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University Microfilms International 300 N. ZEEB RD.. ANN ARBOR, Ml 48100 8207151
Adeyemi, Ben Sola
A DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY OF THE HEALTH PROBLEMS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA AS IDENTIFIED BY STUDENTS AND PRINCIPALS
The Ohio State University PH.D, 1981
University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M I 48106
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University Microfilms International A DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY OF THE HEALTH PROBLEMS OF
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA
AS IDENTIFIED BY STUDENTS AND PRINCIPALS
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillm ent of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Ben Sola Adeyemi, B.A., M.A, *****
The Ohio State University
1981
Reading Committee: Approved By
Dr. Cory Bates Dr. Robert Kaplan Dr. Robert Bargar Adviser School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation DEDICATION
This piece of work is dedicated to:
My Precious Parents
Daniel Ariyo Adeyemi
and
Rachel Ib ilo la Adeyemi
Who nursed and nurtured me, and Who laid the foundation toward Making my dreams and aspirations a success and above a ll to: GOD
i Sola Adeyemi
i i ACKNOWLEDGMENT
There are few achievements in one's lif e that one can accomplish
without the cooperation, assistance, encouragement, support, and advice
of many others. This dissertation is not an exception.
The author of this study is especially grateful to Professor Cory
Bates, who was the author's adviser ahd who provided many helpful in
sights and much needed encouragement. He often took time from his busy
schedule to assist and to give constructive criticisms. To Professor
Robert Bargar who nurtured the author's appreciation for the sociolog
ical perspective, shared novel views of administration, and who sympa th etically led the author through the hard times of his study, the author is also very grateful.
The author also wishes to thank Professor Robert Kaplan who gave his support, helpful hands, and encouragement in this inquiry.
Many other helpers need to be thanked for helping the author in one form or another. These include Professor Mary Beyrer, Professor
Bruce Bennett, Professor Matthew, Professor Kruickshank, Professor
Elsie Alberty, and Professor Ojo Arewa. They merit n\y thanks for th eir patience, support, good wishes; th eir expertise provided the author with much insight in this study.
Finally, the author is thankful to the members of his family and friends who gave both financial and moral support without which this research would not have been undertaken and accomplished. VITA
July 3, 1940------Born: Ado-Ekiti, Ondo State, Nigeria
December, 1966 ------National C ertificate in Education (N.C.E.) Physical Education & English, A.C.E., Ondo, Nigeria
June, 1972 ------B.A. (Education), Physical Education & English University of Ife, Nigeria
December, 1978 ------M.A. School and Community Health The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
Winter, 1980 ------Teacher Associate, Academic Faculty of International Studies, The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: School and Community Health
Minor Field: Curriculum and Research Foundations
Studies in Health Education: Professor Phil Heit Professor Cory Bates
Studies in Philosophy & Methods: Professor Mary Beyrer Professor Linda Meeks
Studies in Guidance & Counseling and Gerontology: Professor Cory Bates
Studies in Curriculum Studies: Professsor Mary Beyrer Professor Elsie Alberty Professor Robert Bargar
Studies in Teacher Education: Professor Kruickshank Professor Galloway
i v TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION...... i i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... i i i
VITA...... iv
LIST OF TABLES...... v iii
LIST OF FIGURES...... x
CHAPTER
I . INTRODUCTION...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 4 Statement of P u rp o s e ...... 5 Need for the Study ...... 6 Limitations of the Study ...... 8 Definitions of Terms ...... 10
I I . NITERIA AS A NATION...... 12
Geographic Factors, Environmental Settings: Position, Size, and General Factors ...... 12 Geology and Minerals ...... 14 Climate...... 16 Temperature ...... 19 Humidity...... 19 Drainage ...... 19 Historical Factors ...... 21 The Pre-Colonial Period ...... 23 The Colonial Period ...... 24 Post-Colonial Period ...... 26 Comment on The Impact of Colonization of Nigerian Health ...... 28 Nigeria After Independence ...... 29 Aims and Objectives of Education in Nigeria After Independence ...... 32 ONDO STATE NIGERIA...... 35 Georgraphy ...... 35 The People ...... 39
