Interest Group in Special Group in Coaching Psychology

International Coaching Psychology Review

Volume 4 No. 2 September 2009

ISSN: 1750-2764 International Coaching Psychology Review Editorial Board

Co-ordinating Editors United Kingdom: Stephen Palmer, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, Department of Psychology, City University, London, UK. Australia: Michael Cavanagh, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Sydney University, Australia.

Co-Editors Sandy Gordon, PhD, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia. Anthony M. Grant, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Sydney University, Australia. Travis Kemp, PhD, International Graduate School of Business, University of South Australia, Australia. David Lane, PhD, Middlesex University, London, UK. Alex Linley, PhD, School of Psychology, University of Leicester, UK. Alison Whybrow, PhD, Manchester University, UK.

International Editorial Board Hilary Armstrong, PhD, Institute of Executive Coaching, Roy Moodley, PhD, University of Toronto, Canada. Sydney, Australia. Richard Nelson-Jones, PhD, Cognitive Humanistic Institute, Paul Atkins, PhD, Australian National University, Thailand. Canberra, Australia. Lindsay Oades, PhD, University of Wollongong, Australia. Tatiana Bachkirova, PhD, Oxford Brookes University, UK. James Pawelski, PhD, Center, Michael Carroll, PhD, University of Bristol, UK. University of Pennsylvania, USA. Ian Cockerill, PhD, University of Birmingham, UK. Ernesto Spinelli, PhD, Regent’s College, UK. Cary Cooper, PhD, Lancaster University, UK. Reinhard Stelter, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, Susan David, PhD, Melbourne University, Australia. University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Stephen Joseph, PhD, University of Warwick, UK. Dianne Stober, PhD, Fielding University, USA. Carol Kauffman, PhD, Harvard Medical School, USA. Mary Watts, PhD, City University, London, UK.

Subscriptions International Coaching Psychology Review (ICPR) is published in March and September. It is distributed free of charge to members of the British Psychological Society Special Group in Coaching Psychology and the Australian Psychological Society Interest Group in Coaching Psychology members. It is available to non-members (Individuals £50 per volume; Institutions £60 per volume; single copies £25) from: The British Psychological Society, SGCP, St. Andrews House, 48 Princess Road East, Leicester LE1 7DR. UK.

Abstracting and indexing: The ICPR is abstracted in psycINFO and Google Scholar. In 2009 the ICPR will be included in the ninth edition of Cabell's Directory of Publishing Opportunities in and Administration and Cabell's Directory of Publishing Opportunities in Educational Curriculum and Methods. Notes for Contributors The ICPR is an international publication with a focus on the theory, practice and research in the field of coaching psychology. Submission of academic articles, systematic reviews and other research reports which support evidence-based practice are welcomed. The ICPR may also publish conference reports and papers given at the British Psychological Society Special Group in Coaching Psychology (BPS SGCP) and Australian Psychological Society Interest Group in Coaching Psychology (APS IGCP) conferences, notices and items of news relevant to the International Coaching Psychology Community.

Case studies and book reviews will be considered.

The ICPR is published by the BPS SGCP in association with the APS IGCP.

1. Circulation The circulation of the ICPR is worldwide. It is available in hardcopy and PDF format. Papers are invited and encouraged from authors throughout the world. It is available free in paper and PDF format to members of the BPS SGCP, and free in PDF format to APS IGCP members as a part of their annual membership.

2. Length Papers should normally be no more than 6000 words, although the Co-Editors retain discretion to publish papers beyond this length in cases where the clear and concise expression of the scientific content requires greater length.

3. Reviewing The publication operates a policy of anonymous peer review. Papers will normally be scrutinised and commented on by at least two independent expert referees (in addition to the relevant Co-Editor) although the Co-Editor may process a paper at his or her discretion. The referees will not be aware of the identity of the author. All information about authorship including personal acknowledgements and institutional affiliations should be confined to the title page (and the text should be free of such clues as identifiable self-citations, e.g. ‘In our earlier work…’).

Continued on inside back cover. The British Psychological Society Special Group in Coaching Psychology

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The Australian Psychological Society Ltd Interest Group in Coaching Psychology

❋ International Coaching Psychology Review ❋ Volume 4 No. 2 September 2009

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For members of the BPS, the 2009 membership fee to join SGCP is £8.50 (the cost to join the BPS as an affiliate member is £24) SGCP membership benefits include membership rates at our events and conferences and free copies of the ‘International Coaching Psychology Review’ and ‘The Coaching ’.

Highlighting the Psychology in Coaching

Contents

124 Editorial: To be or not to be Registered? Is that now the question for coaching psychologists? Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh Academic articles 128 Does all coaching enhance objective performance independently evaluated by blind assessors? The importance of the coaching model and content John Franklin & Justin Doran 145 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? A grounded theory study of the efficacy of coaching supervision Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick 162 Literature review of coaching supervision Barbara Moyes 174 Coaching Hypnosis: Integrating hypnotic strategies and principles in coaching Andrew Armatas 184 Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance: A Cognitive Behavioural Coaching perspective Alanna O’Broin & Stephen Palmer 195 Does coaching psychology need the concept of formulation? David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie Keynote Paper 209 Coaching as a reflective space in a society of growing diversity – towards a narrative, postmodern paradigm Reinhard Stelter

220 SGCP & IGCP Update

224 International Coaching Psychology Review – Volume index 2009

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 123 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 Editorial: To be or not to be Registered? Is that now the question for coaching psychologists? Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh

N THE UNITED KINGDOM (UK), from The progress of this statutory regulation the 1 July 2009, the Health Professions of psychologists has not been straight for- ICouncil (HPC) started to regulate practi- ward. Many psychologists approved of the tioner psychologists and protected the idea of going on a statutory psychological following specific titles: register but have been less keen to be regis- ● Clinical psychologist; tered on what is seen as a health professions ● Counselling psychologist; register. Is this register applicable to occupa- ● Educational psychologist; tional psychologists? At a cursory glance ● Forensic psychologist; through the booklets that registered psychol- ● Health psychologist; ogists have been sent since R-day (Registra- ● Occupational psychologist; tion Day) it becomes clear to see how the ● and exercise psychologist. documents relate to the health professions In addition it regulates and protects two such as chiropodists, physiotherapists, para- generic titles: medics and so on. For example, the public ● Practitioner psychologist; will be pleased to hear that psychologists ● Registered psychologist. including occupational psychologists (HPC, This was history in the making for psy- 2008, p.13) ‘must not refuse to treat someone chology practice and its statutory regulation just because they have an infection … you in the UK. Effectively from now on the HPC should protect your service users from has become responsible for protecting the infecting one another.’ Currently in the UK if public by keeping a Register of practitioner a coachee informs me (SP) that they have psychologists who have to meet its standards Swine Flu, I’m not prepared to see them for training, professional skills and although happy to use telephone coaching if behaviour (see HPC, 2009a). A survey1 they feel up to it. Of course, psychologists will undertaken on behalf of the HPC found be flexible and interpret the generic 14 stan- that, ‘95 per cent of the UK public would feel more dards of conduct, performance and ethics reassured knowing that practitioner psychologists (HPC, 2008) to the best of their ability and will be statutorily regulated’ (HPC, 2009b). So apply them to their field of practice. Fortu- at least the ‘UK public’ or to be more pre- nately it is recognised that some of the stan- cise, 95 per cent of the 1137 survey partici- dards might not directly apply to all the pants, can now be reassured as the registrants (see HPC, 2008, p.4). profession is now regulated. However, if the The first registration fees are due on register is to protect the public, especially 1 September 2009 so psychologists may the vulnerable, why is the title ‘child psy- reflect upon what action to take. If an occu- chologist’ not included? It’s a question many pational psychologist decides to voluntarily have asked. Or another alternative is just to deregister then what would be the impact protect the title, ‘Psychologist’. upon their practice:

1 The consumer research for the HPC was carried out online by Tickbox.net/Opinion Matters between 9 June and 11 June 2009 amongst a nationally representative sample of 1137 aged 16+.

124 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 Editorial

● Can still use the title ‘Psychologist’? Yes. graduate psychologists could work towards ● Can still use the title ‘Business being placed on the register. Fortunately the psychologist’? Yes. Society’s Special Group in Coaching Psy- ● Can still practice as a psychologist in chology has not closed the door on the var- private practice? Yes. ious options and we can look forward to ● Can still practice as a ‘Coaching hearing more about their deliberations later Psychologist’? Yes. this year. ● Can still use the term ‘Chartered One hypothetical concern – within a Psychologist’? Yes. couple of years it is proposed that the pro- Therefore, as long as occupational psycholo- fessional titles ‘counsellor’ and ‘psychothera- gists do not use the protected title then the pist’ will become regulated by the HPC. If impact seems relatively low unless their the title ‘coaching psychologist’ is also regu- employer or service purchaser expects regis- lated in the future, it could have unintended tration. However, many psychological service consequences. For example, why not regu- purchasers such as banks or insurance com- late the title of ‘coach’ too? It could seem a panies may not see any benefit of occupa- logical progression from one viewpoint. It tional psychologists being on a health tidies up the talking-helping professions. It is register. This is in contrast to a clinical, not necessarily a logical development from health or counselling psychologist working the practitioner’s perspective to have all the within the National Health Service or for a talking-helping professions from psy- private health provider as employers will chotherapy and psychology to counselling expect psychologists to use the protected and coaching regulated under one health titles. For this group of psychologists, regis- professions register umbrella. While this may tration is almost essential where as being sound unlikely, one can never be sure of the Chartered maybe less relevant. The coaching long-term impact of decisions taken and psychologist title is not protected and cur- their subsequent outcomes. One supportive rently anybody can use it, whether they are a argument in favour of such registration psychologist or not. could be that according to the research, Going back in time, there was some resist- coaches do work with populations that have ance within parts of the British Psychological issues even if the work is not Society to allow the Special Group in focused on these issues or disorders (see Coaching Psychology to become a Division. Cavanagh, 2005). If this had happened it would probably have It will be very interesting over the next led to chartership of coaching psychologists decade to see how the accreditation and reg- and automatic transfer to the HPC Register. ulation of coaching psychologists and What next? If the UK coaching psy- coaches develops in Australia, UK and chology movement really wanted to become beyond2. We hope that ICPR will keep us an HPC Registered profession then theoreti- up-to-date with any of these developments cally it could still happen. Coaching psychol- around the world in coaching psychology. ogists would need to consider the pros and And so, from professional issues to this issue cons of a statutory health registration system of the journal … and whether or not it is the best fit for This edition has a diverse range of arti- coaching psychology. Perhaps a separate cles for your reading pleasure. We begin with non-statutory register would be better, sim- two empirical studies. In the first of these, ilar to the Society’s Register of Psychologists John Franklin and Justin Doran present the Specialising in as long as findings of a double-blind randomised con-

2 The section on the regulation of psychologists in the UK has been a personal reflection of SP and does not nec- essarily represent the views of any professional body.

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 125 Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh trolled study into the impacts of co-coaching Alanna O’Broin and Stephen Palmer on objective performance in tertiary studies. have offered an interesting article looking at Franklin and Doran looked at the efficacy of the coaching relationship from the Cogni- two different coaching conditions aimed at tive Behavioural perspective. They note that improving performance on a range of self- the and the role of the coach- reported variables and objective perform- coachee alliance is an under-researched ance as rated by blind raters. This is the first topic in cognitive behavioural approaches. double-blind study in the coaching literature The bulk of work on the client-helper and such studies are sorely needed. We hope alliance has been conducted in the thera- to receive many more double-blind studies peutic literature and O’Broin and Palmer in the years ahead! call for more work on this within coaching. Jonathan Passmore and Susan As they outline, this is an important topic McGoldrick present the results of a qualita- that holds promise for a more sophisticated tive study into supervision using the understanding of what makes coaching grounded theory approach. They examined effective and how we may move practice for- transcripts from one supervision session and ward in the future. interviews with three supervisors and three David Lane and Sarah Corrie have coaches in monthly or quarterly supervision. written an article that highlights an impor- While their sample size is small they do point tant area of practice in coaching – formula- to some important considerations in supervi- tion. This has been a neglected topic in the sion – not least of which is the importance of formation of the coaching industry, and even supervisor training. today most coaches have little understanding Barbara Moyes carries on the discussion of formulation or case conceptualisation. about supervision in a very interesting and Despite this, formulation is at the heart of stimulating paper. She examines the way in professional practice. Lane and Corrie which supervision is constructed in the present a model for the development of for- coaching literature and beyond. In partic- mulations that can be used within a wide ular she considers the impact of therapeutic range of theoretical approaches. This has models of supervision on coaching supervi- the potential to be a valuable contribution to sion. Like Passmore and McGoldrick, Moyes’ coaching practice. article highlights the importance of articu- This issue of the ICPR finishes with lated models of supervision. Clearly there is theoretical and philosophical examination much work for the burgeoning coaching of coaching and coaching psychology by profession to do in this area. Reinhard Stelter. Reinhard places the Andrew Armatas opens up an area of coaching in a philosophical historical and practice in coaching that may be seen as social context. He suggests that coaching fits somewhat controversial – the use of hypnosis the needs of our highly diverse and restless in coaching. Hypnosis is a topic that tends to post-traditional societies with their emphasis arouse debate in psychology generally. This on in both the private may well be the case in coaching too. Is the and social spheres. Stelter argues that values, use of altered states of consciousness incom- making and dialogue should be patible with the coaching process as it is considered as forming foundational ele- commonly understood? Is hypnosis a valid ments in coaching. In this we see an example intervention in its own right, or merely an of how coaching is extending its under- adjunct to other interventions? Armatas’ standing beyond simple goal attainment or consideration of the State/Non-state debate performance enhancement to a more in hypnosis provides a valuable contribution sophisticated and holistic model of change. in the overall debate about hypnosis in We commend the articles in this issue for coaching and is well worth a read. your consideration and look forward to

126 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Editorial seeing you in December at the 2nd Euro- References pean Coaching Psychology Conference Cavanagh, M. (2005). Mental-health issues and which is being held at The Royal Holloway, challenging clients in Executive Coaching. Retrieved 18 August 2008 from: University of London. www.groups.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/ article_cavanagh.pdf Correspondence HPC (2008). Standards of conduct, performance and Stephen Palmer ethics. London: Health Professions Council. Coaching Psychology Unit, HPC (2009a). Health Professions Council. Retrieved on 18 August, 2009 from www.hpc-uk.org Department of Psychology, HPC (2009b). Health Professions Council. Retrieved City University, 18 August 2009 from: Northampton Square, www.hpc-uk.org/mediaandevents/news/ London, UK. index.asp?id=256 E-mail: [email protected]

Michael Cavanagh Coaching Psychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Sydney University, Sydney, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 127 Does all coaching enhance objective performance independently evaluated by blind assessors? The importance of the coaching model and content John Franklin & Justin Doran

Objectives: Despite increasing evidence supportive of the effectiveness of coaching there are no studies which demonstrate that the benefits on to improvements in objective performance as assessed by evaluators blind to participation in the coaching. This study examined the efficacy of two coaching programmes on independently assessed performance. Design: A double-blind random control trial in which participants were randomly allocated to either a Preparation, Action, Adaptive Learning (PAAL), or a self-regulation co-coaching programme with blind assessment of subsequent academic performance. A third no-treatment condition was used for additional comparison and control of expectancy effects. Methods: Two structurally identical seven-week co-coaching programmes were run. The Self-regulation condition focused on the development of study and coping skills, whilst the PAAL condition additionally focused on preparation for change and adaptive learning. Fifty-two volunteer first-year university students were randomly assigned to either a PAAL (N=27) or Self-regulation (N=25) co-coaching programme. Participants completed self-report pre- and post-measures of academic self-efficacy, decisional balance, resilience, hope, self-compassion and belief in the incremental theory of change. Academic results for the two coaching conditions were compared with 2103 first-year students who did not participate in the programme. Results: Participants in both coaching conditions reported significant improvements in self-efficacy and resilience, but only those in the PAAL condition experienced significant increases in decisional balance, hope, self-compassion and belief in the incremental theory of change. Participants in the PAAL condition experienced significantly greater increases in six of the seven dependent variables than participants in the Self-regulation condition. Relative to the no treatment control group, PAAL participants performed 10 per cent better in independently assessed academic performance (71.45 per cent vs. 61.59 per cent) (p=.0003, d=.61), however, those in the Self-regulation coaching condition only performed two per cent better (63.32 per cent vs. 61.59 per cent) (p=.604, d=.11). Across all the dependent variables the average effect size for the PAAL condition was d=.93, while the Self-regulation condition averaged d=.43. Conclusion: Both co-coaching conditions produced significant increases in self-efficacy and resilience, however, only those in the PAAL condition performed significantly better on decisional balance, hope, self-compassion, the incremental theory of change, and independently assessed academic performance. To ensure generalisation, future evaluation studies of coaching should seek to also evaluate variables which are theoretically related to the change process as well as independently assessed objective changes in performance.

128 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 Coaching and objective performance change

HE CONTINUING POPULARITY of Bacigalupo, 2007), motivational interviewing coaching is more a tribute to its face (Butterworth et al., 2006), feedback (Gregory, Tvalidity than its evidential base. The last Levy & Jeffers, 2008) and mentor coaching decade has witnessed an explosion of (Onchwari & Keengwe, 2008). Other interest in coaching and many valuable con- approaches have drawn on organisational psy- tributions to its theoretical base (Cavanagh chology such as team coaching (Hackman & & Palmer, 2007; Stober & Grant, 2006). The Wageman, 2005) or attempted to develop evaluative literature has moved from the integrated models of developmental coaching anecdotal to the scientific, with uncontrolled (Laske, 1999) or executive coaching (Pass- case studies slowly giving way to more con- more, 2007). Despite this very considerable trolled studies. Despite this trend towards effort, coaching has still not evolved either a the use of stronger designs, the number of unique theory of its practice or a unified studies which meet the normal standards theory which links it to other change modali- expected of other areas of psychology and ties whilst differentiating its uniqueness. science is still relatively small (Passmore & Early research into coaching was charac- Gibbes, 2007). A recent review of the litera- terised by either anecdotal observations or ture identified only eight experimental case studies, usually with little control. Whilst studies, of which five involved random these studies represent the normal begin- assignment to either a coaching or a control nings of any new area of practice, confidence condition (Grief, 2007). None of these in the generalisability of the claimed results studies involved objective outcome measures requires the use of designs allowing greater assessed by people blind to the participants control and the exclusion of alternative being involved in a coaching study. This explanations for any changes which may be study seeks to address this deficiency by util- detected. The need for such research has ising a double-blind design in which the par- been prominent in a number of recent ticipants were blind to the precise coaching reviews of coaching practice (Bennett, 2006; condition to which they were assigned, and Kilburg, 2004). Despite the very consider- the assessors were blind to the participants’ able difficulties inherent in conducting con- involvement in any trial. trolled evaluation studies (Stober, 2005), a In the space of little more than a decade number of impressive studies have been pub- coaching has expanded from executive and lished and recently reviewed by Greif (2007). life coaching to embrace such diverse appli- These stronger studies combined with an cation areas as leadership (Cavanagh & increasingly number of uncontrolled but still Palmer, 2009), pharmacy (Brook et al., 2005), valuable studies are generally consistent in literacy (Bean et al., 2006; Toll, 2007), educa- finding coaching to be effective in a variety tion (Poglinco et al., 2003) and health (But- of ways (Kombarakaran et al., 2008). Despite terworth et al., 2006). Over this period a great this apparent consistency, a number of deal of effort has gone into developing the studies have yielded minimal or negative theory base of coaching (Stober & Grant, results, at least for some forms of coaching, 2006). Much of this theorising has involved suggesting that we should not uncritically the application of orientations and assume all forms of coaching are beneficial, approaches derived from therapy, positive let alone produce acceptable returns on psychology, counseling and . Exam- investment (Bowles & Picano, 2006; Green, ples of such developments include Cognitive Oades & Grant, 2005; Gyllensten & Palmer, Behavioural Coaching (Ducharme, 2004), 2005; Sue-Chan & Latham, 2004). Lazarus’s Multimodal Therapy (Richard, To date only five studies have been pub- 1999), positive psychology (Kauffman & lished which involve random assignment to Linley, 2007), problem solving (Richard, one or more coaching conditions (Greif, 2003), emotional (Blattner & 2007), however, only the studies by Willms

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 129 John Franklin & Justin Doran

(2004), Green, Oades and Grant (2005), meeting their needs. The for Spence and Grant (2005) and Finn, Mason such action is held to arise from the person and Griffin (2006) incorporated non-treat- answering the questions why, what and how ment control conditions. One design limita- they need to change in order to better meet tion of all of these studies is that they depend their objectives and needs in an adaptive very heavily on self-report measures, which manner. The PAAL model of self-directed by their very nature lack the objectivity of personal growth proposes that a number of assessments conducted by independent underlying processes may facilitate this moti- observers. For coaching to be really valuable vation to develop adaptive responses to the it needs to make a significant difference to changing demands of life. This study focuses some aspect of observable performance on six processes which are identified by the which is clearly apparent to independent model to facilitate the effectiveness of observers. The only study utilising such an coaching: self-efficacy, decisional balance, external assessment was that of Sue-Chan hope, implicit theories of change, self-com- and Latham (2004), which although lacking passion and resilience. a no treatment condition involved assess- Generalised self-efficacy is one of the most ment of the participants’ academic perform- researched topics in psychology and strong ance by a member of staff who ‘was blind to evidence links it to work place performance the coaching condition to which the man- (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998) and a wide agers had been randomly assigned’ (p.272). variety of positive life outcomes (Bandura, This study revealed that participants who 1997; Bandura & Locke, 2003; Schunck & were either coached externally or self- Pajares, 2001; Schwarzer & Scholz, 2000). coached achieved higher marks in the sub- Together with self-worth, self-efficacy is gen- ject in which the coaching was nested than erally seen as one of the two core compo- those who were coached by a peer. Valuable nents of self esteem (Locke, McClear & as this is, it is important to determine if the Knight, 1996), and this latter concept has effects of coaching generalise to other areas repeatedly been associated with many posi- of performance outside the specific area on tive personal and social outcomes (Mruk, which coaching was focused. The present 2006). In a recent meta-analysis of 109 study is the first to incorporate not only studies of the predictors of academic per- random assignment but also independent formance, academic self efficacy was found assessment of other areas of performance to be the strongest predictor, followed by assessed by people completely blind to par- academic skills and achievement goals (Rob- ticipation in any coaching programme. bins et al., 2004). Understanding the process by which The of Change coaching works is as important as deter- was proposed by Prochaska and DiClemente mining if the effects generalise to external in an attempt to explain the pattern of areas of observable behavioural change. change, lapse, relapse and recovery often Most coaching programmes focus on goal observed in attempting to overcome addic- setting, problem solving and the develop- tive behaviours (Prochaska, Johnson & Lee, ment of self-regulation skills. Franklin 1998). Its appeal has seen it extended to a (2009) has recently proposed a unified wide variety of behaviour change and has model of change motivation and self-devel- been promoted by Grant as a core concept opment which has implications for the in coaching (Grant, 2006). Central to the coaching process. This Preparation, Action model is the assertion that in order for and Adaptive Learning (PAAL) Model pro- clients to progress from the precontempla- poses that a person must first be motivated to tion, contemplation or preparation stage to engage in self-directed actions from which the action stage, they must resolve their they may learn to develop adaptive ways of ambivalence regarding the costs and benefits

130 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Coaching and objective performance change of change. The role that this decisional likely to initiate employee coaching (Heslin, balance plays in motivating students to learn VandeWalle & Latham, 2006). An incre- study skills has been confirmed by Grant and mental growth mindset has also been linked Franklin (2007), and is thus a good indicator to more sustained motivation, academic suc- of the resolution of any ambivalence and cess and a wide range of other adaptive academic engagement and commitment responses (Dweck, 2000, 2006). The PAAL resulting from participation in an academic model proposes that the presence of a coaching programme. growth mindset is critical to change motiva- Hope has been defined by Snyder, Irvine tion and subsequent adaptive learning. and Anderson (1991, p.287) as ‘a positive Self-esteem has been linked to many pos- motivational state that is based on an inter- itive personal and social outcomes (Mruk, actively derived sense of successful: (1) 2006). Because the self-worth component of agency (goal directed energy); and (2) path- self-esteem is frequently linked to volatile ways (planning to meet goals)’. Extensive social comparisons, expectations and per- research over nearly two decades has demon- formance, self-esteem has recently been crit- strated that hope is positively related to job icised as a problematic concept (Baumeister performance and problem solving (Peterson et al., 2003; Crocker & Park, 2004; Twenge, & Byron, 2008), self-efficacy, optimism and 2006). One response to self-esteem being well-being (Magaletta & Oliver, 1999), aca- based on frequently negative social compar- demic grades (Ciarrochi, Heaven & Davies, isons and internalised self-judgments has 2007), sporting achievement (Curry et al., been the development of the concept of self- 1997), leadership (Peterson & Luthans, compassion, which has been promoted as a 2003), and health (Snyder, 2000). Hope has fundamentally more compassionate and also been found to be positively related to powerful predictor of effective coping with the emotional state of joy, and negatively adversity and good mental health. Originally related to the emotional states of hostility proposed by Neff (2003), self-compassion is and sadness (Ciarrochi, Heaven & Davies, conceptualised to entail self-kindness, 2007). Given the mediating effect that posi- common humanity (perceiving one’s experi- tive play in creativity, problem ence as part of the larger human experi- solving and the generation of supportive ence) and mindfulness. Research has social networks (Fredrickson, 2009), it is not subsequently linked Self-compassion with surprising that hope is strongly related to a mastery goals, reduced fear of failure, variety of positive outcomes. The agency enhanced perceived competence and emo- component of hope is also conceptually very tional focused coping strategies (Neff, Hsieh closely linked to goal self-efficacy, which as & Dejitterat, 2005). In a study of reactions to indicated above, is very powerfully related to unpleasant events Leary et al. (2007) found positive life outcomes. self-compassion buffered people against neg- The concept of a growth mindset (termed ative events in everyday life, moderated neg- an incremental implicit person theory) was ative emotions to ambivalent feedback, and first proposed by Dweck (2006) and refers to led people to acknowledge their role in neg- the belief which is often implicitly rather ative events without feeling overwhelmed than explicitly held, that people are able to with negative emotions. Although research change such key aspects of themselves as into the relationship between self-compas- their personal functioning and intelligence. sion and work performance is in its infancy Studies have shown that those who hold an (Lilius et al., 2008), it has stimulated consid- implicit growth rather than a fixed mindset erable research and represents a promising of their employees are more accurate in concept for coaching. their performance appraisals (Heslin, Resilience and the closely related concept Latham & VandeWalle, 2005) and are more of hardiness reflects the capacity of individ-

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 131 John Franklin & Justin Doran uals to respond adaptively to change and the achieve in other settings. The hypotheses capacity to bounce back from hardship, loss, evaluated were that: 1. Both the Self-regula- illness and adversity (Tugade & Fredrickson, tion and the PAAL coaching programmes 2004). Resilience has been linked to many would produce significant improvements in indicators of positive functioning (Beasley, academic self-efficacy, decisional balance, Thompson & Davidson, 2003; Carver, 1998; hope and resilience, but that the PAAL pro- King et al., 1998) and thus may be expected gramme would produce significantly greater to both facilitate adaptive functioning and changes. 2. Only the PAAL programme hopefully itself be a by product of effective would produce significant changes in a coaching. The concepts of resilience, hope, growth mindset and in self-compassion. an implicit growth mindset, and self-compas- 3. That both coaching conditions would pro- sion were assessed in the present study to duce significant increases in the externally determine the effect of coaching on these assessed academic performance, but the internal processes, and to determine their PAAL condition would produce significantly relationship to the externally assessed objec- greater changes in academic performance. tive gold standard of academic performance. Method The current study Participants The transition to university has long been Participants were 52 first-year university recognised as stressful with research con- students (21 male and 31 female) from a firming negative effects on health, interper- metropolitan university in Sydney, Australia. sonal relations, academic performance and Participants were recruited on a voluntarily retention (Burns, 1991; Robbins et al., basis though lecture announcements and 2004). Numerous theories have been pro- pamphlets to participate in a free co- posed to account for these difficulties and a coaching programme titled ‘Successology variety of interventions have been developed 101’. The participants were aged between 17 to assist with the transition, the most and 56 years (M=24.44, SD=8.90). Seventy- common of which focus on the teaching of one per cent of the participants reported study skills (Gettinger & Seibert, 2002) and English as their first language. coping skills (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008). Two meta-analyses of the effects of psychoso- Measures cial and study skills on student learning and Academic performance academic performance have recently been The average mark was chosen as the measure conducted which both review the theory and of academic performance as it offered research over the last three decades (Hattie, results on a 0 to 100 scale as opposed to Biggs & Purdie, 1996; Robbins et al., 2004). reliance on less sensitive grade point aver- Drawing on these results, a comprehensive ages (GPA). Each participant’s academic study and coping skills co-coaching pro- performance was measured by calculating gramme was constructed which was set the sum of their total grades for each subject, within either a conventional self-regulation and then dividing this total by the number of framework, or the PAAL motivational and subjects they completed, to produce an adaptive learning framework outlined above, average mark. and delivered to a cohort of first-year univer- sity students. The advantage of evaluating Self-Efficacy Scale (SES) coaching in this context is that universities The four-item SES was developed as a have a very well developed and finely gradu- measure of self-efficacy in relation to aca- ated method of independently assessing per- demic tasks. The four items referred to formance. Such objective fine grained improving grade point average, passing independent evaluation is very difficult to exams, completing homework assignments

132 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Coaching and objective performance change and understanding the key concepts in the pathways score, and a total agency score. All course. The development of the scale and its of the items are summed to produce a total acceptable psychometric properties has been SHS score. described in Grant and Franklin (2007). In The SHS has been demonstrated to have this application, the 10-point scale ranged adequate reliability, with Snyder et al. (1996) from 0=‘No confidence at all’ to 100=‘com- reporting Cronbach alphas ranging from .82 pletely confident’. The SES is scored by sum- to .95 for the SHS, from .83 to .95 for the ming the items and dividing the total by four agency items, and from .74 to .93 for the to produce an average self-efficacy score in pathways items. Snyder et al., report that the the range 0 to 100. SHS has strong convergent validity with the Dispositional Hope Scale (r=.79, p<.001). Decision Rating Scale (DRS). With respect to discriminate validity, when The 16-item DRS was developed by Grant controlling for the shared variance between and Franklin (2007) as a measure of com- state and dispositional thinking, the SHS has mitment to overcome ambivalence and learn been found to reliably predict daily to improve study skills. The DRS consisting appraisals of thoughts and events (Snyder et of eight positively phrased items (e.g. ‘If I al., 1996). could improve they way I study I would feel less stressed and anxious’) and eight nega- Implicit Self-Theory Scale (Growth vs. Fixed tively phrased items (e.g. ‘I have too many mind-set) other things to do than to try to spend time A seven-item version of the Implicit Theories trying to change and improve the way I of Intelligence and Personality Scale-Self study’). Participants responded to the DRS Form for Adults (TIS-SFFA; Dweck, 1999) on a seven-point scale ranging from was used to measure participants self-theory 1=‘strongly disagree’ to 7=‘strongly agree’. of intelligence and change. The TIS-SFFA The negatively phrased items were reverse consists of two subscales: the four-item intel- coded and the sum of all the items is calcu- ligence subscale (e.g. ‘You have a certain lated to present a total decision balance amount of intelligence, and you can’t really score with a range of 16 to 112. High scores do much to change it’), and the three-item indicate a decision to resolve ambivalence personality subscale (e.g. ‘Your personality is and take action, whilst low scores indicate a part of you and you can’t change it very disinclination to take action to improve much’). Participants responded to the TIS- study skills. The scale demonstrates adequate SFFA on a six-point Likert-type scale ranging psychometric properties and has been from 1=‘Strongly Agree’ to 6=‘Strongly Dis- reported in Grant and Franklin (2007). agree’. The TIS-SFFA is scored by summing the totals of each subscale to produce a total State Hope Scale (SHS) implicit intelligence subscale score and a The six-item SHS (Snyder et al., 1996) was total personality subscale score. High scores used as a measure of state hope. The SHS indicate a malleable or incremental attitude consists of two subscales: the three-item (Growth Mind-set), and low scores indicate a Pathway subscale (e.g. ‘If I should find fixed attitude (Fixed Mind-set). In this study myself in a jam, I could think of many ways to the total of both subscales was use for get out of it’), and the three-item Agency analysis. subscale (e.g. ‘At the present time I am ener- The validity and reliability of the TIS- getically pursuing my goals’). Participants SFFA has not been reported. However, using respond to the SHS on an eight-point scale a three-item version of the TIS-SFFA, Dweck, ranging from 1=‘Definitely False’ to 8=‘Defi- Chiu and Hong (1995) reported high nitely True’. The SHS is scored by summing internal reliability (α ranged from .94 to .98) the items of each subscale to produce a total and high test-retest reliability (r=.80) over a

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 133 John Franklin & Justin Doran two-week period. In relation to validity, over-identification), summing the mean Dweck et al. (1995) reported that on the totals for each of the subscales, and finally same three-item measure, disagreement with summing the mean of this total, to produce an entity-theory statement represented a total SCS score. To enable comparisons agreement with the incremental theory. In between the subscales the total scores were relation to discriminate theory, Dweck et al. each divided by the number of items in each (1995) reported that the three-item measure subscale to produce an average in the range was unrelated to measures of self-esteem 1 to 5. (Coopersmith, 1967; β=0.39, ns), and cogni- The SCS has been found to have high tive ability (SAT scores, β=–11.03, ns). It has internal consistency in a sample of college also been found that entity theorists perceive students, with Neff (2003) reporting Cron- academic success to be as of equal impor- bach alphas ranging from .77 to .89 for each tance as do incremental theorists (Hong et of the subscales, and .92 for the overall SCS. al., 1999). This suggests that any relation Neff has reported a test-retest reliability of between implicit theory of intelligence and .93 over a three-week interval. The SCS has academic success is unlikely to be due to dif- been demonstrated to have strong discrimi- ferential value placed on academic success. nate validity. Neff reports that whilst self- In sum, although the reliability and validity esteem scales, such as the Rosenberg of the personality subscale has not been Self-Esteem Scale, have a significant positive reported, it is likely that the implicit intelli- correlation with the Narcissistic Personality gence items of the TIS-SFFA are a reliable Inventory, the SCS has been found to have a and valid measure. non-significant negative correlation with (r=–.08, p=.23), when controlling Self-Compassion for the variance due to self-esteem. The 26-item Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003) was used to measure self-com- Resilience passion. The SCS consists of six subscales: The 33-item Resilience Scale for Adults the five-item self-kindness subscale (e.g. ‘I try (RSA; Friborg et al., 2005) was used to to be understanding and patient towards measure resilience. The RSA consists of six those aspects of my personality I don’t like’), subscales: the six-item of self sub- the five-item self-judgment subscale (e.g. scale (e.g. ‘When something unforeseen ‘When I see aspects of myself that I don’t happens’), the four-item perception of like, I get myself down’), the four-item future subscale (e.g. ‘My plans for the future common humanity subscale (e.g. ‘When I are’), the four-item structured style subscale feel inadequate in some way, I try to (e.g. ‘I am at my best when’), the six-item remember that feelings of inadequacy are subscale (e.g. ‘I enjoy shared by most people’), the four-item isola- being’), the six-item family cohesion sub- tion subscale (e.g. ‘When I fail at something scale (e.g. ‘My family’s understanding of that’s important to me I tend to feel alone in what is important in life’), and the seven- my failure’), the four-item mindfulness sub- item social resources scale (e.g. ‘I can discuss scale (e.g. ‘When something upsets me I try personal issues with’). Participants to keep my emotions in balance’), and the responded on a five-point semantic differen- four-item over-identification subscale (e.g. tial scale, in which each item had a positive ‘When I fail at something I get carried away and a negative attribute at the end of each with my feelings’). Participants responded to continuum. The RSA is scored by summing the SCS on a five-point scale ranging from the means of the six subscales to produce a 1=‘Almost Never’ to 5=‘Almost Always’. The total resilience score. SCS is scored by reverse coding the negative The RSA has been demonstrated to have subscale’s (self-judgment, isolation, and high internal consistency with Friborg et al.

