A Study on the Level of Ethnic Representation of High School (9-12) Teachers to the Ethnic Representation of Students Enrolled in Each Comprehensive High School in the Commonwealth of Virginia

Chandra Nichelle Rhue

Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education In Educational Leadership and Policy Studies

Ted S. Price, Committee Co-Chair Carol S. Cash, Co-Chair Chiquita Jones Elliott Glen I. Earthman

October 16, 2018 Richmond, Virginia

Keywords: Ethnicity, Proportionality, Representation, Student, Teacher

A Study on the Level of Ethnic Representation of High School (9-12) Teachers to the Ethnic Representation of Students Enrolled in Each Comprehensive High School in the Commonwealth of Virginia

Chandra Nichelle Rhue ABSTRACT The ethnic composition of the United States is diversifying (NCES, 2014), which is altering the types of ethnicities seen in America’s school system. Beginning in the late 1980s and continuing into the two decades following, educators of ethnic minorities (e.g., Black, Hispanic, Asian) began entering the field of education at a more rapid pace (Ingersoll & May, 2016). The number of educators considered ethnic minorities increased from 325,000 to 666,000 between 1987 and 2012 (Ingersoll & May, 2016); however, this number did not create a proportionality between the ethnicity of students and teachers. This has been linked to the achievement gap between ethnic minorities and Caucasian students in public high schools in America, according to researchers Gershenson, Holt, and Papageorge (2016). The hypothesis that a school division that employs a proportionate number of licensed ethnic minority teachers directly reflecting the population of ethnic minority students will aid in closing the achievement gap can only be considered by first determining whether differences exists between licensed ethnic minority teachers and ethnic minority students. This study investigated the ethnicities of teachers and those of students in high schools in each school division located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The ethnicities of the teachers in each high school were collected by contacting the Human Resources department in each school division or by telephoning each high school. The ethnicity of students in Grades 9– 12 was collected using the Virginia Department of Education’s website. There were five key findings gleaned from this study. The first finding was that school divisions with the highest levels of representation between the ethnicities of students and teachers were either the largest of the reporting 24 school divisions, or in the smallest of the 24 reporting school divisions. The second finding shows that 45% or reporting school divisions had minority populations that were too small to report. Finding three shows the majority of high school students from participating school divisions identify as White, followed by Black and Hispanic. The fourth finding is that the majority of high school teachers from participating school division identify as White followed by Black. Finally finding five shows that teachers and students that identify as Native

Hawaiian, American Indian, Asian, or as having two or more ethnicities were either underrepresented or not reported.

A Study on the Level of Ethnic Representation of High School (9-12) Teachers to the Ethnic Representation of Students Enrolled in Each Comprehensive High School in the Commonwealth of Virginia

Chandra Nichelle Rhue

GENERAL AUDIENCE ABSTRACT

The United States is becoming increasing diverse, which also changes the ethnic makeup of public schools. With this increase, came an interest into how the ethnicities of teachers in schools reflects that of the student populations. While there has been an increase in the number of educators considered ethnic minorities this number did not create a proportionality between the ethnicity of students and teachers. This gap in ethnic representation between students and teachers has been linked to the achievement gap between ethnic minorities and Caucasian students. It is believed that a school division that has a teaching staff whose ethnicity is reflective of the student population will aid in closing the achievement gap. This theory can only be considered by discovering whether differences between licensed ethnic minority teachers and ethnic minority students actually exist. This study investigated the ethnicities of teachers and those of students in high schools in each school division located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The ethnicities of the teachers in each comprehensive high school was collected by using a survey sent to the 130 school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The ethnicity data for students in grades 9-12 was gathered from the Virginia Department of Education website. This study found that the largest and smallest school divisions had the highest levels of representation between the ethnicities of students and teachers. Almost half of reporting school divisions had minority population that were too small to report. The majority of teachers and students in the reporting school divisions are White, followed by Black. In addition teachers and students identifying as Native Hawaiian, American Indian, Asian or as having two or more ethnicities were underrepresented or not reported.

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DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my family and best friends. Many people sarcastically say “Well you can’t choose your family..” but I have been extremely fortunate to have been blessed with a family that loves and supports me in all that I do. Thank you “ma” for being a second mom and my Top-A-Top for being the best grandfather ever. To my siblings, thank you for always keeping me on my toes and making sure I took the role of “Big Sister” seriously. To my dad, over the years we have had our ups and downs, but I am thankful for the new relationship we have started to create. I’m glad God gave us a second chance. To my aunts and uncles, you all are amazing. A perfect mix of funny yet encouraging. My best friend Natasha Ruffin who affectionately refers to me as “Leadership”; you’ve been in my corner since we were 9yrs old and I hope you know that you are my sister and I love you more than you know. To my other friends you guys are awesome. If I named each of you I would have to add another page to my paper, but you know who you are and the special place you hold in my heart. Without you I would not be who I am today. Last but definitely not least, my mother, Vivian Laney. Your sacrifices and love have brought me to this point in my educational, professional, and personal journey. 37 years ago you made a decision to give me life when society told women that being a single mother would bring you shame. You have always been there to support me be it openly or quietly in the shadows. No matter where you were, I knew you were always there to be the push I needed to get through. I hope that you know how thankful I am for you and your unconditional love. I can’t wait to frame the photo of us from my graduation when I officially become Dr. Rhue. I LOVE YOU MOMMY vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Price, and Dr. Cash whose work demonstrated their care for me as a student and a professional. Your instruction and feedback allowed me to grow along this educational journey. In addition, a thank you to Dr. Elliott, who showed me how a personal friendship and professional relationship can coexist in order to help me learn the necessary tools to formulate a complete body of work. Thank you to Dr. Earthman for never letting me settle for mediocre. While your words were sometimes firm, it helped me build a firm foundation for a solid body of work. To my friends, classmates, and colleagues, thank you for your never ending support as I complained and quit numerous times along this journey. Without your love, thoughts, and prayers there is no way I would have been able to push through the long days and even longer nights.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii General Audience Abstract ...... iv Dedication ...... v Acknowledgements ...... vi List of Figures ...... ix List of Tables ...... xi Chapter I Introduction ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 1 Overview of the Study...... 3 Purpose of the Study ...... 4 Significance of the Study ...... 4 Limitations ...... 6 Delimitations ...... 6 Summary ...... 7 Chapter II Literature Review ...... 8 Purpose ...... 8 Recruitment of Minorities into the Teaching Profession ...... 8 Retention ...... 15 Minority Teacher Influence ...... 18 Minority Teachers are Role Models ...... 19 Minority Teachers Influence Behavior ...... 21 Minority Teachers Influence on Academics ...... 22 Summary ...... 28 Chapter III Methodology ...... 29 Methodology ...... 29 Research Design ...... 29 Design Justification ...... 30 Research Questions ...... 30 Sample Selection ...... 31 Data Collection Procedures ...... 31 Instrument Design ...... 32

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Data Treatment and Management ...... 32 Data Analysis Techniques ...... 33 Summary ...... 33 Chapter IV Data Presentation and Analysis ...... 34 Virginia Student Demographics ...... 35 Respondents ...... 35 Respondent Demographics ...... 35 Proportionality Formula ...... 38 School Division Responses ...... 39 Summary ...... 75 Chapter V Findings, Implications, and Recommendations ...... 77 Summary of Findings ...... 77 Finding 1: ...... 77 Finding 2: ...... 78 Finding 3: ...... 78 Finding 4: ...... 78 Implications ...... 79 Implication 1: ...... 79 Implication 2: ...... 79 Implication 3: ...... 79 Implication 4: ...... 80 Considerations for Future Research ...... 80 Conclusion ...... 81 References ...... 82 Appendix A IRB Email ...... 88 Appendix B Dissertation Survey Instrument ...... 89 Appendix C Dissertation Survey Results ...... 91 Appendix D Henrico County Research Approval Email ...... 100 Appendix E Comprehensive Chart of 24 Reporting School Divisions...... 101 Appendix F Comprehensive Chart of the Number of Students in each Ethnic Group in each Comprehensive High School in the Commonwealth of Virginia ...... 102

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Ratio Chart describing the levels of representation between student and teacher race/ethnicity...... 39 Figure 2. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 40 Figure 3. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 41 Figure 4. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 43 Figure 5. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 44 Figure 6. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 46 Figure 7. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 47 Figure 8. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 49 Figure 9. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 50 Figure 10. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 52 Figure 11. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 53 Figure 12. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 55 Figure 13. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 56 Figure 14. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 58 Figure 15. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 59 Figure 16. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 61 Figure 17. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 62 Figure 18. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 64 Figure 19. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 65

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Figure 20. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 67 Figure 21. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 68 Figure 22. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 70 Figure 23. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 71 Figure 24. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 73 Figure 25. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group...... 74

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Summary of Methods Developed by the National Education Association (NEA) to Recruit Minorities into Educational Careers ...... 12 Table 2 Recruitment Strategies and Justification ...... 13 Table 3 Summary of Studies Supportive of the Role Model Rationale ...... 21 Table 4 Summary of Studies Supportive of the Academic Rationale ...... 26 Table 5 Public School Ethnic Representation of Students in the Commonwealth of Virginia ..... 35 Table 6 School Divisions, Geographical Locations, Number of Students, and Number of Teachers ...... 37 Table 7 Alleghany County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 40 Table 8 Augusta County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 42 Table 9 Colonial Beach Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 43 Table 10 Cumberland County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 45 Table 11 Fairfax County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 46 Table 12 Fredericksburg City Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 48 Table 13 Galax County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 49 Table 14 Goochland County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 51 Table 15 Halifax County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 52 Table 16 Henrico County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 54 Table 17 Madison County Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 55 Table 18 Manassas Park City Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 57 Table 19 Mecklenburg Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 58 Table 20 Montgomery Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 60 Table 21 Norfolk Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 61 Table 22 Pittsylvania Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 63 Table 23 Portsmouth Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 64 Table 24 Prince William Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 66 Table 25 Rockingham Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 67 Table 26 Shenandoah Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 69 Table 27 Spotsylvania Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 70 Table 28 Staunton Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 72 Table 29 Suffolk Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 73 Table 30 Sussex Public School Ethnic Representation ...... 75

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Student populations in public education have ethnically diversified over the last two decades (NCES, 2014). For the first time in the history of educational data collection, the number of White students attending public schools has dropped to below 50% (NCES, 2014). In addition, the number of Hispanic and Asian/Pacific Islanders has increased during this same timeframe. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), between 2004– 2014, Hispanic student enrollment in elementary and secondary schools in the United States increased from 19% to 25% (NCES, 2014). During this same timeframe, the number of Asian/Pacific Islander students enrolled in elementary and secondary public schools increased from 4% to 5% (NCES, 2014). Additionally, the enrollment of Black students decreased from 17% to 16% (NCES, 2014). While growth in the number of ethnic students entering the public school system has occurred, researchers Ingersoll, May, and Bone wanted to determine whether the number of minority teachers employed has been growing at the same rate. This rate of growth could be determined by investigating the level of representation between the number of minority students and minority teachers in public schools (Ingersoll & May, 2011). Researchers Cherng, Egalite, and Kisida believe that school divisions employing a proportionate number of licensed ethnic minority teachers that directly reflects the population of ethnic students will aid in eliminating the achievement gap, which can only be proven by first determining whether differences between the number of licensed ethnic minority teachers and ethnic students exist.