v CHAPTER PAGE
Education ...... 39 Housing...... 40 Health Services ...... 41 Significance of This Information ...... 41 Philosophy of Nigerian Education ...... 43
I I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction...... 49 Educational Goals ...... 54 Nutritional Diseases ...... 56 Diseases of Children ...... 57 Communicable Diseases In Nigeria and Pathogens of Man ...... 64 Classifying Pathogens of Man ...... 64 Vector Control ...... 65 Identifying Needs ...... 70 Defining "Need" ...... 71 Nature of Communicable Disease ...... 72 Living Conditions ...... 75 N utrition...... 76 Control of Disease ...... 77 Health Educators' Responsibilities for School Health Services ...... 79
IV. METHODOLOGY
Introduction...... 95 Procedure for the Preparation of the Health Problem Inventory ...... 96 Inventory Reliability ...... 99 Pilot Inventory ...... 99 The Pilot Study ...... 101 The Final Inventory ...... 102 The Student P ro file ...... 102 The Second Pilot S tu d y ...... 102 Population and Sample ...... 102 Population ...... 102 Students ...... 103 Principals ...... 103 Selection of Principals ...... 104 Testing of Principals ...... 104 Collection of Data ...... 104 Analysis of Data ...... 105
vi CHAPTER PAGE
V. ANALYSIS OF DATA
Presentation of the Data ...... 107 Discussion...... 129 Demographic Data of Subjects ...... 129 Variable of Age ...... 129 Variable of Sex ...... 129 Principal Subjects ...... 130 Principal's Tenure ...... 130 Discussion of Results ...... 130 Students' and Principals' Perceptions of Students' Health Problems ...... 135 Establishment of R e lia b ility of the Instrument 139
VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary ...... 142 Conclusions...... 146 Recommendations ...... 146 Implications of this Study ...... 150
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 152
APPENDICES
A. Correspondence ...... 167
Request for a List of Secondary Schools of Ondo State, Nigeria ...... 168 Letter to Principals of Secondary Schools ...... 169 Letter of Introduction of Researcher to Principals ...... 170 Letter of Thanks to Participating Schools ...... 171
B. Health Problems Inventory ...... 172 Student Form (P ilot Study) ...... 173 Principal Form (Pilot Study) ...... 182 Students Form (Final Study) ...... 191 Principal Form (Final Study) ...... 198
C. Maps ...... 206
v ii LIST OF TABLES
TABLES PAGE
1. Reported Cases and Deaths from Notifiable Diseases Nigeria, 1973 ...... 6
2. Reported Cases and Deaths from Notifiable Diseases Western Nigeria, 1973 ...... 61
3. 1973 Summary of Diseases and Deaths of Medical Units in the Federal Republic of Nigeria ...... 62
4. Summary of Diseases and Deaths 1974 (of Medical Units) in the Federal Republic of Nigeria ...... 63
5. Classification of Infectious Diseases ...... 66
6. Pathogens of Man ...... 67
7. Means of Pathogen Transm ission...... 68
8. S tratified Survey Sample of Schools from the Six Divisions of Ondo State, Nigeria ...... 108
9. Composition of Students Survey Sample for each Division of Ondo State, Nigeria ...... 109
10. Percentage Returns for the Health Problems Inventory by Student and Principal Survey Sample Groups ...... 110
11. Random Survey Sample of Principal Subjects for each Division of Ondo State, Nigeria ...... 110
12. Representative Survey Sample Schools for each Division of Ondo State Nigeria - Showing General D a ta ...... 111-112
13. The Frequency of Student-Principal Subjects' Yes/No Responses to Items in the Area of Home Environmental Problems ...... 113
14. The Frequency of Student-Principal Subjects' Yes/No Responses to Items in the Area of Boy-Girl Relation ship Problems ...... 114
viii TABLES PAGE
15. The Frequency of Student-Principal Subjects' Yes/No Responses to Items in the Area of Psychological Problems ...... 115
16. The Frequency of Student-Principal Subjects' Yes/No Responses to Items in the Area of Physiological Problems ...... 116-117
17. Positive and Negative Correlation Coefficients for Items in the Area of Home Environmental Problems ...... 118-119
18. Positive and Negative Correlation Coefficients for Items in the Area of Boy-Girl Relationship Problems ...... 119-120
19. Positive and Negative Correlation Coefficients for Items in the Area of Psychological Problems ...... 120-121
20. Positive and Negative Correlation Coefficients for Items in the Area of Physiological Problems ...... 121-122
21. Significant and Non-Significant Chi-Square Values for Home Environmental Items as Perceived by Students and Principals ...... 123-124