134 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Coaching and objective performance change

(2005) reporting Cronbach alphas ranging growth mindset and developing self-compas- from .76 to .87 for all factors. The RSA has sion), identify the skills necessary for success, been demonstrated to have strong conver- and finally understand how these skills trans- gent validity with all of the resilience factors lated into goals which could be progressively being intercorrelated (ranging from r=0.31 developed via adaptive learning within a co- to 0.57), except for structured style which coaching self-regulatory framework. Identical was uncorrelated with social competence training was provided on the process of co- (r=0.08; Friborg et al., 2005). Using the Five- coaching within a self-regulatory framework Factor Model (McCrae & Costa, 1997) to dis- to participants in both coaching conditions. criminate between well adjusted and more vulnerable personality types, all of the RSA Design and procedure factors have been found to be positively cor- Participants (N=52) were randomly assigned related with the well-adjusted personality to either the Self-regulation condition profile (Friborg et al., 2005). (N=25) or the PAAL condition (N=27)(the slightly unequal numbers arose from partici- Materials pants not necessarily being able to attend on All participants were provided with a co- the day in which the other condition was coaching study and coping skills workbook. run). A no treatment control condition was This workbook set the coaching within a self- formed from students attending university regulation framework and covered the fol- for the first time who did not participate in lowing areas: Making the transition to either of the coaching programmes university, goal setting, time management, (N=2103). Analysis of academic marks was study skills, note taking, reading and com- conducted on the full sample of 52, however, prehension, exam preparation and man- with respect to the six process variables, aging stress and anxiety. The workbook analysis was restricted to those who attended included a wide range of quizzes and assess- all sessions and completed all pre and post ment devices to identify strengths and weak- measures. Due to the very large numbers nesses, together with planning and involved in the no treatment control group, self-monitoring forms. The content of the collection of pre post data on the six process programme drew heavily on the work of Cot- variables listed above was only possible from trell (2003) and Paulk, and Owens (2005). participants in the two coaching conditions. Participants were asked to form into pairs Participants were advised that there were and meet together at least once each week two coaching conditions, but were blind to for the seven weeks leading up to the exam the condition to which they were assigned, period. They were encouraged to each set and the differences between conditions. three goals and focus on coaching each A questionnaire seeking demographic infor- other to develop, implement and monitor mation and the above scales was emailed to the plans necessary to achieve these mastery all participants to be completed before goals within a self-regulatory coaching attending the first session. The first two ses- framework. sions were conducted as workshops (total Participants in the PAAL condition were contact time equalled nine hours) and com- provided with additional material derived menced in week seven of the 13 week first from the PAAL model of change motivation semester. During weeks nine to 13 of the and adaptive learning. This assisted partici- semester participants were requested to pants to clarify their current skill set, identify meet weekly in pairs to coach each other in their ultimate objective, undertake a cost- the development of the skills necessary to benefit analysis concerning the achievement achieve the three goals they had identified of this objective, identify and remove any bar- for themselves. At the conclusion of the pro- riers to change (including establishing a gramme, participants completed the same

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 135 John Franklin & Justin Doran battery of measures completed at the com- of the dependent variables, with time as the mencement of the programme. The pro- within subjects variable and condition as the gramme was approved by the university between subjects variable. Pairwise t-tests Human Ethics Committee. were run on the changes over time for each of the two conditions. Results Analysis of the main effect of condition Preliminary Analysis revealed that participants in the PAAL con- In view of the exploratory nature of the study dition did not differ in their self-efficacy from and the small number of participants, an participants in the self-regulation condition, alpha level of .05 was set for significance, and F(1,33)=1.47, p=.235, averaged across time. .1 to signify a trend for all main effects, The main effect of time revealed that partic- unless otherwise stated. Analysis of the ipants self-efficacy at T2 was greater than par- demographic characteristics revealed no sig- ticipants self-efficacy at T1, F(1,33)=66.61, nificant differences between participants in p<.0005. The interaction between time and the conditions, thus confirming the effec- condition was non-significant, F(1,33)=1.54, tiveness of the randomisation. p=.224. Preliminary inspections of the data Pairwise comparisons revealed that par- revealed three statistical outliers arising from ticipants in the PAAL condition reported sig- students failing due to non-attendance or nificantly higher self-efficacy at T2 than at T1 late withdraw from their units. Due to the (t[33]=6.22, p<.0003, d=1.21). The effect of small sample size involved in the study, it was time was also significant in the self-regula- decided that the inclusion of these outliers tion condition with participants at T2 in any analysis involving average mark would recording higher self-efficacy than at T1 lead to misleading results. Accordingly, they (t[33]=5.29, p<.0003 d=1.08). These results were excluded from the analysis involving indicate that as hypothesised, both condi- average mark, but were retained for all other tions led to significant increases in self-effi- analysis. Additionally, marks for any second cacy, but contrary to predictions there was year subjects or higher were excluded. One no difference in self-efficacy between the two participant in the PAAL condition only sat coaching conditions at the completion of subjects higher than first year and was thus the programme. excluded from any analysis involving average Analysis of the main effect of condition mark. The same policy was adopted with revealed that participants in the PAAL con- respect to those students in the no treatment dition did not differ in their decisional balance control condition who failed due to non- from participants in the self-regulation con- attendance or late withdraw, or who had dition, F(1,34)=.02, p=.896, averaged across completed subjects higher than first year. time. The main effect of time revealed that The results for each of the seven participants readiness for change at T2 was dependent measures under the two greater than participants decisional balance coaching conditions are shown in Table 1. at T1, F(1,34)=17.54, p<.0005. This main effect was qualified by a significant time by Hypothesis 1 condition interaction, F(1,34)=4.65, p=.038. H1 stated that both the Self-regulation and Pairwise comparisons revealed that partic- the PAAL coaching programmes would pro- ipants in the PAAL condition reported signif- duce significant improvements in self-effi- icantly higher decisional balance at T2 than cacy, decisional balance, hope and at T1 (t[34]=4.26, p<.0003, d=1.24). In the resilience, but that the PAAL programme self-regulation condition the effect of time would produce significantly greater changes. was non-significant (t[34]=1.52, p=.062, To test H1 a two-way ANOVA with d=.48). The results do not support the repeated measures was conducted for each hypothesis that both conditions would lead to

136 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Coaching and objective performance change

Table 1: Changes in dependent variables over time by coaching condition.

Pre-coaching Post-coaching Significance Effect Size (d) Mean S.D. Mean S.D. SELF-EFFICACY Self-regulation 62.55 12.55 76.10 9.23 <.0003 1.08 Preparation, Action & 64.20 15.23 82.60 7.22 <.0003 1.21 Adaptive Learning DECISIONAL BALANCE Self-regulation 97.65 5.38 100.25 8.66 NS .48 Preparation, Action & 95.13 6.57 103.25 4.61 <.0003 1.24 Adaptive Learning RESILIENCE Self-regulation 120.89 11.85 128.00 12.37 <.018 .60 Preparation, Action & 116.31 17.70 128.31 18.18 <.001 .68 Adaptive Learning HOPE Self-regulation 33.10 5.45 34.80 6.79 NS .31 Preparation, Action & 31.38 8.15 36.38 6.77 <.0005 .61 Adaptive Learning SELF-COMPASSION Self-regulation 2.94 0.43 3.03 0.44 NS .21 Preparation, Action & 2.57 0.58 2.99 0.82 <.004 .72 Adaptive Learning GROWTH MIND-SET Self-regulation 16.75 4.64 17.65 3.90 NS .19 Preparation, Action & 15.58 3.83 21.31 2.94 <.0003 1.42 Adaptive Learning ACADEMIC MARK Self-regulation – – 63.32 10.23 NS .111 Preparation, Action & – – 71.45 11.35 <.004 .772 Adaptive Learning .613 No Treatment control – – 61.59 16.24

N.B. Effect Sizes: Small=.2, Medium=.5, Large=.8 1 Self-regulation vs. No treatment control 2 PAAL vs. Self-regulation 3 PAAL vs. No treatment control

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 137 John Franklin & Justin Doran an increase in decisional balance as this only Hypothesis 2 occurred in the PAAL coaching condition. H2 stated that only the PAAL programme Analysis of the main effect of condition would produce significant changes in growth on the total hope scores revealed that partici- mindset and in self-compassion. As in H1, a pants in the two conditions did not differ sig- two-way ANOVA with repeated measures was nificantly, averaged across time (F[1,34]=.00, conducted for each of the dependent vari- p=.971). The effect of time reveals that par- ables, with time as the within subjects vari- ticipants total hope at T2 was significantly able and condition as the between subjects greater than their hope at T1, averaged variable. Pairwise t-tests were run on the across condition (F[1, 34]=12.26, p=.001). changes over time for each of the two condi- A trend was found for the interaction tions. between time and condition (F[1,34]=2.98, The main effect of condition revealed p=.094). Pairwise comparisons revealed that that participants in the PAAL condition did participants in the PAAL condition reported not differ significantly in their belief in the significantly higher levels of hope at T2 com- incremental theory of change (i.e. a growth pared with T1 (t[34]=3.51, p=.0005, d=.61). mindset) from participants in the Self-regu- The effect of time was not significant for lation condition (F[1,34]=1.45, p=.237), the Self-regulation condition (t[34]=1.33, averaged over time. The main effect of time p=.095, d=.31). revealed that participants belief in the incre- The results thus suggested that contrary mental theory of change at T2 was greater to predictions, only participants in the PAAL than at T1, averaged across condition, condition increased their total hope scores F(1,34)=25.52, p<.0005. This main effect was at the completion of the programme. qualified by a significant time by condition Analysis of the main effect of condition interaction (F[1,34]=13.08, p=.001). Pairwise on the total resilience scores revealed that par- comparisons revealed that participants in ticipants in the PAAL condition (M=122.31, the PAAL condition reported significantly SD=16.11) and the self-regulation condition greater belief in the incremental theory of (M=124.48, SD=10.33) did not significantly change at T2 than at T1 (t[34]=5.81, differ (F[1,33]=.23, p=.639), averaged across p<.0003, d=1.42). In the Self-regulation con- time. The main effect of time revealed that dition there was no significant effect of time participants total resilience at T2 (t[34]=1.08, p=.145, d=.19). (M=128.16) was greater than their total As hypothesised, participants in the resilience at T1 (M=118.60)(F[1,33]=15.81, PAAL condition increased their belief in the p<.0005), averaged over condition. The incremental theory of change (growth mind-set) interaction between time and condition was from T1 to T2, whilst no significant change non-significant (F[1,33]=1.04, p=.316). Pair- occurred amongst participants in the Self- wise comparisons revealed that participants regulation condition. in both conditions significantly increased in The main effect of condition revealed resilience. Participants in the PAAL condi- that participants in the two conditions did tion reported significantly higher levels of not differ significantly in their total self-com- resilience at T2 compared with T1 passion scores, (F[1,32]=.1.46, p=.235), aver- (t[33]=3.39, p=.001, d=.68). The effect of aged across time. The main effect of time time was also significant for the Self-regula- indicated that the total self-compassion tion condition (t[33]=2.19, p=.018, d=.60). scores at T2 was significantly greater than the The results indicate that both conditions total self-compassion scores at T1, produced significant increases in resilience, (F[1,32])=6.46, p=.016), averaged across but that there was no difference between the condition. conditions in the size of the effect. A trend was found for the interaction between time and condition (F[1,32]=2.74,

138 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Coaching and objective performance change p=.108). Pairwise comparisons revealed that H3 was partially confirmed. Consistent with participants in the PAAL condition reported expectation, the PAAL condition achieved a significantly higher levels of self-compassion significantly higher average mark (M=71.45, at T2 than at T1 (t[32]=2.88, p=.004, d=.72). SD=11.35) than the average mark of the no The effect of time was not significant for the treatment control group (M=61.59, Self-regulation condition (t[32]=.64, p=.263, SD=16.24), (t[2125]=2.91, p=0.002, d=.61). d=.21). The Self-regulation condition was Participants in the PAAL condition achieved however significantly higher on self-compas- a higher average mark than participants in sion than the PAAL condition at T1 the Self-regulation condition (M=63.32, (t[(32]=2.17, p=.019). Analysis indicated that SD=10.23), t(47)=1.74, p=.041, d=.77. Con- the null result for the Self-regulation condi- trary to expectations, participants in the Self- tion was unlikely to be due to a ceiling effect regulation condition did not achieve a limiting the upper end of participants’ higher average mark than that achieved by scores. the no treatment control group Analysis of the results supported the (t[2127]=.53, p=.298, d=.11). hypothesis that only participants in the PAAL condition increased their levels of self-com- Analysis of variables related to academic passion after coaching. performance Partial correlations were conducted between Hypothesis 3 the six dependent variables and average H3 stated that at the end of first semester mark, controlling for the effect of condition. participants in the PAAL condition would With respect to resilience, total resilience achieve significantly higher academic per- was positively correlated with average mark, formance than participants in the Self-regu- r=.33, p=.04. The following resilience sub- lation condition, who in turn would achieve scales were found to be either significantly or significantly higher academic performance at the level of a trend related to academic than participants in the no treatment base- performance: social resources, r=.40, p=.02; line condition. structured style, r=.26, p=.09, and family Before analysing the academic results it cohesion, r=.26, p=.09. was first necessary to examine whether any With respect to self-compassion, the demographic characteristics were signifi- common humanity subscale was significantly cantly related to average mark. Partial corre- correlated with average mark, r=.34, p=.04, as lations were conducted comparing was the mindfulness subscale, r=.30, p=.06, demographic factors with average mark, and however, only a trend was found between controlling any effect of condition. The total self-compassion and average mark, results revealed a significant positive rela- r=.26, p=.08. An increase in decisional bal- tionship between average mark and gender, ance was significantly positively correlated r=.35, p=.05. with females achieving higher with average mark, r=.31, p=.04 academic marks. Since there was no differ- No other factors were found to be signif- ence in the proportion of females in the var- icantly correlated with average mark. To test ious treatment conditions no correction was whether any of these factors predicted necessary to allow for this correlation. average mark, two multiple linear regression To test H3, a one-way between subjects analyses were conducted on all factors signif- ANOVA was conducted, with condition as icant at the .05 and .1 level, respectively. No the between subjects variable and average variables were found to have made a signifi- mark as the dependent variable. As cant contribution beyond that of the expected, a significant main effect for condi- coaching condition. tion was found (F[2,2148]=4.360, p=.012). Subsequent pairwise analysis revealed that

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Discussion which contains 33 items, where as the Hope This study was undertaken to evaluate the scale only contains six items. extent to which the effects of participating in With respect to self-compassion and a co-coaching programme generalised belief in the incremental theory of change, beyond self-report measures to independ- the PAAL condition was at a very consider- ently assessed objective performance, in this able advantage as these concepts were case performance in university exams and expressly targeted in this coaching condi- assessments. Although both conditions were tion. Accordingly, it comes as no surprise structurally identical in terms of the number that the PAAL coaching programme pro- and duration of sessions, they had somewhat duced highly significant increases in both different content and very different out- self-compassion and endorsement of the comes. The Self-regulation condition which incremental theory of change. The effect focused on study and coping skills only had a size with respect to the later was 1.42, which significant effect on increasing academic represents an extremely large effect. All the self-efficacy and resilience, with a small other effect sizes were in the range .61 to overall effect size across the seven 1.24, and were moderate or large in size. The dependent measures of .43. In contrast, the possible effects of these changes on aca- PAAL condition was associated with signifi- demic performance and their origin within cant increases in all the dependent variables, the PAAL model of coaching warrant some including academic performance, and pro- attention. duced a large overall effect size of .93. These The PAAL model of change and self-devel- somewhat surprising results are worthy of opment differs from the traditional model of examination. coaching in strategically focusing attention on Both conditions were labouring under a the readiness of the client to undertake those number of disadvantages with respect to actions which will lead to the achievement of achieving significant differences or large their goals and ultimate objective. Particular effects. The small numbers in each condi- attention is directed to identifying and tion militated against significance and made resolving barriers to change, chief amongst it difficult to detect effects. Similarly, since them being the belief that one can grow their both co-coaching programmes only began in intelligence (the analogy is often made to week seven of a 13-week semester, they could exercise developing a muscle) and change only influence academic work submitted in their behaviour through strategically targeted the second half of the semester. In view of effort. In a series of studies, Dweck and col- this, it is surprising that those in the PAAL leagues has found that belief in a growth condition achieved an academic mark mindset is associated with heightened motiva- almost 10 per cent higher than those in the tion, sustained effort and a greater capacity to no treatment control group. Under these recover from failure and discouragement constraints, an effect size of .61 is impressive. (Blackwell, Trzesniewski & Dweck, 2007; The Self-regulation condition clearly also Dweck, 2006). The PAAL model also directly worked as it produced an effect size with targets barriers relating to categorical respect to resilience and self-efficacy which thinking, self-acceptance, self-criticism, self- was not significantly less than that of the worth and perfectionism, and seeks to iden- PAAL condition. The surprise was that it did tify and resolve any additional idiosyncratic not produce a significant effect with respect factors which may represent an impediment to hope, even though this scale directly to change, personal growth and academic measures the very skills which are at the achievement. This focus on issues beyond the heart of the self-regulation condition. This study and coping skills covered in the Self-reg- result may in part be explained by the ulation condition may account for the greater greater sensitivity of the resilience scale, efficacy of the PAAL coaching condition.

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The results of this study have many impli- and surface learning strategies (Grant & cations for future research and practice. The Franklin, 2007). Measures of compliance results clearly demonstrate that a relatively would strengthen the design, as would con- simple low cost coaching intervention can trolling for prior academic performance. have very significant effects on both the Finally, it is important for the results of functioning of students and their eventual future research to be reported not just in academic performance. This is consistent terms of significance, but in terms of the now with earlier well controlled coaching universally preferred measure of effect sizes. research by Green, Oades and Grant (2005), Not only will this overcome many of the Spence and Grant (2005), Sue-Chan and acknowledged limitations of significance Latham (2004) and Willms (2004), and is testing (Thalheimer & Cook, 2002), but as further evidence of the very considerable the evidence base of coaching grows it will return on investment which may be derived facilitate comparisons and eventual meta- from coaching. It is also worth noting that analyses. the effect on externally assessed academic performance achieved in the present study is Acknowledgement greater than the average effect size of inter- The authors would like to express their very ventions designed to promote student great appreciation to Deborah Admoni, learning evaluated by Hattie (2009) in his Cheryl-Leigh Godfrey, Sonja Milinkovic and meta-analysis of over 500 outcome studies. It Pauline Sampson without whom this study is prudent to remember however that whilst would not have been possible. both co-coaching methods examined had a significant effect on self-efficacy and The authors resilience, only in the PAAL condition did John Franklin & Justin Doran the effect generalise to an improvement in Department of Psychology, externally evaluated performance. The Macquarie University, present result needs to be replicated and Sydney. extended with larger numbers and evaluated over a longer time period to determine if the Correspondence benefits are enduring. It also needs to eval- John Franklin uate a much broader range of other process Department of Psychology, variables in an attempt to better understand Macquarie University, the processes underlying change. Variables NSW, 2109, which may be useful in this regard include Australia. procrastination, self-regulation, pro-activity, E-mail: [email protected] change readiness, core self-evaluation Telephone: +61 2 9850 8031. (Judge & Hurst, 2008) and deep, achieving

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144 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? A grounded theory study of the efficacy of coaching supervision Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick

Objectives: Coaching supervision has become the dominant model of reflective practice in the UK. This study sought to explore coach and supervisor of supervision, and critically observe supervision practice. Design: The study utilised an observational design and semi-structured interviews. Methods: The study involved an observation of a coaching session, which was filmed, followed by interviews with the participants. This data was transcribed. In the second part of the study a series of semi- structured interviews were undertaken with coaches and supervisors. The data was transcribed and analysed using Grounded Theory methodology until saturation was achieved. The transcribed data was combined in the development of a theoretical framework for coaching supervision. Results: The study outlines a number of perceived benefits of the coaching supervision process. These outcomes include: raised awareness, coaching confidence, perseverance, sense of belonging, increased professionalism and the development of an ‘internal supervisor’. The research also highlighted the need for a greater understanding of what coaching supervision involves for coaches. Conclusions: The paper questions the dominant mindset that supervision is the only intervention for reflective practice and argues for multiple models of continuous professional development, alongside calling for further research to identify the benefits from alternative model of CPD within coaching. Keywords: coaching, coaching supervision, reflective practice, grounded theory study, efficacy of supervision.

OACHING is fast gaining popularity growth in coach training provision, from and credibility and the coaching sector short courses over a few days or a week to the Cas a whole continues to experience more recent development of longer accred- significant growth. A recent estimate put this ited courses, and full-time Masters pro- at $2 billion worldwide (Fillery-Travis & grammes. Alongside this growth in coaching Lane, 2006). Given this figure the UK practice, there has been a growth in the coaching market may be estimated to be advocacy for coaching supervision (Hawkins worth approximately £150 million per & Smith, 2006; Hawkins & Schwenk, 2006). annum, although such estimates are This has been largely supported by the extremely difficult to substantiate given the emerging professional bodies, such as Asso- diversity of coaching practice, and with the ciation for Coaching (AC), European growth of in-house coaching. The reality is Coaching & Mentoring Council (EMCC) that coaching has moved from a niche to a and Association for Professional Executive core personal development activity within Coaches & Supervisors (APECS). It has been the UK and US. This growth has been sup- argued that supervision is an important part ported by a growth in the number of of maintaining professional standards. Such coaching professional bodies such as the calls have, however, been made largely British Psychological Society’s SGCP, which without reference to any clear evidence that have acted as catalysts, stimulating research supervision contributes to enhanced and bringing together professionals to share coaching practice. knowledge. This has been matched by a

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Coaching has turned to counselling dual purpose of supporting the continued practice for ideas. The models which have learning and development of the coach, as well been discussed (Hawkins & Smith, 2006; as giving a degree of protection to the person Hawkins, 2006; Carroll; 2006) have their being coached.’ roots in the counselling and social work pro- Other writers, such as Backkirova et al., fessional practice (Hawkins, P. & Shohet, suggest: 1989; Inskipp & Proctor, 1995). Are these ‘Coaching Supervision is a formal process of models appropriate to the work of business professional support, which ensures coaches? More importantly is supervision the continuing development of the coach and most effective model to manage the chal- effectiveness of his/her coaching practice lenges and continuous professional develop- through interactive reflection, interpretative ment of the coaching practitioner? In light evaluation and the sharing of expertise.’ of this, there is a need to review the efficacy (Bachkirova, Stevens & Willis, 2005) of coaching supervision. The growth of coaching supervision in What is supervision? practice The word ‘supervision’ has many meanings. The volume of coaching practice, and by In common terms it means ‘to oversee and implication the number of coaching practi- direct’ (Oxford Dictionary, 2008). However, tioners, has grown rapidly over the past there is more to supervision than merely decade. Following this there has been a overseeing another’s work. Some writers talk growth in the advocacy for coaching supervi- about ‘Super-vision’ (Houston, 1995), while sion within the UK. others refer to the term ‘Extra-vision’ Downey noted in 2003 that very few (Inskipp & Proctor, 1995) in the context of coaches had any supervision but it is a ‘vital nursing, social work and therapy, implying ingredient’ in effective coaching (Downey, that such support and guidance is outside of 2003). More recently Hawkins and Schwenk the line management relationship. Carroll (2006) noted, from their research of UK notes that while the term ‘super’ in the word practice, that 88 per cent of organisers of ‘supervision’ can imply that supervisors coaching and 86 per cent of coaches believe monitor supervisees from a superior posi- that coaches should have continuous and tion, in practice this should not be the case regular supervision. However, in comparison (Carroll, 1996). only 44 per cent of coaches receive contin- uous and regular supervision. Drawing on Supervision in coaching our own personal experience, we would In therapy and the helping professions, question the representative nature of the supervision is the dominant model for reflec- sample used in the study. Our own experi- tive practice. This contrasts with much of ence in the UK coaching sector, based on management practice where a hierarchical coach training, coaching networks in the model of management has been dominant, SGCP and Association for Coaching, we sug- supplemented, more recently, with 360 gest the figure may actually be below 25 per degree appraisal and competency frame- cent. Such figures however are difficult to works. establish and vary depending on the sample. Practitioners, while arguing in favour of What is clear is that a wide range exists with supervision, have also tried to define the lower participation found among sole practi- concept within coaching. Bluckert (2005) tioners and those undertaking coaching argues: work as a supplementary activity and higher ‘Supervision sessions are a place for the coach participation among coaches within organi- to reflect on the work they are undertaking, sations and those seeing coaching as a pro- with another more experienced coach. It has the fessional activity in their work portfolio.

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Coaches’ reasons for not seeking supervi- Method sion include that it is not required by organ- Participants isations, it is too expensive (17 per cent), or This study involved a total of six participants they can’t find a supervisor (17 per cent) in a two-part process. The first stage involved (Hawkins & Smith, 2006). For organisations, an observational study of a coaching supervi- the reasons for not providing supervision sion session. The second stage involved include that it is too expensive (19 per cent) recorded interviews with six participants and they can’t find supervisors (13 per cent). including the two participants from the While not acknowledged we believe one observed session. explanation for this gap between expressed In the observed supervision session the desire and actual practice is the lack of evi- two participants were white British, aged 40 dence as to whether supervision is an effec- to 55, one was female, the other male. The tive tool for enhancing coaching practice. first participant (S1) (supervisor) had more A second reason may be the lack of under- than 20 years’ experience of working in standing of how supervision can enhance supervision, initially in therapy and more practice. However, further research, with a recently in coaching. The second participant wider sample, is needed to explore these (C1) (coach) was a trained coach, with issues, possibly through collaboration with approximately 18 months’ post-qualification one or more of the coaching membership experience. She also worked as a senior HR bodies. manager, and had more than 20 years’ expe- In the absence of a body of good rience in HR and people management. coaching supervision research or theories, a The second part of the study involved limited amount of coaching specific training semi-structured interviews with six partici- available and inadequate numbers of trained pants. Five of the participants were white coaching supervisors, many coaches have British and one was black British/ turned to counsellors, psychologists and psy- Caribbean. The ages of the participants chotherapists for supervision (Hawkins & ranged from 30 to 65. The two coaches (C2 Smith, 2006). Given the differences between and C3) were both female and were full-time coaching and therapy which have been self-employed coaches who had been widely discussed elsewhere (Palmer & Why- coaching for more than three years and were brow, 2007; Passmore, 2006), are these indi- receiving formal coaching supervision. One viduals the most appropriate to deliver coach did most of her coaching in the cor- coaching supervision? These differences porate environment (mainly private sector), include the more future focused nature of while the other coach was mostly involved coaching, the management of different with coaching leaders and managers in the boundaries when working in organisational Further Education Sector. The supervisors settings and in organisational setting under- (S2 and S3) were both male, experienced standing the dynamics and complexity of executive coaches and trained coaching organisational life. supervisors who offered regular coaching Given the lack of research on coaching supervision. Both supervisors had been prac- supervision, this paper explores the per- ticing for more than 10 years. ceived benefits of the supervision process and build a conceptual framework for coaching Data collection supervision which could be subjected to fur- The study was designed as a two phase data ther testing. In this respect a Grounded collection process. The first phase involved Theory methodology was selected (Glaser & the observation and aimed to offer an an Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). understanding of the supervision process. This was then used to develop and refine the interview questions. The second phase,

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 147 Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick involving semi-structured interviewers with Results six participants was the data collection The results of the analysis are reported using phase. the main descriptive categories as headings The observation session of a coaching and the sub-categories that make them up as supervision meeting was recorded. This took sub headings. For ease of reference, the place in a private interview room equipped main categories and sub-categories are listed with two-way mirrors, audio and video in Table 1. In this paper we have selected recording equipment. quotes which illustrate a theme or topic, but In the second phase of data collection, other statements were also made in relations semi-structured interviews were undertaken to these codes. with the six coaches and coaching supervi- sors. The interview were focused around par- Influencing factors ticipants’ experiences of the coaching The data suggested a number of factors supervision process. The interviews were which influenced the supervision process. recorded and transcribed using a revised ver- These include expectations, attitudes (of the sion of the Jefferson framework (O’Connell coach) and the preceding ‘need’ for super- & Knowal, 1996; Jefferson, 1985). Both vision. phases were conducted prior to detailed The first influencing factor was the engagement in the literature, as consistent expectations of the coach. These played an with the grounded theory method (Glaser & important role in the personal experience of Strauss, 1967) as adapted by Strauss and supervision, and its ultimate success or Corbin (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). failure. It is interesting to note that none of Each participant provided informed con- the coaches had any understanding or sent for their session to be recorded. As part expectations of coaching supervision before of the process, the opportunity was offered they started it. at the end for the data to be destroyed. In all ‘… when I started supervision I didn’t really cases participants agreed that the data could understand what it was all about … I s’pose I be used for the research study. just thought it was just like having a different level of coaching experience, but of course I Data analysis discovered it is a whole lot more than that.’ Following the transcription of the first two (C2: 7–10) interviews, margin memos and noting was Once the coaches were receiving regular used to identify themes. An initial set of supervision, their expectations were varied, themes was identified. This was used to fur- and included expectations of the supervisor ther explore issues during the second set of and of the environment/relationship. four interviews. An iterative process was Having engaged in supervision for a employed during the analsysis as the period of time the coaches’ expectations of researchers sought saturation of the data in the process increased. They expected their the development of the descriptive codes. supervisor to be trained and have a specific Following this process the material was set to set of skills and experience. one side and after a period further work was ‘I guess, having somebody who’s been trained undertaken to develop the conceptual cate- in supervision and is following a process and gories which were used for the framework. model…not just a coach who’s decided to call The conceptual codes were critically it supervision and raise their game sort of reviewed by the researchers in the produc- thing, but a different skill set or set of tion of the final version. processes.’ (C2:136–138) The coaches indicated a desire for supervi- sors to stimulate their thinking and offer them a different perspective on their

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Table 1: Table of categories, sub-categories and themes.

