Copyright by
Benjamin Louis Yapko
1959 JEWISH ELEMENTARY EDUCATION EET THE UNITED STATES PROM THE COLONIAL PERIOD TO 1900
Toy Benjamin Louis Yapko
Submitted to the
Paculty of the Graduate School
of The American University
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Education
Signatures of Committees
/c%).2aH&eujESfiS. Deanm of the'Graduate t h e (ft School
1958
The American University Washington, D. C. INTRODUCTION
The United States was founded by religious sec tarian groups. Each nationality and religious group, in order to assure the survival of that group, has had to devise a system of educating its young so that they would become responsible and worthy members of their community and of the nation as a whole.
In the early years of public education in the
United States, the teaching of sectarian doctrines was an Integral part of the school curriculum. The sectarian doctrines of the prevailing or dominant group in each community determined the religious doctrines taught in the schools of that community. Thus, minority groups have had to devise their own methods of inculcating in their youth the religious teachings of their preferences.
Jewish education, originating in antiquity, has had to adapt and adjust over the centuries to* many dif ferent countries and environmental conditions. Such was the case also in the United States. Jewish immigrants and settlers brought with them philosophies and methods of education from many different countries. These philosophies and methods had to be changed and adjusted to meet the needs and conditions of the new environment.
Methods of secular education and findings of secular educational and psychological research began to serve as bases for the development of new philosophies and methods of religious education. Handicapped by the supplementary nature of Jewish education and the lack of official com pulsion for Jewish studies, Jewish educators have had to devise means of adequately accomplishing their objectives in short periods of time and with students attending on a voluntary basis.
It is the purpose of this study to provide Jewish and other educators of the present with the means of un derstanding the bases of the development of Jewish educa tion in the past so that they may understand the present and help shape the future. TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE NATURE AND SCOPE OP THE STUDY AND
DEFINITION OP TERMS USED...... 1
The Nature and Scope of the Study .... 1
Importance of the S t u d y ...... 2
Definitions of Terms Used ...... 4
Yeshivah...... 4
Cheder...... 4
Talmud Torah...... 5
Melamed ...... 5
Free Schools...... 5
Organization of Remainder of
Dissertation...... 6
II. THE NATURE OP JEWISH EDUCATION...... 7
Religious Aspects ...... 8
National and Cultural Aspects ...... 12
Jewish Denominations...... 16
Orthodox Judaism...... 17
Conservative Judaism...... 18
Reform Judaism...... 19
Various Educational Systems Developed
by the Different Denominations...... 20
Relationship of Jewish Education to
American Education...... 21 vi
CHAPTER PAGE
III. DEVELOPMENT OP THE JEWISH COMMUNITY
IN AMERICA...... 26
Jews Arrive in New Amsterdam - 1654 .. . 26
Jewish Communal and Educational
Activities...... 51
The Jewish Community 1750 - 1840...... 3^
The First Jewish Synagogue...... 38
Jewish Settlement and the Pounding of
Synagogues in other Areas ...... *1-1
N e w p o r t ...... 4l
Savannah...... 44
Philadelphia...... 45
Charleston...... 47
The Jewish Population in the First
U. S. Census...... 50
IV. THE BEGINNING OP FORMAL JEWISH EDUCATION. . 54
Problems of Jewish Education...... 55
The First Jewish School ...... 57
The Shearith Israel School - After 1800 . 63
Curriculum and School Equipment.... 64
Transition to Supplementary
Jewish Education...... 66
The First Jewish Sunday School...... 71 vii
CHAPTER PAGE
V. GERMAN - JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND ITS
EFFECT ON JEWISH EDUCATION ...... 80 German - Jewish Immigration
(1836 - 1881) 80
Causes of German - Jewish Migration. . . . 80
The Nature of the German - Jewish
Immigrant...... 83
Dominance Over Spanish - Portuguese Jews . 86
Development of German - Jewish Communities 87
Reform Judaism ...... 90
German-Jewish Schools...... 97
Jewish Congregational Day Schools. . . . 98
Private Boarding Schools ...... 102
Jewish Sunday Schools...... 105
The Hebrew Free Schools...... 107
Development of Textbooks ...... 110
Educational Organizations...... 119
The Hebrew Education Society of
Philadelphia...... 120
Union of American Hebrew Congregations .122
The Hebrew Union College ...... 124
The Hebrew Sabbath School Union...... 125
The Educational Alliance ...... 126 viii
CHAPTER PAGE
VI. MIGRATION OP THE EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS
AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT OF JEWISH EDUCATION...... 129
Eastern European Immigration...... 129
Background of the Eastern European
J e w s ...... 135
Adjustment in America...... 142
Differences between the Eastern
European Jews and the German Jews. . . .144
The C h e d e r ...... 148
The Talmud T o r a h ...... 150
The Yeshivah ...... 152
Beginning of the Nationalist
Movement - 1900...... 154
VTI. CONCLUSION...... 157
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... l68 CHAPTER I
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OP THE STUDY
AND DEFINITION OP TERMS USED
I. THE NATURE AND SCOPE OP THE STUDY
This study, which is presented in the form of a
general survey, undertakes to trace the historical de
velopment of Jewish elementary education in the United
States from its earliest beginnings to the start of the twentieth century.
