Introduction: the Health, Safety and Well-Being of Seafarers – Understanding the Challenges

Notes

Introduction: The Health, Safety and Well-Being of Seafarers – Understanding the Challenges

1. The terms ‘traditional’ and ‘embedded’ maritime states are used interchangeably throughout this book to distinguish countries, such as those in Western Europe and Japan, where the infrastructure of modern maritime commerce and regulation has been in place for a long time, from those countries such as India, China and the Philippines for example, where it is more recent. We are however cognisant of the point made by ILO (2004, p. 4) that while in the latter countries maritime affairs cannot be said to be ‘embedded’ in the Western European sense, maritime trade is nevertheless often long-standing, and therefore using the term ‘traditional’ to distinguish the former countries may not be strictly appropriate.

1 A Picture of Health? Evidence of Mortality and Morbidity among Merchant Seafarers

1. There are many studies of fatalities that include counts of deaths from ‘nat- ural’ causes while at sea. Such causes are not ‘occupational’ diseases in the traditional sense, but include, for example, such things as ‘heart disease’ as the most frequent cause of death from disease while at sea. Of course, such conditions may be work-related or exacerbated by work and especially by the fatigue and stress associated with seafaring. They are therefore relevant to the present inquiry. 2. The terms FOC and ‘open register’ will be used interchangeably throughout, for a fuller discussion of these concepts see Chapter 4. 3. ‘Second’ or ‘international’ registers are set up in some traditional maritime states as a means of trying to offset the drain of ships (and therefore income) towards flags of convenience. They tend to have reduced regulatory require- ment vis-à-vis national registers, but remain somewhat more stringent than open registers (see Chapter 4 for more details). 4. All the epidemiological studies cited are concerned with Western European or North American subjects, reflecting the relative availability of data from such sources. 5. For example, Ellis (2007, p. 95) comments that some P&I Clubs ‘only collate data relating to claims of over $100,000 US’, thus excluding many accidents that may have caused injuries with implications of lesser financial liabilities.

235 236 Notes

2 The Hazards of Work in Merchant Shipping

1. A range of other studies conﬁrm the effects of the patterns of work of seafarers on their family and social relationships outside work and add evidence of harmful outcomes of social isolation and distance from land-based relationships incurred both for seafarers themselves and others with whom they are involved (Foster and Cacioppe, 1986; Thomas, 2003; Thomas et al., 2003; Carter, 2005). 2. Gross register tonnage (‘grt’) is a measurement of ship weight. It represents the total internal volume of a vessel. 3. A point that has been well made by sociologists. See, for example, Nichols (1997) on the relationship between industrial injury patterns in the UK in the second half of the 20th century and the political economy of the period.

3 The Structure and Organisation of the Maritime Industry

1. Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Convention (STCW) is an IMO measure governing the certification of seafarer competence—see Chapter 4. 2. Vessels not less than 100gt. 3. This includes all vessels, including fishing and passenger vessels, of 100gt and above. 4. A model of investment set up in the 1970s in Germany to raise private equity, which has substantially increased in value in subsequent years (although experiencing significant decline during the recession). The funds invested considerably in ship ownership and especially in the container trade. 5. Based on Alphaliner (2012). 6. We say more about shipboard organisation below. 7. This is not always their home country.

4 Regulatory Features of the Maritime Industry

1. For a fuller account of the historical developments in maritime legislation, see Fitzpatrick and Anderson (2005). 2. For further examples, see Boisson (1999), ch. 9. 3. Fitzpatrick and Anderson (2005, p. 63) note that signed agreements between seafarer and master were required as early as 1729. 4. As we will see later this Convention along with other major ILO Conventions have been consolidated into the Maritime Labour Convention 2006. 5. Seafarers deployed from other ports in the world will not be covered by the POEA contract. 6. Sec.1 (f) [3], Rule II, POEA Rules. 7. Anderson (2003, p. 15), for example, notes that between 1987 and 1990, on an average Protection and Indemnity (P&I) claims rose between 200 per cent and 400 per cent. 8. For details, see Rajadrai (2004, p. 87); also Boisson (1999, p. 451). Notes 237