Main categories Sub-categories Themes 1. Influencing Factors Expectations (coach/supervisor) Of supervisor Of relationship/environment Of coach Coach attitudes to supervision Proactive and positive Seeking out issues Opportunity to reflect Faith in supervision Need for supervision Coach aware of issue The hidden need 2. Process of Supervision Coach’s role Active and primary role Open and present Critical appreciation Supervisor’s role Facilitator Support and challenge Quality feedback Knowledge over time Awareness of coach body language Properties of supervision Frequency Type Consistency of supervisor Relationship and environment Safe Role clarity and equality Develops over time Working together Coach-supervisor ‘fit’ Group supervision Learning from others Experimentation Objectivity 3. Necessary Conditions Supervisor Trained coaching supervisors Knowledge, skills and experience Contextual knowledge Supervision informs practice Ethical practice Ethical function of supervision Ethics training for supervisors 4. Limiting Factors Limited understanding of supervision Bringing issues to supervision Coach supervisor relationship Supervisor behaviour Too directive Coach behaviour Reliant on supervisor’s opinion Impression Management 5. Supervision Potential Individual Enhanced capacity to challenge Qualitative function of supervision CPD Organisational Opportunity for organisational learning and change 6. Outcomes Individual Difficult to quantify Raised awareness Confidence in coaching Perseverance in coaching Sense of belonging Professionalism ‘Internal Supervisor’

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 149 Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick practice. Coaches expected to feel safe and Such incidents were often about difficult or comfortable in their supervision environ- challenging themes within their coaching ment, and able to discuss their issues freely work which they were unsure of how to and openly without being judged. Particu- manage. larly important was the guarantee of confi- ‘I went to the person that ran the programme dentiality in supervision and a freedom to I was on and asked for a one to one discuss important issues. supervision session, because I just felt that this Supervisors also held expectations of was really important and I needed to do their coaches. There was an expectation that something now.’ (C3: 41–42) coaches should be open to constructive chal- The supervisors also highlighted the need lenge and open to supervision in general for supervision, but held the view supervi- and be ‘present’ in the supervisory relation- sion should be regular rather than only at ship. One supervisor said that the coach times of need. They highlighted that on plays an active and primary role in supervi- occasions there was value in discussing issues sion and that ‘it is the coach that makes it work’ which were outside of the immediate aware- (S2: 13). The coach has a responsibility in ness of the coach. Two of the supervisors the supervisors’ eyes to be willing to stand expressed concern for coaches who only back and reflect on their practice, reflect on sought supervision when they had a partic- themselves in the context of the coaching ular issue to discuss. One supervisor made conversation. In essence the coach needed the interesting point that coaches can learn to be able to ‘sit in a different seat in the room … from their good practice (to find out what and look at their work from a different angle’ they are doing well) and not only from the (S2: 16–17). issues/problems they seek help with. Both A second theme was the coach’s attitude supervisors recommended that supervision towards supervision. Having a positive atti- be attended on a regular, consistent basis, tude towards supervision was viewed as and that coaches should be able to request important if the coach was to engage in an further supervision at times when there is a open and constructive way. The coaches particular issue they wish to address. reported adopting a proactive attitude towards their supervision by actively looking The process of coaching supervision for issues in their coaching. Coaching supervision is a dynamic process ‘I don’t always bring something- sometimes between two people or more (for group there’s nothing that’s cropped up in the month, supervision), which takes place in a wider but I’m looking for things to bring if you see coaching and organisational context. The what I’m saying.’ (C2: 39–41) themes that emerged through the data In addition, the coaches saw supervision regarding the process of coaching supervi- as an opportunity to reflect on their practice, sion were: the coach’s role, the supervisor’s and as a resource with potential benefit for role, properties of coaching supervision, the their practice. supervisory relationship and environment ‘… if I’ve got a new client, I’ll be thinking and finally, a rather separate theme: the about using it as an opportunity, so where do process of group supervision. I feel least comfortable with this client, what As previously indicated, coaches tended can I ask. So I think of supervision as a to take a proactive role in their supervision. resource that I can kind of latch onto and get It became clear from the participants that what I can out of it.’ (C2: 24–26) the coach’s role was not limited to the actual A third influencing factor was the need for supervision session. It involves a consider- supervision. The coaches in the study high- able amount of preparation in the form of lighted how the need for supervision at spe- active and ongoing reflection on their cific instances contributed to their practice. coaching practice. In the actual supervision

150 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? session, the coaches also described taking a but to still have the confidence not to throw lead role. They described how they took your own ideas out the window, because responsibility for providing the supervisor somebody else has suggested something with accurate and sufficient information different.’ (C2: 161–164) regarding the coaching relationship. They It was noted by participants that the super- noted that the quality of the supervision visor also had an important role to play in relied on the quality of information the coaching supervision. It emerged that the coach brought to the supervision session, as supervisor took a facilitative role in the well as their ability to reflect on their process of coaching supervision by opening practice openly in the session with help from up the ‘critical reflective space’ (S2: 92) for the supervisor. the coach. It was suggested that the super- In order that the coach is able to bring visor should encourage the coach to step enough information to supervision, it back and reflect on his/her practice and emerged from both coach and supervisor hold this reflective space without supplying participants that the coach should be able to solutions. To achieve this the supervisor be open and fully present during the session. drew on multiple methods; employing open This commitment to supervision and the questioning, stimulating the coach’s ability to be open are also some of the thinking and exploring together the issue, behaviours supervisors expected from the including the emotions of the coach and coach. Without openness or commitment coachee in the coaching relationship. the real work of supervision could not be ‘So having a supervisor who’s shining a light successfully undertaken. on the part of the process you haven’t been Further, coaches highlighted the impor- aware of.’ (C2: 126–128) tance of adopting a critical stance for new Data from the first part of the study, (the insights to emerge. However, such insights video-taped supervision session), illustrated were for reflection, not wholesale adoption. this. In the session the supervisor used a wide In this sense the coach was operating as a range of interventions to help the coach separate autonomous individual, influenced explore the issue from an alternative per- but not directed by the supervisor. spective. Examples of interventions from this ‘… to be a good supervisee I think is to take on observed coaching supervision session are board any insights, comments and suggestions summarised in Table 2.

Table 2: Sample questions used in the observed coaching supervision session.

Supervisor questions ● How do you see that? ● And where would you sense that? ● … the statement behind those questions would be? ● What do you think he might say? ● Who would be saying this? ● And what’s happening between you and your coachee? ● So how did you get that feedback then? ● What were you wanting to say to your boss? ● So what would be your challenge to him? ● How do you think he would describe you differently when you get into the six-month review than how he described you at the beginning? ● So, what would the confident, assertive you be saying to me? ● How does that feel?

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The supervisor, in this facilitative role, Supervisor: ‘So, how are you doing with your was supportive of the coach, yet maintained assertiveness and confidence in here? (…) I’m just a strong element of challenge in order to noticing that the times when we go into here, um assist the coach in their reflective process. it’s like (demonstrates closed body language), is Feedback was a further aspect identified by that OK, or …? If you were being confident and both coaches and supervisors as an impor- assertive with me, here, what would you be saying, tant role of the supervisor. right now? (Extract from the observed super- Coaches also highlighted the value of an vision session) on-going relationship with their supervisor. A third theme was the properties of the This allowed the supervisor to become more session which were judged to be important. knowledgeable of the coach’s approach, ten- The data suggests a few common elements in dencies and behavioural patterns. This terms of the frequency, type of supervision knowledge informed the practice of supervi- and consistency of supervisor. sion in a way that helped the coach to raise The strongest message related to the fre- his/her awareness of behaviours that may be quency of coaching supervision with both affecting his/her coaching practice. As a supervisors and coaches recommending reg- result, it was perceived that the quality of ular scheduled supervision sessions. It is supervision deepened over time: interesting to note that from the interviews, ‘… having the same supervisor every month, one of the coaches received monthly super- so they get to know your patterns means that vision, while the two other coaches received you’ll get more insightful feedback from them.’ quarterly supervision. All considered their (C2: 131–133) supervision to be ‘regular’, so there is a cer- Supervisors noted the importance of being tain relativity regarding the regularity of aware of non-verbal cues, alongside the supervision in the eyes of the coach. spoken words of the coach. It was assumed ‘Very regular, yeah, so it’s quarterly, but I will that this awareness also developed over time, ask for supervision of I need something.’ and what was important was not the (C3: 39) behaviour itself but how the behaviour con- One of the supervisors pointed out that the trasted with the ‘typical’ behaviour of the regularity of supervision was dependent on coach while engaging in supervisor. One of the amount of coaching done. Perhaps the the supervisors noted: most important point raised about the fre- ‘…peoples’ verbal version of it isn’t that quency or regularity of supervision is that it accurate … because how we remember … but should be formal and scheduled, rather than what we do know is what a person shows you voluntary and ad hoc arrangement for the physically, in the room, what they replicate is coach. However, coaches valued the flexi- much more accurate. If you film a coaching bility of being able to seek extra coaching session and then film the supervision on it, supervision in addition to their scheduled you’d be able to pick out elements that are sessions if there was an issue they needed to transferred, in terms of uh, paralleling from address urgently. This could be through that one into this one.’ (S1: 40–44) phone contact with their supervisor or This reference to a parallel process was also through arranging an extra session found within the first part of the study. In the ‘Because, you know, the thing with supervision filmed supervision session the supervisor is that you’ve got an issue now, you can’t wait picked up on the coach’s closed body lan- three months to sort it out!’ (C3: 42–43) guage. This provided a clue as to the under- In terms of the type of supervision, there was lying feelings of the coach and by pointing it strong support by both coaches and super- out the supervisor opened up an avenue for visors for a mixed approach, rather than exploration in the observed supervision purely one-to-one sessions. Both coaches and session. supervisors valued the dynamics and

152 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? learning opportunities provided by group somebody else, being able to relate it to yourself.’ supervision which will be discussed below. (C2: 142–144) ‘I have found it valuable to not just have one It was noted that in a group the coach was to one’s.’ (C2:138–139) able to learn from the experiences of other There was also support, from both sides, for coaches and able to relate to these common having the same supervisor over time. The issues. The result of this was a sense of reason provided for this was to build up a belonging to the ‘coaching community’ and supervisory relationship and benefit from a feeling that the coach was not alone in the the development of enhanced knowledge issues he/she was facing in his/her coaching and rapport of one another over time. practice. ‘… having the same supervisor every month, Group supervision provided the coach so they get to know your patterns means that with an opportunity to receive insights and you’ll get more insightful feedback from them.’ opinions from other group members in an (C2: 131–133) environment where experimentation was Both coaches and supervisors drew attention encouraged. to the relationship as a dynamic process, ‘I thought it was quite experimental. I could with roles and responsibilities on both sides say ‘Well, I tried this and, or this happened … and a reported sense of equality in terms of and I didn’t feel like there was going to be any power, while retaining clarity of roles in the comeback really.’ (C3: 23–24) relationship. The issue of contracting was also noted and comparisons made to the Necessary conditions for coaching equal importance to this within the coach supervision –coachee relationship. Participants suggested there were a number The last sub-theme mentioned in this of necessary conditions that had to be in place cluster was the fit between the coach and the for coaching supervision to be deemed most supervisor. It was seen as favourable by the effective. Some of these have already been coach to have a supervisor who stimulated brought to light in this study, such as the cre- his/her thinking and whose approach to ation of an open, safe, confidential and non- supervision complemented his/her approach judgemental environment within which to coaching. coaching supervision can take place. Other While much of the debate was about the important factors included the supervisors benefits of one-to-one supervision, coaches training, experience and ethical maturity. pointed out that they enjoyed and benefited Both coaches and supervisors expected from attending group supervision in addition coaching supervisors to have specialist to their regular one-to-one sessions. One of training and to use a specific model which the main reasons provided by both coaches added value to the process. The supervisors and supervisors was the opportunity for pointed out the need for coaching supervi- coaches to gain a wider perspective and to sors to have knowledge of the context in learn from other coaches. One of the super- which they were supervising. For executive visors said that while he had ‘immense time for coaches this would be knowledge and/or one-to-ones’ (S3: 68), he believed that the experience of the dynamics present in the dynamics of group supervision added value top tier of organisations and the pressures to coaching supervision, Coaches shared this senior executives experience in their roles. view of the dual benefits from both one-to- Simply drawing on counselling experiences one and from group supervision: and transferring these to the coaching space ‘I actually like having a small group was seen as inadequate. environment as well…you’ve got more ‘… there are many counselling supervisors dynamics going … it’s quite interesting to hear who have never worked in organisations … other people’s case studies … the process on they don’t have the contextual frame or

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professional frame I think to do good coaching availability of such individual and the lower supervision.’ (S2: 236–239) cost. According to one supervisor in partic- Another feature raised was that supervision ular, this was not advisable, as they argued that should inform one’s practice. The super- the context in which coaching takes place is vision session should translate into a con- fundamentally different from counselling and crete course of action to which the coach the failure to understand these differences commits. The environment of coaching can be dangerous for both the coachee and supervision should thus be one of constant their employing organisation. learning and change. ‘… I think a lot of coaches have gone to A further point that came over very counselling and psychotherapy supervisors … strongly from all participants was the focus I think on the whole counselling and on the ethical function of coaching supervi- psychotherapy practice differs ’cause they are sion. Although the issues that face coaches there to serve the client in front of them, while may be of a lower ‘grade’ than those faced in the coach has always got at least the client and other helping professions, the ethical ele- the organisation and the performance.’ ment in coaching supervision is one which (S1: 156–158) should not be ignored. Supervisors’ high- There was also a sense that the term ‘super- lighted the ethical responsibility they held to vision’ has been used too loosely when challenge the coach when ethical issues applied in the coaching community to a wide arose. If the coach was not behaving in an range of activities including peer support ethical manner, the supervisor would inter- and peer coaching. vene, challenging where appropriate. In all Coaches highlighted that the sometimes cases the supervisor should act to protect the rigid nature of supervision meetings could best interests of the coachee. make it difficult to bring a particular issue to It was noted that this competency of eth- the scheduled supervision sessions. As a ical maturity required training and personal result the coach may need to have a super- development on behalf of the supervisor and visor available to deal with crisis situation that the supervision process provided con- rather than wait for two months to the next tinuous development and learning for the formal supervision meeting. Supervision supervisor as well as the coach. contracts should provide for this flexibility to call upon the supervisor between formal Limiting factors meetings. Coaches must be prepared to seek The participants of the study raised a out additional supervision if and when number of factors that proved limiting to the required. It was noted that such a flexible effectiveness of coaching supervision, both arrangement should be in addition to, in terms of the supervisory relationship and rather than a replacement for, formal and the process or issues related to one or both regular supervision meetings. of the involved parties. These included: the There are dangers in the supervisory rela- limited understanding of supervision; the tionship that if the necessary conditions and issues or lack of them brought to supervi- expectations discussed above are not fulfilled, sion; the coach-supervisor relationship, the coaching supervision will not be effective. supervisor’s behaviour; and the behaviour of The coach needs to be comfortable to discuss the coach. his/her issues freely and openly. The features As noted above, expectations can play an of challenge and support come into play to important part in the process and can both keep the relationship on its ‘learning edge’ to enhance and derail the supervision relation- use the words of one of the supervisors. ship. It was noted by coaches that they were Supervisor behaviour was also high- aware of individuals who attended supervision lighted as an important aspect and a poten- with counselling supervisors due to the wider tial limiting factor, if the supervisor behaved

154 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? in ways which undermined the relation such supervision should inform a coach’s as being over directive. Both supervisors practice, another mentioned that ones’ warned against the potential of being too mental models should grow and change over directive which they considered detracted time and this should inform practice. from the learning potential of supervision. It A fourth theme was the potential organisa- was indicated that the supervisor should not tional benefits. For coaches based within be offering direct advice or solutions, but organisations or working with a number of should allow the coach to reach these on coachees from the same organisation, it was their own, without being judged by the suggested that by increasing the coach’s supervisor. capacity, the coach could be more effective Coach behaviours also could have a neg- with individual coachees and thus contribute ative effect. Coaches suggested that to gain to wider organisational change. the most from the process they needed to be Another potential organisational benefit open to the alternative perspectives in super- from supervision, based on the participant vision, while also retaining their individuality responses, is the potential ability to assess sys- and confidence in their ideas. It was temic patterns, through the outcomes of the acknowledged that the supervisor’s assess- multiple supervisory conversations (within ment of an issue was based on the informa- clear confidentiality boundaries). By tion the coach discloses, and as a result, the drawing on such information, and sharing coach should not be too drawn to the super- the high level themes with the organisation, visor’s perspective if he/she does not feel it is the supervisor can contribute towards wider accurate. organisational cultural change. ‘Um, if you’re too drawn to their assessment of ‘… what are the systemic patterns, what does the situation – because … the supervisor’s that tell us about the current state of the assessment is still going to be based on the culture, and how that matches the vision and limited information that you’ve brought to the strategy, and work out what the organisation table.’ (C3: 156–159) can do to shift these patterns.’ (S3: 78–80) A further danger was the failure by coaches to be truly open and the danger of seeking to Outcomes of coaching supervision present a particular perspective of events. While coaches and supervisors highlighted the This danger, it was felt increased in a group potential benefits, participants in both groups supervision session, where impression man- found it more difficult to identify explicit ben- agement, due to peer pressure was more efits from coaching supervision. Coaches present. remarked that it was difficult to quantify how their coaching practice had changed or bene- The potential of coaching supervision fited as a direct result of coaching supervision, Participants suggested that supervision especially at the time, but looking back they offered a number of potential gains. The believed they were more effective coaches as a perceived potential benefits of coaching result of supervision. supervision range from enhancing the ‘I’m sure it does, um, it’s very difficult to coach’s capacity to challenge to enhancing quantify, but I’m sure it makes me more the quality of coaching practice. A third effective …’ (C3: 92–93) theme in this cluster was the contribution Coaches valued receiving a wider perspec- that coaching supervision could make in tive on their coaching issues and practice. Par- continuing professional development ticipants claimed this reflection resulted in a (CPD). The process of coaching supervision raised awareness and new insights for the within a group as an Action Learning Set, coach that had the potential to enhance their encourages the linkage between theory and coaching practice. The element of surprise at practice. One of the supervisors stated that the discovery of a ‘blind spot’ (below) indi-

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 155 Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick cates the transformational power of supervi- A further theme was what may be termed the sion which is alluded to by both Hawkins ‘internal supervisor’. This related to a (2006) and Carroll (2006). coach’s growing ability to self-supervise as a ‘… what I find really useful about supervision result of coaching supervision, as the coach is noticing my blind spots. I like to think I’ve reflected on what the supervisor might say. looked at every possible angle, and then The supervision process thus offered a form somebody from the outside spots something and of holding to account, not in any hierar- you think ‘Oh my goodness! How could I have chical sense but in the sense the coach missed that! (laughs)’’ (C3: 82–87) sought to maintain the standards of practice However, the coaches in the study were expected of them by their supervisor. unable to identify specific instances of changes in the practice resulting from Discussion insights gained in supervision. Instead, the Reflecting on the data largest gains were less tangible. Coaches The series of interviews, six in all, and the stated having increased confidence in their video session, provided a wealth of data on coaching practice. Along with the confi- coaching supervision. dence to pursue issues came a reported There was an indication, from the data, increased ability for coaches to persevere that coaches looked to supervision as a when things become difficult in the means of dealing with the challenges they coaching relationship. experienced in their coaching and that both Both coaches and supervisors indicated one-to-one and group supervision models support for group supervision. One of the offered potential benefits. However, the reasons for this, from the coach’s point of actual benefits were harder to quantify. view, was that group supervision provided Coaches held a belief that their practice was coaches with a sense of belonging to the enhanced, but they were unsure about the coaching community. In a group supervi- specific benefits. There may be an echo of sion, coaches were able to listen to the issues the process identified in coaching (De of other coaches, relate them to themselves, Meuse & Dai, 2009). De Meuse and Dai and receive input on their own issues. One demonstrated through a meta-analysis that coach noted: rating of coaching’s positive impact given by ‘… coaching is quite a lonely profession in a the coachee are significantly higher than rat- way, you know, going out, meeting someone, ings given by peers of coaching’s impact. getting back, reflecting on your own. So it This aside, it is of interest in this study that brings that sort of community together.’ despite being unable to measure the impact (C3: 112–113) of supervision on coaching practice, coaches Group supervisions helped in the formation displayed a faith in its value of supervision in of what coaches described as a community. terms of confidence and being able to listen Related to the sense of community, was a and share their experiences with others. raised sense of professionalism and ethical Both coaches and supervisors shared a awareness in their coaching practice. The in- common view about what factors con- depth exploration and reflection on their tributed and limited the supervision rela- practice raised questions of how they might tionship and the value of maintaining an conduct themselves in a professional ongoing relationship with the same super- manner. Supervision reminded coaches of visor, who was both trained and had relevant their ethical duty and held their focus on experience. professional practice. ‘I think it helps me be professional, it keeps my Reflecting on the literature professionalism up and reminds me of the ethos The results from this study provide a detailed behind what I’m trying to do.’ (C3: 111) picture of how coaches and supervisors expe-

156 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? rience coaching supervision as this field is Transformational learning as a theme developing within the UK. The body of liter- came across clearly in the study, from both ature on coaching supervision is at this stage coaches and supervisors. For the supervisors, limited and has been out paced by the devel- transformational learning was an aim, while opment of coaching supervision practice for coaches the learning was experienced, and the race to claim that supervision is the and this experience sometimes resulted in most effective model for continuous profes- surprise and an openness to change in their sional development. coaching approach as a result. Carroll (2006) has identified a series of In both the one-to-one, and group super- central principles which underpin coaching vision, participants raised the point that supervision. Carroll suggests: supervision created a two-way learning ● Coaching supervision is for the learning process. This occurred through the dialogue of the supervisees; and feedback between supervisor and coach. ● Supervisors facilitate supervisee learning In a group supervision coaches were able to ● Learning in supervision is transform- learn from the experiences of other coaches. ational (not just transmissional); As raised by one of the participants, group ● Supervision moves from ‘I-learning’ to coaching supervision should be seen as an ‘we-learning’. Action Learning Set, where learning is nec- The results of this study echo Carroll’s first essarily experiential, and reflection informs point that coaching supervision is about the ones practice. Supervisions also highlighted learning of the coach. Coaching supervision, that learning occurred for them in the as described by the participants, centres process. around the coach’s individual practice with This learning, however, only took place the aim of learning from this experience. when a good relationship existed and this The supervisor was expected to be com- depended on the supervisor being able to mitted to helping the coach with his/her adapt their style to suit the needs of the issue, create an environment in which the coach. One participant coach, who had had coach was able to be open and honest and a number of different supervisors over time, learn through a process of critical reflection. indicated the perceived value of coach- The results of the study strongly sup- supervisor ‘fit’. It was indicated that her ported the view that a coaching supervisor learning experience was enhanced by having takes the role of a facilitator. Supervisors in a supervisor whose approach suited hers, this study cautioned against over-involve- and a mismatch in approaches was a ‘turn ment and coaches indicated that supervision off’. Carroll (2006) also discusses this, saying was not as effective as it might be when that supervisors should have an under- supervisors offered too much advice or standing that one size does not fit all in directive solutions. Coaches noted that in learning terms. He indicates that supervisors order for the supervisor to be able to effec- should know the learning style and intelli- tively facilitate the session, the coach had a gence of their coach/supervisees in order to responsibility to be open and honest, and to facilitate their learning. The overriding provide sufficient information in the session theme here is that the supervision should be to explore the issue being presented. a self-directed learning experience and Coaches also noted that it was important that supervisors should be able to accommodate they retain their confidence, trust their the style and learning needs of any super- judgement and were not too influenced by visee. an overly directive supervisor. For them The results also appear to support supervision was a joint and equal process Hawkins and Smith’s (2006) three functions rather than a hierarchical one of being held of coaching supervision: developmental, to account. resourcing and qualitative. In terms of the

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 157 Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick developmental function, the participants countries such as US and Australia. Hawkins indicated that supervision provided them and Smith (2006) ask the question why with a regular opportunity for reflecting on coaching supervision is well promoted but their practice, to gain alternative perspective not so well practiced. and receive feedback. In terms of the Another dimension to the lack of clarity of resourcing function, the participants noted benefits, was a lack of understanding of the that the opinions and feedback of others different forms of CPD ranging from one-to- were valuable resources in gaining a wider one supervision, group supervision, a reflec- perspective. While the support and chal- tive log or journal, or formal and informal lenge offered by the supervisor helped the peer mentoring. The research appears to coach address the issues openly, without fear. offer some insight into the different benefits The qualitative function was experienced by from one-to-one and group supervision. How- the participants as an increased ethical ever, as was anticipated, there was little under- capacity and confidence to persist and perse- standing by standing among coaches of the vere and deliver coaching of a superior potential benefits of other forms of CPD. It quality. may be that different forms may suit different The results of the study provide support coaches and may be of particular value at dif- for Hawkins and Schwenk’s (2006) guide- ferent stages of a coach’s development. For lines for best practice. These guidelines example we would argue that new coaches include: benefit greatly from group supervision, devel- ● Takes place regularly; oping a sense of community and shared eth- ● Balance of individual, group and peer ical standards and learning from each other. supervision; However, later in their coaching careers, a ● Manages ethical and confidentiality learning log and peer mentoring may offer a boundaries; more appropriate model. Further, it may be ● Generates organisational learning; argued that most benefit can be obtained ● Provides support for the coach; from using more than one reflective practice ● Quality assures coaching provision; approach; combining for example group ● Provides continuing professional supervision with a reflective log. development of the coach; A further issue was the assumption that ● Focuses on the client, organisation and supervision was a problem-solving forum. coach needs. However, we would argue supervision is part This rosy glow of support for the work of of a learning forum for new coaches and part writers in the field should not, however, of continuous professional development for mask some interesting challenges which the experienced coaches. research has brought to light. A significant A final theme which is worthy of mention theme that emerged from the study was that is that of supervision training. While in Aus- the coaches had no prior understanding or tralia and US coaching supervision training expectations of supervision. Although they is either non-existent or virtually non-exis- both reported positive experiences of super- tent, there has been a slow growth in the UK. vision and there was an underlying sense that The study highlighted the value of having a they valued supervision, they might not have trained supervisor, who holds to a model of sought it out on their own. This echoes our practice and is also experienced in the view that coaching is more spoken of than domain of practice of the coach. The practiced within the wider coaching commu- coaches in the study indicated that this was nity in the UK. This may also explain the important to them. They wanted to know higher profile of coaching supervision as the that the supervisor had a specific set of skills model of choice for CPD in the UK and its and was following a process, rather than just relative obscurity in other English speaking another coach who wanted to ‘raise their

158 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? game’. There is currently a shortage of Other CPD models are available and we trained coaching supervisors. We would would argue that these may be more appro- argue that the development of additional priate at different stages of a coach’s devel- coaching supervision training will help to opment. These may include peer mentoring, address this issue, as will the recognition of reflective logs or diaries. accredited supervisor status by coaching Finally, this research, while one of the few bodies. supervised based studies published todate, is limited in its scope. The study drew on a lim- Practical implications ited pool of participants as a qualitative The study suggests a need for formal coach study, and a deeper understanding of the supervision training within the UK if the processes and efficacy of coaching supervi- supervision model is to be more widely sion is required. This could be achieved by adopted. Such training needs to reflect further research in this area of coaching coaching rather than therapy needs. practice. Secondly, in selecting supervisors, we would advocate that the coach considers the Developing a conceptual framework match between themselves and the super- As a grounded theory study, the ultimate aim visor, as well as the supervisors experience of the study was to reflect on the factors and qualifications. Once a selection is made which emerged from the research and con- clear contracting to set expectations will struct a framework, which both reflects the help in making sessions more productive for state of coaching supervision as a process in both parties. the UK, but also offers a framework which Thirdly, we would argue that a more flex- can be the subject of further testing through ible approach should be considered before more focused research into supervision and the coaching profession adopts supervision supervision practices. Such a model is sum- as the Gold Standard for coaching CPD. marised in Diagram 1. The diagram sum- There is a danger that supervision is made marises the supervision process into three compulsory in ethical or professional codes. core stages; context, such as which aspira- Such a move will reduce the flexibility to tions, expectations and needs inform the meet CPD needs through a variety of routes. process. The second cluster is the supervi-

Diagram 1: Conceptual framework: Coaching Supervision.

Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor learning behaviour experience

Expectations of the coach

Perceived outcomes

Context Process Actual outcomes Holding to account on ethical practice

Confidence in Needs of the coach safety net Coach behaviour

Benefits to the coach

Benefits to the coachee

Benefits to the coachee’s organisation

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 159 Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick sion process. This consists of the behaviours also highlighted the challenges that face of the coach and supervisor, along with the coaching supervision as a result of the experience of the supervisor and the fit growing coaching industry and coaches in between the two participants in the relation- this study expressed desire for trained super- ship. The third stage is the outcomes stage. visors with relevant contextual knowledge. The complexity and intangible nature is rep- This places a demand for trained coaching resented by the focus on perceived benefits. supervisors. Further the study highlighted However, within these may be buried specific the importance of clearly setting expecta- and tangible outcomes, which may include tions in the supervision process. enhanced confidence and a holding to The study, while unique in exploring a account. These may also include aspects new area of practice through a grounded such as growth in ethical maturity. It is these theory approach, should be viewed as a factors which when adopted and used by the starting point for wider research into the effi- coach may in turn shape their practice and cacy of coaching supervision. In this study thus the wider efficacy of coaching, offering participants were quick to describe per- gains to the coachee and to the coachee’s ceived benefits, however they were less able organisation. to substantiate the benefits in tangible terms. As a result further research needs to explore Conclusions this aspects comparing supervision with This study set out to develop a theoretical other forms of continuous professional model of the process of coaching supervi- development such as peer coaching and sion based on the experiences of coaches reflective logs, as well as comparing the ben- and supervisors. A Grounded Theory efits of one-to-one supervision with group methodology was employed. The results of supervision. the study gave rise to a theoretical frame- work of coaching supervision, covering The authors aspects such as influencing factors, the Dr Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick process of supervision, necessary conditions, University of East London. limiting factors, supervision potential and experienced outcomes. The results echoed Correspondence the existing literature on coaching supervi- Dr Jonathan Passmore sion, with coachees expressing a belief that University of East London, supervision offered benefits to them in their School of Psychology, coaching practice, including raising aware- London. ness about their practice, increasing confi- E-mail: [email protected] dence, encouraging perseverance and www.uel.ac.uk/psychology/coaching providing a sense of belonging. The study

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References Bachkirova, T. Stevens, P. & Willis, P. (2005). Coaching Hawkins, P. & Shohet, R. (1989, 2nd ed., 2000). supervision. Oxford Brookes Coaching and Supervision in the helping professions. Milton Mentoring Society. Retrieved 1 October 2008 Keynes: Open University Press. from: www.brookes.ac.uk Hawkins, P. & Smith, N. (2006). Coaching, mentoring Bluckert, P. (2005). Coaching supervision. Retrieved and organisational consultancy. Supervision and 1 October 2008 from: development. Maidenhead: Open University Press. www.pbcoaching.com/what-we-do/ Houston, G. (1995). Supervision and counselling coaching-supervision (2nd ed.). Rochester: Rochester Foundation. Carroll, M. (1996). Counselling supervision. Theory, Inskipp, F. & Proctor, B. (1995). Art, craft and tasks of skills and practice. London: Cassell. counselling supervision. Oregon: Cascade Carroll, M. (2006). Key issues in coaching psychology Publications. supervision. The Coaching Psychologist, 2(1), 4–8. Jefferson, G. (1985). An exercise in the transcription De Meuse, K. & Dai, G. (2009). Does executive and analysis of laughter. In T. van Dijk (Ed.), coaching work: A research analysis. Coaching: Handbook of discourse analysis. London: Academic An International Journal of Theory, Research & Press. Practice, 2(2). O’Connell, D. & Knowal, S. (1996). Basic principles Downey, M. (2003). Effective Coaching. Lessons from the of transcription. In J. Smith, R. Harre & L. van coaches’ couch. New York: Texere/Thomson. Langehoven (Eds.), Rethinking methods in Fillery-Travis, A & Lane, D. (2006). Does coaching psychology. London: Sage. work or are we asking the wrong questions. Oxford English Dictionary (2008). Retrieved International Coaching Psychology Review, 1(1), 7 November 2008 from: www.askoxford.com. 23–36. Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2007). Handbook of Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of coaching psychology: A guide for practitioners. grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. London: Routledge. New York: Aldine. Passmore, J. (2006). Excellence in coaching: The industry Hawkins, P. (2006). Coaching supervision. guide. London: Kogan Page. In J. Passmore (Ed.), Excellence in coaching: Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Grounded theory The industry guide. London: Kogan Page. methodology: An overview. In N. Denzin & Hawkins, P. & Schwenk, G. (2006). Coaching Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of qualitative inquiry. Supervision: Maximising the potential of coaching. London: Sage. London: CIPD.

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 161 Literature review of coaching supervision Barbara Moyes

Purpose and Methods: It is an interesting paradox that although coaches are expected to have supervision, little is known about coaching supervision. Coaching supervision has its roots in supervision in the therapeutic disciplines. The aim of this paper is to explore some of the key themes in the literature on supervision in those disciplines, and to discuss the limited research that has been conducted into coaching supervision within this context. Particular attention is paid to social work supervision, as two major proponents of coaching supervision, Peter Hawkins and Peter Bluckert, were originally social workers. Results: The paper shows the influence of therapeutic concepts and process on coaching supervision, and identifies some of the benefits and limitations of using a therapeutic model in coaching supervision. Coaches and purchasing organisations want different things from supervision. Themes in the therapeutic literature concerning the transition from practitioner to supervisor are highlighted, suggesting that coaches making this transition need to learn to think like a supervisor, and find ways to manage the power inherent in the role. Conclusion: More research into coaching supervision is needed to find out what is happening in practice. Keywords: coaching, coaching supervision, therapeutic model, power.