22. Significant and Non-Significant Chi-Square Values for Boy-Girl Relationship Items as Perceived by Students and Principals ...... 124-125
23. Significant and Non-Significant Chi-Square Values for Psychological Items as Perceived by Students and Principals ...... 126
24. Significant and Non-Significant Chi-Square Values for Physiological Items as Perceived by Students and Principals ...... 127-128
ix LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES PAGE
1. Ondo State, Nigeria ...... 13
2. Nigeria, Pressure and Winds (a) January (b) July...... 17
3. Rainfall Map of Nigeria ...... 18
4. Nigeria: Temperature and Rainfall for Selected Areas ...... 20
5. Physical Features of Nigeria ...... 22
6. Map of Modern Nigeria ...... 27
7. Ondo State - Six Administrative Divisions ...... 37
8. Ondo State - Administrative Headquarters ...... 38
9. Components of School Health Program ...... 51
10. The School Health Program ...... 52
11. Vehicles of Pathogen Transfer ...... 69
12. Areas of Risk for Malaria, Africa 1977 ...... 207
13. Yellow Fever Endemic Zones in A frica ...... 208
x CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Man's attempts to exercise control over the hazard of communi
cable disease go back into history. Different human groups, both in
ancient times and at present, have used noise, smoke, frig h tfu l masks,
charms, and incantations in the belief that these diseases were caused
by evil sp irits (Hanlon, e tc ., 1971). Even modern man has resorted to
such procedures - Ondo State in particular, and Nigeria in general, are
no exemptions.
I t is also an established and demonstrated fact in a number of studies, including United States National Health Survey, that over and over, intellectual and educational development of the individual is most d iffic u lt, i f at a ll possible, when the body is chronically drained of its energy by lack of proper nutrition, illness, and parasites
(Willgoose, 1977). The same source went on to say that the cycle of disease breeds poverty, and poverty in turn breeds disease; this occurs throughout the world.
Although periodic medical examination, early treatment, low cost of vaccines, and superb hospital care have made real impact on disease and disabilities, this is not true for Nigeria as a whole and for Ondo
State in particular. There are still a variety of both unsolved and
1 2
solvable health problems among both old and young In Ondo State and in
Nigeria.
I t is therefore the belief and hope of parents and health edu
cators that through continued action in medical science and education,
i t should be possible to substantially reduce conspicuous health prob
lems such as those communicable diseases reportedly common in Nigeria
and in Ondo State in particular.
The major concern of the investigator of this study was to find
out i f diseases such as measles, tetanus, e n te ritis , diarrhea, malaria,
tuberculosis, yellow fever, leprosy, whooping cought, cholera, dysen
tery and other forms of communicable diseases reported by the Federal
Office of S tatistics, Lagos, Nigeria (1975), and supported by the World
Health Organization (WHO) through bulletins and chronicles (912,-78),
tru ly affect the welfare of the secondary school students of Ondo State,
Nigeria; and thus help him suggest feasible approaches towards th eir
eradication and prevention, in the judgment of the investigator, the
opportunity for greater success in the control of health problems lies
in tackling the problems in the pre-adult stage when the habits of
d iet, physical a c tiv itie s , and uncie.anliness are more tractable to mod
ifications. At this time, such problems are not yet as firmly estab
lished as in adult life, and are in suitable and logical focus for an
attack on the problems of the students. Through years of observation and experience with young people in learning situations, educators
have become well aware of the direct link between the physical and mental health status of the students and th eir potentials to learn. 3
According to Sandidge (1970), through years of observation and ex
perience with young people in learning situations, educators have be come well aware of the direct link between the physical and mental
health status of the student and his a b ility to learn. She further stated:
It is not d iffic u lt to recall in one's own ex perience those days on which, because of such conditions as a severe headache, a missed breakfast or a great disappointment, the a b ility to concentrate on a particular lesson was lo st, thereby negating the benefit of the learning experience, (p. 2)
Problems with roots in a health concern are manifest in many ways.
