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Towards a Social Psychology of Relativity Gordon Sammut

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Towards a Social Psychology of Relativity Gordon Sammut The London School of Economics and Political Science The Point of View: Towards a Social Psychology of Relativity Gordon Sammut A thesis submitted to the Institute of Social Psychology of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, October 2010 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. 2 Abstract The explanation of social behaviour requires an understanding of individual orientations to social issues as these exist relative to others. This thesis argues that whilst the attitude concept and social representations have illuminated certain aspects of social behaviour, both are handicapped by a restricted focus. The former’s focus on the evaluation of attitude objects excludes a reference to wider societal processes. The latter provides an account of societal contingencies, but excludes an explanation of individual orientations towards objects and issues in the social environment. This thesis postulates the point of view concept to bridge this gap, that provides an explanation of social behaviour at the situational level. This complements attitude and social representations in a nested, multilevel explanation of social behaviour. The point of view is defined as an outlook towards a social event, expressed as a claim, which can be supported by an argument of opinion based on a system of knowledge from which it derives its logic. It reflects an individual’s orientation towards a social object, relative to others. This thesis has demonstrated, in a series of empirical studies, that the point of view can be typified in three categories. A monological point of view is closed to another’s perspective. A dialogical point of view acknowledges another’s perspective but dismisses it as wrong. A metalogical point of view acknowledges the relativity of its’ perspective, and concedes to an alternative the possibility of being right. These different types were demonstrated to be characterised by differences in positioning and in individuals’ capacity to fit a given social reality. Such relational outcomes accrue as a function of the socio-cognitive structure of points of view in relation with another perspective. This thesis demonstrates that points of view, alongside attitudes and social representations, provides a multilevel explanation of social behaviour. Keywords: Points of view; Perspective taking; Attitudes; Social Representations; Social behaviour; Social judgment; positioning; argumentation; Social psychology; Intercultural relations. 3 Acknowledgements I thank my doctoral tutors, George Gaskell and Sandra Jovchelovitch, for their dedicated and inspiring supervision. This project benefited immensely from their intelligent and scholarly tuition, and lots has been learned and much pleasure derived from the author in this process. I thank my wife, Claire, for her continued support throughout this project. I thank the Office of the Registrar at the University of Malta for support in conducting the third empirical study in this thesis. I thank fellow doctoral colleagues for many pleasant discussions and much inspiration, in particular Paul Daanen, Mohammad Sartawi, and the members of the Social Representations Group at the Institute of Social Psychology of the London School of Economics and Political Science. Finally, I thank the Institute of Social Psychology of the London School of Economics and Political Science and the University of Malta for scholarships granted during the undertaking of this thesis. 4 Contents Declaration of Authenticity 2 Abstract 3 Acknowledgments 4 Contents 5 List of Figures 9 List of Tables 9 Chapter 1: Introduction 10 The Diversity of beliefs 14 Points of View 16 Conceptualisation 17 Aims 19 Study 1: Describing the Phenomenon 20 Study 2: Interpersonal characteristics 22 Study 3: Intrapersonal properties 23 Conclusion 24 Chapter 2: Points of View and Social Representations 26 Introduction 27 The Changes of Modernity 29 Attitudes and Attitude Change 36 Public Opinion 39 The Fact of Culture and the Social Attitude 42 Opinions, Sentiments and Attitudes 44 Social Attitudes 47 Social Representations 53 The Nature of the Social 56 Modeling the point of view 59 Consequences and Conclusion 64 5 Chapter 3: The Point of View in the Social Sciences 67 Introduction 68 Philosophical conceptions of the point of view 70 The point of view as explanans 74 Argumentation and rhetoric 78 Positioning