OACHING SUPERVISION is an under- supervision (Bluckert, 2004; Butwell, 2006; researched – and sometimes con- Lane, 2006). Instead, coaching supervision Ctentious – subject. Coaches are borrows from elsewhere, drawing particu- expected to have supervision, but despite larly on its roots in the therapeutic profes- considerable research into supervision in the sions. Leading writers in the field, Hawkins therapeutic disciplines of social work, psy- and Bluckert, have contributed to this. Both chology, counselling and psychotherapy, are former social workers whose approach (e.g. Kaduishin, 1992; Holloway, 1995; Page draws on the earlier work of writers on social & Wosekt, 1994; Hawkins and Shohet, 2006), work supervision such as Kadushin (1968, there is virtually no research into what hap- 1976, 1992). pens in practice during coaching supervi- sion, and therefore, what coaches are getting Definitions for their money (Schwenk, 2007). There is not even an agreed definition of Coaching is at an important juncture. If it coaching supervision. Hawkins and Smith is to become a profession, implementing (2006) say that supervision provides ‘a pro- supervision is a critical step it must take tected and disciplined space in which the (Hawkins, 2006c). As Schwenk (2007, p.2) coach can reflect on particular client situa- puts it, ‘Supervision is a symptom of a pro- tions and relationships, the reactivity and fession that is emerging and is part of patterns they invoke for them and by trans- assuring good practice. It is a natural evolu- forming these live in supervision, can pro- tion of where we are in the coaching foundly benefit the client’ (2006, p.142). business.’ Their belief is that coaching supervision But the current situation is confused. is systemic and transformational. The client The proliferation of models and standards in will benefit because during supervision, the coaching means there is a lack of coherence supervisee will have found a different, more in the profession which makes it harder to enabling, way to ‘be’ with the client. This is a develop a common approach to supervision sophisticated argument which has its roots in (Arney, 2006). As yet there is no specific the- therapeutic supervision. However, Bluckert oretical base or model for effective coaching does not emphasise this:

162 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 Literature review of coaching supervision

‘Supervision sessions are a place for the and how it can play a part in improving coach to reflect on the work they are coaching standards.’ undertaking with another more experienced coach. It has the dual Models purpose of supporting the continued Just as there is no agreed definition, nor is learning and development of the coach, there an agreed model of coaching supervi- as well as giving a degree of protection to sion. A key debate is how far the therapeutic the person being coached.’ (Bluckert, model is appropriate for coaching supervi- quoted in Hawkins, 2006, p.147) sion. Several supervisors have a therapeutic Bluckert emphasises the developmental and background and use a therapeutic model monitoring aspects of supervision. Moni- (Schwenk, 2007). The model most often cited, toring is necessary to ensure that the super- the seven-eyed model, was adapted by visee is behaving ethically and acting Hawkins and Smith (2007) from the model competently. Hawkins and Shohet developed for social More recently, coaching psychologists work and psychotherapy supervision (Hawkins have turned their attention to supervision. & Shohet, 1998). But Butwell (2006, p.7) Carrol (2006), for example, states that argues that coaching is not psychotherapy or coaching psychology is doing so ‘because counselling, and that ‘we should not assume supervision makes good sense from both that we can blithely transpose one set of stan- learning and quality perspectives’ (p.4). The dards across to another arena.’ This is an Special Group in Coaching Psychology important statement. If coaching is to develop within the British Psychological Society has as a distinct profession in its own right, it produced guidelines for coaching psy- needs to develop its own models which fit its chology supervision (2007). Their definition own ethos and purpose. These models are of the primary purpose of supervision is most likely to develop in practice, which is why broad – ensuring the needs of the client(s) research into practice is so important. are met in the most effective and appro- priate manner. They describe coaching Coaching supervision supervision as a formal process of profes- Despite this confusion, coaches are being sional support which addresses the coach’s actively encouraged to have supervision by development and the effectiveness of his or leading thinkers, employing organisations, her practice. This is done through interac- and the main bodies in the field such as the tive reflection, interpretative evaluation and CIPD (Arney, 2006), the Association for sharing expertise. The key difference Coaching (2005), the European Mentoring between coaching supervision and coaching and Coaching Council (2006), and the Spe- psychology supervision is that the latter cial Group in Coaching Psychology (2007). explicitly addresses the psychological nature Indeed, Arney, quoting Hawkins’ research, of the coaching process, as well as the appli- says: cation of psychological theory and methods ‘Our research shows that supervision has within the coaching process. benefits for coaches, their clients and the The differences in these definitions illus- organisation they work for, and that trate the differing aspects of what supervi- effective supervision is weakened if it sion is trying to achieve. This has been a neglects any of these. Most importantly, it major debate in the literature on both thera- highlights that good supervision is peutic and coaching supervision (e.g. fundamental to making sure that coaches Kadushin, 1985; Hawkins & Shohet, 1998; are able to work effectively.’ (Arney, 2007, Hawkins & Smith, 2007; Bluckert, 2003). As p.36) Bluckert (ibid, p.1) says, ‘There is an urgent However, despite Hawkins’ (2006a) need to clarify just what supervision is about research, we do not know enough about

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 163 Barbara Moyes what happens during coaching supervision, views. Hawkins’ research (2006a, p.19) or how effective it is. How can we then revealed an interesting split of opinion assume, (as many increasingly do) that between coaches and organisations. Firstly, coaching supervision is a good thing? coaches emphasised the developmental and Hawkins’ and Smith’s (2006) study is the quality assurance functions of supervision. most comprehensive information we have Eighty-eight per cent of them used supervi- about the state of coaching supervision in sion to develop their coaching capability the UK. It was based on web-based question- (interestingly, not their understanding), and naire responses from 525 coaches and 128 86 per cent of them wanted supervision to organisers of coaching services, plus more assure the quality of their coaching. This in-depth information from 31 practitioners implies that for coaches, quality assurance in focus groups, and interviews with six ‘best was about their skills rather than client pro- practice’ organisations using supervision. tection (although there might be an indirect The study was commissioned by the CIPD, link between the two). Coaches regarded one of the leading professional bodies in the supervision as an essential part of their con- field, with a vested interest in implementing tinuing professional development, ‘the piv- supervision. The data pool was self-selecting, otal link between theory and practice.’ so the respondents were more likely to be Butwell’s (2006) research supports this. She those who had thought about supervision. As also found that all members in her small Schwnek (2007) admits, this could introduce scale study enjoyed the skills acquisition some bias. aspect in group supervision. Hawkins’ (2006a) research gives us a snap Secondly, what coaches most wanted shot in time and identifies broad trends. He from their supervisors was to facilitate argues that organisations need to understand change, or ‘create a shift’ when they were more about the nature and benefits of super- stuck (Hawkins 2006a). Hawkins sees the vision. They need to learn how to establish shift as transformational, resulting in the effective supervision processes and assess coach behaving in a different way towards their external coaches’ supervision arrange- the client, which in turn enables the client ments. He concludes, ‘The challenge now is (and ideally the organisation) to change. to develop and embed models and practices Coaches’ strong emphasis on change is in coaching supervision so that it can provide understandable, as coaches are being paid the maximum support and benefit for by organisations or individuals to help them coaches and coaching services’ (p.19). achieve demonstrable change. However, those purchasing coaching The purpose of supervision services put more emphasis on the manage- The main themes in the literature concern rial aspect of supervision. This is the third firstly, the function of supervision view. They wanted supervision to protect the (Kadushin, 1976; Hawkins & Shohet, 1998; client, and minimise the organisational risk Hawkins & Smith, 2006); secondly, how far of unethical or unprofessional practice. For the therapeutic model is applicable to them, supervision ensured that coaching coaching supervision (Butwell, 2006; focuses on work objectives, and is within the Hawkins 2006a; Lane, 2006); and thirdly, coach’s capability. They wanted it to increase how supervisors take on their role (Borders, the coach’s understanding of the client and 1992; Page & Wosket, 2001; Holloway, 1995; their organisational issues. Seventy per cent Hawkins & Smith, 2006). Most of this litera- of organisations purchasing coaching super- ture relates to supervision in therapeutic dis- vision wanted it to monitor the quality of ciplines rather than coaching. coaching, whereas only 50 per cent wanted it A key debate concerns the purpose of to improve the quality and effectiveness of supervision. There are at least four different the coaching (Hawkins, 2006b). What we

164 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Literature review of coaching supervision don’t know is where supervisors are putting view on subtle boundary issues’ (p.10). She the emphasis, and whether they make their suggests that this should be a major focus for focus clear to supervisees. Do purchasers the coaching profession, and the subject of have a clear picture of what they are buying? further research. Threaded through this Fourthly, Arney (2007) focuses on the sup- debate is the notion that the form of super- portive element of one-to-one supervision, vision (one-to-one, group or peer) impacts describing supervision as developing coaches’ on its function (Hawkins, 2006; Hawkins & confidence, and helping rid them of some of Smith, 2006). the emotional burden they can pick up in coaching. She also sees one-to-one supervi- The function of supervision sion as developmental, closely examining the Kadushin (1976) has been an influential coach’s practice. Supervision provides a par- voice in the debate about supervision’s func- allel process for the coach where the super- tion. He identified three functions of social visor/coach relationship can mirror the work supervision: educational, supportive, coach/client relationship, allowing the super- and managerial. This model worked for visor to give the coach helpful feedback. social work. Social work supervision was con- Arney’s interpretation of developmental, ducted within a hierarchical, managerial set- therefore, focuses more on understanding ting and legal framework. Supervisees were what is going on between the supervisee and doing stressful and often in-depth work client, than on skills development. which required emotional support, and both There is little research to show how well supervisor and supervisee acknowledged supervision is practised. Hawkins’ straw poll that the supervisor’s role was to give guid- at the 2005 European Mentoring and ance, based on his or her greater knowledge Coaching Council conference found that and experience. only half the delegates receiving supervision Table 1, Functions of Supervision, shows said that it constantly transformed their work how much Kadushin’s thinking has influ- with clients (Hawkins & Smith, 2006), which enced Hawkins (2006) and Bluckert (2006). is what coaches say they want from supervi- Indeed, Hawkins’ model only slightly adapts sion. However, it is worth considering how Kadushin’s. Hawkins’ ‘developmental’ func- realistic an expectation it is to expect con- tion is essentially the same as Kadushin’s stant transformation. Indeed, de Haan and ‘educational’ function, whilst his Blass (2207) found that coaches used super- ‘resourcing’ function equates to Kadushin’s vision mainly for reassurance, confidence- ‘supportive’ function. Kadushin’s ‘manage- building and benchmarking executive rial’ function does not map neatly across to coaching practice. Butwell (2006) concluded coaching supervision because coaching that group supervision was valuable for dis- supervision tends not to take place within a cussing difficult cases and subtle boundary managerial context. Hawkins has therefore issues, but that coaches needed to learn how translated the managerial function into a to use supervision if it is to be truly effective. group of issues spanning quality of practice, None of the group supervisees she observed ethics and the organisational agenda. In had done so, and all were nervous at summary, the table shows how far the roots opening up in front of each other. She con- of coaching supervision, in Hawkins’ inter- cluded that: ‘What cannot be achieved in any pretation, lie in social work supervision. other way than supervision is the opportu- But is an essentially social work model of nity to discuss a difficult case, to explore supervision right for coaching? Coaches are one’s feelings about a client, or to bounce not typically working with the deprived or ideas around on how to take a ‘stuck’ client disturbed clients social workers encounter, forward, or to have advice from someone and so the level of support coaches need is with more experience or a different point of arguably qualitatively different. Coaching

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Table 1: Functions of Supervision.

Kadushin Hawkins Hawkin’s Definition Educational Developmental Skills development through reflection on work with client. Supportive Resourcing Understanding how the emotions stemming from the client contact affect the coach. Managerial Qualitative Quality control, spotting coach’s blind spots, ensuring standards and ethics are maintained and that the organisation’s agenda is not lost. shares some of the same psychological basis account of supervising inexperienced social as social work, but it draws on other theories, workers illustrates how far Hawkins’ concepts and methods, such as those from approach is influenced by social work super- sport (Gallwey, 1979), leadership (Lee, vision. 2003) and business (Whitmore, 2003). Irvine summarises the traditional social Unlike social work, coaching does not work view of effective supervisory practice. operate within a legal framework. Most Application of theory to practice is funda- coaching supervision tends not, as yet, to mental; Hawkins (2006a) also sees supervi- occur within a managerial context. The man- sion as the ‘glue that links theory to agerial aspect largely translates into quality practice.’ There is a similar emphasis on control in coaching supervision, considering reflection as essential for improving practice. such issues as ethical dilemmas and Jackson (2004) defines reflection as any boundary issues, and ensuring that super- approach that generates individual self- visees are not out of their depth. awareness of behaviour and performance. In summary, Kadushin’s (1976) influen- Hawkins argues that supervision helps the tial tri-part model still provides a broad coach learn from experience and become a framework for understanding the functions better reflective practitioner. of coaching supervision, but within it, dif- Social work supervisors use the way the ferent groups emphasise different functions. client makes them feel as a diagnostic tool. Hawkins (2006a) identified an important Of particular note is the transference. Trans- split between two key groups – coaches, who ference is the process by which the super- want skills development (educational); and visee transfers feelings from his/her own purchasers of coaching supervision, who past to the present relationship either with want client protection (managerial). Finally, the client or with the supervisor (Kahn, coaches identified a specific developmental 1979). Sensitising the supervisee to the trans- need for help in achieving ‘shifts’ (or ference, and the recognition of transferen- change) with their clients. tial elements in the supervisee’s feelings, is a key focus in therapeutic supervision. It is The therapeutic model used to help the supervisee enable the client Although we lack research into what hap- to change. This accords with the way Arney pens in coaching supervision, there is exten- (2007) interpreted the developmental sive literature into the process of social work aspect of one-to-one supervision. Hawkins’ supervision (for example, Kadushin, 1968; analysis of what supervision is trying to Mattison, 1975; Irvine, 1984; Hayles, 1988; achieve, with its focus on theory, transfer- Williams, 1997; Ganzer, 1999). This is partic- ence and projections, demonstrates the ularly relevant, given Hawkins’ and same therapeutic orientation. Bluckert’s influence on shaping coaching The more recent ‘big idea’ regarding supervision. Irvine’s (1984) personal social work supervision is parallel process

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(Williams, 1997; Ganzer, 1999). Parallel plines, and it cannot be right to decide that process originated in psychotherapy super- one discipline can adopt the practices of the vision in the 1950s (Ganzer, 1999). It is the other, merely because there are similarities, unconscious replication in supervision of without providing a rigorous justification for therapeutic difficulties that a supervisee has the decision.’ with a client. Patterns tend to repeat at all This is an important statement in a key levels of the system (Kadushin, 1985); emo- debate. Lane (2006) also asks whether theo- tions generated in the supervisee/client rela- retical ideas from therapy can inform tionship are acted out in the supervisee/ coaching. He sees coaching as ‘borrowing’ supervisor relationship (Kahn, 1979). This ideas from a range of disciplines such as idea has also found its way into coaching coaching, business, learning theory supervision, particularly in the seven-eyed and therapy, which coaches adapt to suit the model advocated by Hawkins. needs of their clients. He argues that not Why has the therapeutic model of super- only must coaches do this with care, but that vision gained such ascendancy? Bluckert they need to use a range of models to meet (2005) is surely correct that one of the rea- the wide needs that arise in coaching. There sons why practices common to therapy have seems no reason why this argument should moved into coaching is that an increasing not be extended to supervision. number of therapists are now coaching. Butwell and Lane might well be right to Hawkins (2006b) also found that many question the use of these ‘borrowed clothes.’ coaches were going to supervisors who were Their impact on coaching supervision has trained as therapeutic supervisors, and who been the creation of three ‘rather limited’ were likely to use a therapeutic model. approaches to supervision (Hawkins, 2006b, Some coaching supervision courses use p.3). The first is ‘psychological case work’ – text books from therapeutic supervision. focussing on understanding the coaching These include Stoltenberg and Delworth client and how to work with him or her. This (1987) on supervising counsellors and thera- is limiting in that it is not possible to change pists; Page and Wosket (1994) on supervising the client, as the client is not present during counsellors; Holloway’s (1995) research into supervision. Adopting this approach can be supervising clinical psychologists, and construed as the supervisor vicariously Hawkins and Shohet (1998) on supervision coaching the client, and thereby disempow- in the helping professions. Hawkins’ and ering the supervisee. The second approach Smith’s Coaching, Mentoring and Organisa- is ‘coaching the coach’, where the focus is on tional Consultancy: Supervision and Devel- the coach rather than on what is going on opment (2006) describes the seven-eyed between coach and client. The third is man- model for coaching supervision. It is now a agerial supervision, where the supervisor key text on several courses. It is essentially a focuses on fixing problems. therapeutic model which, by the addition of Until coaching develops its own models the seventh eye, has introduced an organisa- and theories of supervision, ‘the practice will tional perspective to better fit coaching be constrained and coaching supervision will supervision. continue to be dressed in borrowed clothes’ Butwell (2006, pp.7–8) questions this (Hawkins, 2006b, p.3). If Hawkins is correct, borrowing from therapy: ‘Coaching is not and supervisors are discharging their role in counselling or psychotherapy and one could this limited way, it will hardly equip them to argue that we should not assume that we can achieve the level of change coaches say they blithely transpose one set of standards across want. to another arena. It is, surely, important to A major limitation of the therapeutic recognise that there is a difference between model is that its predominant focus is on the coaching and the more clinically-based disci- client. This is appropriate for disciplines like

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 167 Barbara Moyes counselling and psychotherapy which tend expertise supervisors with a therapeutic to be individually based. But coaching super- background tend to lack. This is not just a vision has a much broader set of ‘masters’ – gap; it can be positively detrimental. Taking the coach, the coaching client and the a solely psychotherapeutic approach to client’s organisation: ‘One of the key out- coaching supervision results in comes of supervision is to develop ‘super organisational systems being reduced to vision’, which enables a coach to have a individual pathology (Hawkins, 2007, private broader understanding of the coach-client communication). At its worst this can result system and the client-organisation system’ in the coach rescuing the victim client from (Hawkins, 2006a p.10). In other words, in the ‘bad’ organisation, not what organisa- order to achieve change, the coaching super- tions, which are paying for coaching, want. visor has to attend to coach, client and This is a significant example of where the organisation. A systemic model is more rele- ‘borrowed clothes’ from therapy are found vant in this context than a therapeutic one. lacking. On the other hand, it is important to As we have seen, in an attempt to address recognise that the transference, a key thera- change at the organisational level, Hawkins peutic phenomenon, can emerge in any sig- and Smith (2006) added a seventh eye to nificant relationship. De Haan (2007), for their model. The seven-eyed model is cer- example, found in his study of critical tainly thorough, but it is complex and moments that experienced coaches reported demanding. Significantly, Hilpern (2007) a wide variety of transference phenomenon. quotes BBC supervisors as finding that the This is evidence that a sharp distinction seven-eyed model does not leave time for the between supervision in therapy and session to be developmental or supportive. coaching is difficult to make. It would seem (This reveals an interesting use of the word foolhardy to throw out models and methods ‘developmental’, which seemingly implies that work in therapeutic disciplines just that skills are more important than under- because they did not originate in coaching, standing.) The seven-eyed model assumes as long as their inclusion can be justified. that the transference and counter-transfer- ence will typically be present in coaching Skill sets relationships, which may not be the case. How the different interest groups define the Hilpern (2007, p.38) also states, ‘Hawkins function of supervision determines the skill believes supervisors should tackle all seven set they want supervisors to have. If the aim areas, whereas most supervisors are strong in of coaching is to achieve change for the only one, two or three.’ This could suggest a client’s organisation, as purchasers of diminution of the model even where it is coaching supervisions want, then coaching being used. supervisors need a broader knowledge base than social work or psychotherapy supervi- Achieving an ‘Aha’ moment sors. The coaches in Hawkins’ research We saw earlier that the specific function (2006a) wanted their supervisors to have coaches want supervision to provide is ‘the business knowledge, understand organisa- shift,’ or change in their way of thinking tional dynamics, and be able to think in a sys- about, or behaving towards, their client temic way. (Intra-personal knowledge or a (Hawkins, 2006a). Coaches call this ‘an Aha psychological background came much fur- moment’. Hawkins (2007) described an ther down their list, which suggests that ‘Aha’ as a change in the way the supervisee is coaches were not looking primarily for ther- talking, thinking, feeling about, and relating apeutic knowledge.) to, the issue. The coach’s breathing and But, with the possible exception of family metaphors might change. The shift is in the therapists, these are precisely the areas of coach’s consciousness, not just in how he or

168 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Literature review of coaching supervision she is reflecting on the issue, and it affects Moyes (2008) describes the different the relationship the coach has with the ways a small group of supervisors achieved client. An understanding of learning ‘Aha’ moments. She concludes that the and development might provide supervisors ability to step outside themselves, necessary with change models they could use to to achieve a transformational ‘Aha’ moment, achieve ‘Ahas.’ However, fewer than 40 per might come more easily to coaching supervi- cent of coaches saw this knowledge as an sors than therapists. In contrast to therapists important pre-requisite for supervisors who are trained to keep a professional dis- (Hawkins, 2006c). tance, the coaching supervisors in her There is a lack of empirical data on ‘Aha’ research all said they ‘brought themselves’ moments; as a phenomenon they are poorly into supervision. This suggests that this understood (Longhurst, 2006). Similarly helped them take advantage of ‘hot’ there is a lack of research into how coaching moments by making just the sort of personal supervisors achieve ‘Aha’ moments. ‘Aha’ and genuine response that enables an ‘Aha’ moments have been found to be associated moment to occur. with transformational change in the co- active model of life coaching (Longhurst, Becoming an effective supervisor 2006). Two types of ‘Aha’ moments were So if there are differing interpretations identified, which differ in intensity. Very about supervision’s function, concern about intense ‘Aha’ moments are felt in the body. importing the ‘borrowed clothes’ of therapy, Longhurst (2006, p.69) quotes a coach as and limited knowledge about how to achieve saying that ‘Aha’ moments are the moments an ‘Aha’ moment, how do coaches become ‘when the doing and being come together.’ effective supervisors? And do good coaches This describes well the shift Hawkins men- automatically become good supervisors? tions, which aims to help the supervisee ‘be’ A hypothesis might be that if supervisors in a different way with the client. Secondly, with a background in therapeutic supervi- less intense ‘Aha’ moments are mind experi- sion just map that across to coaching super- ences, where the person just knows some- vision, they will not experience any great thing new. These mental ‘aha’ moments difficulty in assuming the role - but the way have to do with changes in perspectives, they discharge the role could be limited, beliefs, self-talk, thinking patterns, or clarity especially if they lack business and systemic of ideas. knowledge. On the other hand, coaching Research into ‘critical moments’ (De supervisors who do not already have a back- Haan, 2007) in coaching – exciting, tense or ground in supervision might not assume the significant moments, or times when the role as easily, but might be the very coaches coach did not know what to do – whilst not who are taking coaching supervision into identical to ‘Aha’ moments, could shed light new realms. As yet, there is no research into on some of the factors that need to be in this, but the therapeutic literature on the place for ‘Ahas’ to occur in supervision. To role transition from practitioner to super- achieve positive change in coaching, the visor sheds some potentially interesting light. relationship between the coach and client The skill set remains the same in supervi- had to be sufficiently trusting to allow the sion (Borders, 1992; Page & Wosket, 1994). coach to use intuition. Then fresh observa- Despite this, there are fundamental differ- tions could occur. The relationship had to ences between being a practitioner and being act as a container; it had to be well defined, a supervisor – so much so, that the assump- but also allow both parties to move so that tion that an experienced and competent change could occur. Finally, if the coach had counsellor will prove to be equally effective as the courage to reflect observations back, a a supervisor is dubious (Page & Wosket, 1994; critical moment could well result. Borders, 1992; Bartlett 1983). It is the role

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 169 Barbara Moyes that changes. There are differences in terms Power of aims, presentation, timing, relationship, Some of these roles are quite powerful. The expectations and responsibilities. managerial function of supervision in social work exacerbated the power imbalance in Thinking like a supervisor the relationship between supervisors and In an interesting piece of American supervisees, which could be problematic for research, Borders (1992) reached the impor- supervisors. Kadushin (1968) analysed how tant conclusion that ‘a pivotal skill in this social work supervisees and supervisors role transition is the cognitive shift from could play games to avoid managerial over- thinking like a counsellor to thinking like a sight and censure on the one hand, and supervisor.’ This means the supervisor assert credibility on the other. These ‘games’ shifting focus from the client to the super- ring true in a social work context, where the visee. The first step is for supervisors to iden- supervisor is usually the supervisee’s line tify aims and behaviours that are unique to manager. But as coaching supervision is not supervision. They then need to have a model usually conducted in a hierarchical, manage- (Page & Wosket, 2006) or framework rial context – indeed, the supervisee is often (Hawkins & Shohet, 1998) of supervision. paying for supervision – one would expect Without this, as Bernard and Goodyear the power dynamic to manifest itself in dif- (1992) say, they are operating the ‘no model’ ferent ways. approach, and have failed to address the role The power imbalance will obtain in some of supervisor as different from that of practi- form. Firstly, coaching supervisors still dis- tioner. Borders (1992) found that training in charge elements of a managerial function supervision was needed to help counsellors through monitoring and quality assuring make the transition, but as yet, not all supervisees’ work. And secondly, the very coaching supervisors have to be trained. fact that supervisees want supervision to A second resource which helps the new increase their capability means that they supervisor take on the role is the experience expect their supervisors to have more pro- of having been a supervisee. Most thera- fessional expertise (and, therefore, power) peutic supervisors will have had this experi- than they have. But how do coaching super- ence, but for coaching supervisors from visors conceptualise the power imbalance, other spheres this is less likely, so they poten- what problems does it cause them, and how tially have less of a normative framework do they manage it? from which to work. A simple and well-known model which Finally, Hawkins and Shohet (1998) illuminates the power dynamic is Berne’s point out that it is not just one role the (1964) transactional analysis model of child, supervisor in the helping professions takes adult and parent. This links in part to the on, it is several. Mirroring the functions of transference element in supervision, as the supervision, they say the supervisor has to dependency issues, or competition, which combine the roles of educator, supporter can surface in such relationships, are high- and, at times, manager. They further sub- lighted: divide these roles into teacher, monitor eval- ‘As with any close relationship, the uator, counsellor, colleague, boss and expert intense nature of the supervision technician. This suggests something of the presents a powerful pull towards such complexity of supervision, and underlines dependency. Supervisors and supervisees the supervisor’s need to be very clear when need to look out for any such tendencies each role is appropriate. if they are to stay in the here-and-now together, using their full sets of ego state systems’ (Hay, 2007, p.51).

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The way power manifests itself in the ever, although there is some empirical sup- counselling supervisory relationship can be port for a developmental process, there is a paradoxical. It can be both more equal than complex set of factors influencing that the counselling relationship (adult/adult in process which do not fit neatly into a simple transactional analysis terms), but simultane- model (Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1994; ously more authoritarian in that in supervi- Leach et al., 1997), which suggests that such sion there is a critical parent/child models should be used with discretion. component (Page & Wosket, 2006). Concep- Much of the conflict around the role of tualising the relationship as ‘critical supervisor in the helping professions comes parent/child’ sounds foreign to the egali- from the difficulty many supervisors have in tarian ethos of coaching, which suggests that finding an appropriate way of taking one might not expect power to manifest authority and handling the power in the role itself in this way in coaching supervision. (Hawkins & Shohet, 1998). This might sug- The very supervisory technique of reflec- gest that power is likely to be an issue for tion, as practised in disciplines such as coaching supervisors, especially as the non- coaching, coaching psychology, counselling directive approach, as promulgated in par- and social work, can impact the power rela- ticular by the School of Coaching (Downey, tionship. At the heart of Page and Wosket’s 2003), has, at least until recently, held such (2006) cyclical model of counselling supervi- sway in coaching. The coaching literature sion, for example, is ‘reflective space, where suggests that one way power manifests itself supervisors can relax and allow ourselves not is in managing diversity in all its different to know what is taking place, not know where aspects (Hawkins & Smith, 2006). There may the dialogue is taking us, to follow our be other ways it manifests itself in practice. instincts, intuitions, interests and to encourage the supervisee to do the same’ Minimising the power imbalance (Carroll & Tholstrup, 2001, p.23). The chal- We do not know how coaching supervisors lenge for supervisors is that this means relin- negotiate the power imbalance, but the ther- quishing the powerful ‘expert’ role. But the apeutic literature suggests ways the power paradox is that it is through reflection in this can be minimised. The relationship can be ‘space’ that new insights and change (such made more mutual by contracting for as ‘Aha’ moments) can occur – as long as honest, positive and constructive feedback both supervisor and supervisee feel safe for and from both supervisee and supervisor, enough to let this happen. and by clarifying roles and criteria at the The developmental stage of the super- outset (Holloway, 1998). Alternatively, a col- visor and supervisee could be a factor in the laborative learning approach can be power imbalance (Hawkins & Smith, 2006; adopted, explicitly acknowledging that both Heron, 1989; Meads, 1990). Hawkins and supervisor and supervisee learn during Smith (2006) suggest supervisors move from supervision. As in Page and Woskets’ (2006) anxious to do ‘the right thing’ and trying to ‘reflective space’, supervisors take risks in play the expert role, to ultimately being able ‘moving out from behind a potentially more to modify their style to fit supervisees at any comfortable professional façade, towards a stage of development. Paying attention to ‘reflection-in-action’ mode of being, where their supervisee’s stage of development is responsibility and accountability are more also important. Inexperienced supervisees equally shared’ (Orlan & Edwards 2001, tend to be dependent on their supervisor. p.47). During the ‘adolescent’ stage they test their supervisor’s authority out. When experi- enced and confident, they reach a mutual relationship characterised by sharing. How-

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 171 Barbara Moyes

Summary The author In summary, coaching supervision is oper- Dr Barbara Moyes ating in a context which is often confused, Senior Visiting Fellow at with differing definitions of its function, and Cass Business School. with a borrowed therapeutic model. Inter- Associate with the King’s Fund. ested parties want different things from it, Associate with the National School for but what coaches most want is the ability to Government. achieve ‘Aha’ moments (Hawkins, 2006a). It is probable that coaching supervisors find Correspondence the power inherent in the role problematic, Dr Barbara Moyes but there is a lack of research into how they Oak Yard, conceptualise this. There is a lot riding on The Keep, coaching supervision, but many questions Blackheath, still to be answered. London SE3 0AG. E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 020 8852 4464

References Arney, E. (2006). Coaching the Coaches. Training De Haan, E. & Blass, E. (2007). Using critical Journal, November, 51–55. moments to learn about coaching, Training Arney, E. (2007). Interviewed in Feature Focus Journal, April, 54–58. Coaching Supervision: Where are we headed? De Haan, E. (2007). I struggle and emerge: Critical (4 March), 2–4. www.i-coachacademy.com moments of experienced coaches. Unpublished paper. Association for Coaching (2005). Supervision Report Ashridge Business School. www.ashridge.org.uk (April). London. Downey, M. (2003). Effective coaching. New York: Bartlett, W. (1983). A multidimensional framework Thomson Texere. for the analysis for supervision of counselling. European Mentoring and Coaching Council (2006). The Counselling Psychologist, 11(1), 9–17. Guidelines on Supervision: Interim statement. Bernard, J. & Goodyear, R. (1992). The challenge of www.emcouncil.org/Downloads/ psychotherapy-based supervision: making the EMCC Guidelines on Supervision. PDF pieces fit. Counsellor Education and Supervision, Gallwey, T. (1979). The inner game of golf. London: 31(4), 232–237. Pan Books. Berne, E. (1964). Games people play. London: Penguin Ganzer, C. & Ornstein, E. (1999). Beyond parallel Books Ltd. process: Relational perspectives of field Bluckert, P. (2003). Coaching Supervision. instruction. Clinical Social Work Journal, 27(3), www.pbcoaching.com 231–247. Bluckert, P. (2005). The foundations of a Hawkins, P. & Shohet, R. (1998). Supervision in the psychological approach to executive coaching. helping professions. Maidenhead: Open University Industrial and Commercial Training, 37(4), 171–178. Press. Bluckert, P. (2004). The state of play in corporate Hawkins, P. & Smith, N. (2006). Coaching, mentoring coaching: Current and future trends. Industrial and organisational consultancy. Maidenhead: and Commercial Training, 36(2), 53–56. Open University Press. Bluckert, P. (2005). The similarities and differences Hawkins, P. (2006a). Coaching Supervision: Maximising between coaching and therapy. Industrial and the potential of coaching. London: CIPD. Commercial Training, 37(2), 91–96. Hawkins, P. (2006b). Coaching Supervision: Paper Borders, D. (1992). Learning to think like a prepared for the CIPD Coaching Conference. London: supervisor. The Clinical Supervisor, 10(2), 135–148. CIPD. Butwell, J. (2006). Group supervision for coaches: Hawkins, P. (2006c). CIPD Annual Coaching at Work Is it worthwhile? International Journal of Evidence Conference, 12 September 2007, London. Based Coaching and Mentoring, 4(2), 1–11. Hawkins, P. (2007). Private communication. Carrol, M. & Tholstrup, M. (2001). Integrative Hayles, M. (1988). Becoming a social work approaches to supervision. London: Jessica Kingsley. practitioner: the use of live supervision in the Carrol, M. (2006). Key issues in coaching psychology practice placement. Journal of Social Work Practice, supervision. The Coaching Psychologist, 2(1), 4–8. May, 74–84.