As put by Nemir (1970):
Many children grow up under adverse home conditions, with poor medical care, poor nu trition, and general negligence, both physical and emotional. . . , these often become welfare problems and burdens on society. (p. 18)
Sandidge (1970), observed that:
...from the earliest 'learning,1 each of us begins to acquire meanings for the phenomena of our exper ience. Meanings become attached to mother, father, self, eating, health, sex, good boy (or girl), bad boy (or g ir l) . When these meanings approximate objective reality, the person is 'well adjusted.' I f there is a substantial discrepancy between mean ing and reality, the individual is poorly adjusted. (p. 3)
The NEA/AMA (1970), indicated:
...some children have serious problems-physical, emotional or both-which may in terfere, not only with their educational potentials, but also with life it s e lf. (p. 8)
Some of the health problems experienced by school students of
Ondo State, Nigeria require only that an interested person who is sin cerely concerned for the well-being of the students takes a few moments 4 to lis ten . Other problems of a more serious nature require not only a concerned person, but one who is also trained in the areas and tech niques of counseling (influencing, and guiding), as well as possessing a knowledge and understanding of various health conditions which may be the cause or the effect of the problems. Whatever the case, i t is the goal of the health educator to enable the student to change those mean ings he has structured so that his interpretation might more closely approximate reality (Laoye, 1976, p. 87).
Laoye (1976) also concluded by saying that:
Such a change in thought and perception might alte r behavior to be more in accord with the demands of lif e . Such are the situations which require the concerted efforts and acumen of the health-education team. (p. 88)
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The purpose of this study is to identify students' and principals' perceptions of health problems of secondary school students in Ondo
State, Nigeria.
Major Areas of Focus
1. To develop an instrument to identify the health problems of
secondary school students as perceived by students and
principals.
2. To identify the health problems of secondary school students
in Ondo State, Nigeria.
3. To identify health problems of secondary school students in
Ondo State, Nigeria as perceived by students and principals. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
Health has been recognized as a primary objective of education.
The 1918 Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education in
cludes health as one of the cardinal objectives of education (U.S.
Department of In terio r, Bureau of Education, p. 11). The importance
of health was further emphasized in 1938 when the Educational Policies
Commission stated that "An educated person understands the basic facts concerning health and diseases, and works to improve the health of the community." (NEA/AMA, 1966.) The commission has more recently stated that:
The central purpose of education is to develop rational powers of the individual or his capaci ties to think and reason... Basic to this develop ment is physical health since disease, defects and disability may interfere with learning. Mental health is also of profound importance; with i t the pupil may have the desire and respect for learning that promotes optimum mental performance; without it, the likelihood of such development is drastic ally reduced i f not rendered impossible... Health for example depends upon a reasoned awareness of value of physical and mental fitness and the means by which these may be m aintained.... (p. 15)
The same source also pointed out that:
Making intellig en t decisions relating to the in dividual and community health requires the exercise of one's rational reasoning powers and an under standing of the scientific factors involved. (NEA/ AMA, 1961, (p .8)
The achievement of these and similar health goals w ill come not only through the formal educative process but also through the func tioning of knowledgeable, qualified people engaged in education and guiding students in health matters. As rightly put by the NEA/AMA
(1966): 6
The school obviously does not operate in a vacuum. It is an integrated part of the community, subject to all community influences... As such, i t is im portant for the school to provide the best total health education program possible, (p. 56)
The above view of the NEA/AMA (1966), was supported by the NEA/AMA
(1976) when i t said:
Every school has numerous opportunities to promote the health of pupils and other members of the com munity. Most boys and girls enrolled in schools are under the supervision of school staff for a substan tia l part of the day for approximately half the days of the year. The condition under which children liv e in school and outside, the help they are given in solving their health problems, the ideals of in dividual and community health which they form ... In all its efforts, the school must consider the total personality of each pupil and the mutual interdepen dence of physical, social and emotional health. (p. 11)
One possible outcome of this study is to help improve school health programs of secondary schools in Ondo State of Nigeria by pro viding a valid and reliable instrument to serve as a basis for program development.
Related purposes of this study are: (1) to identify actual stu dent health problems, (2) to provide a basis for determining i f prin cipals perceive students' health problems in the same manner as the students.
NEED FOR THE STUDY
There is an increasing concern on the part of scholars, school administrators, anthropologists, educators, home economists, dental hygienists, psychologists, physicians, dentists, social workers, public health officials, and last but not least, parents, to provide those programs within the school which permit active student participation.
The school health education program is one of those which can be of value to such students (Nemir, 1970, p. 7).
Nemir (1970) also said:
The secondary school should provide health in struction, inculcate health habits, organize an effective program of physical a c tiv itie s , regard health needs in planning work and play, and co operate with home and community in safe-guarding and promoting health in te re s ts ... (p. 140)
Anderson (1972), suggested the following purposes of a school health program. In summary they are as follows:
1. Continuing appraisal of each child's health status.
2. Understanding of each youngster's health needs.
3. Supervision and guidance of the health of the children.
4. Development of the highest possible level of health for
each child.
