teachers
Marjan Ninčević University of Zagreb, Department for Croatian Studies, Zagreb, Croatia Dunja Jurić Vukelić University of Zagreb, Department for Croatian Studies, Zagreb Abstract Numerous studies have shown that teachers significantly shape student's learning context. Socially and emotionally competent teachers tend to develop supportive and encouraging relationship with their students by promoting intrinsic motivation, focusing on student's strengths and abilities, mediating through conflict situations and encouraging appropriate communication and prosocial behaviour. Teachers with good communication skills will create a more successful teaching and learning ambience for the students, and without communication, the teaching and learning process will not take place. Educators, parents and public today recognize the need for an educational agenda to improve academic performance, but also to enhance students' social and communicational competence. The aim of the present study was to examine social and communication competence of the students of educational sciences and teacher education at the University of Zagreb Department Of Croatian Studies. As part of the most important aspects of the future educational work, the participants pointed out independence at work, the awareness that they would contribute to the future of the society and the awareness that they play a useful role in society. Participants also expressed optimism about their communication skills with students, planning and organizing teaching process and maintaining discipline, and to some less extent their competences for successful cooperation with students’ parents. Results were discussed in terms of possibilities to contribute to future teachers’ education. Keywords: Social, Communication Competences, Students, Future Teachers
220 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Critical Factors that Enhance the Effectiveness of Online Communities of Practice: EFL Coordinators’ Patterns of Involvement - the Greek EL Teachers Cops Professional Development Paradigm
Katerina Kourkouli National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Abstract The paper examines Greek EFL Coordinators’ involvement in online Communities of Practice (CoPs) in terms of its impact on participating teachers’ professional development. The study focuses on four online CoPs hosting 49 Greek EFL teachers as participants and four Greek EFL Coordinators, using an online platform named 2gather developed by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens in the context of a national in-service professional development project in Greece. The study involves investigating the Coordinators’ patterns of involvement and their trainees’ response using a mixed-methods approach which combines quantitative and qualitative research as collective case studies of the four groups. Differentiations between the four Coordinators’ reported patterns of involvement and teachers’ reported effectiveness of their CoP training experience enables us to identify critical factors that contribute to the enhancement of effectiveness. A comparison of the Coordinators’ and their trainees’ responses per online CoP highlights the factors that have supported teachers’ reported reconstruction of knowledge and practices and the reported effectiveness of the CoP training experience regarding their everyday teaching practice. The findings contribute to furthering our understanding of effective online CoPs implementation in the context of continuing professional development. Keywords: professional development, adult training, online communities of practice, effective coordination, effective implementation, design and development principles
221 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
M-Pesa in the Albanian Market
Elvis BREGU PhD. Cand., Convergence Program Lead Vodafone Albania Sh.A, Tiranë, Albania Dr. Bitila SHOSHA Lecturer, Department of Finance-Accounting, Faculty of Business University “Aleksander Moisiu”, Durres Dr. Armela ANAMALI Lecturer, Department of Finance-Accounting, Faculty of Business University “Aleksander Moisiu”, Durres
Abstract With the economic development of the country, we notice an increase and improvement in the technological development in our country same as in other countries. M-Pesa is one of the latest trends and innovations adapted in Albania, offered by Vodafone Albania. One of the main reasons for using M-Pesa is to get a practical and convenient service saving time and money. M-Pesa technology provides one of the most effective ways of providing access to a wide range of products and financial services. M-Pesa has also financial costs associated with investment in technology. Technology develops very fast and there is a specific cost in reaching its pace as well as improving the service. This study investigates the advantages and disadvantages of such an implementation for the Albanian market, the factors that could have driven the intention to use this mobile payment service, and whether the actual usage could have improved the livelihood of Albanians. The methodology used in this paper is to review the literature and use the SWOT analysis to understand why M- Pesa failed in Albania. Based on a thorough review of the literature, as well as relying on published resources regarding the security of transactions in customer protection, we will finalize our study with some important conclusions. Keywords: M-Pesa, Vodafone Albania, CIT, Regulators, Competitors, SWOT Analysis.