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Hewson,J. (2001). Integrative supervision: Art and Lee, G. (2003). Leadership Coaching. London: CIPD. science. In M. Carrol & M. Tholstrup (Eds.), Longhurst, L. (2006). The ‘Aha’ moment in co-active Integrative approaches to supervision (pp.65–75) coaching and its effects on belief and London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. behavioural change. International Journal of Hilpern, K. (2007). Watch with Auntie. Coaching at Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 4(2), Work, 2(2), 36–39. 61–73. Holloway, E. (1995). Clinical supervision: A systems Mattinson, J. (1975). The reflection process in casework approach. London: Sage. supervision. London: The Tavistock Institute of Holloway, E. (1998). Power in the supervisory Human Relations. relationship. Keynote address British Association of Mead,G., Campbell, J. & Milan, M. (1999). Mentor Supervision Practice and Research Conference, and Athene: Supervising professional coaches London, quoted in Hewson (op. cit.) and mentors. Career Development International, 4/5, Irvine, E. (1984). The functions of supervision. 283–290. Journal of Social Work Practice, May, 19–26. Moyes, B. (2008). Snow wonder. Coaching at Work, Jackson, P. (2005). How do we describe coaching? 3(2), March, 42–45. An exploratory development of a typology of Page, S. & Wosket, V. (2006). Supervising the counsellor: coaching based on the accounts of UK-based A cyclical model (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. practitioners. International Journal of Evidence Schwenk, G. (2007). Feature Focus Coaching Based Coaching and Mentoring, 3(2), 45–59. Supervision: Where are we headed? (4 March), 2–4. Kadushin, A. (1968). Games people play in www.i-coachacademy.com supervision. Journal of Social Work, 13(3), 23–32. Special Group in Coaching Psychology (2007). Kadushin, A. (1976). Supervision in social work. Guideline on Supervision for Coaching Psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press. Leicester: The British Psychological Society. Kadushin, A. (1992). What’s wrong, what’s right with Stoltenberg, C. & Delworth,U. (1987). Supervising social work supervision. The Clinical Supervisor, counsellors and therapists: A developmental approach. 10(1), 3–19. San Francisco : Josey Bass. Kahn, E.(1979). The parallel process in social work Whitmore, J. (2003). Coaching for Performance. supervision and treatment. Social Casework, 60(9), London: Nicholas Brearley. 520–528. Williams, A. (1997). On parallel process in social Lane, D. (2006). People Management, December, 45. work: Supervision. Clinical Social Work Journal, Leach, M., Stoltenberg, C., McNeill, B. & Eichenfield, 25(4) 425–435. G. (1997). Self-efficacy and counsellor develop- ment: Testing the integrated developmental model. Counsellor Education and Supervision, 37(2), 115–124.

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 173 Coaching Hypnosis: Integrating hypnotic strategies and principles in coaching Andrew Armatas

Coaching psychology has not given much thought to hypnosis, despite its long history of applications in enhancing human abilities and potentials. Since a range of psychotherapeutic strategies have been successfully transitioned to coaching and are commonly practiced by coaches and coaching psychologists, it is suggested that hypnotic techniques and principles can also be successfully employed to meet coaching objectives. This paper mainly discusses: (a) the use of self-hypnosis for the coachee; (b) adapting age- progression and age-regression to fit coaching needs; and (c) the use of indirect suggestions in the coaching dialogue to enhance coachee receptivity. The term ‘coaching hypnosis’ is proposed when referring to the use of hypnosis in coaching as it will help to separate links with hypnotherapy and encourage it to build an identity of its own.

HE SURGE OF INTEREST in coaching Mesmer’s animal magnetism and Charcot’s psychology and its continued growth belief that hypnosis is a neuropathological Tthese last years is demonstrated by an state found in the mentally ill, to Braid’s increasing number of university-level proposition of the term ‘hypnotism’ and his courses, annual conferences and the publi- development of a new induction involving cation of peer-reviewed coaching journals. eye fixation, leading to Berheim’s conclusion A good range of psychological therapeutic that hypnosis is a form of heightened sug- techniques have been adapted to meet gestion and Clark Hull’s large-scale hypnosis coaching objectives and have become part of study in the 1930s. coaches’ repertoire (Whybrow & Palmer, There are quite a few hypnosis theories 2006). However, the potential use of hyp- and mentioning them all is beyond the scope nosis in coaching – even though a valid sub- of this paper. However, they can be fitted in ject for scientific study and a proven two categories. The state and the non-state therapeutic medium – has not been given theories. There has been an age-old debate much thought (BPS, 2001). on whether hypnosis is a special state or This paper suggests integrating the theo- whether hypnotic responding can be retical concepts and strategies applied in explained in terms of psychosocial and cog- hypnotherapy and adapting them to the nitive factors. This debate has yet to be needs of coaching. It also proposes coining resolved (Fellows, 1990; Lynn & O’Hagen, the term ‘coaching hypnosis’ when referring 2009) to hypnosis within the coaching arena to dis- State theorists claim that hypnosis tinguish it from therapy – as has already denotes a special state and thus the changes been done with other psychology practices observed are unique to hypnosis and hyp- within coaching. notic induction. Modern research high- lighting reliable psychological and What is hypnosis? physiological changes following hypnosis is Interest in hypnosis is not contemporary. said to reinforce the special state theory. Although many believe that treatment by However, not everyone is convinced that suggestions can be traced all the way back to these changes are unique to hypnosis. antiquity, modern hypnosis begins in the Non-state theorists, who reject this 18th century with the work of Mesmer. Since model, claim that hypnotic experience does then hypnosis has come a long way: from not require the presence of a unique state

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(or altered state of consciousness – a term ated the results using the criteria of Chamb- professionals do not use as often any more) less and Holton (1998). The analysis identi- and that the changes observed are not fied 32 disorders for which hypnosis can be unique to hypnosis. They report that it can considered a possible treatment (e.g. be explained by the social and cognitive vari- bulimia, depression, irritable bowel syn- ables that determine everyday complex drome), five for which it seems effective social behaviours such as role-enactment, (cancer pain, distress during surgery, surgery attitudes and beliefs about hypnosis, fantasy pain in adults, surgery pain in children and involvements and motivated engagement weight reduction) and two for which it with imaginative suggestions, response-sets appears a specific treatment of choice (anx- and expectancies. It is important to note that iety about asthma, headaches and there is no debate about the phenomena migraines). However, the movement toward observed, only about why they occur. Which the empirical validation of clinical hypnosis takes us to the question of what is hypnosis? is still in its infancy and further empirical Because there is no consensus on hyp- research is needed for a wider acceptance of nosis – only a consensus on the phenomena hypnotic interventions. observed during hypnosis – a description rather than a definition is usually provided. Hypnosis is not relaxation Hypnosis denotes an interaction between Although hypnosis can be used as a relax- one person, designated as the ‘hypnotist’ and ation procedure, hypnosis is not relaxation. another person or group of people, desig- Hypnosis has been often called a relaxation nated as the subject or subjects. In this inter- therapy which is not the case. Although action, the hypnotist attempts to influence relaxation can be a part of hypnosis – usually the subject’s perceptions, feelings, thinking a very welcoming result of the process – it is and behaviour by asking them to concentrate not a necessary part. Hypnosis can be carried on ideas and images that may evoke the out with the individual being physically intended effects. The verbal communications active, open-eyed, focusing on the external that the hypnotist uses to achieve these environment and with no suggestions of effects are termed ‘suggestions’ and differ relaxation (Banyai et al., 1997; Capafons, from instructions as the subjects experience 2004; Wark, 2006). them as having a quality of involuntariness or The most important difference is in the effortlessness (BPS, 2001). focus of the two techniques. Relaxation focuses more on the physical components of Why hypnosis? the individual’s experience of anxiety. Hyp- Research is increasingly showing that hyp- nosis, on the other hand, focuses more on nosis adds to the efficiency of cognitive- the cognitive components of the individual’s behavioural and psychodynamic therapy experience, including the use of imagery, (Alladin & Alibhai, 2007; Bryant et al., 2005; suggestion and cognitive mastery. The goal Kirsch, 1996; Kirsch et al., 1995; Schoebenger, of hypnosis is to exert influence on feelings, 2000). Enough studies have now accumulated thoughts and behaviours (O’Neill et al., to suggest the benefit of including hypnosis in 1999). the management and treatment of a wide When both hypnosis and relaxation are range of problems encountered in the used to reduce anxiety, those using hypnosis practice of medicine and psychotherapy report a greater sense of treatment efficiency (Elkins et al., 2007; Flammer & Alladin, 2007; and expectation and with a greater sense of Flory et al., 2007; BPS, 2001). cognitive and physical change – even when In an article summarising the search for there is no difference in the outcome data efficacious hypnotic treatment, Wark (2008) (O’Neill et al., 1999). Furthermore, the neu- reviewed 18 major meta-analyses and evalu- rophysiology of hypnosis differs from that of

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 175 Andrew Armatas relaxation and brain activity appears to vary tate self-mastery and an increased sense of according to the suggestions given. Finally, self-control. It can also be added to coaching relaxation in hypnosis has been shown to be to facilitate learning and enhance perform- different from relaxation in other contexts ance, not far from what many athletes do as (Gruzelier, 1998; Wagstaff, 2000). part of their preparation regime. At the dis- cretion of the coach, a recorded tape of the Hypnosis and coaching hypnotic session in the office can be given to Hypnosis has a long history of applications in the client for frequent use. enhancing human abilities and potentials: In summary, self-hypnosis can be utilised whether it is promoting personal, team and as a means of practicing/rehearsing skills, leadership development, enhancing cre- facilitating learning, encouraging independ- ativity or assisting athletes and students with ence and empowerment, participating managing their anxiety, improving learning actively and enhancing motivation. A and enhancing performance (Barber et al., coachee may use self-hypnosis to reinforce a 1974; Burger, 2002; Council et al., 2007; coach’s suggestions, to build confidence, to Liggett, 2000; Palmer, 2008; Unestahl, 2004; master new skills, change behavioural pat- Yu, 2006). Hypnosis facilitates access to infor- terns and promote changes in cognition mation of which one might not be fully (Fromm & Kahn, 1990; Sanders, 1997). aware along with an increased sense of safety when dealing with personal issues (Gruze- Age progression: lier, 2000) – a potential benefit to develop- Age progression involves working in the mental coaching. future – a concept those practicing solution- Hypnosis has been used for decades in a focused coaching will find familiar. Rather variety of settings to facilitate therapeutic than using it in the end of a session, one may results or to enhance performance. Since initiate it in the beginning. Coachees are other psychotherapeutic strategies have encouraged to progress to the future where been successfully transitioned to coaching they can: (a) rehearse recently taught coping and are commonly practiced by coaches and strategies; (b) rehearse the benefits of coaching psychologists, hypnotic techniques changing and thus enhance motivation; (c) and principles may also be successfully tran- identify any problems that seem to arise with sitioned to meet coaching objectives and changing and manage them beforehand; equally adopted by coaching professionals. and (d) augment post-hypnotic suggestions at the end of the session (Heap & Aravind, Hypnotic techniques in coaching 2002). Age progression may also be included Although a wide range of hypnotic tech- in a coachee’s self-hypnosis practice. niques have the potential to be incorporated Age-progression can be utilised to estab- within a coaching framework, this article lish clear goals and the necessary resources, focuses on three: self-hypnosis, age progres- skills and coping mechanisms needed to get sion, and age regression. As research of hyp- there. When this is done, an individualised notic techniques in coaching psychology is plan can be prepared that will aid the coachee lacking, much is based on author’s experi- in achieving his or her goal (see Table 1). ence (Armatas, 2008a). Age regression: Self-hypnosis: Age regression refers to the reliving in imag- Self-hypnosis (hypnosis initiated and carried ination of memories from an earlier period out by the coachee) is widely encouraged as in one’s life. It does not re-instate childhood it reinforces the work already conducted in (or other age-appropriate) physiological and the office or the workplace and promotes psychological processes and structures active participation. It may be used to facili- (Nash, 1987). Nor do clinical practitioners

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Table 1: Age Progression. be utilised before hypnosis. For example, if Age Progression: EXPLORE & DEVELOP your goal is to enhance one’s performance, Explore desired future image: you may identify past performances that the ● What do they want to do/feel? coachee is proud of (if any) and inform the ● What is success like? coachee beforehand which ones you will ● Any problems arising with success? work on and for what purpose; and (e) do ● What is needed to get there? not focus on unnecessary details during hyp- ● Anticipated difficulties? nosis. Instead, direct attention to emotions, Develop: cognitions and behaviours that are needed ● Clear goals. to repeat similar performances or to coping ● Resources/Skills. mechanisms that were lacking and need ● Coping mechanisms. development. Although some practitioners may feel tend to use age-regression as a memory reluctant to use age regression, it can be enhancement tool. Memories retrieved fruitful under certain circumstances, as long through age-regression may be unreliable as it adopts a coaching philosophy, e.g. to and the more remote the regression, the improve performance, skills and learnings. greater the risk of inaccuracy. This seems to Specifically, age regression can be used to: be mostly related to expectancies and situa- tional demands rather than with hypnosis (a) access resources that ‘once were’ and build on per se. For example, if you believe that you them. can remember what is forgotten during hyp- It is not uncommon for coachees to have nosis, any information retrieved will be exhibited in the past the skills and resources viewed and ‘felt’ as accurate (even if it is they are currently striving to acquire. Some not). Hypnosis practitioners advise focusing have already experienced the very same skills on the emotional experience rather than the and behaviours they are now trying to details of the event. (Wagstaff, 2008; Wagstaff achieve with the help of a coaching profes- et al., 2007). One needs to be adept at sional. The pianist who has performed dealing with possible abreactions, knowing numerous times before large audiences yet when to use age-regression and when restric- now finds himself having a difficult time har- tions apply. Inappropriate handling may re- nessing the accompanying stress. Or the traumatise a client. Obviously, thorough salesperson who fears he has ‘lost his talent’ training and supervision is mandatory. after a period of exhibiting exemplary sales It is the author’s experience that when skills with documented success. Age regres- working in coaching settings, a necessity for sion can be applied in these cases in order to remote regression (e.g. childhood) is highly foster belief and confidence in the attain- unlikely. Still, as hypnosis can be a powerful ment of goals; if they have done it once, they emotional experience, one cannot stress the can do it again. It can help the coachee re- importance of training and supervised expe- experience, remember and access the rience. As clinical work and hazards differ desired skills and resources and build on from coaching objectives, the following them. Finally, one can ‘bring’ those skills and guidelines are recommended that will min- resources back to the present and future. imise risks that are mostly associated with therapy: (a) do not haste with assessment (b) access and utilise desired resources and skills and rule out need for therapy; (b) have a that already exist in another area. concrete goal and purpose in mind for using An example would be the coachee who age-regression; (c) avoid using age-regres- wants to deal with her performance anxiety. sion as a memory enhancement tool or for She is a postgraduate student and is required exploratory work; (d) identify memories to to present before fellow students and

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 177 Andrew Armatas instructors. Although she has not engaged in responses to suggestions can be obtained any avoidance behaviour, she knows that her without formal hypnosis. This paper’s focus anxiety is getting in the way of her perform- is on the use of indirect suggestions (Heap & ance. It so happens that the coachee has Aravind, 2002) during coaching conversa- been part of the University’s acting club tions in order to enhance responsiveness. since she was an undergraduate student and is still actively engaged in it, even though Indirect suggestions in coaching rehearsals are time consuming. In this case, Following are some suggestions that a coach age regression serves the purpose of utilising can strategically add to the coaching dia- her rewarding theatrical performances, logue or to existing coaching techniques accessing her existing performing skills and without the use of hypnosis. As with all strate- harnessing them before an academic audi- gies, suggestions need to be used having a ence. specific purpose in mind.

(c) review and learn from previous performance, ‘Yes Set’: build on positives and develop what is missing. The ‘yes set’ involves asking questions which Video recording coachees’ performances the coachee is certain to respond with a yes may not always be possible. When recording in order to increase receptiveness to our is not an option, one may consider reviewing intended suggestions. Following is an previous performances using age regression. example of a dialogue with a successful It provides an opportunity to focus on what entrepreneur – who would often boast about needs developing and to take a positive psy- how good he is at building successful busi- chology outlook, by building on the positives nesses – just before introducing relaxation. and utilising those exceptions during their His goal was the control of unnecessary irri- performance that felt good and yielded tability when he did not get his way and/or results. Imagine a workshop instructor that when others did not follow through his appears to be struggling to maintain her own advice. This behaviour was directed to his energy levels during her workshop, let alone family, friends and employees but almost sustain a high interest level among the par- never to likeminded businessmen. The pur- ticipants. While replaying her performance pose of using the ‘yes set’ in this session was during age-regression, one can focus on the to enhance receptivity to the use of relax- times she was energetic and the participants ation and to increase positive expectations were more involved and interested. In this and responses. case, age regression is chosen to review pre- Example: vious performances, to build on the positives ● So it appears that you have done quite and to develop what is missing. Skills well in business? coaching can be added depending on what ● Yes, I was always good at that. is determined to be missing. ● And you feel confident when it comes to business. Hypnotic communication: Suggestions ● Yes. A suggestion can be defined as an interper- ● And in control when dealing with sonal priming process whereby one person business plans and finding investors. by means of verbal communication, non- ● Yes, in control. verbal behaviours and other contextual fac- ● And I am sure you will feel even better tors aims to influence the beliefs, intentions, when you will be able to control your desires or feelings without the other being tension. aware of this (Lundh, 2000). Although hyp- ● Yes, that would be great. notic inductions tend to increase the level of ● And feeling in control suits you doesn’t it responsiveness to suggestions, similar (laughter).

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● Yep, it certainly does. Double bind: ‘I wonder where you will find your- ● So, rather than beating around the bush, self being more assertive first, will it be in a profes- why not start a simple yet effective way to sional situation or a more social one?’ relax. ● Great. Open-ended suggestions: These suggestions involve asking coachees to Embedded suggestions: notice what experiences are present at the Embedded suggestions are suggestions con- time (implying their existence) rather than tained within a statement and keywords are simply describing the experience for them. spoken in different tone. Following is an Once again, the purpose is to imply that example that can be carried out during there are noticeable changes and at the same relaxation or imagery. The content is basi- time the coach can use any kind of feedback cally the same as the ‘Yes Set’ dialogue to reinforce further suggestions. described above but used in a different Examples: manner. The keywords in italics are the mes- ‘I wonder what you are experiencing right now’ sages the coachee wants to convey and are (message: there is something to experience, spoken in a slightly different tone. The goal take your time and let me know, because is to help the coachee tap into his ability to something is happening or is about to feel confident and in control (referring to happen) his business side) and link it with relaxation. ‘Notice how it feels to breathe (think, act, etc.) in ‘So, let me just remind you, as you are this way’ (goal: reinforcing the intended practicing your relaxation exercise, that we changes in breathing, thinking, acting). have talked about how you are doing quite well in business … and how you feel confident when Indirect implication using the negative: in it comes to business … and you feel in control This suggestion implies that something will when dealing with business plans and finding not happen now but will happen later. Let’s investors … and you will feel even better you assume that a coachee seems a bit anxious know … when being able to control your tension about being able to learn new skills, such as … and feeling in control … which suits you being able to relax. Before (s)he rushes into doesn’t it … it feels right … and you are already it with an increased chance of giving up, one more in control … of your breathing … just by may want to consider saying: (continue guiding through relaxation). ‘As you are learning to focus on exhaling, It is highly recommended that training I don’t want you to become deeply relaxed until you be sought in the use of these suggestions have understood the whole process. Give when added to experiential techniques such yourself some more time before relaxing further and as imagery and relaxation as they can inad- just focus on the learnings …’ vertently lead to the experience of hypnosis. Another example would be with a coachee who has identified the changes that Binds/Double binds: need to be made for his business to grow. Binds and Double binds aim at creating illu- However, you feel concerned he might pres- sion of choice. Where the response alterna- sure himself to do too much too soon. Using tives are deemed to be conscious, the this suggestion may take the pressure off the suggestion is referred to as a ‘bind’ and coachee and it often leads to an initiative to when unconscious a ‘double bind’. The pur- do more than agreed upon but without the pose of using binds is to presuppose that the pressure. An example in this case would be: desired goal will occur and increases positive ‘Please don’t apply any changes before you feel expectations. comfortable with them. So which one do you Bind: ‘When do you prefer to learn to relax, now feel most comfortable with?’ or towards the end of the session?’

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Paradox: Metaphors and stories A paradox appears to suggest the opposite Metaphors and stories are another way of response to what is really required. The pur- conveying messages. Coaching psychologists pose is the same as the ‘indirect implication can choose to construct their own original using the negative’, it is just stated slightly dif- metaphors and stories, extract them from ferently. The implication is that the intended other sources or work with a metaphor changes will happen but at a later time. found in the coachee’s narration. As long as ‘I’d prefer you don’t relax too quickly…’ they are used at a stage where the coachee ‘Let’s not make any changes just yet …’ can make use of the information, there are several advantages to using metaphors and Reference to coachee’s experience from everyday life: stories: they stimulate imagination and cre- One can introduce a suggestion by first refer- ativity, they are safe and easy to remember ring to a relevant life experience, thus and help bypass possible resistance to making it more valid, more believable and change and development. Moreover, more natural to the coachee. coachees actively construct for themselves A coachee has presented with presenta- new ways of understanding and tackling tion anxiety associated with conference pre- their problems. Finally, metaphors may be sentations. The initial interview shows that utilised to build rapport, prepare for future he is an avid football player. Further probing responses and to link change to subsequent indicates that he feels very comfortable on behaviour (Brown, 1997; Queralto, 2006). the field, and even when he plays in the pres- ence of passionate spectators, he goes on Coaching hypnosis: with his game and feels exhilarated in the The term ‘coaching hypnosis’ is suggested end. This experience was used in our con- when using hypnosis within the coaching versation and later the same suggestions arena (Armatas, 2008b). Coaching hypnosis were embedded in his imagery. may be defined as the deliberate use of hypnotic ‘Just like when you are playing football … strategies and principles as an adjunct to accepted you’re focused on winning and so concentrated coaching processes. Just as with other therapy that even though there may be hundreds of people practices adapted to coaching, a distinct term watching, it is as if they are not there … somehow will help to separate links with therapy (specif- you are more focused on doing your best … on ically with hypnotherapy) and give it an iden- being your best …’ tity of its own. Coaching hypnosis is Another way to start would be: results-oriented and solution-focused. It is ‘You know how you … (add coachee’s experi- present and future focused (even when ence according to the message you want to dealing with past). As with hypnosis in convey).’ therapy, it is not an approach but an adjunct to accepted coaching processes. One might Reference to other people’s experience: have behavioural or cognitive-behavioural This suggestion was used just before starting coaching hypnosis, solution-focused coaching a coaching technique with a coachee that hypnosis, gestalt coaching hypnosis and so on. had a preconceived notion that changes take There are some common questions that need ages to happen: to be taken into account. Is rapport estab- ‘I did this with a client last week and when it lished? Does the coachee have unrealistic was over she said that she thought it would have expectations? Is hypnosis viewed as a magical taken ages before she felt empowered … so when procedure that will do all the work for the you’re ready …’ coachee? Any past negative experiences of ‘I remember a client asked the same ques- hypnotic or hypnotic-like strategies? Is hyp- tion and when I told her that (add suggestions nosis the first choice or is there a better way of according to the message you want conveyed …).’ dealing with coachee’s issues?

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Culture and context Conclusion Cultural differences need to be taken into Hypnotic strategies and principles can be account when using formal hypnosis. The successfully applied to meet coaching objec- author is bilingual (Australian – Greek) and tives and can become part of a coaching psy- caters to both English-speaking and Greek- chologist’s repertoire following training and speaking communities: not all English- supervision- as has been done with other psy- speaking coachees are English and not all chological techniques currently used in Greek-speaking coachees are Greek. Dif- coaching. Indirect suggestions may be strate- ferent cultures bring different perceptions gically employed in a coaching dialogue in about hypnosis and these need to be order to enhance coachee receptivity. The addressed. Additionally, hypnosis needs to term ‘coaching hypnosis’ is proposed to help be explained and presented according to the separate links from hypnotherapy and help context in which it is to be provided. Differ- it have an identity of its own. Coaching hyp- ences in describing and applying coaching nosis is referred to as being the deliberate use of hypnosis will depend on the type of coaching hypnotic strategies and principles as an adjunct to (business or personal) and the ‘type’ of accepted coaching processes. Much work needs coachee (leader, executive, an employee to be done in this area as research is defi- lower down the hierarchy, a freelancer or nitely lacking: an interesting and promising unemployed). Finally, hypnosis should area nonetheless. always be a choice: one of many choices avail- able for the coachee. Correspondence Andrew Armatas Training and supervision 9 George Street, Because hypnosis is not a distinct approach, Athens, 106 82, it is to be used alongside accepted coaching Greece. approaches. The International Society of E-mail: [email protected] Hypnosis (ISH) which is the recognised society in the hypnosis field with constituent societies from 20 countries stresses the importance of training and using hypnosis only for those purposes for which one is pro- fessionally qualified and with the strict limi- tations of one’s professional work. This implies that for coaching psychologists, hyp- nosis be used for coaching purposes. Training courses are available at some uni- versities, through hypnosis sections of psy- chological societies and through constituent societies of ISH. It is advised that profes- sionals offering such training are either ISH members or members of its constituent soci- eties (in some cases membership alone may not indicate adequate training and accredi- tation is required). However, even if training in hypnosis is taken, as very few are coaching psychologists, one will need to adapt what is learned to meet coaching objectives, not an easy feat for a novice.

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 181 Andrew Armatas

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International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 183 Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance: A Cognitive Behavioural Coaching perspective Alanna O’Broin & Stephen Palmer

A version of this paper was presented at the SGCP 1st European Coaching Psychology Conference in December 2008, as part of a symposium on Cognitive Behaviour Coaching: Research, Theory and Practice.

This paper reviews the coaching relationship from a Cognitive Behavioural Coaching (CBC) perspective. Using empathy as one example of a key relationship component it identifies how building, establishing and maintaining an optimal coaching alliance for the specific coachee, through an explicit process of negotiation and renegotiation epitomises ‘the collaborative relationship’ a central tenet of the Cognitive Behavioural framework. It also highlights how extending to the relationship itself an emphasis on the cognitive-behavioural dynamics of the coachee and the coach, individually and in interaction can potentially assist in fostering, maintaining, and where necessary managing disruptions in, the coaching alliance. Power dynamics and time constraints are highlighted as themes possibly differentiating the coaching alliance from the therapeutic alliance. The broader-based explicit stance of the coach resulting in a reciprocal requirement for greater adaptability to the coachee’s needs are tentatively proposed as further differentiators of the coaching alliance from a CBC perspective. Keywords: Cognitive Behavioural Coaching (CBC), coaching relationship, coaching alliance, collaborative relationship, empathy, coach stance.

OGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL COACH- evidence-based research support. These ING (CBC) (Palmer & Szymanska, ‘second wave’ therapies have built upon ‘first C2007) is a goal-directed, dual-system wave’ classical behavioural therapies and (psychological and practical) integrated take the position that cognitive variables act approach. It aims to increase coachee self- as important mediators between contextual awareness, improve coachee problem- stimuli and responses (Beck et al., 1979; solving skills and support coachees in Ellis, 1962). These cognitive variables modifying their performance inhibiting, include form and content of cognitions, as stress inducing and goal blocking beliefs. well as cognitive processes, such as storage, CBC has adapted cognitive and cognitive and retrieval (through biases, heuristics and behavioural therapy to coaching (Neenan & errors). However, ‘third wave’ cognitive Dryden, 2002; Ducharme, 2004; Sherin & behavioural therapies, focusing on Caiger, 2004; Neenan, 2008; Palmer & Gyl- ‘changing the individual’s relationship to lensten, 2008). The ultimate aim of CBC is thoughts and feelings through acceptance for the coachee to become their own self- and mindfulness’ (Singh et al., 2008) are coach (Neenan, 2006). continuing to build their theory and evi- dence-base (for instance through broad- CBC and the integrative heritage of CBT ening existing theory on the topic of The adaptation of cognitive and cognitive mindfulness, (Langer, 1989). It appears that behavioural therapies to CBC discussed in these approaches are likely to continue to this article refer largely to ‘second wave’ gain prominence within the ‘family of allied therapies, primarily due to their strong therapies’ (Mansell, 2008) that is CBT and in

184 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance turn be increasingly incorporated into CBT working collaboratively with the coachee and CBC practice. Indeed, we have already (Palmer & Szymanska, 2007). The dictionary begun to see mindfulness-based techniques definition (Collins, 2001) of the term ‘collab- and skills adapted into Cognitive orate’ denotes ‘to work with another or others on Behavioural coaching approaches (Collard a joint project’ and could feasibly define a full & Walsh, 2008; Spence et al., 2008). As the range of attitudes of the dyad in the process themes identified later in this article occur at of working towards the coachee’s coaching a level of abstraction subsuming the differ- goals. These range from being fully co-opera- ences (such as form and content versus func- tive to highly unco-operative (e.g. in the tion) of cognitions in the respective second latter case, ranging from being neutral and third wave therapies, ‘third wave’ cogni- through withholding, paying lip-service, tive behavioural therapies are considered being hostile to de-railing). O’Broin and equally compatible with the perspective Palmer (2007) address this topic in their dis- taken below on the coaching relationship cussion of co-operative or competitive stances from a CBC viewpoint. Indeed, the func- within a game theory analogy in coaching. tional-contextual emphasis of ‘third-wave’ The original writings of Beck and cohorts cognitive behavioural therapies can be con- (Beck et al., 1979; Beck & Emery, 1985; Beck, sidered particularly synergistic with evi- 1991) delineated several aspects of ‘a collab- dence-informed coaching models (Stober & orative relationship.’ Translated into the Grant, 2006). coaching context these are as follows: ● neither participant taking a superior The coaching relationship literature role; Little has been written in the CBC literature ● a ‘team’ approach; to date specifically on the coaching relation- ● joint efforts; ship although references to relationship ● both being open and explicit; aspects in the CBC coaching process exist ● the coach’s collaborative stance and (e.g. Neenan, 2008). In the broader demeanour; coaching literature the coaching relation- ● the coach providing rationales; ship has repeatedly been cited as an impor- ● the coach offering techniques which the tant change agent (Kampa-Kokesch & coachee can choose whether or not to Anderson, 2001; Jones & Spooner, 2006; use; Bachkirova, 2007; Gyllensten & Palmer, ● the coach admitting mistakes. 2007; De Haan, 2008). At present embry- In essence, by adopting these attitudes, onic, the dedicated coaching relationship lit- stance and behaviours the coach and (it is erature is growing as interest increases in the suggested) the coachee together seek to area (O’Broin & Palmer, 2006, 2007; Gyllen- achieve what Beck and Emery, (1985: 177) sten & Palmer, 2007; De Haan et al., 2008; describe as ‘… a collaborative spirit.’ The Kemp, 2009). In particular, the use of the importance of the spirit rather than just the self (Cox & Bachkirova, 2007; Day et al., letter of collaboration is emphasised here. It 2008) and presence, of the coach (Bluckert, is noteworthy too that collaboration is a 2006; Spinelli, 2008) have been highlighted. superordinate principle encompassing numerous sub-components, including Establishing and developing a empathy and the stance of the coach. collaborative relationship Akin to Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, Building an optimal coaching alliance (CBT) where a collaborative relationship is a Relationship science demonstrates the rele- tenet of the approach (Beck et al., 1979; vance of mutual influence in relationships Beck, 1991; Wills & Sanders, 1997; Gilbert & (Reis, 2007). So too does the counselling Leahy, 2007), CBC equally emphasises and psychotherapy outcome literature when

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 185 Alanna O’Broin & Stephen Palmer discussing mutual involvement in estab- unconditional positive regard, the alliance lishing and developing a collaborative frame- exhibits: work and in gaining positive outcome ‘… a deep sense of shared trust (Tryon & Winograd, 2002). The Working commitment and purpose.’ Alliance (Bordin, 1979), a relationship Kemp (2009) further suggests that estab- factor repeatedly linked to positive outcome, lishing a relationship between coachee and is characterised by three inter-related fea- coach of shared meaning and contextual tures, goals, tasks and bonds associated with clarity, acts as a catalyst for transformational purposive, collaborative work. Bordin’s con- results through the alliance. tribution was to assert that all therapies By explicitly negotiating and renegoti- shared the pantheoretic alliance concept, ating the goals, tasks, bonds, and views of and that the alliance was applicable in any coaching, coaches can use different kinds of change situation. activities in different conceptual approaches Dryden (2008) adds a fourth feature to to build an optimal coaching alliance for the those of goals, tasks and bonds in an specific coachee in their specific context. expanded model of the therapeutic working alliance, that of ‘views’. Views, translated into Making the coaching alliance explicit the coaching context consist of the views of in CBC the coachee and coach on the practicalities An emphasis on collaboratively negotiating of the coaching process (such as venue, cost, with the coachee on the features of the frequency, length, cancellation, contact and coaching alliance may also assist in creating a access policy); the nature of the coachee’s more equal balance of power in the coaching block, and how the block will be addressed. relationship (Spinelli, 2008). This may be In forming the coaching alliance, these views particularly salient to the coaching relation- require explicit discussion, negotiation and ship which is perceived as less authoritarian agreement, along with the goals, tasks and and more egalitarian and collaborative in bonds. comparison with the The coaching alliance is a mutual process (Grant & Cavanagh, 2004). The coach explic- in which the self of the coach and coachee itly discussing the CBC coaching model, and impact on the other in the interpersonal the formulation, is a fundamental tenet of dynamics of the coaching relationship the conceptual approach of the Cognitive (Kemp, 2008a). Stober and Grant (2006, Behavioural Coaching framework (Szy- p.361) for instance note: manska, 2009). It is proposed that this ‘… it is important that the coach and explicit discussion, in conjunction with being client spend some time discussing the explicit in discussion of goals, tasks, bonds nature of their relationship, and that they and views of the coaching endeavour is likely jointly design the dynamics of the to benefit the establishment, development working alliance.’ and maintenance of an effective coaching The theme of co-creating the coaching alliance in CBC. alliance is also addressed by O’Broin and Research and literature on the psycho- Palmer, (in press a). These authors suggest logical contract provides additional input in that the explicit discussion, agreement and this examination of the benefits of being renegotiation over time, of the goals, tasks explicit as part of a collaborative and negoti- and bonds of the coaching alliance can help ated coaching alliance. As Bluckert, (2006) create the clarity and transparency vital for notes, most coaching assignments involve a trust and respect in the coaching relation- written contract, signed by coachee, coach, ship. Similarly, Kemp (2009, p.109) in a lead- and if applicable, also by an organisational ership coaching context asserts that by sponsor. Regardless of whether a written demonstrating empathy, congruence and contract exists or not, a psychological ‘con-

186 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance tract’ exists between coachee and coach Bonds in the coaching alliance (Spinelli, 2008; O’Broin & Palmer, in press The bond has received most attention in the b). The psychological contract concerns counselling and psychotherapy literature mutual reciprocal obligations, in this when conceptualised within the core condi- instance of the coach and coachee, with tions of empathy, genuineness and uncondi- three primary concepts in the formation of tional acceptance. This is particularly the case psychological contracts being Schemas, in the person-centred tradition (e.g. Mearns Promises and Mutuality (Rousseau, 2001). & Thorne, 2007) where these attitudes are Depending on whether information sources considered the basic work of the counsellor are trusted, explicit, clear and consistent, and are viewed as necessary and often suffi- schema are anticipated to emerge and cient for client development. Such counsellor develop differently. Promises are meaningful attitudes have a broader relevance beyond the in their specific context, and may be verbal person-centred tradition (Dryden, 2008a) or interpretations of actions. For Mutuality and have been considered by some in the cog- to occur, several conditions are necessary. nitive behavioural framework (e.g. Trower et These are: al., 2007) to provide the backdrop for the ● shared information between the coach technical work to take place. and coachee; Likewise in coaching, we are witnessing ● objective accuracy in individual an increasing interest and emphasis on inter- perceptions; personal processes in coaching (Luebbe, ● the right to ask for terms to be in one’s 2005; Bachkirova, 2007; Spinelli, 2008; De own interest; Haan, 2008) including the coaching rela- ● the right to either consent or reject the tionship (Bluckert, 2006; Gyllensten & terms of the mutual agreement. Palmer, 2007; Kemp, 2008a) and the If these conditions are fulfilled, then both coaching alliance, (Kemp, 2009). coach and coachee may hold the same beliefs regarding reciprocal obligations and The work-supporting bond thus achieve mutuality. Research is in the As has been increasingly recognised in the process of investigating how effective psy- counselling and psychotherapy research lit- chological contracts can be created and erature, participant, relationship and tech- revised (e.g. Shalk & Roe, 2007). Malhotra nical factors work individually and in and Murnigham (2002) for instance, assert interaction, in a context, to contribute to that non-binding contracts (such as the psy- positive outcome (Beutler & Castonguay, chological contract) may help build an 2006). Addressing the coaching alliance optimal basis for building trust. Hence nego- from this more complex perspective suggests tiation of the psychological contract in that within the bond between coach and coaching may form another key component coachee, coach attitudes of empathy, gen- of an explicit stance in the pantheoretic uineness and unconditional acceptance of coaching relationship, and in particular to the coachee may be of particular importance the broad-based explicit stance of the CBC for some but not necessarily all coachees. coach in the coaching alliance. A second narrower bond concept in the This broad-based explicit and collabora- alliance identified by (Bordin, 1979) and tive stance of the coach, in addition to labelled as the work-supporting bond by encouraging the coachee to be equally Hatcher and Barends, (2006) may be more explicit about the coaching process may be instructive here. Supportive to the goals and one aspect of the coaching alliance that is tasks, this work-supporting bond is concep- more specific to the CBC approach. tualised as linking goals tasks and bonds to the core alliance issue of collaborative, pur- posive work.