Statement of the Problem

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, during the 2011-2012 academic year there were approximately 609,334 minority teachers teaching across the United States (NCES, 2018). Based on a comprehensive review, in 1954, 82,000 Black educators taught over two million Black students (Hawkins, 1994). However, after the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ruling in Kansas in 1954, predominantly Black schools began to close, which caused a decline in the number of minorities working in educational careers (Hawkins, 1994). Researcher Smith discovered that between 1975–1985, a 66% decline in the number of Black teachers took place (Smith, 1987). In the late 1980s, an increase in the number of

2 minorities in education began to occur (Ingersoll & May, 2016). Affirmative Action orders enacted in the 1960’s by Presidents Kennedy and Johnson promoted equal access to educational and job opportunities for minorities across the country (“Affirmative Action,” n.d.). These changes were reflected in the growth of minorities in the education field. The number of minority teachers more than doubled during this time, growing from 325,000 to 660,000, which outpaced the growth of minority students (Ingersoll & May, 2016). While there has been an increase in the number of minorities within the education field, research indicates a gap remains between the number of minority students and the number of minority educators within the field (Ingersoll & May, 2016). Egalite and Kisida have determined that if an increase in the number of ethnic teachers takes place and ethnic matching between students and teachers occurs, this could potentially narrow the achievement gap between minority and White students (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). Authors Egalite and Kisida determined through their research that schools that retain minority staff members have demonstrated an improvement in academic performance for minority students. They found that Black, White, and Asian students benefited from ethnic matching in the classroom in regard to their test scores, with the largest effects witnessed in elementary-aged students (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). For Black students, the impacts were greater in math (.019 SD) than in reading (.004 SD) (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). For White students, the researchers observed a positive effect in both math (.007 SD) and reading (.005 SD) (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). Egalite and Kisida also observed significant positive impacts for Asian/Pacific Islander students in math (.041 SD), which appears to be driven by the positive effects of race- matching in the middle/high school grades (.053 SD) (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). For Hispanic students, the overall effects were negative, with an effect size of -.011 SD in reading and -.007 SD in math (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). While ethnic matching has shown positive effects among the students involved in this research, if such a study were to be conducted on a broad scale, this would create segregated school environments, which is the opposite of the justice system’s ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case in 1954. While Egalite and Kisida discovered positive effects for students who had same-race teachers, researchers Pitts, Fraga, and Meier found different results when investigating the academic achievement and attendance of students as they relate to student and teacher ethnic matching. Their research found that the ethnic pairing of students and teachers was not required

3 to affect academic performance or growth in students. When the race/ethnicity of the teaching population is proportionately representative of the population of the students, researchers found that those school divisions witnessed significantly higher scores on graduation exams as well as higher attendance rates in comparison to school divisions that did not reflect equal ethnic representation (Fraga & Meier, 1986; Pitts, 2007). However, there is no found data expressing how the ethnicities of teachers compare to the ethnicities of students in the United States. To determine whether the finding of Pitts et al. hold true for the Commonwealth of Virginia, research must first be conducted to determine whether the number of ethnic teachers is representative to the number of ethnic students enrolled in public high schools there.

Overview of the Study

This study investigated the levels of ethnic representation of licensed teachers and students in public high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia. This information was obtained using the Virginia Department of Education website, which provides users with the ability to create reports that reflect the ethnic/racial demographics of all students attending all public high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia. The Virginia Department of Education (VDOE) does not fully collect the ethnic information of teachers across the Commonwealth of Virginia, so to access this information, phone calls were placed, and surveys were sent to each school division in Virginia’s Human Resources department to inquire about the number of teachers that are employed and the ethnic background of each. The information gleaned from the searches was used to determine whether the levels of representation of ethnicities of teachers across the Commonwealth of Virginia were directly proportionate to the ethnicities of high school students attending public schools there during the 2016–2017 academic year. The levels of representation were determined by using the risk ratio formula developed by the Department of Education do determine the levels of representation of special education students. In order to obtain student representation rates, the number of students in each ethnic group was divided by the total number of students minus the ethnic group being calculated. The same formula was used to calculate teacher representation rates. This formula can be found on page 55.

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to compare the level of ethnic representation of high school (9-12) teachers to the ethnic representation of students enrolled in each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Data presented reflect teacher and student ethnicities for the 2016– 2017 school year. Studying the relationship between the ethnic representation of teachers and that of students may provide a deeper understanding of the levels of ethnic representation between teachers and students. This will allow future researchers to then use the findings from this student to then investigate the effects that having proportionate rates of teacher ethnicity to student ethnicity may have on student’s achievement, behavior, and global perspectives. The result of this study may provide readers with an accurate picture of the number of ethnic teachers and how it compares to the number of ethnic high school students in public schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia.

Significance of the Study

In the article “Representative bureaucracy, ethnicity, and public schools” Pitts discusses the academic benefits of having a teaching staff with ethnicities that mirror those of the student population. Contrary to Egalite and Kisida, Pitts found that students attending schools in which the teacher population reflect the African-American or Latino population scored higher on graduation exams than those that did not (Pitts, 2007). Johnson, Crosnoe, and Elder (2001) also found student behavior was more positive in environments where the teacher ethnic representation modeled that of the student population. This study will depict the levels of ethnic representation of students and teachers in comprehensive high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia. The information gleaned from this study could be used by future researchers to focus on student outcomes in school divisions where the levels of ethnic representation of teachers and students is representative or disproportionate. These outcomes could include academic performance, attendance, graduation rates, and student behavior. Research Questions The following research questions were used in this study to glean information about the ethnicities of licensed educators and students as they are represented throughout high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia:

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1. What is the ethnic demographic representation of high school teachers at each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia? 2. What is the ethnic demographic representation of high school students at each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia? 3. Do the ethnic demographics of teachers reflect the ethnic demographics of the high school students in each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia? 4. What representation of teachers and students by ethnic group demonstrates disproportionality based on the standard 10 definition of representation determined by the Virginia Department of Education? Definition of Terms  American Indian: a member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western hemisphere, often except the Eskimos (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Asian-American: an American of Asian descent (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Biracial: of, relating to, or involving members of two races; having parents from two races (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Black: (often capitalized) of or relating to any of various population groups having dark pigmentation of the skin; black Americans of or relating to the African-American people or their culture (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Caucasian/White: of, constituting, or characteristic of a race of humankind native to Europe, used especially in reference to persons of European descent, who usually have light skin pigmentation (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Demographics: the statistical characteristics of human populations (such as age or income) used to identify markets (Cambridge Dictionary, 2017).  Ethnic: of or relating to large groups of people classified according to common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origins or backgrounds (Merriam- Webster, 2017).  High School: a school, especially in the United States, usually including Grades 9–12 (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Hispanic: of, relating to, or being a person of Latin American descent living in the United States; one of Cuban, Mexican, or Puerto Rican origin (Merriam-Webster, 2017).

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 Minority: a part of a population differing from others in certain characteristics and often subjected to differential treatment; a member of a minority group (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Native Hawaiian: an ethnic designation for a native person of Polynesian descent (Merriam-Webster, 2017).  Population: the total of individuals occupying an area or making up a whole (Merriam- Webster, 2017).  Teacher: a person who instructs or trains others, especially in a school (Cambridge Dictionary, 2017).

Limitations

The limitations of this study were factors beyond the researcher’s control that may prevent a full representation of information about the representation of ethnic representation of educators and students from the Commonwealth of Virginia, including the following: ● A school division or school may have refused to provide the requested information. ● The information is only accurate for the time it is provided. ● Schools may not have been fully staffed at the time of the request. ● Only 24 of the 130 school divisions chose to participate in the study ● Student enrollment can change daily.

Delimitations

The delimitations of this study were factors that were controlled by the researcher that may prevent a full representation of information about the representation of ethnic representation of educators and students in the Commonwealth of Virginia, including the following: ● The selection of educators only included licensed faculty rather than staff. ● The schools were only in the Commonwealth of Virginia. ● Students’ ethnicities only reflect those in Grades 9–12 enrolled in comprehensive high school. ● Educators were limited to those in comprehensive high schools within the Commonwealth of Virginia.

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Summary

Chapter I of this study introduces the overall context of the study by discussing the historical perspective of minorities in the educational system as well as the current state of minority educators within the system. It also includes the plan of study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and research questions. In addition, Chapter I includes the significance of researching the levels of ethnic representation of teachers and students in comprehensive high schools. The final section of Chapter I presents the terms used in the study as well as its limitations and delimitations. Chapter II contains a review of literature that provides historical, current, and future perspectives on the status of minority educators in the public school system. Chapter III discusses the methods used to conduct the research for this paper. The methodology section includes the purpose of the study, research design, research questions, data collection procedures, data analysis, and methodology summary. Chapter IV outlines the findings, explains the data, and identifies similarities in neighboring school divisions as well as school divisions across the Commonwealth of Virginia. The final portion of Chapter IV summarizes the data by linking the findings to the research questions. Chapter V provides the reader with a summary and discussion of the findings and provides a conclusion on the findings. The final portion discusses suggestions for future studies and personal reflections on experiences had during the research process.

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

Purpose

This study’s purpose was to present the ethnic representation of teachers in relation to that of high school students in comprehensive public high schools located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The research literature describes the effects ethnic representation may have on graduation rates of high school minorities in public high school. The first section focuses on the history of minorities in education, how a shift in student enrollment has occurred, and the historical figures of minority teachers employed in the education system. The second section discusses the diversification of the teaching force and how minorities are recruited and retained in education. The third section discusses the effects ethnic representation may have on minority students’ academic success and graduation rates. Finally, a summary of the overall findings from the literature review will be presented.

Recruitment of Minorities into the Teaching Profession

Over the past 20 years, a steady growth in the number of minority students entering the public school system has occurred (NCES, 2003). Due to this growth, research has been conducted on how school systems should recruit minorities into the teaching profession (Ramirez, 2009). In certain states, a key method of teacher recruitment is having current and former teachers visit middle and high school students to discuss their love of education (Ramirez, 2009). The idea of introducing education as a career choice during adolescence directly aligns with research on the cognitive and social development of middle school-aged children (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). The Institute for Human Services (IHS) for the Ohio Child Welfare Training Program (OCWTP) released a document in 2007 outlining the various stages of child development. During adolescence, children begin to gain an understanding of social systems, think logically, and develop plans of action based on the findings of their thinking (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). An understanding of the stages of child development allows various educational groups and task forces to pinpoint the ideal time to introduce career choices to students. These groups found that middle school and early high school are the most productive times to do so (Rosenberg-McKay, n.d).

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In the article “Ethnic Minorities and Teaching,” author Ramirez investigates several programs that have assisted with the recruitment of minorities into educational careers. Indiana University Bloomington developed a program called Project Transformative Education Achievement Model (TEAM) in order to increase minority student interest in the field of education (Ramirez, 2009). This program was designed to partner minority students with minority adults in the field of education to begin exposing the students to the profession and to allow them witness the influence they can have on their communities. Project TEAM also discussed the challenges that minorities may face on the campuses of predominantly White institutions and within the schools in which they may work upon graduation. At the conclusion of the seminars, researchers found that the majority of students who completed the program went on to become teachers after college (Ramirez, 2009). A similar program was created through Texas A&M-Corpus Christi. Through this model, the college faculty, along with preservice teachers who were mostly ethnic minorities, partnered with 189 local high school students to provide demonstrations and speak about careers in education (Ramirez, 2009). The majority of these speakers were minorities, as a result, a connection was made between the speakers and the minority students, which led to increased interest in the field of education. This high level of interest caused the university to create a future teacher program within the high school that not only exposed students to the career of education but also compensated them for the time and service they put into the program (Ramirez, 2009). Similarly, the University of Wisconsin- Parkside and Carthage College partnered to provide insight on how colleges in the same area can increase community involvement and recruit underrepresented minorities into educational careers (Ramirez, 2009). The program was entitled Elementary Certification for Ethnic Colleagues for the Elementary School (Ramirez, 2009). Three main objectives existed for this program:  recruit and prepare the brightest males, particularly of color, to work with youth at their crucial developmental levels;  recruit and prepare the brightest females of color for the elementary school staff;  design a program that could be used as a model for reforming the teacher education programs at the two institutions of higher learning (pg. 2). Several participants in this program were returning students who had previously worked in business and industry (Ramirez, 2009). At the conclusion of this program, all participants