5. Prevention of defects and disorders.
6. Detection and correction of all defects and disorders.
7. Special health provisions for the exceptional youngster.
8. Reduction in the incidence of communicable and non- communicable diseases.
9. Positive health awareness and a desire for a high level of health in each child.
10. Development of wholesome health attitudes.
11. Development of scien tific and functional knowledge of personal and community health.
12. Acquisition of scientific and functional knowledge of personal and community health.
13. Development of an appreciation of aesthetic factors related to health. 8
14. Development of a high level of self-esteem in each youngster.
15. Effective social adjustment.
16. Hygienic mental environment at school.
17. Establishment and maintenance and sanitary practices and surroundings, and
18. Provision of emergency measures, (p. 94)
If the health educators of Ondo State secondary schools are to function to the fu lles t capacity, i t is necessary that they be cogni zant of the varying health problems which are currently impinging on the students who are members of th eir respective school population. The need is evident then for the development of an instrument which can be used to appraise the nature of currently existing health problems in order that the most efficie n t health education program can be evolved and implemented.
In a larger sense, the health education mission, according to Burt
(1974), is to assist the individual in the:
...acquisition and understanding of the knowledge required to select a life style that is actualizing, healthy, and happiness promoting, (p. 146)
This view of Burt should also be the health education mission of all secondary schools of Ondo State, Nigeria.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
1. Only state-reimbursed public secondary schools published on
the lis t of State Public Schools Directory 1980 within the
six administrative divisions of Ondo State, Nigeria have
been involved in the study. 9
2. The scope of this study was limited to the Class V students
who are bonafide members of the secondary schools and on the
roster published by the Ministry of Education of Ondo State
of Nigeria, 1980.
3. The scope of this study was also limited to randomly se
lected principals from the lis t of secondary schools in
volved in public education in Ondo State, Nigeria up to
this date. 10
DEFINITION OF TERMS
The terms in this study are used to connote the common meaning un less otherwise defined. The following definitions have been accepted for the purpose of this study.
Health: is that quality of physical, emotional, and mental well-being that enables one to live effectively and enjoyably (Anderson, 1973).
School Health Program: the composite of procedures used in school health services, healthful school living and health education to promote health among students and other school personnel (Russell, 1975).
School Health Services: include all school activities and pro cedures designed to affect the present health status of the youngster. This encompasses appraisal of student health, prevention and control of disease, prevention and correction of physical defects, health guidance and supervision, and emergency care (Anderson, 1973).
Guidance: is the organized process of helping children to under stand and direct their abilities into the channels of life that will be most fruitful in terms of their interest, ability and opportunities (Anderson, 1973).
Health Education: gaining new knowledge, having knowledge already acquired reinforced, and having ideas learned previously presented in a new or different way so that they are now more understandable and usable (Russell, 1975).
Health Problems: afflictio n s of a physical or emotional nature, or both, which may interfere not only with educational po tential but also with life itself (Russell, 1975).
Healthful School Living: the utilization of safe and wholesome en- vironment, consideration of individual health, organiz ing the school day, and planning classroom procedures to influence favorably emotional, social, and physical health (Lalonde, 1977).
Health Observation: a fundamental procedure in appraising pupil health involving sensitivity to change in the way a 11
pupil behaves, or alteration in his color, gait, or general appearance which may be the fir s t indication of a physical and emotional problem (Russell, 1975).
Health Appraisal: the process of determining the total health status of a pupil through such means as parents, teach ers, and nurse observation; screening tests, physician fitness tests, study of information concerning the pupils' past health experiences; and medical and dental examinations (Russell, 1975).
Medical Examination; that phase of health appraisal which is re served for the physician (Kogan, 1976).
Class V: the highest grade in the Nigerian secondary school system. It is an equivalence of grade 12 in the U.S.
Ondo State: one of the 19 states of Nigeria.
Health Educator(s): are those school personnel who participate in the instructional phase of the school health program (Russell, 1975). 12
CHAPTER I I
NIGERIA AS A NATION
Various events and recent developments in a ll aspects of lif e in
Nigeria have demonstrated convincingly the crucial importance of a fu ll understanding of various elements and factors that make Nigeria a nation. Extensive geographical, p o litic a l, economic, historical and social changes have occurred in recent years in wide areas of Nigerian lif e requiring an understanding of the existing pattern of development and of Nigeria's historical factors.