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An optimal level of bond for a specific Liking a coach/coachee too much may not coachee, within a specific context introduces be conducive to purposive work if this blocks the principle of adapting the alliance to the coaching progress in any way. This require- individual coachee. Tailoring the practi- ment for adapting one’s interpersonal style to tioner’s approach to the individual client’s the coachee in order to rapidly establish an needs and characteristics has been demon- optimal coaching alliance is illustrated in a strated to enhance psychotherapy outcome study by Jones and Spooner, (2006) who (Norcross, 2002). Different conceptual found that High Achievers required a rela- models view the impact of interpersonal atti- tionship of ultimate trust and mutual respect, tudes of the counselor differently. In as well as rapid results and the need for coaching too, the benefits of tailoring the coaches to add value quickly. The ability of relationship to the needs of the specific the coach to rapidly establish, as well as coachee are frequently advocated (Stober, develop and maintain an optimal coaching 2006; De Haan, 2008; Kauffman & alliance is particularly accentuated perhaps Bachkirova, 2008). However, an explicit when coaching high achievers. However, pos- matching of coach and coachee on the basis sible time constraints and the limited fre- of the right ‘chemistry’ and surface diversity quency of coaching sessions highlights the factors may be less relevant than coach possible greater need for quickly establishing adaptability and experience (Wycherley & an effective coaching alliance than may be Cox, 2008). the case in other helping relationships. Issues detracting from the coaching Cognitive-behavioural dynamics of alliance and placing a focus on the cognitive- coachee (and coach) in the relationship behavioural dynamics of the coachee may Cavanagh and Grant (2004) emphasise the arise from: importance of working with the cognitive- ● the coachee’s negative perception of the behavioural dynamics of coachee and coach style, presence, attitudes, behaviours of in the coaching process. The personal devel- the coach; opment, self-regulation and self-manage- ● the perception that they are not being ment of the coach are increasingly becoming listened to by the coach; a focus (Bachkirova, 2007; Kemp, 2008a; ● a lack of accurate empathy on the coach’s 2008b), as is the self-management of the part; coachee (Kemp, 2009; O’Broin & Palmer, in ● a lack of appropriate focus for the press a). coaching from the coachee’s viewpoint; Working with the cognitive-behavioural ● other interpersonal aspects of the dynamics of coach and coachee is synergistic coaching relationship. with a more complex alliance perspective in These perceptions may result in coaching- relation to bonds between coach and interfering feelings and behaviours, such as coachee, where focus on the interpersonal hostility, and withdrawal of the coachee. styles of coach and coachee in interaction Issues placing a focus on the cognitive- becomes key. The implication here is that the behavioural dynamics of the coach include coaching bond is likely to be enhanced when unhelpful coaching-interfering and a good match exists between the interper- unhelpful thoughts, feelings and behaviours sonal styles of coach and coachee, particu- that in turn may impact on their interper- larly in the early stages of establishing an sonal perceptual and relational skills. optimal coaching alliance. Also that the inter- Amongst others, these could include: personal style of the coach is modified as and ● unhelpful coach schema; when necessary during the coaching ● feelings of incompetence; endeavour, as the coachee’s attitude towards ● avoidance behaviour of ‘difficult’ situa- the coach may change (Bluckert, 2006). tions with the coachee.

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Alternatively the interaction of coaching- The Therapeutic Model of Empathy interfering thinking, feeling and or (Thwaites & Bennett-Levy, 2007) was devel- behaviours may represent a schematic mis- oped to conceptualise the nature and func- match or ‘over match’ (Leahy, 2008), i.e. tion of therapeutic empathy. This largely that the schema of the coachee and coach resulted from four factors: are similar or conflict. For a more detailed ● as a response to the absence of CBT discussion of the implications of the empirical research literature on the coaching-interfering thinking, feelings and topic; behaviour of the coach, the coachee, and of ● there is no universal definition of possible interactive rule-based thinking see empathy and different conceptual (O’Broin & Palmer, in press b). traditions and writers emphasise different elements. Empathy in a collaborative relationship Linked to this second factor: The research-focused approach of the Cog- ● the absence of a specific understanding nitive Behavioural tradition has historically of empathy within the CBT context, focused more extensively on the technical where there is overlap with other related aspects of the approach (Leahy, 2008) and concepts, such as validation and their effect on outcome. However, there has compassion (Thwaites & Bennett-Levy, been growing interest in exploring the rela- 2007; Gilbert, 2007); tionship and its impact on outcome (Gilbert ● to assist training and supervision of & Leahy, 2007; Leahy, 2008). There has also therapists. been increasing recognition in the CBT lit- The model presents a conceptualisation of erature base of the value of exploring partic- empathy part of which applies generically ular relationship factors, for instance, one across conceptual approaches and part of aspect of the bond, that of empathy which is specific to the conceptual approach. (Thwaites & Bennett-Levy, 2007). The Model contains four components: Beck et al., (1979) identified empathy as ● empathic attitude/stance (a sense of a central ingredient in promoting thera- curiosity, good will and interest); peutic change). Empathy appears to be a key ● empathic attunement (perceptual skill of factor in establishing an effective therapeutic ‘tuning-in to the coachee); relationship in any therapeutic framework ● empathic communication (active and (Castonguay & Beutler, 2006) including CBT skilful communication of empathy to the (Hardy et al., 2007). A meta-analysis by coachee); Bohart et al., (2002) found that empathy ● empathy knowledge (what coaches learn accounted for seven to 10 per cent of the from reading or training during the variance in therapy outcome, and that effect personal development and training sizes were higher in CBT studies than in process). those from other theoretical orientations. The functions of empathy described in the Bohart et al. (2002) speculated that empathy Model include: could be considered more necessary in inter- ● its role in helping establish the vention-based therapy than in those thera- relationship; pies placing particular emphasis on the ● assisting assessment and formulation; relationship as a mechanism of change. If ● enabling traditional CBT techniques; the place for empathy is found to be as cen- ● helping maintain the relationship tral to the coaching process in CBC as is the (particularly in the case of an impasse); case in CBT (Beck et al., 1979), empathy is ● an active agent for change in its own likely to be a key aspect of the coaching right. alliance in coaching worthy of further study. In addition to the position that empathy enables the techniques and process of CBT

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 189 Alanna O’Broin & Stephen Palmer to take place, others consider that through coachee’s in-the-moment experience whilst validation, empathy and compassion, the undertaking a CBC intervention and tech- relationship with the therapist is a means for nique (for example, in-session role-playing helping clients change how they relate to in a between-session assignment that the themselves and their own experiences coachee will be conducting after the ses- (Gilbert, 2005; Gilbert & Leahy, 2007) sion). The technical strategies and skills of Whilst a detailed review of the model CBC themselves may also prove beneficial in itself is outside the scope of this article, key promoting empathic communication, for aspects relevant to a discussion of empathy example, judicious and responsive Socratic in CBC will be reviewed. First, the model questioning (Neenan, in press) and regular highlights the importance of the person of coachee feedback may both be helpful here. the practitioner and self-reflection in the development of empathy. This empathic Discussion of the themes ‘mode’ of processing is contrasted with the Within the broader themes of a coaching rational mode of processing adopted by the alliance approach, this CBC perspective has practitioner when working more formally identified several themes. Firstly, as is the with the coachee. case in CBT, collaboration was identified as a One differentiating feature of ‘thera- primary overarching theme permeating the peutic’ empathy from natural empathy CBC approach. In particular the ‘spirit of which we might experience in everyday life, collaboration’ was deemed an important is the addition of the cognitive perspective- contributor to the whole CBC coaching taking component to the emotional one process and exemplified through the (Thwaites & Bennett-Levy, 2007). In this way remaining themes. the practitioner is able to conceptualise the The second theme, was the requirement coachee’s situation in cognitive as well as of the coach to skillfully and flexibly adapt to emotional terms and this may be one factor the specific coachee, by tailoring the of empathy emphasised within a Cognitive coaching alliance, including the degree, Behavioural orientation. level and kind of goals, tasks, bond and views Turning now to the components of the accordingly. This necessitates the coach Therapeutic Model of Empathy specific to being able to vary their interpersonal style the Cognitive Behavioural framework, and and to be able to recognise and respond to argued to apply to CBC, it is proposed that the coachee’s changing needs throughout the particular emphasis on the collaborative the coaching process. Concurrently, the relationship via the empathic stance of the coach’s stance needs to be an explicit and practitioner may enhance empathy as an negotiating one – about the coaching model, enabler for the sometimes challenging formulation, the goals, tasks, bonds and changes expected of clients in this approach views of the coaching, whilst encouraging (Thwaites & Bennett-Levy, 2007). the coachee to be equally explicit. It could In terms of empathic attunement there may be argued that this explicit process of nego- be differences of focus and context com- tiation (including discussion and negotia- pared to other conceptual approaches. In tion of the psychological and perhaps keeping with the CBC approach, attunement written, contract) may in itself create a more is more likely to focus on problem descrip- equal power dynamic and less dependency tion, formulation and intervention strate- in the coaching alliance (Hart et al., 2001) gies, unless the coaching alliance itself than is the case in the therapeutic alliance. epitomises aspects of the formulation, or Furthermore, in demonstrating a broader- there has been a disruption in the alliance. based explicit stance and adaptability of the Coaching attunement may also be present in coach, spanning as has been described, the contexts whereby the coach attunes to the CBC coaching model, formulation, session

190 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance agenda, as well as goals, tasks, bonds, views of peutic Model of Empathy state, each of the the Coaching Alliance, it is speculated that key elements of the model and the relation- the Coaching Alliance may be further ship between these elements require further enhanced in CBC. examination, and so do they in terms of Third, the theme of working with the whether they translate and if so, how, into cognitive behavioural dynamics of the the coaching context. coachee and of the coach has been high- And what of empathy in the coaching lighted. In the case of tailoring as mentioned relationship, particularly from a CBC per- above, as the features of the coaching spective? The theoretical and methodolog- alliance are discussed, agreed, and any dif- ical approach adopted by (Thwaites & ferences negotiated, a more effective Bennett-Levy, 2007) in seeking to frame the coaching alliance is likely to ensue. Initial conceptualisation of therapeutic empathy rapport and communication will likely may be informative to this discussion in two develop into a level of trust that enables the ways. work (and potential challenges) of coaching 1. Offering a framework that could form to take place. However, either as part of the the basis of what we could research in formulation of the coaching, or as a result of seeking to understand the role of a disruption in the coaching process, the empathy in the coaching relationship. cognitive behavioural dynamics of either 2. The approach could help provide a coach or coachee, or of both in interaction, method for creating a framework for may become a focus for the work of examining and researching further coaching. This may be either temporarily or coaching relationship factors. throughout the coaching programme. It is This approach resonates with a proposal by consistent with the CBC model, as with that Kauffman and Bachkirova, (2009) for organ- of CBT, that empathic communication of the ising our thinking on what to examine in coach includes relating thoughts, feelings coaching research. In the case of the coach- and behaviours of the dyad whenever the coachee relationship, they propose this may appropriate opportunity presents itself. involve asking ourselves questions, such as The fourth theme examined empathy as how can we reliably assess an optimal rela- a relationship component discussed in the tionship, and suggest breaking it down into counselling and psychotherapy literature, parts, and then seeking to establish whether and more specifically in the CBT context. we can potentially teach and develop coach This discussion revealed a general and a skills, for instance of relationship building CBT-specific conceptualisation of empathy. ability. Translated to the CBC context, these specific aspects of empathy and the process of this Conclusion conceptualisation of empathy provide a com- This paper has reviewed the coaching rela- pelling demonstration of the critical rele- tionship through the lens of a Cognitive vance of the practitioner’s interpersonal Behavioural Coaching perspective. Much of attitudes, skills and competencies to the its discussion on establishing, developing delivery of the strategic and technical inter- and maintaining a coaching alliance at a ventions of the Cognitive Behavioural broader level is pantheoretic. For instance in approach. the importance of the collaboration of coach Additionally, distinctions between aspects and coachee; of empathy as a relationship of empathy have been made. The role of the factor; the need for adaptability of the coach self of the practitioner and for self-reflection to the coachee’s needs; and the requirement have been emphasised, and the possibility of for negotiation and renegotiation of the more refined measurement of empathy have coaching alliance. Additionally, factors have been indicated. As the authors of the Thera- been speculated that may differentiate the

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 191 Alanna O’Broin & Stephen Palmer coaching alliance from the therapeutic Will the coaching alliance prove to be a alliance. These are the potential establish- key determinant of effective coaching out- ment and development of an alliance of come as it has in other helping relationships, more equal power dynamics than that of a such as the therapeutic alliance? Will process therapeutic alliance; the requirement for a studies demonstrate that this is the case in more rapid fostering of trust and connection combination with effective techniques, in the often time-constrained context, par- applied judiciously and appropriately in ticularly of executive coaching; and the response to the coachee’s needs and posited positive contribution of the explicit responses? To further investigate the why’ negotiation of the psychological contract. and ‘how’ of the coaching relationship in Furthermore four aspects are presented the coaching process we require ‘… multiple to postulate a differentiated viewpoint on studies on the nature and role of the the coaching alliance from a CBC perspec- coaching relationship.’ (Kauffman & tive. This viewpoint highlights the broader- Bachkirova, 2009). It is hoped that this dis- based explicit stance of the coach and the cussion has served to generate interest and potentially greater necessity for adapting to sources for taking such theory, research and the coachee’s needs resulting from this practice further. coach stance. It also asserts a particular emphasis on the cognitive-behavioural Correspondence dynamics of the dyad and possible Cognitive Alanna O’Broin Behavioural-specific aspects of empathy, Coaching Psychology Unit, including the speculated greater need for Department of Psychology, empathy in CBC as an intervention-based City University, Northampton Square, framework. Of necessity, given the limited London, UK. discussion and research literature on the E-mail: [email protected] coaching relationship and particularly the E-mail: [email protected] coaching relationship in CBC to date, its conclusions must be considered speculative. Stephen Palmer Coaching Psychology Unit, Department of Psychology, City University, Northampton Square, London, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

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194 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Does coaching psychology need the concept of formulation? David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie

The aim of this paper is to raise awareness of some of the debates and controversies surrounding formulation, and to highlight ways of navigating these debates more successfully for the benefits of ourselves, our clients and the future development of our profession. The concept of formulation, that is an explanatory account of the issues affecting a client, is widely used in sister disciplines such as clinical, counselling, and psychotherapy. Its purpose is to provide a descriptive and explanatory narrative that the client and practitioner can use to plan interventions. While coaching psychology has used many ideas from its sister disciplines this concept has not appeared as a feature of much in the coaching psychology literature (with a few exceptions). The reasons why this might be so are explored. The paper provides an overview of the role of formulation in psychology and some of the arguments for and against its use. The position of formulation in coaching psychology is discussed with reference to the purposes of coaching and some boundary issues between this and related fields. A framework for using formulation in coaching psychology is outlined through consideration of purpose, perspective and process. Such a framework it is argued provides a format to enable coaching psychologists whatever their theoretical orientation to use the concept of formulation to assist client change. Keywords: formulation, coaching, psychology, client partnership, narrative, boundaries.

INCE ITS INTRODUCTION to clinical cantly enhanced by elevating formulation to psychology regulation in 1969, formula- the heart of the coach-client partnership. Stion has become a defining skill of In order to contextualise our argument, applied psychology. Different forms of pro- we begin with an overview of the way in fessional psychology define the term in dif- which formulation has been conceptualised ferent ways, and the extent to which in the literature more broadly, and consider formulation has a scientific basis and is some of the debates concerning its role in drawn directly from psychological theory practice. We then examine some of the fac- varies between disciplines (see Lane & tors that may have led this to being a rela- Corrie, 2006). Nonetheless, there is fairly tively neglected topic in coaching psychology broad agreement that the ability to construct and consider ways in which elevating formu- formulations is central to applied psychology lation to the heart of coaching psychology practice (British Psychological Society, 2005; might contribute to the development of high Corrie & Lane, 2006; Johnstone & Dallos, quality practice. Finally, we propose an 2006) and much time, during initial training approach to formulation that can help and subsequent professional development, coaches achieve a more rigorous and system- will be spent in the service of acquiring and atic approach regardless of their theoretical refining this complex skill. preferences. This approach is, we believe, However, the role that formulation relevant regardless of whether the coaching should play in the emerging discipline and journey is undertaken with an individual profession of coaching psychology is yet to seeking personal guidance, a team seeking be adequately considered. In this paper, we higher levels of performance, or an organi- argue for the centrality of formulation in sation seeking a strategic change of direc- coaching psychology and propose that the tion. Coaching is very broadly based and the quality of coaching practice can be signifi- formulation process happens at different

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 195 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie scales (dyad, triad, group, organisation, informed understanding of the client’s etc.). Consequently there are multiple stake- needs; prioritising client concerns for the holders. We argue that formulation must purposes of goal setting; identifying encompass or reflect these nested contexts. hypotheses worthy of further investigation, Hence formulation is not a single moment in selecting intervention strategies and guiding time but an iterative process. Formulations systematic thinking about lack of progress are co-created sometimes in the coaching (see Bieling & Kuyken, 2003; Butler, 1998; dyad but at other times may represent in an Corrie & Lane, 2010). Formulation has also organisational context both coach and been described as an aid to engagement, coachee’s evolving apprehension of the particularly in those instances where a stakeholder situation. client’s actions may challenge the practi- tioner’s empathic ability (as, for example, in Formulation and its role in the case of sexual offending; see Haarbosch psychological practice: A brief review & Newey, 2006; Sheath, 2010). of the literature However, the empirical literature on for- When the coaching psychologist sits along- mulation would appear to challenge its side a client what is their first duty, as a pro- status as a cornerstone of effective practice. fessional? Arguably, it is one of ensuring that Most notably, there is a lack of consensual the client feels heard, and that their story is definition (Corrie & Lane, 2010); poor inter- understood and accepted. However, the rater reliability, particularly in relation to the client is also seeking assistance from the psy- explanatory components of cases where chologist to identify a way forward. The greater inference is required (Bieling & client is, therefore, assuming that a psycho- Kuyken, 2003) and an equivocal relationship logical perspective is potentially relevant and to outcome (Shulte et al., 1992). Moreover, a helpful. The coach becomes a partner in the number of clients appear to find formula- client’s story, contributing ideas derived tions of their needs unhelpful (Chadwick, from theory, research and prior professional Williams & Mackenzie, 2003; Evans & Parry, experience to help formulate a coherent 1996). explanation of the puzzle, problem or con- One question arising from these cern that the client is facing. ambiguous findings is that of who should In general terms, formulation can be ‘own’ the formulation and thus, who is enti- understood as an explanatory account of the tled to devise, change or discard it. Crellin issues with which a client is presenting (1998) for example, has noted how formula- (including predisposing, precipitating and tion tends to take the form of translating maintaining factors) that can form the basis clients’ experiences into testable hypotheses. of a shared framework of understanding and However, she argues that whilst this may which has implications for change. It is rea- render complex client experiences more sonable to assume that this explanatory manageable for practitioners, such reduc- account will draw upon a wide range of data tionism prevents us from grasping the very including psychological theory, general sci- experiences we seek to understand. A similar entific principles, research from the wider concern has been expressed by Duncan and literature and professional experience, in Miller (2000), as well as Worrell (2010), who addition to being informed by the nuances warn that our theoretically- and empirically- of the client’s self-told story. The stories that derived formulations all too easily become clients tell in coaching are often the way in professional expositions imposed on clients, to a rich narrative (Drake, 2009). rather than useful ideas that might form the Formulation is believed to serve a variety basis of new possibilities. of functions. These include (although are by The evidence-base for formulation raises no means limited to) facilitating an a question about whether our faith in for-

196 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Does coaching psychology need the concept of formulation? mulation as the route to effective practice is is involved (for example, where the client misplaced. Moreover, we must consider the aims to extend what they already know and implications of these debates for coaching can do and where the focus is essentially one psychology itself. In light of this literature, to of skills coaching), formulation may be less what extent should coaching psychology relevant. However, where vertical change is adhere to the established view that formula- involved (for example, where the client will tion is a central component of effective need to fundamentally alter the way they practice? Is a formulation always essential for perceive a situation and acquire new ways of effective, ethical coaching or are there times thinking and doing) the need to challenge when it is unnecessary? What questions how they see and apply new learning might an understanding of the role of for- becomes more critical. As Olson (2008) mulation generate that assists coaching psy- points out although we arrive at our per- chology in its task of helping clients spectives on our worlds in different ways, if re-author their stories? These questions are we want to understand we have to make our considered next. assumptions explicit. Formulation, we would contend, is a useful part of such a process of Does coaching psychology need the explication. concept of formulation? A second reason for the relative absence In recent texts reviewing the field (for of formulation in the coaching literature example, Palmer & Whybrow, 2007) it is may lie in the roles played in coaching by apparent that the concept of formulation is client and coach and the existence of three-, largely absent (see Palmer & Szymanska, four- (or more) cornered contracts which 2007; Szymanska, 2009, for an exception). imply that multiple stories have to be This is despite the fact that many coaching addressed or integrated. For example, in a models ‘borrow’ constructs and approaches study of transfer of gains Stewart et al. (2008) from clinical psychology, counselling psy- found that the multiple interactions typical chology and psychotherapy. of coaching contracts in organisations There are a number of reasons why for- required an understanding of a complex mulation may be a neglected topic. First, it interplay of factors beyond the idea of the may relate to the purpose of coaching. For- coach-coachee relationship. They suggested mulation may not be necessary for all forms that organisations must adopt a holistic of coaching, particularly where there is a guardianship of their coaching provision. clear goal and action plan and where a new A third reason for the relative neglect of understanding of causal or maintenance fac- formulation in the coaching psychology lit- tors does not appear to be required. Grant erature may relate to the domain in which and Cavanagh (2004) identify three generic client concerns have traditionally been levels of engagement within the coaching located. In her review of the literature, agenda that range from skills coaching (typ- Butler (1998) highlights how approaches to ically of short duration where the focus is on formulation have tended to focus on predis- specific behaviours) and performance posing, precipitating and maintaining fac- coaching (where the focus is on the process tors that are concerned primarily with by which the coachee can set goals, manage individual, internal or intrapyschic factors. obstacles and monitor their performance) to At the same time, social, cultural and histor- developmental coaching (which takes a ical factors have suffered relative neglect. more holistic view and addresses personal A similar argument has been made by and professional questions in the context of Lazarus (1973) whose multimodal model has a ‘reflective space’). Formulation is unlikely come to be known through the acronym to be required to the same degree across all ‘BASIC ID’ where each letter stands for a three levels. Thus, where horizontal change particular sensory modality (biology, affect,

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 197 David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie sensation, imagery, cognition, interpersonal coaching and therapy. As it is often associ- factors and the need for drugs or pharmaco- ated with clinical case conceptualisation, it logical intervention). Palmer (2008) has may be that formulation seems too close to explored these arguments in coaching. the boundary of therapy to feel safe. Thus, Although the neglect of the social, cul- while some concepts from therapy are tural, economic and political domains is a embraced others are not and there are issues criticism that has been levied against applied over the uses of such theory (Lane, 2006) psychology (see Smail, 1993, 1996; Masson, and the range to which it is applied. The 1990), there may have been compelling rea- issue of boundaries has greatly exercised sons for practitioners’ pursuit of internal fac- many in the field. (See, for example, debates tors. In their analysis of what they term ‘the in Bachkirova, 2007; Spinelli, 2008; Lane, zeitgeist of internal causation’, Martell, Stelter & Stout-Rostron, 2009.) Addis and Jacobson (2001) highlight how A fifth potential reason for the relative Western culture tends to blame individuals neglect of formulation in the coaching psy- for difficulties that society attributes to chology literature is its equivocal relation- ‘deviant behaviour’. (They illustrate this cul- ship to outcome. The empirical status of the ture of blame through reference to the social construct of formulation, as well as some of discourse surrounding HIV and AIDS where the well-documented biases in decision- those affected have been labelled either as making that underpin it, has led some (e.g. ‘innocent victims’ or ‘those who got what Wilson, 1996, 1997; Meehl, 1954, 1986) to they deserved’.) In contrast, by attributing argue that individual formulations should be difficulties to internal factors over which the by-passed in favour of manual-based, empiri- individual has no direct control (e.g. an cally-validated interventions wherever pos- imbalance in brain chemistry or genetic fea- sible. There is certainly a pressure towards tures) the difficulty is redefined as one of ill- manual-based coaching interventions where ness, with the burden of stigma concurrently a simple process can be taught in a short reduced. The focus on internal factors has, training programme and will supposedly therefore, served the function of legitimising deliver consistent results (Lane, 2009). distress in a culture that is highly judge- However, despite some of the challenges, mental of human dilemmas. abandoning formulation in coaching psy- However, as a direct consequence, chology may be premature. As noted previ- coaching psychologists may now find them- ously, formulation has continued to be selves faced with an array of theories and regarded as a central skill of applied psy- models that are inadequate for the contexts chologists despite a growth in manualised in which they work. In coaching psychology interventions (British Psychological Society, practice, multiple stories are involved. The 2005). Moreover, the many functions that traditional over-reliance on internal factors formulation serve relate to the content, while engaged in a process which is essen- process, planning and evaluation of psycho- tially, because of the multiple relationships logical interventions: this implies a highly involved, inter-relational has been raised by sophisticated skill which relies on a range of Spinelli (2008). He argues the need for a higher order skills in both problem solving broader exploration and quality of relation- and design – some of which may be more ship. We are in what Spinelli (quoting amenable to empirical examination than Jopling, 2007) calls ‘fuzzy space’ where mul- others. For example, practitioners bring to tiple relationships and perspectives need to their enquiries theoretical knowledge and be addressed. prior professional experience that shape This may also generate the fourth pos- how they listen, respond to and understand sible reason. Many coaches have become their clients’ concerns from the earliest concerned about boundary issues between stages of engaging with a client. Hence, they

198 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Does coaching psychology need the concept of formulation? operate using covert formulations that direct will be crucial in working with clients at the process of the enquiry from the outset the levels of performance and (Butler, 1998). developmental coaching, as well as work Additionally, as noted by Dowie and involving any degree of complexity. Elstein (1988), professional judgements are 2. Formulation can serve many functions not isolated cognitive events and can be ranging from the identification of understood only in relation to a particular relevant issues and goals, to enhancing task in a specific context. They are judge- coach empathy and collaboration. ments about situations and experiences that 3. There is currently insufficient knowledge are constantly evolving, rather than static of the factors that make our formulations events that lend themselves well to statistical optimally useful for coaches and their analyses of accuracy (Hogarth, 1981). Is clients. coaching psychology fundamentally dif- We might also conclude that if formulation is ferent in this respect? We believe not. As to prove ‘fit for purpose’ for coaching psy- Butler (1998) proposes, the aim of a formu- chologists and their clients, it will be neces- lation is not to provide answers but rather to sary to: generate a rich source of questions and ideas 1. Develop a model or framework that is that add value to the work. Interpreted in consistent with a client partnership this light, investigating the effectiveness of framework in which it is possible to formulation should perhaps focus on the incorporate a variety of stakeholder properties of powerful questions and how positions. those questions can be used to create 2. Develop a model or framework that can leverage for change (Adams, 2004). take account of a broader range of Kuyken et al. (2009) have also proposed factors than the individual and internal that the reason formulations are not always (that is, an approach that is not restricted positively received by clients is that they tend by the ‘zeitgeist of internal causation’). to focus on unilaterally derived, practitioner- 3. Develop a model or framework of determined accounts presented to clients formulation that has relevance to all rather than constructed in partnership. This contexts, regardless of the goals chosen, emphasis on partnership is critical to theoretical position adopted or devising explanations that are both accept- techniques for change used (that is, the able to all those involved and useful in their framework or approach to formulation implications. The issue of partnership and must be replicable across time, place and the forms it takes has featured centrally in contract). much of the coaching literature In the next section we consider how, in the (Bachkirova, 2007; Spinelli, 2008). Hence if light of the criteria identified, it might be formulation is to take its place within possible to develop a systematic approach to coaching psychology, building appropriate formulation, regardless of the theoretical relationships in which the multiple purposes perspective taken. served and stories heard, constructed, de- constructed and re-constructed will be nec- Towards a model of formulation for essary. Coaching Psychology: Introducing the In consequence, we argue that: Purpose, Perspective, Process model as 1. Formulation has a potentially crucial role a framework for formulation to play in the development of coaching In previous (Corrie & Lane, 2006; Lane & psychology, despite the ambiguities in Corrie, 2006) as well as current (Corrie & the literature. It may not be necessary for Lane, 2010) work and drawing on empirical all levels of engagement (particularly findings establishing the effectiveness of this where the focus is on skills coaching) but approach (Lane, 1990), we have defined for-