Theory 82 Social Judgment 87 The missing link 90 Consequences and Conclusion 95 Chapter 4: Methodology 97 Introduction 98 A situational epistemology 98 The Inter-view 101 Research Design 103 Study 1: The Root of all Evil? 106 Study 2: The Maltese in Britain 108 Study 3: Social Issues in a hegemonic public 117 Conclusion 124 Chapter 5: ‘Identifying the phenomenon 125 Introduction 126 Background 128 Findings 130 Monological Points of View 133 Dialogical Points of View 137 Metalogical Points of View 145 Discussion 148 Conclusion 152 6 Chapter 6: Interpersonal Characteristics 155 Introduction 156 Background 160 Findings 164 Fitting in 166 Assimilation 170 Social Network 174 Identity 179 Perspectives 184 Ignorance 190 Acculturation 194 Discussion 195 Acculturation Strategies 198 Social Capital 199 Identities 202 Perspectives 204 Conclusion 205 Chapter 7: Intrapersonal Characteristics 208 Introduction 209 Background 213 Issue 1: The Stipends Issue 213 Issue 2: Muslims’ right of public worship 214 Issue 3: Expatriate voting rights 215 Findings 216 Discussion 231 Cognitive Style 232 Latitudes Architecture 233 Construct validity 236 Ego-relatedness 239 Demographics 239 Conclusion 243 7 Chapter 8: Discussion & Conclusion 244 Introduction 245 The explanation of social behaviour 246 Empirical studies 253 Study 1: The Root of all Evil? 255 Study 2: The Maltese in Britain 258 Study 3: Stipends, Muslims, and Voting Rights in Malta 261 The study of points of view 265 The point of view as a phenomenon of inquiry 266 A nested model of social behaviour 269 Conclusion: Limitations and scope for further study 275 References 281 Appendix I – Interview guide Root of all Evil? 298 Appendix II – Interview guide Maltese in London 301 Appendix III – Statistical Analyses Maltese in London TST data 302 Appendix IV – Questionnaire Social Issues 304 Appendix V – Statistical Analyses Social Issues 319 8 List of Figures Figure 1: Hierarchical model of point of view 13 Figure 2: The point of view 60 Figure 3: Inter-relating points of view and social representations 61 Figure 4: A nested model of social behaviour 93 Figure 5: The attribution of ignorance 193 Figure 6: Acculturation 195 Figure 7: Cultural preference & engagement 198 Figure 8: Inter-relational functions of points of view 202 List of Tables Table 1: Demographic data of interview respondents (Study 1) 107 Table 2: Demographic data of interview respondents (Study 2) 110 Table 3: Classification of cases into point of view types 114 Table 4: Thematic Structure of case analysis 115 Table 5: Categorisation of TST data 116 Table 6: Sample characteristics 118 Table 7: Faculty demographic of respondents 119 Table 8: Isomorphic categorisations 149 Table 9: Comparative thematic coding results 165 Table 10: Correlations between point of view types across issues 216 Table 11: Correlations between points of view and ego-relatedness 218 Table 12: Correlation between Muslim rights & multicultural ideology 218 Table 13: t-tests for multicultural ideology by point of view types 220 Table 14: Cross-tab between gender & Muslim rights point of view 223 Table 15: Cross-tab between faculty & voting rights point of view 224 Table 16: Cross-tab between year of study & Muslim rights point of view 225 Table 17: Cross-tab between year of study & voting rights point of view 226 Table 18: Parameter estimates for Muslim rights point of view regression 228 Table 19: Parameter estimates for Voting rights point of view regression 229 Table 20: Attitude measurement for Muslim rights statement no. 2 230 Table 21: Cross-tab between Muslim rights point of view & attitude 231 9 Chapter 1: Introduction 10 Numerous scholars have noted and documented the pervasiveness of the ‘attitude’ construct in social psychology (McGuire, 1985, 1986; Zaller & Feldman, 1992; Farr 1996; Gaskell, 2001; Howarth, 2006). McGuire (1986) has documented how the study of attitudes spans the historical development of the discipline, from its inception at the turn of the twentieth century to the present day. The ‘attitude’ has largely become social psychology’s defining concept (Allport, 1967). In spite of its popularity, its meaning in the discipline has a chequered history. Attitude has gone from a social concept in its origin, to an individual, asocial and apolitical concept more recently (Howarth, 2006). The general influence of individualism on the social sciences (Graumann, 1986), and the influence of cognitivism on social psychology in particular (Farr, 1996), have redefined attitudes as an individual’s
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