In order to do this, it is necessary to inquire
into the general background of Jewish settlement in the
United States and the effects of subsequent Jewish migra
fcions. Discussion of the external environment in differ ent periods is also necessary.
One of the primary concerns of this study is with
Jewish communal and religious life and the institutions which evolved, since all of these aspects are vital fac tors in the development and in the nature of Jewish edu cation.
Other aspects of primary concern are the methods of education, the subject matter and textual materials used and the nature of the teaching personnel who were employed. An attempt is made to inquire into the types of educational institutions which evolved and the manner in which they functioned.
This study is also concerned with the different denominations within Judaism, since each of the ma jor denominations developed an educational system peculiar to its individual Ideology and philosophy.
The first portion of this study deals with an un derstanding of the nature of Jewish education and the philosophies of the three major denominations of Judaism.
Since this is a study of Jewish education, in the United
States, it is of prime importance to indicate and evalu ate the relationship of Jewish education to American edu cation. An attempt is also made to sketch the historical background of Jewish settlement in the United States.
II. IMPORTANCE OP THE STUDY
Every event is an outgrowth of a previous occurrence.
Every development is dependent upon a previous develop ment. In order that the most recent development or event may be understood, it is necessary to study the background, the history, of the event or development. Much time and effort has been saved, for example, in studying experi ments, methods, and techniques in various areas, which have not been successful. The same is true in reverse.
Many a new technique or method has evolved out of the study of previously successful experiments.
This is as true in the field of Jewish education as it is in other areas. The Jewish people have been conoerned with the education of their young from the very beginning of their history. Different methods have had to be devised in different periods and in different en vironments.
Jewish educators today can benefit greatly by studying the methods and techniques used over the cen turies to propagate the Jewish Culture. The success of most of these techniques is indicated by the continued survival of the Jewish people, despite adverse conditions, while both older and newer nations have failed to survive and are today only a page or a chapter in a history book.
A study of this type can have special significance for Jewish educators and students of teacher training in stitutions, since, to this writer's knowledge, there is no text available in which a study of the development of
Jewish education in the United States is treated in de tail. Jewish education has become an important aspect of
Jewish Community life. The Jewish teaching profession has become an important and organized force in American
Jewish life. Parallel with the growth of the Jewish teaching profession, has been the development of standards and certification requirements. Jewish teacher training institutions are constantly striving to meet increased standards and certification requirements. Bureaus of
Jewish education are being formed in more and more cities. Curricula are constantly being evaluated and improved.
Textual materials, teachers1 aids, and audio-visual ma terials are continuously being created to help make
Jewish education more effective and successful.
This study, therefore, is in line with the con tinuing efforts being made in Jewish education to provide the knowledge and materials which would make the Jewish educator an effective teacher, by providing him with a link from the past to the present so that he can help forge the future.
III. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Yeshivah
The Yeshivah is designated in Talmudlc Literature as a high school or rabbinical college. In the United
States and in modern times, the term Yeshivah has become synonymous with the Jewish day school or parochial school.
The term is applied to elementary schools and high schools as well as to colleges.^
Cheder (plural - Chedarim)
The Cheder is a private elementary Hebrew School.
Children receive religious instruction in a private school
1 Kalman 'Whiteman, "Yeshibah." The Encyclopedia of Jewish Knowledge (19^6 ed.), p . 640. 5 kept by a teacher in his own house. The name later came to be rather loosely applied to a publicly supported in stitution called a "Talmud Torah."2
Talmud Torah
The Talmud Torah, transplanted from Eastern Europe, is a communal afternoon elementary school. It is supple mental to the American public school system. Children attended from six to ten hours per week. Organizationally and physically the'Talmud Torah was generally dissociated from the Synagogue.^
Melamed (plural - Melamdim)
Melamed is the term applied to persons who pro vided private religious instruction by going from home to home. Some established private afternoon and evening 4 schools which tbpy called the "cheder."