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 199 David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie mulation as the co-construction of a narra- you have defined your Purpose and tive which provides a specific focus for a identified your Perspective, what learning journey. This learning journey takes intervention strategies, approaches, the client from where they are now to where methods or tools do you select? In they want to be, based on a process of nego- undertaking that work, we follow a tiating appropriate goals. The task of formu- Process determined partly by how we lating centres on the creation of a shared have defined the Purpose of the enquiry framework of understanding that has impli- and partly by the Perspectives that cations for change. This shared framework underpin our approach. centres on the three core themes of Purpose, We argue that as a generic framework, the Perspective and Process as follows: Purpose, Perspective, Process model meets 1. What Purpose is the formulation designed the criteria outlined in the previous section to serve? For example, is the Purpose to and can usefully guide practitioners in help the client construct a meaningful understanding the issues relevant to each narrative that enables them to make stage of a client enquiry. We now consider sense of their situation? Or is it to ease each of the components of the Purpose, Per- communication with professional spective, Process model in turn. colleagues? Unless we understand that Purpose, it is difficult to make any 1. Purpose (Where we are going and why?) decision to apply a psychological In undertaking any enquiry within coaching approach to its resolution. Making a psychology, it is vital to be clear about its fun- decision with the client about whether damental purpose. The shape that your coaching is appropriate is part of our enquiry takes and the stories you tell about responsibility in the initial encounter. It that enquiry will follow logically from there. may, for example, be the case that a Thus, the shared journey begins as you management consultancy, or define the Purpose of your work together. organisational design approach has more Critical questions in this regard include: to offer. What is the Purpose in working with the 2. What Perspective informs the development client? Where are you going with this client? of the formulation? The Purpose of any What do they want to achieve? Where do enquiry will influence its direction. The they want to go in their overall journey with intentions of the different stakeholders, you as their guide? Who are the stakeholders their beliefs and views on human and what do they want? This is more than experience and the nature of the defining a contract for work it is defining the evidence that needs to underpin any purpose of the enterprise. psychological intervention will all inform Defining the Purpose of the work com- the journey taken. In working prises four essential elements: psychologically there are many 1. Understanding the question you wish to Perspectives upon which we might draw. explore. Some of these are the client’s, some our 2. Understanding the expectations of key own, some belong to other authors and stakeholders. some are prescribed or proscribed by the 3. Clarifying the role that each party wishes context in which the work takes place. to play. Those Perspectives help us to make sense 4. Appreciating the wider context that gives of the Purpose we have agreed as the meaning to the Purpose and the way in ‘shared concern’. which it has come to be defined. 3. Given the Purpose and Perspective, what Process is needed? Based on your understanding and the context in which

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1. Understanding the question to which you seek expect to achieve from having undertaken an answer or wish to explore the journey. The objectives of relatives, other Establishing the core question that you and professionals, managers, or sponsors who the client will explore provides the basis for have an investment in the outcome must be deciding where the work is headed. This may considered, as must the extent to which start with the client’s sense of dissatisfaction those objectives are congruent with what the with the current situation and a desire to client wishes to achieve. Anticipated outputs move to a new preferred state, but it must or results in terms of what the client will also include an agreement that the journey experience as different and any behavioural itself is worthwhile. Questioning why it is change the client and others will recognise important to undertake the work is critical in (e.g. an increased sales turnover following this regard, the reasons for which may the more effective use of delegation) are include arriving at a new understanding of critical to establish as are the anticipated something that has hitherto seemed incom- learnings from engaging in the process of prehensible, anticipated improvements in change. Thus, in understanding the expecta- current circumstances or the pursuit of a tions of key stakeholders, we would recom- new vision (Lane, 1973). In developing this mend the need to identify the following: understanding we recommend considering ● The intention behind this enquiry (i.e. the following questions: what the practitioner, client and others ● Is a generic intent to explore an area involved intend as the aim of the sufficient to justify the journey – that is, engagement). an open enquiry which may lead to an ● The key stakeholders and the objectives unknown destination? of each party. ● Does the question need a fixed point ● The anticipated outputs or results and resolution – is there a problem to be how these relate to the objectives of each solved, an issue to be unravelled or a party. solution to be achieved that is recognised ● What will be different as a consequence as appropriate by key stakeholders? of achieving these outputs or results. ● Is it possible in advance to know what an ● The new learning that it is hoped will appropriate resolution will look like – occur as a result of undertaking the that is, might performance criteria be journey. devised? ● The areas in which the stakeholders ● Is it impossible (or at least unlikely) to share the concern or take divergent know in advance what an appropriate positions. resolution might look like? For example, something entirely unexpected might 3. Clarifying the role that each party wishes emerge as a resolution. Are the principal to play stakeholders prepared to allow for such a Given the main objectives and anticipated disruptive learning experience? results, it is important to establish the role ● Is the question to be explored agreed that each invested party will play. Will the between stakeholders? Alternatively, do Purpose be defined in such a way that the you need to work to obtain such an journey occurs solely between practitioner agreement, or at least partial agreement, and client? Or will multiple stakeholders con- sufficient to begin the journey? tribute to the way in which the journey unfolds? In some examples of psychological 2. Understanding the expectations of key practice, it will be sufficient to focus the stakeholders enquiry around the practitioner-client dyad This entails achieving a sense of clarity about (as is often the case in executive coaching). what you, the client and others involved In other forms of practice, several parties will

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 201 David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie wish or be required to contribute (e.g. when might be beneficiaries (or victims, working with a team). In clarifying the role of Checkland, 1989) of the intervention? each stakeholder, it is important to identify: Once you have defined the Purpose of your ● Those who should play a role in service you are in a position to explore the identifying key hypotheses and data Perspective which will inform the journey. gathering. ● The role that each party will play. 2. Perspective (What will inform our journey?) ● The investment that each party will be As part of an agreed Purpose it is important expected to make in terms of time, to be able to define what you bring to the energy and resources, and their encounter. The Perspective component of willingness and ability to do so. the Purpose, Perspective, Process model is ● The way in which each party will be concerned with trying to understand those initiated into the enquiry to ensure that a factors that influence the expectations of, sense of ownership is achieved. and inform the journey for, both practi- tioner and client. This includes the range of 4. Appreciating the wider context that gives explanations with which your professional meaning to the Purpose and the way in which it knowledge equips you (e.g. explanations has come to be defined grounded within diagnostic and theoretical Once the practitioner has clarified the ques- Perspectives) as well as your beliefs about tion to be explored, the expectations of key that knowledge, your sense of what you do stakeholders and the role that each party well in relation to that knowledge and the wishes to play, they are able to make an ini- limits of your competence. However, clients tial decision to engage on the journey with bring Perspectives of their own which will the client. However, deciding if they are the inform the work and which must, therefore, right person to undertake that journey raises be given equal consideration in the enquiry a further set of considerations. In essence, that follows. Engaging with these Perspec- these focus on the context in which the tives gives rise to questions such as: journey will happen and the practitioner’s ● What Perspectives are informing your competencies to facilitate that journey. approach to the enquiry? Critical questions here include: ● What Perspectives are informing the ● What does the client need to make it client’s approach to the enquiry? possible for them to tell their story and ● What are the beliefs (and prejudices) feel heard? Can you meet that need? that you each bring to the encounter? ● What type of client Purpose is best served ● Some journeys prescribe and proscribe by your service context? Do you have a certain routes of investigation and match or mismatch in this particular case? intervention. How do you ensure ● What boundaries do you place on the coherence between your journey and the Purpose of the work that would require journey of the client? you to refer the client elsewhere? Should ● What do you do to ensure that the client the client be referred? is able to explore their beliefs, knowledge ● With whom would you not work and and competencies within the encounter? where is the margin of that boundary? Clarity about the Perspectives that underpin ● Have you been able to define a shared our work and the ways in which we attempt concern that fits within the identified to engage our clients is vital. It enables us to boundaries and is best served by working scrutinise those ideologies, assumptions with you rather than another about human nature and beliefs relating to professional or profession? the nature of evidence that are dominant in ● Have you identified and understood the the current climate and which also infiltrate position of other key stakeholders who our work (with or without our knowledge).

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From our reading of the literature, contem- notice and overlook particular aspects of the porary approaches to formulation within the client’s story has to be addressed. We can see psychological professions are typically the benefits that the coherent use of a par- informed by at least one of five key Perspec- ticular theory may bring (see, for example, tives. These are as follows: ICPR Special Issue on Positive Psychology, 2007) but need to be aware of the narrowing 1. Formulation derived from diagnostic impact of any one stance (e.g. House & classification Loewenthal, 2008). Formulation derived from, and built around, a particular diagnosis is an approach that has 4. Strategic formulation a long history in psychology. The most A number of psychologists have adopted obvious current influence lies with DSM and ‘forward looking’ approaches such as design, ICD from which particular formulations of systemic and solution-focused models which distinct diagnostic profiles can then be con- challenge traditional models oriented structed. The challenge facing those who use towards problems and analysing the influ- these ‘medical models’ to classify disorders encing process. While this is often seen as a and formulate intervention is to identify how departure point between coaching and the client’s idiosyncratic story can be incor- therapy the distinction is far from clear porated. However, in coaching psychology (Spinelli, 2008). The strategic approach we are frequently faced with diagnosis of looks at the future and the strengths people client issues based on not of bring to achieve desired states. Here, ques- their choosing in which managers or spon- tions arise about the justifications for, and sors determine what is wrong or needs to be implications of, using this framework for for- fixed (what Jarvis, Lane & Fillery-Travis, mulation. What, for example, is left out of 2006, call fixed agenda coaching). the client’s account, and what knowledge of potential value held by the client and practi- 2. The formulation of the scientist-practitioner tioner is unavailable to use? The formulation is viewed as an essentially ‘scientific’ or empirical enterprise and works 5. Formulation and its role as a means of social from the assumption that we can identify, control define and test hypotheses to arrive at an Critiques of psychological approaches have accurate and useful explanation of the fac- pointed to their role as a means of social tors which are influencing the client’s control in educational, clinical, forensic and behaviour. The practitioner using this occupational settings. This debate which approach must consider how it is possible to ranges from the control of ethnic minorities use data from multiple sources to co-con- to the control of dangerous people presents struct formulations, and avoid the tempta- a critical challenge to the impact of our work tion to determine in advance what frame will on the individual and society. To what extent fit the client (see Cavanagh & Grant, 2006). are we taking into account how our approach to formulation reflects more 3. Formulation as a theoretically-driven story subtle belief systems and prejudices that pen- Practitioners approaching formulation from etrate the professions in which we operate a distinct theoretical perspective, whichever and to what extent as coaches do we operate theory they prefer, need to identify how their for the benefit of the powerful (see for prior assumptions inform the task of formu- example, Guilfoyle, 2008)? lation. A significant challenge concerns how our professionally sanctioned theories deter- Each of the five Perspectives listed above mine where the focus of change is located. favours an approach which provides a The issue of how our theories cause us to rationale for choosing between interventions

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 203 David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie and through which practitioners are able (at science which may lack the means to grasp least in principle) to demonstrate that strate- the innovative. Indeed, the context in which gies based upon their formulations bring practitioners work is often one which favours about change. To give just one example, the improvement over innovation. For example, diagnostic Perspective assumes that diag- many current initiatives in public health, nosis (or some forms of psychometrics or education and social service sectors quite 360 evaluations) is a representation of some specifically seek to reduce complexity in pur- ‘real’ quality that can be measured. suit of conformance with a protocol in the We believe it is reasonable to assert that belief that this is an indication of quality. Is regardless of the approach taken, it is impor- the same pressure appearing in coaching? tant to avoid squeezing the client into the Quality systems in industry appeal to those Perspective you prefer. The risk is that you who want a reliable product or service rather lose the essence of the person or context than an outstanding one (Lane, 2002). within which your work together is hap- Recent years have witnessed a consider- pening. All practitioners, even where special- able increase in this type of intervention in ising in a single model (Perspective) applied both clinical and occupational work where a to a specific goal must have a means for product, skills training or 360 degree feed- deciding whether their offer of service back is offered without understanding the makes sense for a particular client. Of course features of the learning journey of the client there can, on occasion, be good reason for (Lane, 1993). In such cases, a given proce- specialising in offering a service from the dure is applied to a client based on a min- Perspective of one particular theory. As imal definition of some aspect of their research evidence highlights the contribu- behaviour (e.g. the linking of a 360 feedback tion of specific ways of working to particular result to a specific intervention). Arguably, kinds of difficulties, it makes sense that cer- the client as a person is absent, as is the psy- tain models will be used in preference to chological investigation necessary to deter- others and that the process of exploration mine what is happening in the client’s life may be shortened for very good reasons. that leads them to the point of change. In However, the critical issue is do we know this context, the key question becomes: when and why we are foreshortening explo- What Process (including any method or ration? Are we aware of what we are not tool) is necessary to ensure that the Purpose attending to as a result of framing an enquiry is met within the constraints of the Perspec- in one way rather than another and the tives available to us? implications of this for our clients? Process is what happens as you work. It refers to what an outsider, the client or the 3. Process (How will we get there?) sponsor could observe. Process is not of itself Once you have been able to define the Pur- a model, although often wrongly described as pose of your work and the Perspectives that such and thus a Process for working is con- underpin it, then it is possible to structure a fused with the Perspectives which underpin it. process for the work that you and your client There are many step-based frameworks intend to undertake. Without the Purpose available in the literature which provide a and Perspective defined, the Process structure to work with clients and a series of becomes a technical application uninformed questions to take clients through the steps. by psychology. Manualised interventions can In the clinical arena, these have appeared in be effective and have provided substantial numerous treatment protocols as well as the benefit to many clients. However, we would notion of ‘stepped care’ (see Bower & argue that they are based less on the client’s Gilbody, 2005, for a review). In the coaching own story, told in their own words, than they arena Stout Rostron (2009) has identified a are on one view of evidence and one view of series of generic question frameworks

204 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Does coaching psychology need the concept of formulation? ranging from two to 10 steps. The same efits of ourselves, our clients and the future abundance can be found in step frameworks development of our profession. It is our view for medical, clinical, forensic and occupa- that however we approach the task of tional arenas, amongst others. Stout Ros- making sense of psychological puzzles, we tron, whose own research distinguishes should be able to articulate the choices we frameworks (architecture for the process) are making and to recognise the advantages and models (analogies about the world), has and disadvantages of choosing one approach identified a range of what she terms ‘stage over another. Equally, the processes we use at frameworks’ which can be useful for consid- each stage of a psychological enquiry need to ering the architectural design of our own be defined, or at least be capable of defini- approach to Process. tion. Formulation helps us achieve this par- These frameworks represent a mere por- ticular brand of rigour and should, tion of the stage and question frameworks therefore, feature more clearly in the available in one small area of practice. How- teaching and practice of coaching psy- ever, although each framework (including chology, as part of our professional duty of those based on protocols) has the potential care. We argue that it is important to under- to add value, significant limitations to stand the Perspective and Purpose that thinking and action occur when they are underpin a powerful change Process if you used as a short cut to formulation without are offering yourself as a facilitator of reference to the Perspective that sits behind change. it and the Purpose for which it has been However, in order to add something of developed. If we substitute the idea of substantive value, formulation can and must coaching as a stepwise process for one be consistent with a client partnership frame- involving individual formulation we gain a work into which it is possible to incorporate a great deal. variety of theoretical positions and the dif- ferent scales within which the coaching rela- The Purpose, Perspective, Process tionship happens. The Purpose (where are model: Implications for the future we going and why?), Perspective (what will It has been noted elsewhere that coaching inform our journey?) Process (how will we research, although increasing, does not yet get there?) model (Corrie & Lane, 2010) is match the growth in coaching practice presented as one of a number of possible (Linley, 2006). There remains a lack of well- approaches that might enable us to co-con- defined theory on which coaches base their struct more elegant, thought-provoking and work (Global Convention on Coaching, empowering psychological explanations that 2008) and also a lack of consensus on the dis- can accommodate both the available evi- tinct skill-set of coaching psychologists (Ben- dence-base and the client’s personal story. nett, 2006). Although its role in coaching However, it is only one of a number of psychology is yet to be fully determined, we possible approaches so this leaves us with a would argue that greater attention to formu- number of questions: lation will be a vital contributor to devel- ● If formulation is to feature more widely oping systematic approaches to practice in a in the teaching and practice of coaching field that is highly diverse. psychology (which we suggest it should), In the absence of a full discussion of the what other frameworks can be used to benefits and limitations of a formulation- enhance the distinct role that coaching driven approach, the aims of this paper have psychology might bring. been to raise awareness of some of the ● In the coaching context what questions debates and controversies surrounding for- that remain unanswered from the mulation, and to highlight ways of navigating broader literate (such as utility as these debates more successfully for the ben- opposed to accuracy) are important for

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coaching psychology – are they the same Correspondence questions or will quire different issues David A. Lane emerge. Professional Development Foundation, ● Where might we look for alternative 21 Limehouse Cut, frameworks especially as coaching 46 Morris Road, psychologists often grow their practice London E14 6NQ. from other disciplines, should those E-mail [email protected] disciplines provide starting points for the (corresponding author) debate? For example, occupational psychologists often use the consultancy Sarah Corrie cycle (identification of clients’ needs, Professional Development Foundation, analysis, and formulation of solution, Deputy Programme Director, implementation and evaluation) and Postgraduate Training Programmes in educational psychologists an assessment Cognitive Behavioural Psychotherapy, cycle (see Lane & Corrie, 2006). Central and North West London We invite readers to contribute to the debate NHS Foundation Trust, any other outstanding questions that the Royal Holloway University of London. wider use of the concept of formulation in E-mail: [email protected] coaching psychology might generate.

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208 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Keynote Paper Coaching as a reflective space in a society of growing diversity - towards a narrative, postmodern paradigm Reinhard Stelter

We live in a hypercomplex society where the individual faces growing diversity in all areas of life. The idea of a stable identity has become an illusion, and self-reflexivity has become the central basis when dealing with the post-traditional order of our society. We feel obliged to constantly develop – at work and in our private and social lives. A brief analysis of societal changes will be presented as the basis for justifying the use of coaching and coaching psychology in general. The main question is: How can we best help clients to navigate in a social world characterised by growing restlessness, diverse lifestyles, social disorientation, multitudes of ‘local truths’ and, therefore, a loss of commonly accepted values and meanings? The purpose of this article is to formulate some key societal pre-requisites for coaching psychology, pre-requisites that can also serve as an argument for: (1) the growing importance of values as a central dimension in a reflective coaching process; (2) focusing on meaning-making as a central dimension in the coaching dialogue; and (3) a relational and narrative foundation of coaching psychology. A practical consequence can be concluded: It is not always beneficial to define a goal at the beginning of the coaching session, but to allow narratives to unfold and to reflect on our values and those of others as the basis for our thinking and conduct.

BOUT 15 TO 20 YEARS AGO, few strategies and tools from to people used the terms ‘coaching’ or develop their employees (Rauen, 1999; Bön- A ‘coaching psychology’ in the way we ning, 2000). The focus was exclusively task- use them today, as, for example, in this oriented, and concentrated on performance article. Generally, coaching was associated enhancement – a typical approach in sport with and connected to the world of sport. psychology. The second root of coaching and Only in small niches of business life was coaching psychology was highlighted by coaching beginning to be introduced as a Grant (2007) in his discussion of the Human tool for the professional development of Potential Movement (HPM) of the 1960s and leaders and selected employees. 1970s, with its strong focus on humanistic The history of coaching and coaching psy- and existential psychology. chology can be traced back to two roots: One With its eclectic orientation and a wide root is anchored in sport psychology. Already range of self-development strategies, i.e. in the 1970s in the US, and probably a encounter groups, personal growth work- decade later in Europe, terms from the world shops, and community living experiments of sport such as ‘competition’, ‘motivation’ and various therapeutic methods, the HPM or ‘top performance’ became attractive to had a stimulating influence on the growing business leaders, who adapted intervention interest in psychology and personal develop-

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 209 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 Reinhard Stelter ment. HPM provided invigorating impulses A world of globality for the further development of coaching and The first aspect that has an influence on the coaching psychology into today’s quite dif- current forms and future development of ferent and more sophisticated forms. But coaching and coaching psychology is related what has happened since? What are the to the changes in our world caused by issues and challenges for coaching psy- growing globality. Ulrich Beck (2000), the chology today? What role can coaching psy- famous German sociologist, stated: chology play in our society today? This line Globality means that we have been living of inquiry inspires further investigations, for a long time in a world society, in that and the following questions will form the sense that the notion of closed spaces has structure and the content of this article: become illusory. No country or group ● Why is coaching as a dialogical tool such can shut itself off from others (p.10). a wide-spread phenomenon today? The recent financial crisis presents clear evi- ● What are the fundamental individual and dence of the impact of globality on the life of social challenges in our world that are almost every person. Climate change, migra- paving the way for coaching psychology? tion, media coverage are further examples of ● What agendas for coaching and coaching how globality invades every workplace and psychology are emerging in light of these household. Beck (2000) discussed some con- societal challenges? sequences: ● What forms of coaching can be Globality means that from now on recommended as a means of helping nothing which happens on our planet is individuals and groups to deal only a limited local event; all inventions, successfully with individual and social victories and catastrophes affect the challenges? whole world, and we must reorient and reorganise our lives and actions, our Societal anchoring of coaching organisations and institutions, along a A strong argument for the importance of ‘local-global’ axis (p.11). coaching and coaching psychology is societal Local and global are interconnected. Some change: During the last 20 to 30 years, our of the challenges we are faced with and that society has transformed fundamentally and should be dealt with in a coaching dialogue radically and in a way that has had great must be seen in the light of globality. We may impact on all its members. These changes have to adapt to a reality where progressively have had a radical influence on people’s fewer elements of our lives can be controlled professional and private lives in general, and locally. Even the idea of control might be more specifically, on the way we generate devalued by the influence of globality on knowledge, construct self and identity and individual lives. On the basis of these brief make sense of our lives. reflections, the consequence seems to be: In the following section I will refer to a We must learn to be more open-minded and number of social scientists – diverse in their try to live together, despite social, economic, approaches – who have done major research ethnic and other differences! work in the area of social change and its impact on human living conditions. My pres- Hypercomplex society entation – tracking from global to more local In our late or postmodern society, the indi- aspects – can offer only a brief outline. But vidual is faced with a growing diversity of the essence of my message is that the various social spheres, each with its own dimensions of societal change testify to their autonomous ‘developmental logic’. Dif- impact on coaching and coaching psy- ferent social settings shape their specific chology – a facet not sufficiently explored in form of organisation and culture, and their coaching literature. members develop their own ways of commu-

210 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Coaching as a reflective space nicating, as befitting the local culture. But changes of late modernity. Giddens (1991) society in general loses an inner coherence. stated: The German sociologist Luhmann (1998) Each of us not only ‘has’, but lives a put it like this: ‘The system tends towards biography reflexively organised in terms ‘hypercomplexity’, towards a multitude of of flows of social and psychological opinions and interpretations about its own information about possible ways of life. complexity’ (p.876; own translation). Fol- Modernity is a post-traditional order, in lowing this line of thought it seems to be which the question, ‘How shall I live?’ has utterly impossible to achieve a uniform and to be answered in day-to-day decisions consistent sense of specific social contexts. about how to behave, what to wear and We face a growing challenge with regard to what to eat – and many other things – as handling social diversity and the interaction well as interpreted within the temporal between different social spheres, where unfolding of self-identity (p.14; italic in everyone speaks their own language and has the original). different interpretations at the same time. Giddens regarded self-identity as a kind of To become a member of a specific and permanently running individual project often dynamically changing culture (e.g. in where coaching can contribute in a positive an organisation), the individual must have manner, as a tool for self-reflection. Giddens the competence to assimilate and adapt. Fur- (1991) declared: thermore, employees will have varying The reflexivity of modernity extends into understandings of a working situation; hus- the core of the self. Put in another way, in band and wife will each have different views the context of a post-traditional order, of their marriage – as long as they are not in the self becomes a reflexive project. … conflict with one another, these differences Modernity, it might be said, breaks down will not matter much, but as soon as they the protective framework of the small want to convince the other of their view- community and of tradition, replacing point, their disagreement will grow. these with much larger, impersonal As a consequence – also for coaching psy- organisations. The individual feels bereft chology – the following can be stated: What and alone in a world in which she or he counts as ‘truth’ depends on the context and lacks the psychological supports and the on social agreements in the local culture, so sense of security provided by more truth becomes a matter of either power or traditional settings’ (pp.32–33) social negotiation. Coaches, organisational How might this social analysis influence our consultants or coaching psychologists need work as coaches and coaching psychologists? to support and enlarge the cultural under- The prevalent trend in the coaching industry standing of their coachees, both in organisa- is to offer solutions or to be goal-oriented tional and personal contexts which are often (e.g. Jackson & McKergow, 2007; King & interrelated (e.g. work-life balance). The Eaton, 1999; Pemberton, 2006). But fol- coaching literature discusses intervention lowing Giddens’ analysis, coaching should strategies which consciously include this sys- not (only) strive towards solution. Coaching temic perspective in their approach (e.g. cannot function as the quick fix. Our social Cavanagh, 2006). world has become so complex that there might be greater value in offering a reflec- A society of reflectivity tive space where coach and coachee have In this section I will highlight some aspects time for self-reflection; such a thoughtful of the work of the English sociologist pause might, in the end, allow for new ways Anthony Giddens. One important question of acting in specific and sometimes chal- he asked was about how people’s everyday lenging situations. lives were affected by the massive social

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Self and identity Keupp (1999) who spoke about identity as a Self and identity have become central psy- construction of discourse. He introduced chological issues in our late or postmodern the term patchwork identity to describe the societies. Kenneth Gergen, a social construc- dynamics of self and identity: There are the tionist and a leading figure in social psy- single patches which describe the diversity of chology, has set the stage for a new behavioural possibilities depending on the understanding of the individual in contem- social context the person momentarily is porary life. Coaching psychologists can part of, but by viewing the whole, the indi- greatly enrich their work by taking a closer vidual’s identity might show greater coher- look at the socio-psychology underlying the ence. Keeping the contextual influences of understanding of the central challenges that identity development in mind, Gergen confront individuals in today’s world. (1991) spoke about the self as relational, Gergen (1991) made the following signif- meaning that self and identity are shaped in icant statement: ‘The postmodern being is a the specific social context and relationships restless nomad’ (p.173). In his view, the post- of which the individual is part. modern self is overwhelmed by innumerable possibilities and ways of acting on the one Consequences and perspectives for hand, and disoriented about what to do and coaching psychology: Broadening the how to behave on the other hand. coachee’s reflective space The Norwegian psychiatrist Skårderud On the basis of the societal influences (1998), who has had extensive experience in described in the last sections the following treating patients with anorexia nervosa, and central question arises: How can we best help who wrote about the psychological chal- clients navigate in a social world that leads to lenges faced by individuals in our time, spoke growing restlessness, diversity of life styles, about ‘unrest’ – a state of mind which has led social disorientation, multitudes of ‘local to forms of experimentation in search of truths’ and, therefore, also a loss of com- purity, control, and meaning. He described monly accepted values and meanings? how one group of individuals finds expres- I suggest that a key objective of the sion through socially accepted behaviour coaching dialogue is to strengthen the such as marathon running and extreme coachee’s ability to reflect. In a globalised sports; others end up with psychological or world we must learn to accept, or even better psychiatric ‘dysfunctions’ like eating disor- appreciate multiversality, which means the ders, cutting, stress and depression. ability to regard different worldviews and The societal change forces psychologists perspectives of others as an invitation to to find other interpretations and approaches enrich one’s own attitudes towards life and that may serve them better in their work with work. Ultimately, the coachee will learn to clients. A move from an egocentric to a absorb the hypercomplexity. Furthermore, socio-centric model of self and identity can a focus on personal and social meaning- making – lead to new perspectives. Sampson (1985) a process that includes the coachee’s dif- was one of the researchers who sketched this ferent life contexts – will widen the indi- path nearly a quarter of a century ago. vidual’s horizon. And finally, a narrative Approaching the self from an intrapsychic perspective may offer a helpful approach for standpoint does not seem to help us ‘handle’ the facilitation of the coaching dialogue with societal challenges was his assumption. the objectives: (1) of strengthening a sense Instead he proposed a socio-centred per- of coherence in the coachee’s self-identity; spective as a means of allowing new possibil- and (2) of coupling various events and inte- ities to emerge. grating past, present and future into a whole. This line of thought has been further On the basis of this societal analysis, the developed by the German social psychologist main focus and the guiding question is:

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How can coaches help to develop a reflective metrical) coaching dialogue, this symmetry space in coaching dialogues? In the fol- is important: both coach and coachee are lowing I will discuss three aspects of the involved and interested in the investigation coaching dialogue whose application can of specific values, especially because they can lead to a broadening of the coachee’s reflec- be of general interest for all human beings. tive space: The objective of a protreptic dialogue is 1. Focusing on values. to help the individual step back from him- or 2. Giving opportunities for meaning- herself and particular situations and actions. making. The idea is to establish conditions for a 3. Making space for the unfolding of reflective space and create moments of narratives. understanding by forming the dialogue into a number of events where the focus is on a Focusing on values different level of self-consciousness. In these In our society, which is characterised by a moments, coach and coachee do not try to growing diversity in social and organisational understand themselves as ‘empirical’ per- values, we must encourage coachees to sons, but strive to get in touch with what is reflect on values as guiding markers to help ‘universal’ in their nature. In that sense it them organise their private and professional might be easier for a leader to function as lives. These values are no longer timeless protreptic rather than as a ‘normal’ coach, and universal, but are rather grounded in because the focus on values is of general the practices and events of the local commu- human interest and does not put the nities. The ultimate aim is to facilitate and coachee into a subordinate position where improve leadership, communication and co- he/she is obliged to share specific chal- operation, not by focusing on specific goals, lenges with ‘the boss’. but by reflecting on key values as a feature of In the normal (asymmetrical) coaching the human condition. dialogue, coachees are recognised as the A coaching process that focuses on values experts with regard to the challenges they is called a protreptic dialogue or protreptics. face. The conditio sine qua non of a fruitful Based on the ideas of the Danish philoso- coaching dialogue is when it is the coachees pher and leadership theorist Ole Fogh who choose the topic and articulate their Kirkeby (2008; in press), the following sum- interest in further reflecting on it, perhaps mary can serve to define and elaborate on with the aim of gaining a deeper under- these terms. Protreptics, or meta-coaching, is standing of the situation or of working a Greek idiom for the art of turning oneself towards a solution of a specific problem or and others towards the heart of one's life. challenge. A central pre-requisite for an Protreptics is a method of self-reflection and asymmetrical coaching dialogue is mutual dialogic guidance of others and has been trust. applied in the Greek executive academies The prospect of coaching exclusively in for ‘top managers’ and commanders since the protreptic manner might be beyond the 500 B.C. Protreptics is a form of ‘non-psy- readiness of many coachees; they often chological’ but philosophical coaching present specific needs and want to handle which focuses exclusively on the reflection concrete challenges. But keeping in mind on values and not on current and future the social analysis presented earlier, a action patterns. The dialogue between coach change of perspective may help broaden the and coachee is symmetrical, meaning that coachee’s horizon and ‘world view’. both are equally engaged. Both participate Figure 1 (overleaf) illustrates the impor- in the dialogue and reflect on terms or gen- tance of values with regard to the indi- eral issues such as ‘responsibility’, ‘freedom’, vidual’s orientation toward specific situations ‘cooperation’, etc. Unlike the usual (asym- and actions.

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Figure 1: Levels of intentional orientation: Meanings and values as central in the concept of intentionality (see also Nitsch, 1986, and Stelter, 1999).