5 Managing Health and Safety at Sea (1)

1. Although in comparison with other factors, it has never been entirely clear exactly how responsible regulatory requirements have been for achieving improvement in OHS outcomes (see for example, Nichols, 1997). 2. The tacit acceptance amendment procedure refers to a procedure adopted by the IMO to streamline the means of amending technical aspects of certain of its conventions. Under this procedure, amendments may enter into force by speciﬁed dates provided a certain number of states have not objected. In other words, the absence of objection is taken to convey acceptance. 3. The Code deﬁnes the term ‘safety management system’ in section 1.1.4 as ‘a structured and documented system enabling Company personnel to implement effectively the Company safety and environmental protection policy’. 4. The EU Framework Directive 89/391 is a good example of a regulatory measure with a broad interpretation of workplace risks, including those resulting from the impact of work organisation on individuals and their work environment. It is also a perspective that has been upheld in the European Court of Justice (Walters, 2002).

7 The Role of Organised Labour

1. Brieﬂy, they reduced the large number of regional and industry dummies to make a more robust model; reduced the number of independent variables, some of which rested on ﬁne and unclear distinctions; used a Poisson count method instead of a Cox zero corrected method (which entailed adding a bit to the many zero observations); and tested for endogeneity and interaction effects. 2. Information derived from an interview with Santamara (2009). 3. That is, a sector-based institution also commonly found among unions in other sectors that need to represent themselves internationally (such as, for example, in construction, textiles, chemicals engineering, etc.).

8 Governance and Regulation: Drivers and Leverage in Support of Improved Management of Health and Safety at Sea

∗All the quotes marked with an ∗ in this chapter are from Walters, D., Wadsworth, E., Sampson, H. and James, P. (2012a) The limits of inﬂuence: The role of supply chains in inﬂuencing health and safety management in two sectors, Leicester: IOSH.

1. For an overview of different approaches to targeting, see Fookes et al. (2007, pp. 37–41). 2. There was one customer that was regarded as an unusual/exceptional case. It had undertaken a more general auditing of the conditions of life and work on board. This was seemingly a spin-off from the particular corporate social responsibility agenda pursued by the large multinational retail company 238 Notes

involved. It was remembered because of its exceptional nature rather than because it was in any way typical of the normal practices of customers.

9Conclusions

1. These observations are based on accounts presented to us in the course of many conversations with seafarers while engaged in several research voyages (see for example, Walters et al. (2012a) and Bailey (2006) for further details). References

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accidents, 7, 17–25, 33–4, 36, 44–54, terms & conditions, 94–5 220–2 see also global labour market; causation, 66–8, 154, 159 shipboard organisation differences between fleets, 21–3, crewing agencies, 91–3, 107–9, 181 219 injuries, 23–5 data, 36–40 investigation, 33, 66, 152, 159–60 lack of, 18, 26, 30, 33, 41–2, 141–2, locations, 29, 31, 44–5 189 mortality rates, 1, 18–23, 218–19 reliability, 1–2, 4, 21, 32–40, 219 reporting, 23–6, 139, 147, 152, 158, under-reporting, 29, 35, 38, 41 174 deregulation, 4, 6, 8, 103, 229 see also hazards Documents of Compliance, 189 Articles of Agreement, 106–7 drowning, 17 asbestos, 48, 49 European Foundation for the business of shipping, 77–8, 81–3, Improvement of Living and 222–4 Working Conditions, 47 labour, 84–6, 89–94, 177 ownership, 86–9 fatigue, see health sectors, 78–81 flag of convenience (FOC)/flagging out, 4, 6, 7, 101–3, 109–11, 140 charterers/shippers, 74, 81–3 flag state, 100–1, 103, 109–11, 140, see also supply chain relations 177, 188, 189–91, 198, 210 classification societies, 99–100, 112, 120–1, 141, 189, 190–1 global labour market, 6, 84–6, 89, inconsistent data on ISM Code 91 implementation, 141 communication hazards, 17 barriers to, 61, 71, 73, 97, 173–6, biological, 62 228 chemical, 28–9, 30, 46–9 direction of, 73, 74, 137, 170, physical, 49–52 178–9, 231 psycho-social, 52–8 provision of facilities, 126 health, 1–2, 7–8, 25–31, 218–20 technology, 74, 111 auditory damage, 31, 49 see also worker participation cancer, 28, 29, 30, 32 corporate social responsibility (CSR), fatigue, 31, 33–4, 51, 53–5, 76 83, 128, 225, 234 heart disease, 32–3 crew infectious disease, 25, 28–9, 62 costs, 84, 177, 180, 229 latency period, 30 nationality, 90, 93–4, 177 measuring, 17–18, 26–9 reductionincrewsizes,56–7 mental health, 32