10 graduated, obtained proper teaching credentials, and were placed in area schools (Ramirez, 2009). The administration from the areas that were served by this program stated they had the ability to hire quality minority teachers (Ramirez, 2009). Over the course of the last 40 years, several assumptions have been made as to the reason minorities do not pursue careers in the educational field (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012, p. 24). Those factors have included low pay (Gursky, 2002), difficulties with standardized tests (Bennett, McWhorter, & Kuykendall, 2006), negative school experiences, and lack of emotional and academic support (Gordon, 2002). In the article “Unheard Voices of Minority Teacher Candidates in a Teacher Education Program,” teacher candidates discuss their fear of failure and lack of familial support as key factors of the reason they are afraid to pursue careers in education (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). Authors Szecsi and Spillman conducted a study in an undergraduate elementary education program in a predominantly White university in the southern United States (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). This particular university was selected because its mission and guiding principles supported the development of a plan to recruit and retain teaching candidates from diverse ethnic backgrounds (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). Six students in this program identified themselves as ethnic minorities, and out of the six volunteers, three female students were selected (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). After consent forms were signed, an opening 90-minute interview took place with each participant (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). The participants were then observed for 24 hours, and then a final 60-minute interview was conducted with each participant (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). When reviewing the interviews, Szecsi and Spillman were able to determine possible reasons minorities do not pursue the education profession as a career option. A Haitian- American participant stated that she was deeply afraid to fail when it came to teaching. Several people were helping her pay for college, and she hoped that she was choosing the right profession to make them proud. An Asian-American student, identifying only as Aaisha, stated that her fear came from realizing that she may have few people around her who could assist her in her journey of becoming a teacher. Aaisha (as cited in Szecsi & Spillman, 2012, p. 27) After 5th grade I couldn’t depend on my parents because they didn’t really understand English language or culture. I knew that if I didn’t know something I would have to figure it out on my own, they can’t help me. This participant carried those feelings with her through her teaching program, as she knew her

11 family members could not relate to or understand the challenges she faced as a teacher education candidate. Certain students may experience one or more of the factors mentioned above, which can result in apprehension at the thought of becoming an educator. Unlike other minority groups, Asian-Americans have a large percentage of college-educated individuals aged 25 and older (Ramanathan, 2006). However, only 1% pursue careers in education, as they often opt for higher paying careers in science or technology that are deemed more prestigious (Ramanathan, 2006). Together, the factors noted, such as lack of familial support, fear of failure, and not having the ability to pay tuition, can pose numerous challenges to colleges and universities seeking to increase interest in education programs on their campuses and to school divisions that are trying to recruit the best and the brightest (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012 State agencies are being developed to research teacher recruitment practices in each state that suffers from a lack of minority teachers. The National Education Association (NEA) (2015) released a list of factors that address the potential reason a lack of minority teachers exists in education. Surveys were given to minority college students as well as current minority teachers to determine the reasons they were hesitant to pursue educational careers or why they want to leave their educational careers. Their responses included the following:  Burnout and frustration are caused by on-the-job hazards, such as poor working conditions, discipline problems, spreading school violence, and a lack of support from colleagues.  Inadequate schooling leaves some minority students ill-prepared and unmotivated for higher education. Standardized tests often have cutoff scores that exclude minority students from higher education, teacher training, and teacher certification programs.  Licensure tests screen out minorities disproportionately.  Salaries are low for teachers compared to those of other professionals, which lowers the prestige and social value of a career in teaching for many potential minority teachers.  Minorities find more opportunities outside of teaching (NEA, 2015).

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Table 1 Summary of Methods Developed by the National Education Association (NEA) to Recruit Minorities into Educational Careers

 Early prospective teacher identification initiatives through secondary school surveys, counseling, motivational workshops, summer college preparatory courses, courses in educational theory and practice, and promise of financial aid.

 Aggressive recruitment activities, such as holding orientations, recruiting transfer students from two-year colleges, sponsoring future teachers’ clubs, organizing media campaigns in minority communities, and recruiting minorities to teaching from business and the military sectors.

 Financial aid, including fellowships, scholarships, and forgivable loans, targeted to minority students who intend to teach.

 Social and economic support, including improving test-taking skills and providing academic counseling and tutoring.

 Mentoring in the school setting (The National Education Association, 2015).

States such as California and Tennessee have developed programs or initiatives to address the shortage of minorities in their education systems. The California Commission on the Teaching Profession recommended the California Department of Education (CDE) to focus on teacher recruitment that was based around finances and work flexibility (California State Department of Education, 1985). In regard to finance, California discussed raising teacher pay, offering stipends, and introducing merit pay for teachers as a recruitment tool (California State Department of Education, 1985). California also considered accelerating sabbatical leave and lengthening the paid work year to include professional development time, as well as granting release time during the year for teachers to take short amounts of time off (California State Department of Education, 1985). In 1988, the Tennessee Task Force on the Supply of Minority Teachers made recommendations that would assist different school divisions in the recruitment of minority teachers (Sievers & Branch, 2005). The list below explains the different recruitment strategies used to recruit minorities:

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Table 2 Recruitment Strategies and Justification

Strategies Justification

Scholarships and grants for minorities to Financial assistance may help cover tuition, enroll in education programs making minorities more likely to attend school

High school introduction programs Programs will provide minority students early exposure to careers in education

Troops to Teachers: a program to transition Provides former military personnel with service members into classroom teachers alternate career paths after they leave the upon the completion of their military military commitment Become a Special Educator in Tennessee Introduces minorities and others to the (BASE-TN): a program that encourages teaching profession while filling positions in minorities and others interested in teaching areas of education that are difficult to staff jobs to pursue careers in special education

Teach Tennessee: assists school divisions in Fills schools that are difficult to staff with the recruiting college students to teach in critical- best teachers need schools (Sievers & Branch, 2005)

Between 1987–2002, the number of minorities in Tennessee enrolled in public or private education programs increased from 78 to 506 (Sievers & Branch, 2005). Project TEACH was another program designed to help minorities access to careers in the educational field. The program was comprised of three separate organizations that included a community learning center; a predominantly White, local, private college; and the local school division. The learning center served as a location for students to prepare for and receive their general education diploma (GED) (Irizarry, 2007). The director felt that several of these students—mostly African- American and Latino males—had untapped potential that would allow them to be great educators in schools where many of the students were of the same ethnic and socioeconomic background. After the students received their GEDs, they were then accepted into the local college, where they enrolled in teacher education programs. Upon completion of the programs, students were hired by the local school division to teach. Due to the loss of funding, the program only lasted 12 years; new recruitment was halted after eight years. However, out of the 26 students that were sponsored as Project TEACH candidates, 22 completed all training, and 18 are currently teaching (Irizarry, 2007, p. 91).

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Several factors can affect teacher recruitment, but one ongoing concern are the standardized tests that potential teachers must take and pass not only to be accepted into an educational program but also to obtain a teaching license in their state of choice upon completing their academic coursework and earning their diplomas. This concern was exemplified in 1997, when Massachusetts administered a licensure exam for the first time. Over 50% of all test takers failed the exam; however, the state mandated that teacher preparation programs achieve an 80% pass rate among all students in the licensure program (Irizarry, 2007). Due to this new mandate, passing the state exam became a prerequisite for entering the teacher preparation program. When the state disaggregated the data, they revealed a disproportionate number of failures among test takers of color (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). Authors Egalite and Kisida also found that a high rate of failure among minorities was occurring in states across the country. The disparity in the passing rate of White teacher candidates (82%) versus that of African-American teacher candidates (46%) has become a point of concern that has resulted in numerous studies to gather more information on these results (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). In 2008, 11 years after the onset of the teachers testing program, three minority educators sued, stating that the Massachusetts Test for Educator Licensure is racially biased and not valid (Fair Test, 2009). The plaintiffs stated that the test violates Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act (Fair Test, 2009). The basis of the lawsuit was due to National Evaluation Systems (NES), the test manufacturer, having a poor track record regarding their testing practices, which included failure to comply with requests for data about product accuracy and fairness (Fair Test, 2009). In addition, in 2008, a panel assembled by the Massachusetts Department of Education reported that NES failed to provide validity data in the area of the impact the test had on minority candidates (Fair Test, 2009). The lawsuit has not been resolved, however, regardless of the reasons for failure, the low passing rate among minority groups poses a problem for school divisions not only in Massachusetts but in school divisions around the country, as not enough minority teacher candidates exist to fill vacancies in schools with high minority populations (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). In 2016, African- American, Latino, and Asian-American students made up 37% of the population of Massachusetts public schools, but the teachers employed by the school divisions in no way reflected this proportion, as minority teachers in Massachusetts only accounted for 7.1% of the teaching force (Rocheleau, 2017). Currently, over 50% of all U.S. states and territories require students to pass at least one

15 praxis exam to be accepted into a teacher training program or to obtain a teaching license (ETS.org, 2017). Regarding minority teacher candidates, less than 50% pass the praxis exam on their first attempt, and some never pass (Petchauer, 2014). Two general explanations have been provided for the reason some minorities never pass their praxis. One is the lack of preparation or skill of the test taker (Petchauer, 2014). The second is that the testing instruments are culturally biased, oppressive, and inequitable (Petchauer, 2014). This results in minorities not being accepted into teacher programs, which further reduces the number of minority teachers entering the education workforce (Petchauer, 2014). By the year 2025, minorities are projected to comprise over 50% of public education student enrollment (“www.nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cge.asp 2016); however, the teaching force will not mirror that growth if minority teachers continue to enter the profession at lower rates than their White counterparts (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). The disproportionate growth of ethnic minority students and teachers could contribute to the achievement gap that currently exists between ethnic minority students and their Caucasian counterparts, versus the alternative of removing stumbling blocks that prevent greater academic performance in students (Graham, 2014). Unless a study is conducted that demonstrates how to recruit more minority teachers or retain the teachers that are currently in the profession, the rapid growth of minority students in schools will continue to outpace the number of minority educators in the classroom (Egalite & Kisida, 2015).

Retention

With the growth of the minority student population and the shortage of minority educators, the focus has shifted to the retention of teachers that have been recruited into education (Sievers & Branch, 2005, p26). In 1987, the State Board of Education in Tennessee cited a shortage of minority teachers in Tennessee (Sievers & Branch, 2005, p26). In 1988, the Tennessee Task Force on the Supply of Minority Teachers issued several recommendations, most of which were implemented, to increase the number of minority teachers (Sievers & Branch, 2005, p26). Seven key methods were developed that they would use to support and ultimately retain the teachers they worked to recruit, including the following: ● establish new teacher networks; ● provide enhanced staff development;

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● assign mentors to assist new teachers as they adjust to the district; ● continuously assess the needs of new teachers; ● provide social support and community orientation; ● assign a community volunteer to involve the new teacher in community activities; ● provide support for minority teachers to obtain an advanced college degree (Sievers & Branch, 2015, p. 26). Tennessee has researched to create a well-developed plan that has proven to be successful in their attempts to increase the minority presence in the education system (Sievers & Branch, 2015, p. 26). In addition to their work, other groups have conducted research into teacher recruitment. The National Education Association Quality Teacher Department created the Recruitment and Retention of Educators Program (RRE), which has provided local educator associations (LEAs) with grants and additional resources to assist them in developing programs to retain teachers in their school divisions. Through these efforts, many LEAs have begun working not only to retain teachers but to retain highly effective teachers (Recruiting, 2014). This is implemented through numerous strategies, which include increasing teacher pay, allowing high-performing teachers to transfer to low-performing schools in groups so they will have more support, sabbatical leaves, flexible work roles that allow the best teachers to lead various classrooms regardless of the content they teach, as well as providing more in-house leadership opportunities (Recruiting, 2014). Teacher retention can also be viewed from the perspective of not only retaining minority teachers but also retaining them where they are needed most (Ingersoll & May, 2011). Salary is commonly cited as the reason most teachers leave the profession, but according to the National Education Association (NEA) (n.d.), salary ranks low on the list of reasons teachers quit. The most common reason is a lack of support and resources. Research conducted by the University of Pennsylvania found that minority teachers leave high-poverty and small schools at a high rate (Ingersoll & May, 2011). The schools involved in this study were cited as having limited access to technology, and the teachers felt that they were not supported. Schools with strong administrative leadership and ample resources and that involve faculty in decision making had a lower rate of minority teacher turnover compared to schools that did not (Ingersoll & May, 2011). When schools have a high rate of retention among minority staff, the performance of

17 minority students improves (Egalite & Kisida, 2015b). In a study published by the Economics of Education Review, Egalite and Kisida followed the trajectories of 2.9 million public school students in Florida over a period of seven years beginning in the 2001–2002 school year and ending in the 2008–2009 school year. During this time, Egalite and Kisida examined changes in the test scores of students in response to their teacher assignment. The study was conducted using students in Grades 3–10 by recording their demographics as well as student test scores in the areas of math and reading on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). A specific marker indicator was used in classrooms in which students’ ethnicity matched that of their teachers (Egalite & Kisida, 2016). Specific markers were also used to identify the subject taught when teacher ethnicity matched the students’ ethnicity (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). One area of concern was in the upper grade levels, when students had more than one teacher, and only one teacher could receive the credit for student growth. This was not the case in elementary school because students stayed with one teacher for all academic-based courses (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). One method used to account for the fact that secondary students had more than one teacher was to eliminate part-time teachers, only collect data for classes in which student and teacher ethnicity matched, and only use data collected in classes that had standardized tests as the culminating assessment (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). Researchers discovered that when students were matched with teachers of the same or similar racial/ethnic backgrounds, the students performed better than those who were not. These findings also held true for low-performing schools with Black and White students (Egalite & Kisida, 2015a). During the study, researchers Egalite and Kisida compared standardized test scores in years when students had teachers of the same ethnicity to school years in which they did not have teachers of the same ethnicity. The additional data accessible to researchers allowed them to control for other factors, such as socioeconomic status, English language proficiency, gender, average teacher quality, and prior test scores. Study results indicated the following when minority students were taught by minority teachers:  Black, White, and Asian students benefit from being assigned to a teacher that looked like them. Their test scores improved during years when their teacher shared their ethnicity as compared to years when their teacher was of a different ethnicity.  The effects were generally greatest for elementary-aged students and students who were lower-performing.