The objective of this chapter is to provide a background for a better understanding of subsequent materials in the study.
GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS, ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS: POSITION, SIZE, AND GENERAL FEATURES______
The Federal Republic of Nigeria is the largest single geographic unit along the West Coast of Africa. It occupies a position where the western parts of the African continent meet Equatorial Africa. Its area of over 913,072 square kilometers lies between parallels 4 and 14 north of the Equator so that i t is entirely within the tropical zone, extending northward from the coastline for over 1,040 kilometers
(Delury, 1977). (See Fig. 1.)
From the western border to the east, there is a distance of about
1,120 kilometers at the widest part. To the west is the Republic of
Benin, to the north is the Niger Republic and the Sahara Desert and O K Jt—fmlu O AAmfmki
I \Oniiniwai I \ I' ADUNA 4 * *K#nfj#*rj NIGERIA B a w k i
Miiuia KiCtnrtu a w *
i « International boundary — Regionalboundary ------Provincial boundary ^(.IBADAN A i * aj8 B M. Tfational capital A i m • Regional capital Provincial capital ^Okit&upji R a ilw a y 8 6.^ I N t * ' <^NUcu WftrnOtu r | .* O c.° > British Cameroon* , v J t 4;'owERu, , r> i. «.(<• 12 V*! 1 - C. 'M.J' M'. «'/./' o r t f u > sA-- A r .i . i .V v X •>• >s I L i V* !*••*»» » l IS FA i'"""” All™!.
Ohio>State University 14
along the eastern border lies the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The
Atlantic Ocean washes the sandy coastline, known variously along the
western coast as the Gulf of Guinea, Bight of Benin and Bight of Bonny
for some 800 kilometers.
The mouths of the rivers which break through the coastline are
masked by walls of green mangrove tres. But, behind this barrier,
calm lagoons extend from the western border into the great Niger Delta
where they break up into a network of creeks and waterways that pro
vide valuable means of communication through this part of the country.
Beyond th is , there is a zone of tropical forest with undulating country
and with scattered h ills . Here, the country becomes more open and
park-like with some h illy ranges. Further inland s t i l l , it develops
into an undulating plateau with some hilly granites and sandstone at a
general elevation of 606 meters at the highest points (Nigeria Hand
book, 1973).
A conspicuous feature of the northern part of the country is the
great plateau which rises as a steep escarpment from the river bed
plains of the Niger and Beneu Rivers to an average height of 600 meters
with ranges of h ills between 1,515 and 1,818 meters in the Shere Hills
direction of Lake Chad in the northeast and more sharply to Zaria in the north central state. GEOLOGY AND MINERALS Nigeria is potentially rich in mineral resources among which are tin, columbite, coal, gold, lead, zinc, gypsum, glass sands, clay, 15 asbestos, iron ore, and crude oil for which Nigeria ranks as the sixth largest producer in the world. A mining corporation has been estab lished to engage in the mining of the solid minerals (Federal Ministry of Information, 1977, p. 8 ). These mineral deposits are connected with the country's geology which can be broadly divided into three categories: "the basement complex, the cretaceous sediments and the te rtia ry sediments." (Delury, 1977). The basement complex covers about half of the nation. They lay at great depths in the earth's crust and were altered by heat and pressure, so that they are not represented by granites, gneisses, mignatites, amphibolites and meta-sediments. Minerals, lik e gold in different parts of the country, are closely associated with amphibolites and schists, while meta-sediments are associated with marble and graphite (Delury, 1977, p. 246). Cretaceous sediments lie within the valleys of rivers Niger, Benue and Gongola. These areas are fu ll of minerals like sandstones, limestone, lead and zinc ores. The te rtia ry sediments are of recent formation around the Chad Basin and Niger Delta area. The country's petroleum deposit is asso ciated with this type of geology. These minerals, which are associated with the geological features of the country, make Nigeria a wealthy nation, and the country used the wealth to sponsor many health care facilities and improve the health facilities in major cities of the country. 