Value orientation Meaning Value

Motivation Purpose Effect

Implementation Goal Result

The figure shows that the development Meaning-making is an integration of indi- of values and preferences in connection with vidual and socio-cultural processes. In the behaviour is central for an individual’s con- following I will (analytically) distinguish the scious and intentional orientation in situa- two lines of meaning-making: tions and for the process of meaning-making 1. Meaning is formed through the actual in general. If people have a clear under- experiences and (implicit) knowledge that the standing of meaning and values, they are individual acquires in various contexts in able to clarify the purposes and goals that life. From this predominantly pheno- govern their actions. The interrelatedness menological point of view, ‘meaning is between these three levels underlines the formed in the interaction of importance of meaning-making. experiencing and something that functions as a symbol’ (Gendlin, 1997, Giving opportunities for meaning-making p.8). This symbolisation often takes a Meaning-making is considered one of the verbal form, but could also be expressed main approaches to facilitating the coaching by other means, such as painting, drama, dialogue (Stelter, 2007). Meaning is funda- dance or writing. mental, because we ascribe specific values to 2. Meaning is shaped through social our experiences, actions, our interplay with negotiation and narratives that describe the others and our life and work. Things become life practice of the person in focus. From meaningful, when we understand our own way this social constructionist standpoint, of sensing, thinking and acting, e.g. by telling meaning is negotiated between the certain stories about ourselves and the world participants in specific social settings. in which we live. Meaning is far from being Gergen (1994) writes: the same as ‘information’ – as used in the There is an alternative way of concept of data processing. Meaning-making approaching the problem of social is based on past experiences and expecta- meaning: removing the individual as the tions about the future, and holistically inte- starting point opens a range of promising grates past and present experiences as well as possibilities. Rather than commence with ideas about what the future holds. Meaning individual subjectivity and work evolves in the interplay between action, deductively towards an account of human sensing, reflecting and speaking. understanding through language, we

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may begin our analysis at the level of the this field, defined the felt sense as a form of human relationship as it generates both inner aura or physical feeling about a spe- language and understanding (p.263; cific situation, event or person. But this felt italic in the original). sense is often pre-reflective, namely pre-con- Ideally, coachees realise that their scious and not verbalised. The coach’s sensi- position and opinion is only one of many tive questioning helps the coachees get in possibilities, only one world-view. Hence, touch with these implicit, embodied and pre- open-mindedness and curiosity about reflective dimensions of their being. But this whether others see the world in different form of inquiry remains a challenge, because ways or how they regard a specific task, is it is difficult to find words for experiences extremely helpful in the negotiation that are personal and embodied. Stevens process or social discourse. The views of (2000) mentioned that it depends on ‘how others may inspire an individual’s articulate, how skilled and expressive’ personal or professional growth. If this people are in speaking about their experi- perspective is accepted by all members of ences. Another challenge for Steven is ‘that an organisation, it would enable all to the words used relate to a diffuse network of grow and mature in their perception of semantic assemblies both for the speaker the world and ideally come to a form of and the listener’ (p.115), meaning that both agreement or acknowledgement of speaker and listener have to create their uni- differences. verse of meaning together. One of the best ways to articulate experience is through Meaning-making in two integrated streams in the metaphors (Parkin, 2001; Stelter, 2007) coaching dialogue From a narrative perspective, White With the theoretical background in mind, (2000, 2007) spoke about revisiting the I would suggest seeing meaning-making as absent but implicit, thus emphasising the comprising two streams in the coaching dia- importance of personal meaning-making. logue. In this process of meaning-making His idea was to relate forgotten experiences the two streams – one from phenomenology and episodes and join them with a storyline and the other from social constructionism – which is more uplifting than the initial story are considered integrated. (The distinction the coachee may have presented in the is made only for analytical reasons!). These beginning of the session. By revisiting the two streams of meaning-making are pre- absent but implicit reality, for example by sented in the following two sections. remembering the importance of a teacher in one’s first school years, the coachees have a A. Individual experiences and meaning-making chance to re-tell and enrich their stories on In the first stream, the focus of coaching the basis of their cultural background and intervention is on individual experience and their life history. This opportunity may lead personal meaning-making. Together with the them to modify story plots and couple events coach, coachees strive to understand their in a new way, thus leading to the creation of subjective reality or a subjective experience a more uplifting storyline and a positive, of their culture. Their focus is on the encouraging reality. implicit and embodied dimensions of their being. As the starting point of the conversa- B. Co-creation of meaning – developing tion, the coachees study detailed descrip- alternative stories tions of certain activities and recount how In the second dimension of meaning-making they felt (Gendlin, 1997; Stelter, 2000) at the – which is integrated with the first in the time, in order to better understand their actual coaching conversation – the focus is thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Gendlin on the socially co-constructed reality. This (1997) a leading practitioner-researcher in constructive process takes place in the dia-

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 215 Reinhard Stelter logue between coach and coachee, but more Making space for the unfolding significantly in dialogues among a group of narratives: Integrating the experiential coachees. The dialogues are initiated by the and relational in narratives coach through a form of intervention called In the following I will take a closer look at outsider witnessing (White, 2007). In a the narrative perspective and its importance group coaching session, outsider witnesses in stimulating the reflective space of the are participants who reflect a conversation coaching dialogue. The concept of narra- by expressing what has been important and tivity and narrative psychology can be under- valuable from their perspectives. Their posi- stood as a further development of the social tions may help the coachees to see certain constructionist perspective – a new approach challenges or events from a new perspective. which integrates the experiential and subjec- Social constructionists and narrative psy- tive with the relational and discursive dimen- chologists suggest that reality is shaped in a sion. This is an objective I am also striving for process of co-action and social and linguistic in this article, where I present the two discourse. This form of discourse is com- streams integrated in the coaching dialogue. prised of collections of statements and other Crossley (2003) wrote: verbal constructs which, in a given context I felt there was a need for a different kind form the basis for development of mean- of psychology – one which retained the ingful linguistic systems. In these discourses, ability of appreciating the linguistic and knowledge, understanding and concepts are discursive structuring of ‘self’ and shaped in a way that meets acceptance in the ‘experience’, but one which also social context and verifies the very same con- maintained a sense of the essentially text. One of the central aspects of the dis- personal, coherent and ‘real’ nature of course between coach and coachee or individual subjectivity (p.289). among various coachees is the co-creation of Crossley (2003) took Carr’s ideas a step values and meaning: Which values do we farther: find central and meaningful? Why do we do The whole point of Carr’s argument is the things we do? Could we do things differ- that the necessity of achieving a sense of ently so that our activities would be more structure and order in the course of our fun, more efficient or beneficial to our per- everyday activities stems not from an formance? The coach’s questions or the con- intentional act, but from our practical tribution of others – if we are in a group (obviously embodied and affective) context – can enrich the current reality of orientation within the world. … The every participant in the dialogue and thus whole process of narration and the make space for new meanings and the implicit orientation towards narrative unfolding of new and alternative narratives. structure operates to transform a It is through relating to one another in person’s physical, emotional and social words and actions that we create meaning world (pp.296–297). and our ever changing social reality. Other researchers who share the position of Gergen (1994) spoke about the com- integrating the embodied-experiential with munal origins of meaning. In a team con- the relational-discursive concept are Shotter text, this would mean that all participants and Lannaman (2002), Stam (1990) and co-construct the culture which they are part Sampson (1996). They all see the possibility of at the same time. In this communal of linking phenomenological with social- process, co-creating narratives and story- constructionist thinking by establishing a telling play a central role. third – a narrative – position. They are far from taking a naturalistic standpoint, e.g. by regarding personality as anchored in more or less stable traits. Instead, they strive

216 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Coaching as a reflective space towards a culturally oriented psychology, Focusing on positive exceptions. Although we where experience and emotions are the basis tend to focus on things that do not work, for forming narratives whose personal and cause trouble or create conflict, there are communal values shape self and others. As always elements in situations which can be Bruner (1990) stated ‘[values] become defined as positive. An example: If two col- incorporated in one’s self-identity and, at the leagues come to you, the coach, complaining same time, they locate one in a culture’ that they cannot work together because they (p.29). Telling stories to one another and are always fighting, your question to them developing and sharing narratives and could be: ‘Can you remember a situation accounts, either in a coach-coachee relation- where you actually worked together in a ship or in a group setting, is fundamental to good and constructive way?’ the process of social meaning-making; the Focusing on elements of success. This strategy grounding of an individual in a cultural con- is similar to the one described above. Here text is always based on specific values and the focus is on elements of success. So even meanings. Bruner (2006) highlighted the though you and a colleague are finding it dif- significance of storytelling as follows: ficult to co-operate, there might be elements The principal way in which our minds, of success upon which to focus and cultivate our ‘realities’, get shaped to the patterns in greater depth. of daily cultural life is through the stories Connecting stories with an experiential and we tell, listen to, and read – true or embodied implicit. Events and situations hide fictional. We ‘become’ active participants implicit dimensions which need to be in our culture mainly through the unfolded. These hidden elements are by narratives we share in order to ‘make their very nature difficult to discuss, but if we sense’ of what is happening around us, learn to identify and describe them, we what has happened, and what may might find a way to enrich our stories and happen (p.14). eventually our lives. By talking about a spe- Narratives serve to structure events and to cific current situation, the coachee might join them together in a timeline. They make remember an uplifting moment from the stories – the source of meaning-making – past which can be connected to the current coherent and as a result, life makes sense. situation, and in that way enhance the story Narratives establish temporal coherence and about a current event or situation. shape how events, actions, other persons and Giving the story a name. By asking ‘what ourselves can be experienced and perceived would you call this story?’ the coach invites as sensible and meaningful. The plot of the coachee into the ‘landscapes of con- every story is the basis for the development sciousness’ (White, 2007) – a reflective space of an inner structure and drama (Sarbin, where the coachees try to establish the 1986, an early psychologist with a narrative meaning of the story in their own world. orientation). By telling stories and listening Enriching stories by relating them to values to them, our lives become meaningful. Carr and questions of identity. The art of storytelling (1986) put it like this: ‘Lives are told in being is to make stories richer, to develop a lived and lived in being told’ (p.61). detailed plot which is clear and explicit. It is One of the central objectives of coaching useful to ask questions about values that are can be to help the coachees further develop based on concrete and embodied experi- their stories and perhaps also develop alter- ences and that evoke memories of events, as native ones. The following strategies might well as questions dealing with identity and support the process of co-creation of alter- personal and social meaning. native stories, a process upon which the Linking events to one another. Stories always alliance between coach and coachee is unfold by linking events. Stories unfold in a founded: new way if we link certain events in a way not

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 217 Reinhard Stelter done earlier. And suddenly the storytellers learn to handle with specific approaches (e.g. are caught by surprise, because their actions solution-focused, cognitive behavioural), but can now be seen and understood in a new from a postmodern perspective it is worth- and different light. while to keep in mind that our society is too Building bridges between stories and imagined complex to be controlled. Here I wish to pro- future actions. By further developing their mote my term ‘reflective space’: it always stories, or creating ‘alternative’ or ‘new’ makes sense to reflect upon how life in gen- ones, the participants become better eral or specific situations and tasks may be equipped to take action on matters they have meaningful for me and my neighbour. And reflected upon and talked about. Further- through this focus on meaning and values we more, the values and meanings that emerge may open a new territory where the coachee from the storytelling by the participants and can experience freedom of mind and the coachees grow vivid and provide motivation. possibility to grow. The focus turns to purposes and goals anchored in values based on personal and Correspondence social meaning-making. Prof. Dr Reinhard Stelter Coaching Psychology Unit, Epilogue Department of Exercise and Sport Science, The central objective of this article has been University of Copenhagen, to widen the awareness of the coach psychol- Nørre Allé 51, ogist towards societal challenges, challenges DK-2200 Copenhagen N, we all face and must manage and cope with. Denmark. In our hypercomplex society and work it may Tel: +45 3532 0866 be illusionary and even inappropriate to Fax: +45 3532 1747 strive for full control of the situation. Surely E-mail: [email protected] there are challenges that the coachee can

This article is based on a keynote lecture presented on 17 December 2008 at the 1st European Coaching Psychology Conference in London, UK.

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References Beck, U. (2000). What is globalization? Oxford: Policy. Luhmann, N. (1998). Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft Bönning, U. (2000). Coaching: Der Siegeszug eines [The society of society]. Frankfurt/M.: Suhrkamp. Personaleentwicklungsinstruments. In C. Rauen Nitsch, J.R. (1985). The action-theoretical (Ed.), Handbuch Coaching (pp.17–39). Göttingen: perspective. International Review for Sociology of Verlag für Angewandte Psychologie. Sport, 20(4), 263–282. Bruner, J. (2006). Culture, mind, and narrative. Parkin, M. (2001). Tales for coaching: Using stories and In J. Bruner et al., Narrative, learning and culture metaphors with individuals and small groups. (pp.13–24). Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business London: Kogan Page. School. Pemberton, C. (2006). Coaching to solutions: Carr, D. (1986). Time, narrative and history. A manager’s toolkit for performance delivery. Oxford, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Butterworth-Heinemann. Cavanagh, M. (2006). Coaching from a systemic Rauen, C. (1999). Coaching. Innovative Konzepte im perspective: A complex adaptive conversation. Vergleich. Göttingen: Verlag für Angewandte In D.R. Stober & A.M. Grant (Eds.), Evidence Psychologie. based coaching handbook (pp.313–354). Hoboken, Sabrin, T.R. (Ed.) (1986). Narrative psychology: The NJ: Wiley. storied nature of human conduct. New York: Praeger. Crossley, M.L. (2003). Formulating narrative Sampson, E.E. (1996). Establishing embodiment in psychology: The limitations of contemporary psychology. Theory & Psychology, 6, 601–624. social constructionism. Narrative Inquiry, 13, Shotter, J. & Lannaman, J.W. (2002). The situation of 287–300. social constructionism: Its ‘imprisonment’ within Fogh Kirkeby, O. (2008). Selvet sker. Bevidsthedens the ritual of theory-criticism-and-debate. Theory begivenhed. [The self happens: The event of & Psychology, 12, 577–609. consciousness]. København: Samfundslitteratur. Skårderud, F. (1998). Uro [Unrest] – en reise i det Gendlin, E.T. (1997). Experiencing and the creation of moderne selv. Olso: Aschehoug. meaning. Evanston: Northwestern University Stam, H.J. (1990). Rebuilding the ship at the sea: The Press (original from 1962). historical and theoretical problems of Gergen, K.J. (1991). The saturated self – Dilemmas of constructionist epistemologies in psychology. identity in contemporary life. New York: Basic Books. Canadian Psychology, 31, 239–253. Gergen, K.J. (1994). Realities and relationships – Stelter, R. (1999). Med kroppen i centrum. soundings in social construction. Cambridge: Idrætspsykologi i teori og praksis [A handbook of sport Harvard University Press. psychology – theory and application]. Copenhagen: Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity – Self Dansk psykologisk Forlag. and society in late modern age. Oxford: Polity. Stelter, R. (2000). The transformation of body Grant, A. M. (2007). Past, present and future. The experience into language. Journal of evolution of professional coaching and coaching Phenomenological Psychology, 31, 63–77. psychology. In S. Palmer & A. Whybrow (Eds.), Stelter, R. (2007). Coaching: A process of personal Handbook of coaching psychology. London: and social meaning making. International Routledge. Coaching Psychology Review, 2(2), 191–201. Jackson, P.Z. & McKergow, M. (2007). The Solutions Stelter, R. (2008). Learning in the light of the first- Focus: Making coaching and change simple person approach. In T.S.S. Schilhab, M. Juelskjær (2nd ed.). London/Boston: Nicholas Brealey. & T. Moser (Eds.), The learning body (pp.45–65). Keupp, H. (1999). Identitätskonstruktionen. Das Copenhagen: Danish University School of Patchwork der Identitäten in der Spätmoderne. Education Press Reinbek: Rowohlt. Stevens, R. (2000). Phenomenological approaches to King, P. & Eaton, J. (1999). Coaching for results. the study of conscious awareness. In M. Velmans, Industrial and Commercial Training, 31(4), Investigating phenomenal consciousness (pp.99–120). 145–151. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Kirkeby, O. Fogh (2008). Selvet sker. Bevidsthedens White, M. (2000). Reflections on narrative pratice. Essays begivenhed [The self happens. The event of and interviews. Adelaide: Dulwich Centre Publ. consciousness]. København: Samfundslitteratur. White, M. (2007). Maps of narrative practice. New York Kirkeby, O. Fogh (in press). The New Protreptic – & London: Norton. The concept and the art. Copenhagen: CBS Press.

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 219 SGCP & IGCP News Update Special Group in Coaching Psychology News Vicky Ellam-Dyson

ELLO and welcome to the second bers interested in both edition of the International Coaching hosting and attending HPsychology Review for 2009. the groups. This initia- The SGCP aims for 2009 are progressing tive is planned to launch well. The development of the new website is in September with the in progress and expected to launch in first groups being adver- September. This will give a fresh new interface tised via the SGCP for accessing information about the SGCP announcement list. To receive details about and the coaching psychology profession. these groups you can subscribe to the Registration for our 2nd European announcement list by contacting our Coaching Psychology conference is now Honorary Secretary, Elouise Leonard, at open. The early bird reduced rate is avail- [email protected] able until 14 September. The themes of the Discussions are continuing with the conference include: Hope and Wisdom, British Psychological Society regarding a Engagement, Transition, Performance, route for recognition for coaching psycholo- Health and Well-being, Developing Practice gists. Simon Bowen, Director of Member and Community. Keynote speakers include: Services for the Society will be attending the Professor Michel Moral, Professor Remco conference in December to discuss develop- Pollman, Dr Dusan Stojnov, Hugh Donovan, ments in this area. Dr Ilona Bonniwell, and Peter Zarris. Finally, I am pleased to announce that The conference is taking place at Royal Dr Siobhain O’Riordan has taken up the Holloway, University of London, in Egham on post of Editor for The Coaching Psychologist. 15 and 16 December. For more details and to Siobhain’s previous experience with the book your place go to: www.sgcp.org.uk/ SGCP and her position in the field of conference/conference_home.cfm coaching psychology is highly valuable in Our first evening networking event, ensuring the continuing development and hosted by Max Blumberg discussing research distribution of The Coaching Psychologist. and evaluation for coaching practice, cre- As always, we welcome your ideas and ated a great deal of interest. (At the time of feedback, please do get in touch. writing this event has not yet taken place.) A further networking event is planned for Vicky Ellam-Dyson November to be hosted by Travis Kemp. Chair, SGCP The planned introduction of coaching E-mail: [email protected] psychology practice groups has been well www.sgcp.org.uk received with a good response from mem-

220 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 SGCP & IGCP News Update Interest Group in Coaching Psychology News Peter Zarris

Dear IGCP members.

It seems like just yesterday when I last wrote 3. Alliances. As I out- our broad update, but much has happened lined in my last since then. update the IGCP The IGCP and its various national and continues to build state committees continue to graciously and and maintain close generously give up their time and develop alliances with both key projects to the future of coaching external bodies. A psychology and world-class events for our relationship with members to attend. SIOPSA (The Society I hope to outline some of the upcoming for Industrial & Organisational events in this summary, as well as high- Psychology of South Africa) was recently lighting some of the key projects that we are cemented where our National Secretary currently working on. Aaron McEwan attended the recent The National Committee recently met in conference and made one of the keynote Queensland to map out the next 12 months. addresses to the conference. We are The issues that we looked at break down into currently working with SIOPSA with a four broad categories. hope of building an MOU with them. We 1. Future Events. A calendar of events that will work closely with the APS to this end. will continue to provide our members with 4. Symposium. The biennial symposium has world-class events to attend, including been the flagship of the IGCP. Next year’s bringing along international speakers of symposium will be in Melbourne and we note in their areas of expertise. have in place a Melbourne organising 2. Accreditation/Standards. The IGCP committee which will be strongly continues to work in two important areas supported by the National Committee. in terms of accreditation and in Our 4th biennial symposium promises to determining standards for coaching be the biggest and best yet. psychology. Firstly we maintain close ties with our counterparts at the British So let me outline these in greater detail. Psychological Society and The Society for Coaching Psychology and we continue to 1. Future Events work closely in developing accreditation We have three half-day skill-based workshops standards for coaching psychologists. scheduled in various States over the next few Secondly the IGCP is involved in a project months. These will feature leading local and with Standards Australia to establish international experts sharing their skills and standards for coaching more broadly, and knowledge. Make sure you put aside these again we will continue to work closely with days in your diary now! Standards Australia to assist in identifying the capabilities required for coaching and coaching psychologists.

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 221 © The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764 SGCP & IGCP News Update

1. Marketing your Coaching Practice We want to codify what differentiates workshop coaching psychologists and to make this We have already sent out the invitation to explicit. this one. Initial response has been strong and in these tough times we think a lot of Actions people will be interested in learning how to 1. IGCP to continue to consult with other promote themselves and keep the dollars bodies to determine: coming in. a. the standards required of coaches and coaching psychologists; 2. Emotions in Coaching by Susan David b. how a coach can attain these Dr Susan David is a prominent researcher, standards; teacher and practitioner in emotions, posi- c. the process to recognise those who tive psychology and coaching. She has have attained these standards. worked with Jack Mayer and Peter Salovey 2. These bodies include: (the real authors of emotional intelligence) a. British Psychological Society’s Special and teaches at Yale, Harvard and Harvard Group in Coaching Psychology; Medical School. We are very privileged to b. Standards Australia; have her present these workshops and they c. Society for Coaching Psychologists. should not be missed. 3. This proposal paper should be disseminated and discussed by National 3. Stress Management and Coaching by Committee of IGCP with the aim of Stephen Palmer – 24 October deciding on an accreditation framework Prof. Stephen Palmer is one of the global as outlined above. thought leaders in coaching psychology. The This should include a strategy for the roll- co-editor of the ICPR, founding Chair of the out of accreditation of coaching psychologist British Psychological Society’s SGCP and in Australian and internationally. instigator of seemingly half the coaching I will keep you all posted on progress with organisations in the UK, Stephen is a profli- Standards Australia. gate researcher, teacher and practicing coach. He is founder Director of the Centre 3. Alliances for Stress Management which was established The key alliance that we continue to main- in 1987. More recently he launched City Uni- tain and develop is that with the British Psy- versity’s Coaching Psychology Unit in chological Society’s Special Group for London. He will be teaching advanced tech- Coaching Psychology. niques such as rapid case conceptualisation Those of you who have had the opportu- and inference chaining to aid assessment and nity to read the International Coaching Psy- help manage stress in coaching clients. chology Review journal understand that this Please check with your local committee alliance is crucial in developing a peer review to confirm. journal for the development of research into coaching psychology. We continue to work 2. Accreditation/Standards closely with the SGCP and in fact I will be Proposed framework for the Accreditation attending the National Conference in of coaching psychologists December in London to further promote We hope to provide a quality indicator for relationships between the two groups, as well clients of coaches, PD guide for coaching as present a paper on coaching psychology. psychologists, marketplace credibility for We also continued to develop an alliance those accredited and to attract more mem- and relationship with SCIOPSA. To this end bers to IGCP. Aaron McEwan presented a paper at SCIOPSA in June. Aaron has described the

222 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 SGCP & IGCP News Update experience as one of the greatest personal with local members, and given the out- experiences of his life, but also a great pro- standing success of last year’s Sydney sympo- fessional experience. Aaron was able to marry sium we look forward to an outstanding developing closer alliances with SCIOPSA event in Melbourne next year. with an opportunity to immerse himself in South African culture, including a once in a The future lifetime opportunity to go on safari. We hope The future of the group is very promising. to by the end of this year to gain the APS’s We are currently the second largest interest blessing to sign an MOU with SCIOPSA. group of the APS and arguably the most We also continue to develop alliances active. Our Sydney membership alone has with Standards Australia and will be involved increased to over 300 members and Adelaide in and a signatory to coaching standards, as continues to be active despite some changes outlined above. We also hope to build rela- to their State Executive due to ill health and tionships with both the New Zealand personal reasons. Coaching Psychology Group and a special Please continue to support the group and group in coaching psychology within the its various activities, as our members are vol- Swedish Psychological Society. We have been unteers and do much of this work in their in discussion with committee members from own spare time. both these groups and hope to continue Finally I remind you all that there will be building these alliances in the future. our annual general meeting in September of this year. We will send specific details of this 4. Symposium event, as the next National Committee will Our biennial symposium will be conducted be selected at that juncture. in Melbourne next year, and whilst final dates are yet to confirmed, we intend at this Thank you all and please continue to sup- stage to run the conference later in the year. port the IGCP. The Chair of the Victorian Branch Sub- committee Nic Eddy is the Head of the Sym- Peter Zarris posium Subcommittee, as well as being a National Convenor, IGCP. member of the National Committee. Nic’s E-mail: [email protected] team will develop a communication strategy

Announcement In the paper version of the International Coaching Psychology Review, Vol. 4, Issue 1, 2009, the paper, ‘Linking MBS learning and leadership coaching’, by Barbara Wood and Sandy Gordon, was incorrectly titled. It should have read ‘Linking MBA learning and leadership coaching’.

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Volume 4, No. 1, March 2009

4 Editorial Leadership coaching in a challenging world – Growing with our clients Michael Cavanagh & Stephen Palmer 6 Guest Editorial Coaching and Leadership: Practice, perspectives and directions from the field Travis J. Kemp Academic articles 9 Coaching on the Dark Side Eric Nelson & Robert Hogan 22 Expert opinion: Executive Coaching: A real world perspective from a real-life coaching practitioner Marshall Goldsmith 25 Leadership coaching transforming mental health systems from the inside out: The Collaborative Recovery Model as person-centred strengths based coaching psychology Lindsey G. Oades, Trevor P. Crowe & Melanie Nguyen 37 Strengths coaching with leaders P. Alex Linley, Linda Woolston & Robert Biswas-Diener 49 Using attachment theory in coaching leaders: The search for a coherent narrative David B. Drake 59 Coaching from the inside: Building an internal group of emotionally intelligent coaches Annie McKee, Felice Tilin & Delores Mason 71 Behind the scenes in the Identity Laboratory: Participants’ narratives of identity transition through group coaching in a leadership development programme Elizabeth Florent-Treacy 87 Linking MBA learning and leadership coaching Barbara Wood & Sandy Gordon 105 Is coaching an evolved form of leadership? Building a transdisciplinary framework for exploring the coaching alliance Travis J. Kemp

111 Book Review Travis J. Kemp 113 SGCP & IGCP Update

224 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 Volume 4, No. 2, September 2009

124 Editorial: To be or not to be Registered? Is that now the question for coaching psychologists? Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh Academic articles 128 Does all coaching enhance objective performance independently evaluated by blind assessors? The importance of the coaching model and content John Franklin & Justin Doran 145 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? A grounded theory study of the efficacy of coaching supervision Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick 162 Literature review of coaching supervision Barbara Moyes 174 Coaching Hypnosis: Integrating hypnotic strategies and principles in coaching Andrew Armatas 184 Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance: A Cognitive Behavioural Coaching perspective Alanna O’Broin & Stephen Palmer 195 Does coaching psychology need the concept of formulation? David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie Keynote Paper 209 Coaching as a reflective space in a society of growing diversity – towards a narrative, postmodern paradigm Reinhard Stelter

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224 International Coaching Psychology Review – Volume index 2009

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 225 Stress Management and Coaching: From rapid case conceptualisation to intervention Facilitator: Professor Stephen Palmer PhD CPsychol FAC MSCP Accred Half-day APS IGCP workshops held in October 2009: 24th Sydney; 27th Adelaide; 29th Brisbane; 31st Melbourne.

Case conceptualisation in coaching and coaching psychology practice has gone out of fashion in Europe and probably elsewhere too. Few papers or book chapters even discuss this topic. Yet most coachees provide us with all the information we need if only we listen to them carefully. Case conceptualisation does not need to be an extended process but it is still important. This workshop will cover a collaborative dual systems framework for a rapid case conceptualisation taking approximately seven minutes. It will also include a longer in-depth cognitive-visual process of stress mapping which can be used to assess both coachees and their organisations. Understandably, stressed coachees may be hard to motivate or stay focused on their goals. Motivation imagery and goal focused imagery can be used to assist coachees with these two problems and these will covered too. In the workplace managers and executives are often perceived by employees as being stress carriers. When working with managers, coaches and coaching psychologists can use a free downloadable tool to focus on helping the manager to develop stress management competencies that benefit them and their staff. Most practitioners know how to complete 5 column ABCDE stress management and/or performance coaching worksheets used in cognitive behavioural coaching. However, often they do not focus on the real issue from the coachee’s perspective that needs addressing in coaching. At a crucial stage inference chaining often needs to be used to clarify the most important aspect of the activating event. Correct assessment at this stage helps the coach and coachee to focus on what needs to be addressed later in coaching session. This workshop will provides skills practice for practitioners who want to integrate a range of assessment and intervention coaching skills within their coaching psychology and coaching practice. Pre-workshop reading will be provided.

226 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 The objectives of this workshop are to: ● Practise undertaking a dual systems, rapid case conceptualisation ● Gain knowledge of stress mapping ● Become knowledgeable about two models of stress ● Practise using motivation imagery and goal focused imagery ● Consider using the Stress Management Competency Indicator Tool for Managers within coaching and coaching psychology practice ● Use a 5 column ABCDE stress management and/or performance coaching worksheet including inference chaining to enhance assessment Professor Stephen Palmer PhD is a Chartered Psychologist, an APECS Accredited Executive Coach and Supervisor, a Society for Coaching Psychology Accredited Coaching Psychologist, and Founder Fellow of the Association for Coaching. He has written or edited 35 books including the Handbook of Coaching Psychology: A Guide for Practitioners (with Whybrow, 2007) and Stress Counselling: A Rational Emotive Behaviour Approach (with Ellis et al., 1997). He is UK Co-ordinating Editor of the International Coaching Psychology Review, and Executive Editor of Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice. He is Honorary Professor of Psychology and Director of the Coaching Psychology Unit at City University and Director of the Centre for Coaching, London. He was the UK’s first Visiting Professor of Work Based Learning & Stress Management, first Chair of the British Psychological Society’s Special Group in Coaching Psychology and Hon Vice President of the Society for Coaching Psychology. In his BBC 1 TV series, The Stress Test, he demonstrated cognitive coaching and cognitive therapy. In 2008 the British Psychological Society’s Special Group in Coaching Psychology gave him the 'Lifetime Achievement Award in Recognition of Distinguished contribution to Coaching Psychology', awarded at the 1st European Coaching Psychology Conference. His interests include jazz, astronomy, walking, writing, travel and art.

For booking information and further details, please contact: [email protected]

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 227 Notes

228 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2009 4. Online submission process (1) All manuscripts must be submitted to a Co-ordinating Editor by e-mail to: Stephen Palmer (UK): [email protected] Michael Cavanagh (Australia): [email protected] (2) The submission must include the following as separate files: ● Title page consisting of manuscript title, authors’ full names and affiliations, name and address for corresponding author. ● Abstract. ● Full manuscript omitting authors’ names and affiliations. Figures and tables can be attached separately if necessary.

5. Manuscript requirements ● Contributions must be typed in double spacing with wide margins. All sheets must be numbered. ● Tables should be typed in double spacing, each on a separate page with a self-explanatory title. Tables should be comprehensible without reference to the text. They should be placed at the end of the manuscript with their approximate locations indicated in the text. ● Figures can be included at the end of the document or attached as separate files, carefully labelled in initial capital/lower case lettering with symbols in a form consistent with text use. Unnecessary background patterns, lines and shading should be avoided. Captions should be listed on a separate page. The resolution of digital images must be at least 300 dpi. ● For articles containing original scientific research, a structured abstract of up to 250 words should be included with the headings: Objectives, Design, Methods, Results, Conclusions. Review articles should use these headings: Purpose, Methods, Results, Conclusions. ● Overall, the presentation of papers should conform to the British Psychological Society’s Style Guide (available at www.bps.org.uk/ publications/publications_home.cfm in PDF format). Non-discriminatory language should be used throughout. Spelling should be Anglicised when appropriate. Text should be concise and written for an international readership of applied psychologists. Sensationalist and unsubstantiated views are discouraged. Abbreviations, acronyms and unfamiliar specialist terms should be explained in the text on first use. ● Particular care should be taken to ensure that references are accurate and complete. Give all journal titles in full. Referencing should follow BPS formats. For example: Billington, T. (2000). Separating, losing and excluding children: Narratives of difference. London: Routledge/Falmer. Elliott, J.G. (2000). Dynamic assessment in educational contexts: Purpose and promise. In C. Lidz & J.G. Elliott (Eds.), Dynamic assessment: Prevailing models and applications (pp.713–740). New York: J.A.I. Press. Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2006). The coaching psychology movement and its development within the British Psychological Society. International Coaching Psychology Review 1(1), 5–11. ● SI units must be used for all measurements, rounded off to practical values if appropriate, with the Imperial equivalent in parentheses. ● In normal circumstances, effect size should be incorporated. ● Authors are requested to avoid the use of sexist language. ● Authors are responsible for acquiring written permission to publish lengthy quotations, illustrations, etc. for which they do not own copyright.

6. Brief reports These should be limited to 1000 words and may include research studies and theoretical, critical or review comments whose essential contribution can be made briefly. A summary of not more than 50 words should be provided.

7. Publication ethics BPS Code of Conduct – Code of Conduct, Ethical Principles and Guidelines. Principles of Publishing – Principle of Publishing.

8. Supplementary data Supplementary data too extensive for publication may be deposited with the British Library Document Supply Centre. Such material includes numerical data, computer programs, fuller details of case studies and experimental techniques. The material should be submitted to the Editor together with the article, for simultaneous refereeing.

9. Post acceptance PDF page proofs are sent to authors via e-mail for correction of print but not for rewriting or the introduction of new material.

10. Copyright To protect authors and publications against unauthorised reproduction of articles, The British Psychological Society requires copyright to be assigned to itself as publisher, on the express condition that authors may use their own material at any time without permission. On acceptance of a paper, authors will be requested to sign an appropriate assignment of copyright form.

11. Checklist of requirements ● Abstract (100–200 words). ● Title page (include title, authors’ names, affiliations, full contact details). ● Full article text (double-spaced with numbered pages and anonymised). ● References (see above). Authors are responsible for bibliographic accuracy and must check every reference in the manuscript and proofread again in the page proofs. ● Tables, figures, captions placed at the end of the article or attached as separate files. Contents

124 Editorial: To be or not to be Registered? Is that now the question for coaching psychologists? Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh Academic articles 128 Does all coaching enhance objective performance independently evaluated by blind assessors? The importance of the coaching model and content John Franklin & Justin Doran 145 Super-vision, extra-vision or blind faith? A grounded theory study of the efficacy of coaching supervision Jonathan Passmore & Susan McGoldrick 162 Literature review of coaching supervision Barbara Moyes 174 Coaching Hypnosis: Integrating hypnotic strategies and principles in coaching Andrew Armatas 184 Co-creating an optimal coaching alliance: A Cognitive Behavioural Coaching perspective Alanna O’Broin & Stephen Palmer 195 Does coaching psychology need the concept of formulation? David A. Lane & Sarah Corrie Keynote Paper 209 Coaching as a reflective space in a society of growing diversity – towards a narrative, postmodern paradigm Reinhard Stelter

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224 International Coaching Psychology Review – Volume index 2009

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