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 Elementary-aged Black students seemed to benefit from demographically similar teachers more than students from other racial/ethnic groups (Egalite & Kisida, 2015, p. 44). As previously stated, while ethnic matching shows positive effects among the students involved in this research, if it were to be conducted on a broad scale, this would create segregated school environments, which would be the opposite of the justice system’s ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case in 1954. Although states such as Illinois, Indiana, and Florida have established college funds for minorities and national organizations, such as Teach for America, that are committed to recruiting and retaining minority teachers, work still needs to be done across the United States to help schools close the diversity gap among their faculty members (Egalite & Kisida, 2015a). Based on the research, if schools can close their diversity gap among their staff members, those teachers of the same race/ethnicity as their students could theoretically narrow the achievement gap between minority students by serving as high-quality academic role models and holding students to higher standards and performance expectations (Egalite & Kisida, 2015a).

Minority Teacher Influence

The minority population in the public school system is on the rise. As suggested in research reviewed earlier, during the 2014–2015 school year, the number of minority students in the public school system surpassed the number of White students for the first time in history (“Racial/ethnic enrollment in public schools,” 2016). Although steady growth in the number of minority students in public schools has occurred, a similar growth rate has not been witnessed in minority teachers entering the educational workforce (“Racial/ethnic enrollment in public schools,” 2016). Several reasons exist for why diversifying the workplace can have a significant impact of the educational experience of all students but more significantly minority students. According to Tyler et al. (2004), teacher diversity can benefit minority students by allowing them to serve as a role models, acting as a liaison between the minority community and the school system, while also improving academic achievement for minority students.

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Minority Teachers are Role Models

In 1998, Secretary of Education Richard Riley published an article in Education in Urban Society entitled “Our Teachers Should Be Excellent, and They Should Look Like America.” This statement supports the overall idea that students need role models who mirror them and their experiences (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). Teacher diversity advocates maintain that schools not only serve as places of academic knowledge, but they also serve as places in which values are fashioned in subtle but powerful ways (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). According to authors Cole, King, and Waters, role models of color are believed to boost the self-worth of students of color (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). This sentiment of minority teachers serving as role models is echoed throughout the Black and Latino communities alike. In a study completed in 1996, authors Guyton, Saxton, and Wesche studied seven preservice teachers (four African-American) in a master’s level initial preparation program in early childhood education at an urban university. These interviews took place three times over the course of the school year and after the first three months of teaching (Guyton, Saxton, & Wesche, 1996). The first interview focused on the area of the reason the preservice teachers wanted to be educators (Guyton et. al., 1996). All four of the African- American participants indicated that they chose education so that they could serve as role models and allow children to “see themselves in positive roles” (Guyton et. al., 1996). In the book Learning from Latino Teachers, author Gilda Ochoa describes her research into Latinos and their perspectives on being educators. Over the course of several days, she interviewed 18 Latino teachers on their thoughts regarding their schooling, family expectations, and decisions to teach (Ochoa, 2007). Through this process, she found that the most common reason Latino teachers entered the education profession was that serving as a role model for Latino students was important to them (Ochoa, 2007). Researchers Ana Maria Villegas and Jaqueline Irvine conducted a literature review of the available documents discussing the need for more diversity in the teaching workforce. One of the three arguments they developed as to the reason a need for more diversity in the teaching workforce exists is that when White students see a person of color in a professional role, the students develop perspectives that minorities can be successful and contribute positively to society (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). In an article written by Valerie Strauss for the Washington Post in August 2016, the author discusses the role of Black teachers with 2016 Kentucky

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Teacher of the Year Ashley Lamb-Sinclair, who is a White teacher (Strauss, 2016). Lamb- Sinclair describes her experiences with a Black male teacher named Mr. Trumbo (Strauss, 2016). She reflected on how he not only provided students with the tools necessary to be positive and productive citizens in society, but he also provided her and the other students attending her school with a firsthand and honest account of his life as a Black male in America (Strauss, 2016). At the end of the interview, Lamb-Sinclair posed the following question: “What would happen if our White students in our primarily White schools across the country had the opportunity to empathize with a respected adult who could speak with experience about issues of race?” Researchers Hua-Yu Sebastian Cherng and Peter Halpin conducted a study in 2016 entitled “The Importance of Minority Teachers: Student Perceptions of Minority Versus White Teachers.” Cherng and Halpin conducted a secondary analysis of the Measure of Effective Teaching (MET) longitudinal survey (Cherng & Halpin, 2016). The MET surveyed students to gather their perceptions of their teacher’s instructional practices (Cherng & Halpin, 2016). Using data already available, Cherng and Halpin looked at a group of 1,700 sixth through ninth grade teachers from more than 300 schools in cities around the country and focused specifically on those who identified as Latino, Black, or White (Cherng & Halpin, 2016). Students in the study were asked to rate their perceptions of their teachers in categories such as effectiveness, ability to challenge, ability to captivate, and their care for students (Cherng & Haplin, 2016). Overall, the results showed consistent evidence that students had more favorable perceptions of Latino and Black teachers than White teachers after controlling for student demographics and academic characteristics (Cherng & Halpin, 2016). Based on the outcome of the study, authors Cherng and Halpin suggested that minority teachers seem to translate their experiences and identities in order to form rapports with students who do not share the same race or ethnicity as them (Cherng & Halpin, 2016). Dr. Jamie Bone created a table to outline the studies supporting the role model rationale for her study in 2011 (Bone, 2011).

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Table 3 Summary of Studies Supportive of the Role Model Rationale

Author(s) Year of Publication Summary of results

Stewart, Meier, & England 1989 Positive results from minority teachers with minority students; role models in teachers as possible cause Evans 1992 Evidence of student-teacher race effects; role models in teachers as possible cause Guyton, Saxton, & Wesche 1996 Minority teacher candidates reported primary reason for wanting to teach was to serve as role models for minority students Hess & Leal 1997 Minority teachers had positive impact on minority students' likelihood of attending college; teachers as role models were a possible but not exclusive case Jones, Young, & Rodriguez 1999 Minority preservice and in-service teachers reported primary reason for wanting to teach was to serve as role models for minority students Dee 2004 Pairing minority students with same- ethnicity teachers drastically increased math and reading scores; teachers as role models as possible cause Ochoa 2007 Hispanic teachers reported serving as role models for Hispanic students was of central importance Pitts 2007 Minority teacher representation can have positive effects on minority student academic outcomes; teacher role models are possible explanation Johnson 2008 New minority teachers believed they were examples of success for minority students

Minority Teachers Influence Behavior

Author Thomas Dee wrote an article titled “A Teacher Like: Does Race, Ethnicity or Gender Matter,” in which he discussed the manner in which teachers view student behavior when the ethnicities of students and teachers are more proportionate (Dee, 2005). The study consisted of surveys completed on 21,324 8th grade students across the nation in which 42,648 observations were made. The survey included several questions about how teachers perceived

22 classroom performance and personality traits of individual sampled students (Dee, 2005). The survey focused on three main assessments of whether students were viewed as inattentive or disruptive and rarely completed homework (Dee, 2005). Dee found that racial dynamics consistently had great effects on teacher perceptions of student performance and student perceptions on their teachers. The study found that students were more likely to be viewed as disruptive by teachers who did not share their ethnicity (Dee, 2005). Students also indicated that they felt they were more likely to be perceived as disruptive when a teacher did not share their ethnicity (Dee, 2005).

Minority Teachers Influence on Academics

In addition to having positive effects on behavior, researchers have found that students who are taught by teachers of their same ethnicity may perform better on tests (Dee, 2004). In 1985, the Tennessee Legislature authorized a four-year study that followed 11,600 students from 79 schools as they entered the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grades. The teacher information recorded for this study included race, years of experience, education level, and merit pay status (Dee, 2004). Gender was not included to help preserve the confidentiality of the teachers (Dee, 2004). The study found that for White and Black males and Black females assigned to a same-race teacher, a 3 to 6 percentile point improvement in reading scores was witnessed (Dee, 2004). In addition to gains witnessed in White and Black males and Black females in reading, a 2 to 4 percentile point gain in math and reading occurred across White males and females as well as Black males and females who had teachers of the same race (Dee, 2004). One point that was noted was that Black students who benefited from same-race teachers were largely concentrated in schools with more disadvantaged students and in more segregated schools (Dee, 2004). Although Dee found a correlation to students learning from same-race teachers in elementary schools in Tennessee, researcher David Pitts (2007) found that students did not necessarily need to be paired with a teacher of like ethnicity to achieve higher scores on school graduation exams. He found that students attending school in districts where the teaching population reflected the African-American or Latino student population scored significantly higher on graduation exams than students who did not (Pitts, 2007). In addition to positive results being witnessed in the area of academics, studies have shown that having teacher representation proportionate to the ethnic group of students in a school has a positive effect on

23 student behavior. In the article “Student’s Attachment and Academic Engagement: The Role of Race and Ethnicity,” authors Johnson, Crosnoe, and Elder found that students’ sense of belonging may be aided by having teachers who resemble them (Johnson, Crosnoe, & Elder, 2001). In addition, researchers Finn and Voelkl found that students who attended schools with greater proportions of students of their own race-ethnicity and who had greater proportions of teachers of their own race-ethnicity were be more highly engaged and attached to their schools (Finn & Voelkl, 1993). In Texas, a study was completed to determine the level of proportionality between the ethnicities of teachers and students in elementary, middle, and high schools. Through the review of available literature, researcher Dr. Jamie Bone stated she found that schools with ethnically diverse teaching staffs may provide students of different ethnicities with mentors, liaisons, and advocates who may assist in closing the achievement gap (Bone, 2011). As a result of these findings, she determined that finding the ethnicities of teachers on the three academic levels as well as the ethnicities of students on those same levels was essential (Bone, 2011). Dr. Jamie Bone conducted a study across Texas to describe the composition of teachers in public schools by ethnicity and school level, while also describing student ethnicities by school level (Bone, 2011). Bone also examined the relationship between teacher ethnicity and student ethnicity in Texas public schools by school level (Bone, 2011). In order to obtain the data necessary, Bone used the Texas Education Agencies Academic Excellence Indicator System (AEIS), which is a reporting system that can generate information about campuses and school districts across the state (Bone, 2011). This system was used to determine the percentages of Black, White, and Hispanic teachers and students in elementary, middle, and high schools across Texas between 1999–2010 (Bone, 2011). Bone then used the data she collected to determine the relationship between the percentage of each ethnic demographic of students to the same ethnic demographic of teachers for each school level over the 11 academic years (Bone, 2011). Upon completion of the study, Bone found that White teachers and White students comprised the majority of the teacher and student populations in elementary, middle, and high schools in Texas (Bone, 2011). However, while the number of White teachers and students was found to be proportionate, the number of Hispanic students and teachers, as well as Black students and teachers, was not found to be proportionate over the course of the 11 years studied during this research (Bone, 2011). Bone also found that the number of Black and Hispanic students in high