222 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Charles Bukowski – America’s Poet of the South
Jarosław Kuyath University of Opole, Poland
Abstract One of the most expressive trends in American culture of the 1950s and 1960s, manifested by the treatment of travel as a motive of life in both the mental and creative spheres, can be confidently attributed to the Beat generation. Their consumption lifestyle, crazy undertakings, love and moral fights, in which they entered without any moderation, led them to living problems and, consequently, to being lost. This generation almost automatically brings to mind the portrait of young, vulnerable Americans, rebellious and lost, oppressed and radical, wanting freedom and falling into trouble. The myth of the Beat generation is one of the most distinct myths of American culture of the twentieth century. We know very little about Beat in Poland. Admittedly, there have been several studies concerning the literary output of Beat writers, but they do not fully reflect the complexity of the phenomenon and contexts in which they were shaped. We are constantly looking at them in terms of mythologized rebellion. Associated with beat, Charles Bukowski is the best example of a person whose work was inspired by his own experiences related to sex, alcohol, poverty and human weaknesses. Keywords: Bukowski, America’s South, Beat Generation
223 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Consequence of Exposure on Domestic Violence of Adolescence
Gbenga Michael Adeyeye Universiyty of South Africa
Abstract In spite of noteworthy patterns, there stays incredible variety in behavioral results among children presented to domestic violence. Various studies demonstrate exposure to Domestic violence may build the danger of creating behavioral problems among children. This study is to investigate the impacts of exposure to Domestic brutality among youth in the Nigerian community. This study was carried out to investigate the consequence of exposure on domestic violence of adolescence, qualitative methods using unstructured interviews was used to collect information from seventy teachers on the attitude, emotion, development and academic performance of violence and non-violence adolescence. The result demonstrates that, there is a connection between the exposure to domestic violence and social outcomes for adolescence, as far as family violence, study results showed that adolescent exposed to family violence have more unfortunate school working, adolescence that are known to be violence, poor relations, they were not genuinely solid, were observed not to be well mentally developed and performed extremely poor academically while reverse is the case for non-violence adolescence. The major findings of this study shows that, social exposure of adolescence has a great impact on his or her attitude, emotion, mental development and academic performance. Keywords: consequences, domestic violence, adolescence.
224 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Empowering Young Societal Innovators for Equity and Renewal Using ABCDE
Dr. Alison Taysum School of Education, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK. EU Prof. Arto Kallioniemi University of Helskinki, Siltavuorenpenger, Finland, EU Dr. Mihaela V. Ruşitoru Universities of Franche-Comté and Helsinki, Siltavuorenpenger, Finland, EU
Abstract The paper addresses the foundations of governance and democracy by presenting an evidence informed strategy that supports the collection of new evidence through groundwork case studies delivered through a consortium of 11 HEIs in different nation states. The partners working with Senior Credentialed Educational Leaders in schools have developed research questions, addressed by applying A Blueprint for Character Development for Evolution (ABCDE). This paper presents ABCDE as the strategy. Community members start to develop their sense making from observations to their beliefs (A-B) and from their beliefs to their methods (B- C). Community members can move from methods to developing hypotheses (C-D) to developing principles and theories-of-change (D-E). Community members apply ABCDE to develop confidence and trust in themselves and others in a process of becoming self-governing. ABCDE Empowers Young Societal Innovators for Equity and Renewal (EYSIER) by mobilising grass roots up theories-of-change with new partnerships brokered by ‘Professional Educators and Administrators’ Committees for Empowerment’ (PEACE). PEACE is brokered by cross faculty partnerships of HEIs that partner with private, public and third sectors of all spheres in the wider society to produce and exchange knowledge to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. The paper identifies PEACE needs supporting by coherent policy to build trust in societal institutions within a social contract and embedded economy that socialises investment, risk and rewards. The consortium seeks funding to deliver ABCDE and mainstream it, brokered by HEIs as hubs, to achieve the SDGs and address violent extremism including Nigeria, Pakistan and the broader MENA region and the Balkans. Keyboard: Empowering Young Societal Innovators, Equity, Renewal, ABCDE
225 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Need to Focus on Digital Pedagogy for Online Learning
Halvdan Haugsbakken Shaun Nykvist Dag Atle Lysne Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Sociology and Political Science and Department of Teacher Education, Norway
Abstract As pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning continue to evolve to meet the needs of students in a rapidly changing, globalized world that is heavily influenced and reliant on digital technologies, it is anticipated that the learning environments in Higher Education will also be transformed. Consequently, this transformation of learning environments is often synonymous with the adoption of and continued focus on the potential benefits of online learning in the Higher Education sector. It is within this context that this paper reports on a small-scale case study in a large Nordic university where the learning management system, Blackboard was piloted and implemented using a top-down approach consisting of the comprehensive training of academic staff, students and support staff. The explorative approach used in this study identifies three common themes in the data as it follows a group of academic beta testers (N=23) who are involved in the initial phases of implementation. The study explores the educators’ primary use of Blackboard, whilst attempting to understand how academics perceive and interpret the role of online technologies to support effective pedagogical practices. Drawing on data from participant interviews, the study highlights the need for increased academic support for online learning design and a renewed focus on staff development of effective pedagogical practices Keywords: Online Pedagogy, Higher Education, Learning Design, Blackboard.