260 Index 261

musculoskeletal, 31, 49 OCIMF, 124–5, 232 stress, 32, 54 oil majors, 123–4, 205–9, 232 hierarchy, see shipboard organisation open register, see flag of convenience hours of work, see shipboard (FOC)/flagging out organisation outsourcing, 6, 25, 44, 85–6, 96, 111, 119–20, 217, 230 ICS & ISF, see shipping associations see also flag of convenience injuries, see accidents; slips, trips & (FOC)/flagging out falls; violence international conventions phronesis, 154–5 Maritime Labour Convention piracy, see violence (MLC), 112, 114, 115–16, Port State Control, 105, 110, 117–19, 182–3 142, 196–201, 202, 210–12 SOLAS, 100, 112–13 in context, 196–201 STCW, 91, 93, 114–15 effectiveness of, 191–6 UNCLOS, 101, 117 ‘naming and shaming’, 197, 204 International Labour Organisation (ILO), 106, 111–12 quality standards (TQM), 132–4 ILO-OSH 2001, 162–5 International Maritime Dangerous regulation, 3–4, 10–13, 98–112, Goods Code, 47 224–5 International Maritime Organisation mixed strategies, 188, 201–10, 232 (IMO), 106–7, 111–12, 142, 177 prescriptive, 130–1 criticism of, 104–5 private regulation, 119–26 International Safety Management recent policy thinking on, 202–3 (ISM) Code, 12, 225–9 self regulation, 131–2 bureaucracy/paperwork, 154, 231 smart/responsive regulation, certification, 116, 139–40 199–201, 204 compliance with, 139–42 regulatory enforcement, 109–11 evaluation, 141–8, 152–61 labour inspectorate, 118, 147, failings of, 152–6 196–201 history, 113, 129–36 resources, 147, 198–201 implementation, 142–5 see also Port State Control main features, 136–9 reporting systems, 30, 39, 46, 143, way forward, 161–5 152, 158 International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF), 181–2 safety management behavioural-based, 151–2, 156–64 marine insurance conflicts of interest, 156 P&I Clubs, 38, 121–2 history, 130–4 maritime industry, 2–10 process-based, 132–4 conduct of business within, 81–8 risk management, 134, 139 labour force, 89–96 safety climate/ culture, 143–4, regulation of, 98–128 161 structure and organisation of, see also International Safety 72–80 Management (ISM) Code; regulation; worker participation National maritime administration, see safety representative, 115, 157, 164, flag state 168, 173–6, 179, 183–4 262 Index shipboard organisation technology, 2, 67, 73, 76–77, 221–222 hierarchy, 62–3, 73–4, 180 third party ship management, 89 hours of work, 5, 6–7, 54, 75, trade unions, 3, 12, 167–9, 173–8, 76–8 216–18 occupational identity, 73, 75–6, see also International Transport 181 Workers’ Federation (ITF) roles, 73–4 see also crew violence, 34–5 harassment/bullying, 34, 63–4 shipping associations, 126 piracy, 34–5, 64–5 ship types, 79–81 shore leave, 77 welfare, 58–61 SIRE (Ship Inspection Report welfare organisations, 61, 126 Programme), 124–5, 207, 232 see also shore leave slips, trips & falls, 45, 51 worker participation, 73, 162–4, socio-economic understandings, 43–4, 168–73, 185–6, 223 66–8, 144–5, 151–66, 179–80, effectiveness at sea, 173–8 221–2, 226–8 in land-based industry, 168–73 suicide, 31–2, 33 safety committees, 116, 133, 163–4 supply chain relations, 3, 83–4, 123–6, work intensification, 4, 6, 33, 55–7, 206–10, 224, 232 96–7