24 schools in Texas were significantly lower than the number of Black and Hispanic students in elementary schools in Texas (Bone, 2011). This reduction in students was attributed to the high number of Black and Hispanic students dropping out of school in comparison to their White classmates. At the conclusion of the study, Bone recommended two suggestions based on the findings. The first was for school districts to implement strategies to recruit more minority teachers and hold administrators accountable for hiring staff members whose ethnicities are reflective of the student body (Bone, 2011). The second suggestion was that this study be replicated in states across the United States in order to gain a more in-depth understanding of the demographic composition of teachers and students in other states in an effort to help close the academic achievement gap (Bone, 2011). In addition to academic success and behavior, minority teachers also have an effect on the attendance and dropout rates of students in public schools (Irvine, 2010). In 1986, authors Fraga, Meier, and England found that as the number of Hispanic teachers in a large school division increased, the high school dropout rate decreased, and the college attendance rate increased. The reverse has also been found; a lack of teachers of color in a school division creates a further divide, leaving minority students without the support to bridge their culture and the curriculum they are learning (Bennett, McWhorter, & Kuykendall, 2006). In a study completed by Szecsi and Spillman (2012), three minority teacher candidates enrolled in a graduate elementary education program at a predominantly White university in the southern United States and were interviewed about their experiences as a members of a teacher candidate program. Researchers conducted an open-ended, structured interview of 90 minutes with all three students (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). In addition to the interviews, researchers also completed observations of the participants while at their university, in their internship classrooms, and during extra-curricular activities (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). A total of 20 hours was spent with the three participants over a 10-month period, and at the conclusion of the research, a 60-minute follow-up interview took place with each participant (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). All interviews were tape recorded, transcribed, and coded to identify and distinguish themes related to teacher candidate perceptions (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). During the interviews, the three teacher candidates were asked about several different topics, including their ability to serve as role models. One Asian-American student stated the following in response to her cooperating teacher’s frustration with a Hispanic student’s ability to grasp a topic:

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I told the teacher “let me work with her” …. I know that she [the child] can be a little bit concerning … but I can help her and I [can] work with her, because at one point I was her and I was labeled and I did get screamed at for not saying something the correct way... So I understand because I was her. (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012, p. 26). This teacher candidate was able to use her experiences as a minority in a new educational environment to assist another minority student in her efforts to learn by relating to the student’s experience, which also allowed the teacher to find her place in that particular educational environment (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). At the conclusion of the study, the researchers discovered that the teacher candidates had become more aware of their cultural capital, which was beneficial for interacting with all minority students in their classrooms, not just those who had similar ethnic or socioeconomic backgrounds (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). Researcher June Gordon interviewed over 200 veteran teachers of color in Washington, California, and Ohio and 50 college students of color in the San Francisco area and asked them to reflect on the challenges of teaching (Gordon, 2002). Gordon stated that one of the most surprising findings from her research was that regardless of academic or socioeconomic status, the communities of color (e.g., Black communities in the South, Native American Reservations) that would greatly benefit from teachers of color are also the communities that have the least amount of respect for teachers and for teaching as a profession (Gordon, 2002). The participants of her study stated that in their experiences they were often discouraged by family and community members not to pursue educational careers and, instead, chose careers that were of higher status and higher income (Gordon, 2002). While pursuing more lucrative careers may be deemed more appropriate for college-educated minorities, this does nothing to assist the needs of students as they move through the educational system, who need to witness a more diverse educational workforce (Gordon, 2002). Dr. Jamie Bone created a table to outline the studies supporting the need to diversify teaching staffs in order to support academic growth for her study in 2011 (Bone, 2011).

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Table 4 Summary of Studies Supportive of the Academic Rationale

Author(s) Year of Publication Summary of Results

Frag, Meier, & England 1986 Increased percentage of Hispanic teachers in urban Schools, with high Hispanic student enrollment, reduced drop-out rates, and increased college- going rates of Hispanic students

England & Meier 1986 In schools in which higher numbers of Black students existed, as well as a higher percentage of Black teachers, incidents of Black student placement in special education and out of school suspension decreased, whereas placement in gifted and talented classes and matriculation to college and vocational schools increased

Meier, Stewart, & England 1989 Follow up study to England & Meier (1986); results

Farkas, Grobe, Sheehan, & 1990 Truancy rates of Black students taught by Black teachers were drastically lower Shuan than the truancy rates of Black students taught by teachers of other ethnicities

Hanushek 1992 Black teachers were more successful than White teachers in raising the vocabulary and reading scores of Black students

Evans 1992 Black teachers teaching Black students were more successful than teachers of other ethnicities in raising scores on tests of economic literacy (continued)

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Table 4 (cont.) Author(s) Year of Publication Summary of Results

Meire 1993 In schools with higher numbers of Hispanic teachers and Hispanic students, Hispanic students were much more likely to pass the high school graduation exam, less likely to be placed in special education classes, more likely to be placed in gifted and talented classes, and less likely to be suspended from school

Ehrenberg, Goldhaber, & 1995 No significant impact on subject areas Brewer examined for minority students taught by

Ehrenber & Brewer 1995 Increasing the number of Black teachers at a school (regardless of whether the teachers were paired with Black students) also increased the scores of Black high school students

Hess & Leal 1997 Large urban schools with high percentages of minority teachers had drastically higher minority student college matriculation rates

Dee 2004 Pairing minority students with same- ethnicity teachers increased reading and math scores by three to four percentage points, particularly in the cases of poverty-stricken Black students in racially segregated schools

Clewell, Puma, & McKay 2005 Hispanic 4th and 6th graders taught by Hispanic teachers had higher test score gains in math; Black 4th graders had higher score gains in math and reading

Klopfenstein 2005 Black student enrollment in Algebra II after completion of geometry grew drastically as the percentage of Black math teachers increased

(continued)

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Table 4 (cont.) Author(s) Year of Publication Summary of Results

Pitts 2007 In schools in which teacher ethnicity more closely mirrored student ethnicity, minority students had drastically higher passing rates on graduation exams

Summary

With the growth of minorities outpacing that of Caucasians in public schools, the Oregon Educator Equity Advisory Group, authors Szecsi and Spillman in their work “Unheard Voices of Minority Teacher Candidates in a Teacher Education Program,” and Ramirez, in his work “Ethnic Minorities and Teaching,” (Ramirez, 2009) have indicated that more work should be done to increase the number of minority teachers in the workforce (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). They also stated that additional research should be conducted to discover whether minority teachers can have a positive effect on minority students’ success in an academic environment (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). Regardless of the findings generated by the presented literature, further research can help determine whether employing minority teachers proportionate to the number of minority students’ affects student achievement (Johnson, Crosnoe, & Elder, 2001).

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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

Methodology

The purpose of this quantitative study was to identify the level of ethnic representation of high school (9–12) teachers as compared to the ethnic representation of students enrolled in each comprehensive high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The relationship between the representation of minority teachers and that of students may provide a deeper understanding of effects that minority teachers or representative teacher populations may have on student achievement, behavior, and global perspective. Descriptive statistics were chosen based on the need to only describe a set of data (Howell, 2011). Specifically, data collected were considered categorical as they are used as a representation of a count or number of items in each category (Howell, 2011). An application was submitted to the Internal Review Board (IRB) for approval, which determined that no approval was needed due to the fact no human subjects would be used, eliminating the concerns for the need to guarantee participant privacy or approval. The copy of the IRB email indicating no approval was needed is located in the Appendix A.

Research Design

This study used quantitative methodology as the information gathered was based on the number of licensed ethnic teachers and the number of ethnic students in public high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia. The Commonwealth of Virginia completes a report card on each school in every school division. The school report cards reflect data reported on student ethnicities for each public high school in the commonwealth. This information was found on the Virginia Department of Education website, so the information available was consistent across the Commonwealth. Additionally, the reports containing these data were already disaggregated and did not require further interpretation to understand. All data on teacher race/ethnicity were requested from the 130 school divisions across the Commonwealth of Virginia. Using quantitative methods assisted in determining the representation of licensed ethnic educators in relation to the number of ethnic minority students currently in high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia.

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Design Justification

The quantitative method was utilized for this study because the numbers regarding students are directly reported to the state by each school division and provided half of the data needed for the study (http://www.doe.virginia.gov/, 2017). Studies completed by researchers Egalite and Kisida demonstrated that in school divisions in which the students’ ethnicities matched those of their teachers, an improvement in academic achievement occurred (Egalite & Kisida, 2015). Researchers Fraga, Meier, and Pitts noted that ethnic matching was not necessary for an improvement in student achievement. When the number of ethnic minority teachers was proportionate to the number of ethnic minority students, an improvement in academic achievement and graduation rates occurred as well as a decline in negative behaviors (Fraga & Meier, 1986; Pitts, 2007). In 2010, Bone stated that in order to gain more understanding of whether or not having a staff whose race/ethnicity mirrors that of the student population affects achievement, one must first determine the demographic composition of teachers and students (Bone, 2011). Once the level of representation was determined, future research could be conducted to determine the effects ethnic representation may have on student achievement (Bone, 2011). To determine whether these studies could be applicable in the Commonwealth of Virginia, research was conducted to determine the level of ethnic representation of teachers and students in high schools. After the ethnic representation of teachers and students was ascertained, the study determined the level of representation of teachers and students across various ethnic groups.

Research Questions

The research questions used to guide this investigation include the following:  What is the ethnic demographic representation of high school teachers at each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia?  What is the ethnic demographic representation of high school students at each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia?  Do the ethnic demographics of teachers reflect to the ethnic demographics of high school students in each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia?

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 What representation of teachers and students by ethnic group demonstrates disproportionality based on the standard 10 definition of representation determined by the Virginia Department of Education?

Sample Selection

All student data from comprehensive public high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia were collected using the Virginia Department of Education website. This location was selected because Virginia has a diverse school system, with rural, urban, and suburban locations in various parts of the state that could yield a diverse dataset.

Data Collection Procedures

Data were gathered from two sources. One was the Virginia Department of Education website. Reports can be generated that detail the ethnicities of students in Grades 9–12 for each public high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The Virginia Department of Education does not collect the ethnicities of the licensed educators who work in the commonwealth, so that information cannot be obtained using the website. To gather ethnic information on licensed educators, the Human Resources departments of each school division were contacted via electronic media to determine whether they collect ethnic demographic data for their licensed employees. Some school divisions did not put email addresses for Human Resource personnel on their webpages. In order to make contact, phone calls were made to individual school divisions to determine who could complete the survey instrument. If this information was obtained, the invitations to complete the survey instrument was then sent electronically via email. The survey instrument was designed, distributed, and analyzed using Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University approved Qualtrics software. The IRB process was completed, and the IRB determined that approval was not needed because this study would not require contact with human subjects. No subjects were interviewed verbally or nonverbally for this study. An electronic survey found in Appendix B, was developed using the Virginia Polytechnic College and University approved Qualtrics software. This survey instrument asked school divisions to anonymously identify the race/ethnicity of licensed teachers employed in in their buildings.

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Instrument Design

The data collected regarding the ethnicities of high school students were collected using the Virginia Department of Education website. The links to the school quality profiles for each high school in each school division were used to obtain information about student ethnicities. In order to obtain information on the ethnicities of licensed educators in comprehensive high schools, a survey was given to the Human Resources director of each school division. The survey instrument, found in Appendix B, was developed using the Virginia Polytechnic College and University approved Qualtrics software. The survey instrument created was unique to this study and contained eight questions that were clear and concise. Human Resources directors were asked to complete the survey by identifying the number of teachers who identify with the following ethnic groups: ● American-Indian ● Asian-American ● Biracial/two or more ethnicities ● Black ● Caucasian/White ● Hispanic ● Native Hawaiian These ethnic groups are the same groups used to identify the different ethnicities of high school students in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The survey instrument results gathered for this study are located in the Appendix C. Henrico County Public School System required a formal proposal to be made in order to obtain data from their school division. The approval for this study to be conducted in Henrico County Public Schools is located in Appendix D.