226 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Blockchain Challenge for Higher Education Institutions
Halvdan Haugsbakken Inger Langseth Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Sociology and Political Science and Department of Teacher Education, Norway
Abstract Blockchain technology is argued to be the next “big” digital technology trend that will challenge a number of organizations, including higher education institutions. In contrast, higher education institutions have a history of being slow to adopt new digital technologies in the organizational apparatus. The question that remains discussing is whether universities will approach blockchain technologies in ways that are different from traditional research and education. This paper intends to discuss three particular ways in which blockchain may challenge higher education institution. The paper questions whether blockchain technologies can democratize and automate learning process, reduce costly bureaucracy and be adopted in higher education institutions. In sum, the intent is to invite to a discussion on blockchain and address whether or in what ways higher education institutions should adopt blockchain technologies as a digital technology. Keywords: blockchain, universities, digital technologies, governance
227 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Interpretive Theorizing on the Development of Management Accounting in Russia: Constructivist Grounded Theory Approach
Pavel Lebedev IEDC Bled School of Management, Slovenia
Abstract In this paper, the author discusses a method of interpretive theorizing to construct a grounded theory and discusses its application to management accounting research. It is exemplified by the study of the development and the current state of management accounting in Russia and is conducted by the author with a main phase of investigation between 2014 and 2019. These studies employed various methods including archival research, an extended survey study, and a longitudinal case-based study of particular companies, all of them having produced diverse results. An interpretive approach, as demonstrated in this paper, is an effective vehicle to pursue the ambitious goals of reconciling findings from multiple studies while searching for patterns among them. Such a process allows the author to explore, formulate, and explain a holistic, but a systematic picture of the state and development of management accounting and contribute to the development of theory. The paper demonstrates how the author applied a cornerstone of the qualitative analysis—various coding approaches—to develop categories as foundations for formulated theoretical propositions. The emerging theory claims that the influence of external factors on the development of management accounting in Russia has been spontaneous and unsustainable, while management accounting competencies of the decision-makers of mid-sized companies (internal factors) were not sufficient to arrange a proper management accounting function, which led to the “managerial dead-end” and created a “vicious circle” that does not give rise to financial leadership. Keywords: Emerging Markets, Grounded Theory, Interpretive Theorizing, Management Accounting, Russia
228 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Issues Regarding the Implementation of Translation in English Language Teaching
Alma Karasaliu Fan S. Noli University, Korçë, Albania
Abstract There are several attitudes towards utilizing translation in teaching a foreign language (in our case English language), but as recent studies have shown, a considerable amount of teachers, teacher trainees and teacher trainers rely on it during the teaching and learning processes. Taking into consideration the fact that the advantages of using translation as a teaching device outweigh the disadvantages, an attempt to formally implement it with students of Fan S. Noli University was made. This paper focuses on the results derived from making such practice part of syllabuses of two different study programs with the view of highlighting difficulties, benefits and misconceptions encountered during the process. The study programs were purposely chosen with no immediate relation between them in order to have results derived by two different groups of users. By means of analyzing the data collected via questionnaires distributed to the students, two main contradictory attitudes will be brought into attention. Moreover, reasons underlying the gap between the attitudes students showed regarding the beneficial aspect of using translation in teaching English as a foreign language will be discussed. Also, among others, the necessity to implement such practice into the curriculum of future English teachers will be emphasized, regarding it as the leading group from where further practice will be carried out in the lower levels of Education. Keywords: EFL, translation practice, skills’ developments, avoidance, cognitive aspects
229 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
How Rituals and Practices Can Influence the Society in Emile Durkheim View; Example of Intercultural Communities from Romanian Society
Eksiolgu Cristina-Mihaela PhD Student at Romanian Academy, National Institute for Economic Research „Constantin C. Kirițescu”, Research Institute for Quality of Life, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract Today we are talking more and more about changes in society. Whether they are due to migration, technology or computer science, or because of mixed marriages, these societies exist totally different from previous ones and must also be studied at the academic level to help ensure a safe and lasting evolvement. From both the academic and the real point of view, we are talking about society; society as a definition and evolution. For this reason, it is necessary to look at the history and the way in which sociology emerged, as well as some current examples of societies. Such ideas will help us to understand the way in which today's achievements have been achieved and to suggest some ideas of what could come at the social and academic levels. Keywords: sociology, Durkheim, religion, practices, Romanians, ethnicity, rituals.