16 CLIMATE Although Nigeria is wholly within the tropics, the climate varies from the typical tropical climate at the coast to subtropical further inland. Differences exist because of the two principal air masses that affect the country during different periods of the year. These a ir masses are the northeast a ir mass which blows across the Sahara Desert to Nigeria and the southwest Tropical Maritime a ir mass which blows over the Gulf of Guinea to Nigeria. The northeast air mass blows over the country from October to February. It is hot, dry and dust-laden. The Tropical Maritime which comes from the southwest is monsoonal in char acter and is composed of moist and relatively cool a ir . (See Fig. 2 for monthly a ir masses' directions.) These two a ir masses cause Nigeria to have two distinct seasons. These seasons are the wet or rainy season and the dry season. The wet season lasts from March to October with rains almost every day. The dry season lasts from November to February with l i t t l e rain. Usually, rain fall decreases from the south northwards. In parts of the Niger Delta and southeast of the country, rain fall is about 140 inches a year. Further north, rainfall decreases to about 30 inches annually. The dry season is the harvest season and is associated with many har vest festivals while the wet or rainy season is the period of rainfall when farmers plant crops. (See Fig. 3 for rainfall distributions.) HIGH LOW PRESSURE L.CtfAb / / / / / / TANUAR1T W/NJ>S Source: W. A. Feckings and J. H. Stembridge, Nigeria, pp. 3 and 46. Figure 2. Nigeria, Pressure and Winds; (a) January, (b) July • {•lot* Kjtim* .F^tulunt i p i m w m m m •BiuiM ’Kafjnhjn' •Wimla 0 % t t & «i[Arf M m m . MjVurd*, («<&•$ Otif id Wet Season, May to October Dry Season, November to April Source: W. A. Peckings and J. U. Stembridge, Nigeria, pp. 40-41. Figure 3. Rainfall Maps of Nigeria 19 TEMPERATURE Temperature throughout the country 1s comparatively high a ll the year round with the mean maximum increasing northwards from the coastal area. The mean annual maximums recorded over a period of years at d if ferent points in southern Nigeria showed a range of 86°F-88°F. The mean annual temperature is 82°F (Nelson, et a ! ., 1972, p. 145). In the south, the highest temperatures occur in February to March during the dry season, while in the north, the highest temperatures occur between March to May (Ib id ., 1972). This type of temperature does not encourage active sports participation in the afternoons between the hours of 1:00 to 4:00 throughout the year. (See Fig. 4.) HUMIDITY The humidity varies considerably in different parts of the country < at varying times of the year. During the rainy season midday, humid itie s are about 70% but during the dry season the humidities range from 60-65%. In the north, the humidity during the rainy season rises above 90% at night and declines to 60-70% at midday. During the harmattan period (December to February) both day and night times, humidities are quite low. During these periods sports and games are very d iffic u lt to organize because of the dryness of the weather plus the cracking of skin and lips. Infections are common this time too. DRAINAGE The country's overall drainage pattern is somewhat complex. In the southwest, a drainage-divide runs from the Republic of Benin border NORTH-SUDAN MIDDLE BELT SOXOTO LOKOJA 160 160 r ISO ISO ■ 140 140 ■ 130 130 ■ 120 120': no 110 too too- 90 SO: 80 8 0 - 70 60 SO 40 30 20 COASTAL PLAIN COAST BENIN PORT HARCOURT in. 160\ 160 T T l — I I r t 1/6' ISO ISO 140 140 130 130 120 no \!2 HO 1 1 0 100 ICO 00 so 80 30 70 70 60 60 —! 6 so\ “ 1s *0\ 4 0 3 0! 30 ro 2 0 ro. JO Source: W. A. Peckings and J. H. Stembridge, Nigeria, p. 45. Fig. 4. Nigeria: Temperature and Rainfall for Selected Areas. 21 eastwards through the western high plains to the lower Niger Valley. In the north, the water-shed pattern centers on the Jos plateau where some rivers flow to the Niger and Benue Rivers and others to the d i rection of Lake Chad. However, the dominant feature of the drainage is the Niger River and its principal tributary, the Benue River. The Niger River enters the Gulf of Guinea after a total traverse within the country for approximately 900 kilometers. (See Fig. 5.) In 1960, a dam was bu ilt on the river at Kainji forming a fresh water lake. This lake was developed as a combined hydroelectric power and a river navigation project. This lake extends to about 100 milo meters along the Niger Valley from Kainji and is over 25 kilometers in width (Niger Dams, 1969). HISTORICAL FACTORS The name "Nigeria" is derived from an African word "Niger," mean ing great river. Nigeria means "land of the mighty river or the coun try of the great waters" (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1973). It is appropriate that the country should be named after River Niger which is the biggest