Data Treatment and Management

The two types of information collected for this study were data on the race/ethnicity of comprehensive public high school students in grades 9–12 and data on the number of licensed teachers in comprehensive public high schools. All data collected on students are accessible on the Virginia Department of Education website and are not confidential. The data collected on teachers did not have any identifiable markers linking the information to an individual. As a

33 result, the data were considered confidential. All information collected has been stored using Qualtrics and Google Drive.

Data Analysis Techniques

The Virginia Department of Education created a formula to calculate the disproportionate representation of students receiving special education services. This same formula was used to determine the relationship between the two variables—student race/ethnicity and licensed teacher race/ethnicity—in comprehensive public high schools in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The Virginia Department of Education determined that any number obtained that is greater than 2.0 would be deemed disproportionate, while numbers below 2.0 would be deemed proportionate. This formula is further explained later in this chapter. Data for students attending comprehensive public high schools are currently available on the Virginia Department of Education website for the 2016–2017 school year. The data for licensed teachers currently working in public comprehensive high schools are not in a central location for the 2016–2017 school year. The data collection took place between January 28, 2018, and March 2, 2018. This timeframe covered the end of the second and the beginning of the third nine weeks for all school divisions across the Commonwealth of Virginia.

Summary

Chapter 3 outlines the research steps used to answer the four research questions designed to guide this study. The research design, design justification, research questions, and sample selection outlines how the study was justified, conducted, and how study participates were selected. The data collection procedures, instrumental design, data treatment, and data analysis sections details how the data gathered through this research was obtained, handled and interpreted. Each of these steps were essential in helping establish chapter 4, which presents the data obtained in alphabetical order by school division.

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CHAPTER IV DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

The purpose of this quantitative study was to identify the level of ethnic representation of high school (9–12) teachers as compared to the ethnic representation of students enrolled in each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Data presented reflect teacher and student ethnicities for the 2016–2017 school year. The result of this study provide readers with an account of the number of ethnic teachers and how this compares to the number of ethnic high school students in public schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia. The findings of the study are presented for each responding school division in alphabetical order. Specifically, the discussion describes the number of teachers identifying with each of the seven ethnic groups listed on the school report cards located within each responding school division located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The discussion describes the number of students identifying with each of the seven ethnic groups listed on the school report cards located within each responding school division in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Next, the discussion transitions into exploring the levels of representation of the ethnic representation of teachers and high school students of the same ethnicities in comprehensive high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia. Based on the literature available, in discussing the importance of schools having a diverse staff, the study will describe the levels of representation using the following four research questions:  What is the ethnic demographic representation of high school teachers at each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia?  What is the ethnic demographic representation of high school students at each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia?  Do the ethnic demographics of teachers reflect the ethnic demographics of high school students in each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia?  What representation of teachers and students by ethnic group demonstrates disproportionality based on the standard 10 definition of representation determined by the Virginia Department of Education?

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Virginia Student Demographics

During the 2016–2017 school year, studies reported 1,288,166 students in Grades K–12 in public schools in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Table 5 shows the student distribution by race/ethnicity across the Commonwealth of Virginia

Table 5 Public School Ethnic Representation of Students in the Commonwealth of Virginia

Ethnicities K–12 Students Percentage

American Indian 3,588 .30%

Asian 87,658 7%

Black 291,033 23%

Hispanic 194,673 15%

Native Hawaiian 1,974 .15%

White 640,399 50%

Two or more 68,841 5.3%

Total 1,288,166

Respondents

The survey was sent to the Human Resources department of each of the 130 school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia on January 29, 2018. Respondents were able to participate through March 9, 2018 at 5:00 p.m. At the conclusion of the survey period, 24 school divisions completed the survey or provided the information requested.

Respondent Demographics

Surveys were provided to the 130 school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia. After numerous attempts at contacting representatives in the human resources department by phone and email, only 24 school divisions elected to participate in the study. The inability to have a school division complete the survey instrument was deemed a limitation of this study.

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While the number of school divisions participating is low, each geographical region in the Commonwealth of Virginia was represented in the study. The 24 participating school divisions are located in the following areas of the Commonwealth of Virginia:  Blue Ridge  Central Virginia  Chesapeake Bay  Coastal Virginia  Northern Virginia  Shenandoah Valley  Southern Virginia  Virginia Mountains The Blue Ridge Region is also known as Southwest Virginia, where Galax and Montgomery County are located. Central Virginia is also known as the Piedmont and comprises 9 localities, including the state capital in the city of Richmond (www.virginia.org, 2018). Henrico County and Cumberland County are located in this region. The Chesapeake Bay Region is located on the Chesapeake Bay and is the location of Colonial Beach Public Schools. Coastal Virginia is comprised of the Tidewater regions, where the Portsmouth and Norfolk School divisions are located. Northern Virginia is located north of the Central Region and is the location of Fairfax, Fredericksburg, Manassas Park City, Prince William, and Spotsylvania Public Schools. The Shenandoah Valley is located to the northwest of the Central Region and is the location of the Augusta, Rockingham, Shenandoah, and Staunton school divisions. The Southern Virginia Region is located to the south of the Central Region and is the location of the Halifax, Mecklenburg, Pittsylvania, and Sussex school divisions. The Virginia Mountain region is located to the west of the Central Region and south of the Shenandoah Region. Alleghany County Public School is located in the Virginia Mountain Region (www.virginia.org).

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Table 6 School Divisions, Geographical Locations, Number of Students, and Number of Teachers

School Division Location Number of High Number of High School Students School Teachers

Allegheny County Virginia Mountains 754 48 Augusta County Shenandoah valley 3,231 891 Colonial Beach Chesapeake Bay 227 18 Cumberland County Central Virginia 423 38 Fairfax County Northern Virginia 48,684 3,738 Fredericksburg City Northern Virginia 1,026 80 Galax County Blue Ridge 492 35 Goochland County Central Virginia 826 78 Halifax County Southern Virginia 1,549 135 Henrico County Central Virginia 15,712 1,392 Madison County Central Virginia 547 32 Manassas Park City Northern Virginia 1,047 51 Mecklenburg County Southern Virginia 1,352 123 Montgomery County Blue Ridge 2,903 254 Norfolk City Coastal Virginia 7,975 540 Pittsylvania County Southern Virginia 2,894 217 Portsmouth City Coastal Virginia 3,947 1,131 Prince William Northern Virginia 26,117 1,719 Rockingham County Shenandoah Valley 3,693 262 Shenandoah County Shenandoah Valley 950 158 Spotsylvania County Northern Virginia 7,573 507 Staunton City Shenandoah Valley 747 59 Suffolk County Coastal Virginia 3,995 297 Sussex County Southern Virginia 342 33 The survey link was sent to the director of human resources for each of the 130 school divisions across the Commonwealth of Virginia. Of these, 24 school divisions provided the information on teacher race/ethnicity in their school division through the survey. The response rate for this

38 survey was 17%, which is lower than the 39.6% average response rate of web-based surveys (Hoonakker & Carayon, 2009). However, the responding school divisions were comprised of schools in rural, suburban, and urban areas across the Commonwealth of Virginia. This provided a cross-section of data from schools of varying sizes, locales, and demographic compositions.

Proportionality Formula

The formula below was first used to calculate the percentage each ethnic group makes up out of the entire student body.

Number of students (specific ethnic group) 푆푡푢푑푒푛푡 푅푒푝푟푒푠푒푛푡푎푡𝑖표푛 푅푎푡푒 = Total number of students − Specific ethnic group above

Using data obtained from school division surveys completed by the Human Resources departments, the formula below was first used to calculate the percentage each ethnic group makes up out of the entire teaching body.

Number of teachers (specific ethnic group) 푇푒푎푐ℎ푒푟 푅푒푝푟푒푠푒푛푡푎푡𝑖표푛 푅푎푡푒 = Total number of teachers − Specific ethnic group above

In order to determine whether the level of ethnic representation of students and teachers was proportionate during the 2016–2017 school year, the following formula was used for each ethnic groups represented.

푆푡푢푑푒푛푡 푅푒푝푟푒푠푒푛푡푎푡𝑖표푛 푅푎푡푒 (푟푎푐푒/푒푡ℎ푛𝑖푐𝑖푡푦) Level of Representation = Teacher Representation Rate (race/ethnicity)

The Virginia Department of Education created a formula to determine the levels of representation of differing student ethnicities in the area of special education. The determination was made that a risk ratio of 2.0 or greater is indicative of disproportionate representation. This study is based on the same risk ratio regarding levels of representation between student and teacher ethnicities. If the ratio produced using the “Level of Representation” formula above is below 2.0, then representation is deemed proportionate. If the ratio produced is above 2.0, the representation will be deemed disproportionate (www.doe.virginia.gov).

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0 1 2

If ratio is closer to zero there are more If the ratio is closer to 2 then there are fewer Teachers associated with that race/ethnicity teachers associated with that race/ethnicity

Figure 1. Ratio Chart describing the levels of representation between student and teacher race/ethnicity.

The research data below are presented by school division, showing the percentages of teachers and students of each race/ethnicity presented by the Commonwealth of Virginia.

School Division Responses

The chart below describes the level of representation between students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Alleghany County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

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Alleghany County

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 2. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 7 Alleghany County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 0 0 NR NR Asian 0 0 NR NR Black 68 2 2.3 No Hispanic 10 1 .63 Yes Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 650 45 .41 Yes Two or more ethnicities 0 0 NR NR

Total 754 48

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented. Based on the state and school division reporting for Alleghany County during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of Hispanic and White high school teachers was representative of

41 the number of Hispanic and White high school students. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Black high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Black high school students. The number of students and teachers in the high school setting that identified as American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation between high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Augusta County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Augusta County

100.00%

80.00%

60.00%

40.00%

20.00%

0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 3. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 8 Augusta County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 5 3 .45 Yes Asian 22 6 1.01 Yes Black 64 8 2.22 No Hispanic 129 8 4.55 No Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 2,918 866 .27 Yes Two or more 0 0 NR NR

Total 3,224 891

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Augusta County during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of American Indian, Asian, and White high school teachers was representative of the number of American Indian, Asian, and White high school students. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Black high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Black high school students. The number of high school students and high school teachers who identified as Native Hawaiian or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and high school teachers of the following ethnic groups in Colonial Beach County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White

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 Two or more ethnicities

Colonial Beach

80.00%

60.00%

40.00%

20.00%

0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Natvie White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 4. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 9 Colonial Beach Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 4 0 NR NR Asian 1 0 NR NR Black 48 5 0.71 Yes Hispanic 10 0 NR NR Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 134 13 .23 Yes

Two or more 30 0 NR NR

Total 227 18

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Colonial Beach during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of Black and White high school teachers was representative of the number of Black and White high school students, respectively. The number of high school students and teachers who identified as American Indian, Asian, Hispanic, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and high school teachers of the following ethnic groups in Cumberland County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Cumberland County

90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 5. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 10 Cumberland County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 1 0 NR NR Asian 0 2 NR NR Black 181 3 8.76 No Hispanic 17 2 .76 Yes Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 216 31 .19 Yes

Two or more 8 0 NR NR

Total 424 38

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Cumberland County during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of Hispanic and White high school teachers was representative of the number of Hispanic and White high school students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Black high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Black high school students. The number of high school students and high school teachers who identified as American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Fairfax County Public Schools:  Black/Hispanic  White  Other Fairfax County reported their teacher information in three groups: Black/Hispanic, White, and Other. In order to maintain consistency between student and teacher reporting, the data presented for students will be the information made available regarding teacher race/ethnicity.