230 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Mobilizing Skin Care: Measuring and Tracking External Conditions with Light Emitting Diodes
Stephen J McNeill Kennesaw State University, USA
Abstract Light emitting diode (LED) technology allows users to monitor their indoor and outdoor environments while engaged in various tasks. LED has long been touted for its direct benefits to the skin; now, new LED technology is monitoring many external conditions that directly relate to human skin and respiratory health. My Skin Track UV, from La Roche Posay, is an integrated near-field communication (NFC) app. The light emitting diode (LED) acts as a detector to capture UV light. The battery-free, water-proof LED is worn on clothing and the energy is read by transferring data from the sensor to a smartphone via NFC technology. Based on one’s UV exposure and other environmental factors, the app uses a closed-loop, proprietary algorithm to issue a notification when environmental exposure is at a level that contributes to the users’ specific skin concerns. Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States and is the easiest to prevent. My Skin Track UV measures UVA and UVB exposure, noting the maximum percentage of sun-stock – the recommended maximum daily allowance of UV based on skin tone and the UV index. It also tracks pollen, pollution, temperature, and humidity. This paper discusses application of LED and NFC technology and reviews similar skin care applications and health education, including uses and gratifications. The associated paper features background technological research behind the evolution of smart-phone UV skin monitoring. The paper also includes results from product demonstration. Keywords: Light emitting diode, near-field communication, UV exposure, biometric user interfaces, wearable technology
231 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Juvenile Punishment System in View of the Need for Education and Reintegration
Jola BODE Assoc. Prof., University of Tirana, Faculty of Law
Abstract Due to age and development stage, juveniles enjoy a special status in relation to adult persons. The status as a juvenile in the criminal field raises the request for treatment in accordance with the physical-psychic characteristics of the juvenile and his educational needs. The punishment system is an important component of the criminal justice system for juveniles. As such, it must respond to requests for a special treatment consistent with the personality of juveniles and individual education needs. This system should be oriented towards the goal of education and rehabilitation of the juvenile. In accordance with the international standards of juvenile justice and contemporary legislation, the Criminal Code of the Republic of Albania (CC) has sanctioned a number of rules that allow for special treatment for juveniles in the area of the punishment system. Despite the positive aspects, the provisions of the Code were insufficient in view of the requirements of international standards and the need for education and reintegration. The legal reform which also included the criminal justice system for juveniles brought a number of changes in the area of juvenile punishment system too. With the entry into force of the Juvenile Criminal Code (JCC) it was possible to establish a special and autonomous system of penalties applicable to juvenile offenders. The implementation of this system serves a friendly juvenile justice aimed at avoiding the negative effects of imprisonment and tends towards social rehabilitation and reintegration. This study discusses the novelties brought by JCC in terms of the meaning, classification and determination of juvenile sentence system and it will be reflected in relation to the challenges of the effective implementation of the provisions relating to the punishment system. Conclusions will also be drawn regarding the compliance of this system with the request for special treatment of juvenile perpetrators and the need for integration and reintegration. Keywords: Punishment system, Juvenile Criminal Code, Punishment classification, Non-custodial sentence, Freedom restriction.
232 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Reification of Man
Vereno Brugiatelli, PhD
Abstract In the first part of this study I will examine the phenomenon of Reification from the point of view of the studies carried out by G. Lukacs and the philosophers of the Frankfurt School, who reached the conclusion that this phenomenon is deeply rooted in the logic of the market and in the techno-scientific reasoning of capitalist society. To reconstruct the fundamental stages of their analysis, I will focus on the economic, social and cultural dynamics, which they believe to be the basis of the processes of reification. Thereafter, I will compare their position to Axel Honneth’s perspective to demonstrate that such processes cannot only be attributed to market logic. From his viewpoint, the different forms of reification imply relational dynamics characterised by the absence of emotional involvement with regard to the sentiments felt and demonstrated by others. Reification derives from the cancellation of relationships based on sentimental participation of what other people are experiencing. Keywords: Reification, Capitalist society, Market, Misrecognition.