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Fairfax County

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Black/Hispanic White Other

Students % Teachers %

Figure 6. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 11 Fairfax County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

Black/Hispanic 16,208 483 3.26 No White 19,709 3,743 .17 Yes

Other 12,767 271 4.4 No

Total 48,684 3,743

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Fairfax County does not separate their teacher data into the 7 recognized racial/ethnic groups, only into Black/Hispanic, White and Other. Based on the state and school division reporting for Fairfax County during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of White high school teachers was representative of the number of White high school students. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Black and Hispanic high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Black and Hispanic high school students.

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The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Fredericksburg City Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Fredericksburg City 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or more Indian Hawaiian races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 7. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 12 Fredericksburg City Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 7 0 NR NR Asian 43 0 NR NR Black 390 22 1.6 Yes Hispanic 206 1 19.23 No Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 350 57 .21 Yes

Two or more 30 0 NR NR

Total 1,027 80

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for the city of Fredericksburg during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of Black and White high school teachers was representative of the number of Black and White high school students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Hispanic high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Hispanic high school students. The number of high school students and teachers who identified as American Indian, Asian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Galax County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White

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 Two or more ethnicities

Galax County

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 8. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 13 Galax County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 0 0 NR NR Asian 7 0 NR NR Black 36 2 1.3 Yes Hispanic 128 0 NR NR Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 306 33 0.098 Yes

2 or more 15 0 NR NR

Total 493 35

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported (NR) for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Galax County during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of Black and White high school teachers was representative of the number of Black and White high school students, respectively. The number of students and teachers who identified as American Indian, Asian, Hispanic, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Goochland County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Goochland County

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 9. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 14 Goochland County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 0 0 NR NR Asian 3 0 NR NR Black 166 2 9.67 No Hispanic 54 0 NR NR Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 572 76 0.059 Yes

2 or more 31 0 NR NR

Total 826 78

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Goochland County during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of White high school teachers was representative of the number of White high school students. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Black high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Black high school students. The number of high school students and high school teachers who identified as American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation between high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Halifax County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White

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 Two or more ethnicities

Halifax County

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 10. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 15 Halifax County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 0 1 NR NR Asian 7 0 NR NR Black 692 30 2.85 No Hispanic 50 4 11 No Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 776 99 0.36 Yes

Two or more 24 1 2 Yes

Total 1549 135

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Halifax County during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of White high school teachers and high school teachers who identified as having two or more races was representative of the number of White high school students and high school students who identified as having two or more races. During the 2016– 2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Black and Hispanic high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Black and Hispanic high school students. The number of high school students and high school teachers who identified as American Indian, Asian, or Native Hawaiian was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation between high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Henrico County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Henrico County

60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 11. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 16 Henrico County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 36 2 1.1 Yes Asian 1307 22 4 No Black 5885 165 2.92 No Hispanic 1206 420 .39 Yes Native Hawaiian 10 1 .63 Yes White 6675 767 0.207 Yes

Two or more 593 15 7.8 No

Total 15712 1392

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented. Based on the state and school division reporting for Henrico County, during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of American Indian, Native Hawaiian, and White teachers was representative of the number of American Indian, Native Hawaiian, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Asian, Black, and Hispanic high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Asian, Black, and Hispanic high school students. The number of high school students and high school teachers who identified as having two or more races was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Madison County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

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Madison County

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students% Teachers%

Figure 12. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 17 Madison County Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 0 0 NR NR Asian 8 0 NR NR Black 44 2 1.31 Yes Hispanic 20 2 .57 Yes Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 454 28 .69 Yes

Two or more 21 0 NR NR

Total 547 32

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Madison County, during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of Black, Hispanic, and White teachers was representative of the number of Black, Hispanic, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Asian, Black, and Hispanic high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Asian, Black, and Hispanic high school students. The number of high school students and high school teachers who identified as American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more races was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Manassas Park City Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Manassas Park City

90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers

Figure 13. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 18 Manassas Park City Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 3 0 NR NR Asian 72 2 1.75 Yes Black 113 4 1.29 Yes Hispanic 611 2 22.5 No Native Hawaiian 0 1 NR NR White 248 42 .062 Yes

Two or more 0 0 NR NR

Total 1047 51

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Manassas Park City, during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of Asian, Black, and White teachers was representative of the number of Asian, Black, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of Hispanic high school teachers existed in comparison to the number of Hispanic high school students. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more races was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Mecklenburg County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White

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 Two or more ethnicities

Mecklenburg County

90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 14. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 19 Mecklenburg Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 2 0 NR NR Asian 10 2 .46 Yes Black 622 17 5.31 No Hispanic 52 0 NR NR Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 638 103 .17 Yes

Two or more 28 1 2.6 No

Total 1,350 123

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Mecklenburg County, during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of Asian and White teachers was representative of the number of Asian and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Black or as having two or more races existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Black or as having two or more races. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Hispanic, or Native Hawaiian was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Montgomery County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Montgomery County

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 15. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 20 Montgomery Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 3 1 0.25 Yes Asian 97 1 8.7 No Black 120 7 1.53 Yes Hispanic 115 5 20.5 No Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 2,450 240 .31 Yes

2 or more 118 0 NR NR

Total 2,903 254

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Montgomery County, during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of American Indian, Asian, Black, Hispanic, and White teachers was representative of the number of American Indian, Asian, Black, Hispanic, and White students, respectively. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as Native Hawaiian or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Norfolk Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

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Norfolk City

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 16. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 21 Norfolk Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 39 2 1.32 Yes Asian 246 20 .084 Yes Black 4,721 208 2.36 No Hispanic 606 21 2 Yes Native Hawaiian 0 2 8.6 No White 1,793 277 .27 Yes

Two or more 570 10 4.2 No

Total 7,975 540

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Norfolk City, during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of American Indian, Asian, Hispanic, and White teachers was representative of the number of American Indian, Asian, Hispanic, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Black, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more races existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Black, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more races. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Pittsylvania County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Pittsylvania County

90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 17. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 22 Pittsylvania Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 3 0 NR NR Asian 11 20 NR NR Black 690 19 3.28 No Hispanic 89 1 6.95 No Native Hawaiian 0 1 NR NR White 2,052 196 .26 Yes

2 or more 49 0 NR NR

Total 2,894 217

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Pittsylvania County, during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of White teachers was representative of the number of White students. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Black or Hispanic existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Black or Hispanic. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Portsmouth County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White

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 Two or more ethnicities

Portsmouth City

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 18. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 23 Portsmouth Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 12 3 1.5 Yes Asian 23 11 .591 Yes Black 2,826 609 2.17 No Hispanic 120 7 5 No Native Hawaiian 0 1 2.84 No White 823 495 .033 Yes

2 or more 143 5 8.4 No

Total 3,947 1,131

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for the city of Portsmouth, during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of American Indian, Asian, and White teachers was representative of the number of American Indian, Asian, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Prince William County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Prince William County

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 19. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 24 Prince William Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 103 18 .039 Yes Asian 2,259 34 .039 Yes Black 5,597 191 0.017 Yes Hispanic 7,620 120 .039 Yes Native Hawaiian 92 17 .35 Yes White 8,936 1,290 .0045 Yes

2 or more 1,510 49 .019 Yes

Total 26,117 1,719

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Prince William County, during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of American Indian, Asian, and White teachers was representative of the number of American Indian, Asian, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Rockingham County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White

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 Two or more ethnicities

Rockingham County

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 20. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 25 Rockingham Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 8 0 NR NR Asian 37 1 2.6 No Black 78 2 2.7 No Hispanic 482 5 .736 Yes Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 3,029 254 .13 Yes

2 or more 59 0 NR NR

Total 3,693 262

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Rockingham County during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of Hispanic and White teachers was representative of the number of Hispanic and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Asian or Black existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Asian or Black. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Shenandoah County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Shenandoah County

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 21. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 26 Shenandoah Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 5 0 NR NR

Asian 11 0 NR NR

Black 51 0 NR NR

Hispanic 229 2 11.33 No

Native Hawaiian 2 0 NR NR

White 628 156 .051 Yes

Two or more 24 0 NR NR

Total 950 158

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Shenandoah County during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of White teachers was representative of the number White students. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Hispanic existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Hispanic. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Asian, Black, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Spotsylvania County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White

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 Two or more ethnicities

Spotsylvania County

90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 22. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 27 Spotsylvania Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 19 3 .4 Yes Asian 203 1 14 No Black 1,456 29 4 No Hispanic 951 12 5.8 No Native Hawaiian 7 1 .48 Yes White 4,564 449 .193 Yes

2 or more 373 12 2.12 No

Total 7,573 507

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

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Based on the state and school division reporting for Spotsylvania County during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of American Indian, Native Hawaiian, and White teachers was representative of the number American Indian, Native Hawaiian, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Asian, Black, Hispanic, or as having two or more ethnicities existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Asian, Black, Hispanic, or as having two or more ethnicities. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Staunton City Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Stauton City

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 23. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 28 Staunton Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 3 0 NR NR Asian 4 0 NR NR Black 133 0 NR NR Hispanic 46 0 NR NR Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 497 59 .019 Yes

Two or more 64 0 NR NR

Total 747 59

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for the city of Staunton during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of White teachers was representative of the number White students. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Asian, Black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Suffolk County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

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Suffolk

70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 24. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

Table 29 Suffolk Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 7 0 NR NR Asian 59 3 1.4 Yes Black 2,327 110 2.0 Yes Hispanic 185 0 NR NR Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 1,255 183 .28 Yes

Two or more 162 1 14 No

Total 3,995 297

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Suffolk County during the 2016– 2017 school year, the number of Asian, Black, and White teachers was representative of the

74 number Asian, Black, and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as having two or more ethnicities existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as having two or more ethnicities. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Hispanic, or Native Hawaiian was too small to report. The chart below describes the level of representation of high school students and teachers of the following ethnic groups in Sussex County Public Schools:  American Indian  Asian  Black  Hispanic  Native Hawaiian  White  Two or more ethnicities

Sussex County

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% American Asian Black Hispanic Native White Two or Indian Hawaiian more races

Students % Teachers %

Figure 25. Side-by-side comparison of the percentages of students and teachers in each ethnic group.

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Table 30 Sussex Public School Ethnic Representation

Ethnicities High School High School Representation Proportionate Students Teachers Rate

American Indian 0 0 NR NR Asian 1 2 NR Yes Black 261 20 2.2 No Hispanic 8 2 .36 Yes Native Hawaiian 0 0 NR NR White 72 9 .72 Yes

Two or more 0 0 NR NR

Total 342 33

Note. Representation and proportionality rates are not reported for ethnic groups that have no teachers or students represented.

Based on the state and school division reporting for Suffolk County during the 2016–2017 school year, the number of Hispanic and White teachers was representative of the number Hispanic and White students, respectively. During the 2016–2017 school year, an underrepresentation in the number of high school teachers who identified as Black existed in comparison to the number of high school students who identified as Black. The number of high school teachers and students who identified as American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, or as having two or more ethnicities was too small to report.

Summary

Chapter 4 describes the results of the data collected using the methods outlined in chapter 3. Each school division’s information is displayed in a table that reflects the number of teachers and students identifying with the seven ethnic groups designated by the Commonwealth of Virginia. Figures 2 through 25 are also used to show the side by side comparisons of teacher and student ethnicities using percentages. The comprehensive data from the 24 reporting school divisions, is located in Appendix E. The comprehensive data, addressed in research question 2 describing the ethnicities of students in each of the comprehensive high schools in the

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Commonwealth of Virginia is located in Appendix F. The data show that only 1 school division, Prince William County, has proportionate ethnic representation between all teacher and student ethnic groups. Out of the 24 reporting school divisions, 25% (6) were identified as having proportionate representation between the ethnicities of teachers and students within the ethnic groups present in the school, as each of them had ethnic groups that were underrepresented or not represented. Upon analyzing each school division’s teacher and student data, a brief summary outlined the findings with a main focus on ethnic groups were teacher and student representation was proportionate. Chapter 5 will included the significant findings and implications determined based on the information presented in chapter 4.

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CHAPTER V FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter V discusses the research questions, findings, implications, and recommendations for future studies. The purpose of this quantitative study was to identify the level of ethnic representation of high school (9–12) teachers as compared to the ethnic representation of students enrolled in each high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia. This study utilized descriptive statistics to present the findings related to the representation of teacher ethnicities in comparison to that of student ethnicities in the school division that participated in the study. This study analyzed 24 school divisions throughout the Commonwealth of Virginia and the comprehensive high school teachers and students in each school division during the 2016–2017 school year. A survey was sent to each school division across the Commonwealth to glean information regarding the demographics of the high school students and teachers in comprehensive high schools. Private, charter, and technical schools were not given the survey to complete. This chapter will reflect the data collected through the survey and will detail the major findings and suggested implications of the study that may be relevant to the leaders in the surveyed school divisions. The final section of this chapter will outline recommendations for future research as well as reflections.

Summary of Findings

The findings from the survey revealed information about the varying levels of representation across the seven ethnicities recognized by the Virginia Department of Education. These findings could be considered important to the Human Resources departments of the 24 surveyed school divisions in regard to their recruitment and hiring practices. These findings include the following. Finding 1: School divisions with the highest levels of representation between the ethnicities of teachers and students were large school divisions or small school divisions. Based on the information received, the three largest school divisions and the smallest school divisions reporting data showed high levels of representation between the varying ethnic groups. Henrico County, Fairfax County, and Prince William County all have over 15,000 students and 900 teachers in the school division. Colonial Beach City, Galax County, and Madison County all have less than 550 students and 35 teachers in their school division.

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These findings demonstrate that the Human Resources departments of these school divisions are more successful in hiring teachers who are directly representative of the student population in their school system. Finding 2: Almost half of the school divisions had minority populations that were too small to report. Results showed that 45% of the participating school divisions had ethnic groups that were not represented by either a teacher or a student. American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian, and groups who identified as having two or more ethnicities were underrepresented in the participating school divisions. The least represented ethnic group among the 24 participating school divisions was Native Hawaiian. Results showed that 18 of the 24 participating school divisions had either no teachers or students who identified as being Native Hawaiian. Of the 24 participating school divisions, 16 either had no teachers or students who identified as American Indian. Of the 24 participating school divisions, 14 had either no teachers or students who identified as having two or more ethnicities. Of the 24 participating school divisions, 12 had either no teachers or students who identified as Asian. This finding regarding the ethnic demographics of students in high schools represented in this study aligns with the information found on the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) website (The National Center for Educational Statistics, May 2017). Finding 3: The majority of high school students from participating school divisions identified as White, followed by Black and Hispanic. In 20 of the 24 participating school divisions, White students made up the majority of the student population. The four school divisions in which White students were not the majority were Norfolk City Public Schools, Portsmouth City Public Schools, Suffolk City Public Schools, and Sussex County Public Schools. This finding regarding the ethnic demographics of students in high schools represented in this study aligns with the information found on the NCES website. The website states that the majority of students represented in high schools are White, followed by Black and Hispanic (The National Center for Educational Statistics, May 2017). Finding 4: Teachers and students who identified as Native Hawaiian, American Indian, Asian, or as having two or more ethnicities were either underrepresented or not represented in 62% of school divisions that participated in the survey.

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Implications

The five findings from this study lead to five implications for future researchers and practitioners as well as for the recruitment personnel in the Human Resources departments of the participating school divisions. The implications from this study include the following: Implication 1: Recruitment personnel should consider targeting more minorities at colleges and universities, including visiting more historically Black colleges and universities in specific content areas that can lead to a teacher license. This may allow school divisions to better connect with more minority teaching candidates to recruit them to their school divisions. If school divisions recruit students with degrees in Math, Biology, English and offer them provisional licenses they would be able to teach while completing the education courses needed to obtain teacher licensure. With only two school divisions—Portsmouth and Sussex—having teaching staff that is ethnically reflective of the student population, the remaining 22 school divisions can potentially benefit from recruiting more minorities from colleges and universities, in addition to partnering with predominately Black colleges and universities to create a more diverse teacher candidate pool. Implication 2: School divisions should consider expanding teacher cadet programs in their high schools to introduce more students, including minorities, to the field of education at an earlier age. If students successfully complete the high school program and obtain a teaching license upon completion of their collegiate studies, they could possibly be guaranteed a job in the school division. Henrico County Public Schools offers a program that allows the students that complete the Teacher Cadet Program at Glen Allen High School and obtain a teaching license in college to return to Henrico County, where they will be guaranteed a job (www.henricoschools.us/teacherscholars/). If these school divisions implement a similar program that places the focus on minority students, this may help increase the representation levels in school divisions where it is lacking. Implication 3: School divisions may want to consider incentives, such as housing, financing, or tuition assistance, to increase any teacher candidate’s interest, which will include minority candidates. Incentives could increase the pool of candidates, allowing for the opportunity of greater diversity. School divisions could partner with local apartment complexes to create an agreement that will allow teachers to have a discount on rent in order to reduce their out of pocket expenses associated with living in different areas across the state. If funds are

80 available to school divisions, they could consider providing financial incentives, such as relocation expense payment or one-time bonuses for those filling content areas that are critical. School divisions could also financially assist those who may look to switch careers and need to complete college courses in order to obtain their teaching license. If tuition costs could be covered completely or partially, this may encourage a more diverse group of teacher candidates to apply. Implication 4: School divisions may consider current college students in addition to those with associate’s or bachelor’s degrees to be substitutes. If school divisions allow those working on degrees to serve as substitutes, they may find they enjoy working in a school environment with children, and in turn may decide to pursue a career in education as a teacher. This could potentially not only attract more candidates but more ethnically diverse candidates.

Considerations for Future Research

The purpose of this study was to present the ethnic representation of teachers in relation to the ethnic representation of high school students in comprehensive public high schools located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. This study focused only on comprehensive high schools in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Future researchers should consider replicating this study across elementary and middle schools. This would provide researchers and readers a better idea of the various levels of representation between the ethnicities of teachers and students in the public school setting. This information would also help determine whether the levels of representation are consistent across all grade levels. This would further let Human Resources departments across the Commonwealth of Virginia determine whether they need to place their recruitment efforts in one area versus another. In this study, 24 school divisions participated. Future researchers may want to expand this study by finding ways to encourage more school divisions to participate. This may include beginning the research at the start of a school year to ensure all research paperwork required by school divisions is completed in a timely fashion in order for information to be released. Researchers may also want to call school divisions to try to speak with human resource representatives to present the survey instrument, versus solely emailing them, which was done with this study.

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Researchers may want to consider completing a longitudinal study over a 5–10-year time span to research how the level of representation between student and teacher race/ethnicity may have changed over time. School divisions may have implemented programs or strategies to recruit more minorities, and a longitudinal study would provide data to show if the methods are effective. Future researchers may also want to consider using data reflecting the levels of representation between student and teacher ethnicities to determine whether these levels have any effects on student outcomes. Researchers can look at outcomes such as behavior, attendance, grades, and graduation rates and determine whether a correlation exists between the two.

Conclusion

The findings suggest that school divisions are varied in their levels of representation in the ethnic groups they serve and employ. The largest school divisions and the smallest divisions have the highest levels of representation between teachers and students of like race/ethnicity, while teachers and students who identified as Native Hawaiian, American Indian, Asian, or as having two or more ethnicities were either underrepresented or not represented in the majority of school divisions that participated in the survey. With the number of minority students constantly increasing in the public school system, school divisions must begin to develop new and innovative methods to attract and retain teachers who reflect their student populations. If schools divisions can successful hire teachers that have ethnicities reflective of their student population future researchers can then investigate whether or not representation levels have an effect on the performance outcome of students.

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APPENDIX A IRB EMAIL

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APPENDIX B DISSERTATION SURVEY INSTRUMENT

Study of Ethnic Demographics of High School Teachers in Virginia

Start of Block: Default Block

Q13 This survey will be used as a part of a study conducted to identify the level of ethnic proportionality of high school (9-12) teachers in comparison to the ethnic proportionality of students enrolled in each comprehensive high school in the Commonwealth of Virginia. In order to effectively determine the ethnic representation of licensed high school teachers (9-12), please answer the questions below as it relates to the students in your school division.

Q22 Please indicate your title below

o Human Resources Personnel (3)

o Building Level Principal (4)

o Other (2)

Q23 Please indicate the name of your division.

______

Q14 For each question, please indicate the number of licensed teachers in each ethnic group that taught in comprehensive high schools (Grades 9-12) in your school division during the 2016- 2017 academic year. Please do not include magnet, alternative, or specialty schools.

Q15 American Indian

______

90

Q16 Asian

______

Q17 Black

______

Q18 Hispanic

______

Q19 Native Hawaiian

______

Q20 White

______

Q21 Two or More Races

______

End of Block: Default Block

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APPENDIX C DISSERTATION SURVEY RESULTS

Study of Ethnic Demographics of High School Teachers in Virginia August 21st 2018, 3:14 pm MDT

Q22 - Please indicate your title below

# Answer % Count

3 Human Resources Personnel 83.33% 20 4 Building Level Principal 0.00% 0 2 Other 16.67% 4 Total 100% 24

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Q23 - Please indicate the name of your division.

Please indicate the name of your division.

Henrico Rockingham County Spotsylvania Count Public Schools Colonial Beach Public Schools Cumberland County Public Schools Montgomery County Public Schools Pittsylvania County Schools Suffolk Public Schools Madison County PS Madison County Public Schools Shenandoah County Norfolk Public Schools Sussex County Public Schools Sussex County Public Schools Staunton City Schools Alleghany Mecklenburg County Public Schools Manassas Park City Schools Fredericksburg City Schools Augusta County Public Schools Galax City Public Schools Portsmouth Public Schools Halifax County Public Schools

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Q15 - American Indian

American Indian

2 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 1

94

Q16 - Asian

Asian

22 1 1 2 1 0 3 0 20 3 0 0 2 2 0 6 11 0

95

Q17 - Black

Black

165 2 29 5 (28%) 3 7 19 110 2 208 20 0 2 17 4 22 8 2 609 30

96

Q18 - Hispanic

Hispanic

20 5 12 2 5 1 0 2 2 21 2 0 1 0 2 1 8 7 4

97

Q19 - Native Hawaiian

Native Hawaiian

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

98

Q20 - White

White

767 254 449 13 (72%) 31 240 196 183 28 156 277 9 59 45 103 42 57 866 33 495 99

99

Q21 - Two or More Races

Two or More Races

5 0 12 0 0 1 1 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 1

100

APPENDIX D HENRICO COUNTY RESEARCH APPROVAL EMAIL

Department of Research & Planning

3/13/2018

Ms. Chandra Rhue 1309 N 31st Richmond VA 23223

Dear Ms. Rhue:

The Department of Research and Planning has reviewed and approved your research study entitled “A study on the level of ethnic representation of high school (9-12) teaches to the ethnic representation of students enrolled in each comprehensive high school”. Your study was approved by the review committee with two revisions and/or conditions. Please see the attached document for the revisions/conditions. Once the revisions are completed and approved and since no IRB is needed, you can start your research.

Approval to conduct the study is limited to one year from the time of proposal submission. If the research timeline or any other aspect of your study changes during the time frame, please contact Helen Whitehurst and submit the changes for review prior to proceeding. If you are affiliated with an organization with an Institutional Review Board (IRB), the IRB approval letter must be on file in our office prior to beginning the study. Although your study has been approved, participation by individuals and schools is completely voluntary. Reports and publications generated from this study should not identify the individuals, schools, or the division and all research materials should accurately represent the party conducting the study. It is our expectation that you will submit a final report upon completion of the study to the Department of Research and Planning.

Please contact Helen Whitehurst at [email protected] or 804-652-3831 who will assist you in the process of beginning your research studies in the schools or offices that you have requested.

Thank you for your interest in Henrico County Public Schools.

Sincerely,

Tiffany Hinton, Ph.D. Helen Whitehurst, Ph.D. Director of Research and Planning Educational Specialist - Research Henrico County Public Schools Henrico County Public Schools

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APPENDIX E COMPREHENSIVE CHART OF 24 REPORTING SCHOOL DIVISIONS

102

APPENDIX F COMPREHENSIVE CHART OF THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN EACH ETHNIC GROUP IN EACH COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL IN THE COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

103

104