233 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
234 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
New Frontiers, New Actors, New Rules: Global Commons, Human Rights, Business - How to Improve Judicial Cooperation and International Development
Cristiana Carletti Laura Guercio
Abstract The state of international relations and the effort of international public actors and non-state entities to adopt new rules to govern their relationships by balancing human rights protection, human development and economic business growth is at stake. The creation of new legal frameworks to introduce innovative concepts and to regulate the interaction among traditional and innovative actors is not an easy task: it demands from States and International Organizations a proper determination and patience to preserve original legal features while advancing different notions and operational tools to found special regimes and disciplines which could be mutually and complementary reinforcing. The contribution aims at debating legal concepts, different stakeholders, renewed procedures that have emerged in the global scenario and that need for appropriate and applicable international rules for a challenging governance. Keywords: global commons; business; development; human rights; judicial cooperation
235 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
A Neologism: Translation and/or Adaptation
Tomislav Frleta University of Zadar, Croatia Zrinka Frleta University of Zadar, Croatia
Abstract This article deals with neologisms, the way they are created (their etymology), their function in the text, as well as the way how they are translated and adapted from English into French and Croatian. It will show what are the motifs for some translations (Is it a pure semantic transfer or the text and context have their role too?). Furthermore, we will analyse the main techniques/ways of creating the new words and try to answer the question what purpose they are created with for the whole text. At the end, we will give some examples of a good translation which goes beyond the word or the situation and show how the translator influences the reading of the book. Keywords: translation, neologism, meaning, adaptation, English, French, Croatian, Harry Potter
236 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
The Impact of Syrian Refugee on Jordanian National Security
Mazen A. S. Alougili Dept. Of International Relations and Regional Studies, Jordan University, Amman, Jordan
Abstract The protracted conflict in Syria and the deterioration in the security situation inside has brought about an unprecedented refugee crisis over the past six years, where it is estimated that over 5 million Syrian refugees have fled to neighboring countries by 2017. As one of the neighboring host communities for refugees, Jordan has entailed significant costs at the economic, social, political, and security levels. This study aims at assessing the impact of Syrian refugees on Jordan’s security, as well as the potential threats and challenges generated by the escalation of the Syrian crisis on the kingdom. Forced immigrant implications for host communities are diverse. Therefore, it should be taken into consideration the host communities’ economic, social, political, and infrastructure status when addressing those implications. The Syrian refugee crisis has placed financial, social, and institutional strains on Jordan as a host community. It is in the light of this that Syrian refugees might be considered as a threat to the socio-economic, political stability of the kingdom and most importantly internal and national security. Keywords: Jordan, refugees, national security, political, economic, crisis
237 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Andrew Taylor: Australia’s Poet of the (Extra)Ordinary
Ryszard W. Wolny School of English and American Studies, University of Opole
Abstract Andrew Taylor (1940-) has been regarded as one of the most significant living Australian poets largely due to the fact of his unusual use of the poetic language and the selection of topics. He undoubtedly belongs to the group of the poets, like John Kinsella, who create mastery in their so-called ‘niche’ market, quietly continuing to produce compositions of remarkable quality, and receiving national and international recognition for their achievements. Andrew Taylor’s Impossible Preludes (Poems 2008-2014) is a unique and beautiful retrospective on life, love and everything in between, with its full array of extraordinariness embedded in the ordinariness of everyday life. Each line is a story within itself, painting a picture for the reader to follow as vividly as one might expect in an art gallery. Every poem is full of colour and weight as it takes you on a journey into the mind of this creative and talented individual. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to disclose these elements in Andrew Taylor’s poetry that make it so extraordinary in its ordinariness and find out possible sources of this idiosyncrasy. Keywords: Andrew Taylor, Australian poetry, extraordinary, ordinary
238 19th International Conference on Social Sciences ISBN 9781646334933 Proceedings Brussels 12-13 July 2019
Mythology and Politics – the Case of Kosovo
Tatjana Đurišić Bečanović
Faculty of Philology, University of Montenegro
Abstract This article deals with a specific semiotic connection established between mythology and politics that can be helpful in terms of explaining and understanding a very complex semiotization of Kosovo in South Slavic cultures. The author analyzes a poetic definition of Kosovo offered by Matija Bećković – “Kosovo is the most expensive Serbian word”, because in politics, just like in mythology, everything is about words and their meaning , and not about facts. Keywords: mythology of Kosovo, semiotics, symbolic sign, defense, political solution, (post)colonial discourse, inferior culture, colonial trauma, auto communication.
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