Free Schools
"Free Schools" are schools established by the
Hebrew Free School Association which was organized in
2 Ibid., p. 205. 3 Simon Greenberg, "Jewish Educational Institu tions," Vol. II of The Jews; Their History, Culture,and Religion. Edited by Louis Finkeistein. 2 vols. Sew York: Harper and Brothers, 1949, p. 929.
4 •• Leo L. Honor, Jewish Education in the United States," Vol. II of The Jewish People: Past and Present. 4 vols.. New York: Jewish Encyclopedic Handbooks, 19^8, p. 157.
*V 1864, to provide free religious instruction to children of parents who could not afford to provide their own in struction. The first such school was parochial in char acter. Subsequent schools were of the supplementary after noon type.-*
IV. ORGANIZATION OP REMAINDER OP DISSERTATION
Jewish history in the United States can best be described in terms of the three major migrations to the
United States:
1. The Spanish-Portuguese Jews - 1654
2. The German-Jewish Migration - 1836-1881
5. The Eastern European Migration - 1881-1920.
Each of these groups brought with them different philoso phies, different customs and different institutions.
The remainder of this dissertation is so organized, therefore, as to provide a picture of these different groups; their attitudes, backgrounds, and the manner in which they affected the development of Jewish education in this country.
5 Ibid.. p. 155 CHAPTER II
THE NATURE OP JEWISH EDUCATION
To the degree that a nation concerns itself with the education of its young; to that degree will the im mortality, the survival of that people be assured. The ideal aimed at by all peoples, from time immemorial, is to forge their children into secure links in the chain of continuity so that the national and cultural heritage which had been bequeathed by the preceding generation could be transmitted to the generations which would follow.
The achievement of this ideal has been linked by the Jewish people, from the very beginning, with their continued na tional and religious existence.
The Jewish people, and consequently, the body of learning which is to be transmitted through education of their young are unique. They are unique in the sense that there is a national culture whose lines are indistingulsh- ably interwoven with those of religious doctrine, beliefs, and traditions. The most unique aspect of this situation is that although the national life of the Jewish people ceased approximately two thousand years ago, the nation alistic aspect of Judaism is today as much a part of the religion of Israel as is the theological aspect. "Never for a single day has our national body been severed from the main artery of our sacred literature."
In order to understand the nature of Jewish educa tion, therefore, it becomes necessary to discuss the re ligious and national aspects of Judaism and the manner in which these aspects are interpreted by the major denomina tions of American Judaism.
I. RELIGIOUS ASPECTS
The religious aspects of Judaism were the founda tions of Jewish national life and pervaded every area of human conduct and life. Education was early recognized as a vital means of propagating the Jewish way of life.
Earlier than among any other people, Jewish law and custom ordained the provision of elementary in struction to the children of rich and poor alike. "Be ye heedful of the children of the poor, for from them does the Torah go forth".2
An early biblical injunction, "And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be upon thine heart; and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children
• . • . made education a religious obligation which was quite conscientiously followed. "The educative
1 David Almond, Hebrew Religious Education: Treated Historically. Chicago; Schulman Bros., 1922, p. a. 2 Joseph H. Hertz, The Authorised Dally Prayer Book. New York: Block Publishing Co., 194b, p. 120. 3 Deuteronomy 6:6-7. process . . . was at the very core of Judaism and the
Jewish way of living since biblical times.
The scriptures contain many injunctions regarding
Jewish responsibility for the education of the young, and
stress many fundamental educational concepts which are
still applicable. Some of these concepts may be illus trated by the following scriptural passages:
And thou shalt teach them the statutes and the laws and shalt show them the way wherein they must walk and the work that they must do (Exodus 18:20)
He that walketh with wise men shall be wisej but the companion of fools shall smart for it5 (Proverbs 13:20)
Train up a child in the way he should go, and even when he is old, he will not depart from it (Proverbs 22:6)
Whom shall one teach knowledge? For it is precept by precept, precept by precept, line by line, line by line, here a little, there a little (Isaiah 28:10)
The scriptures abound with moral and ethical pre cepts and the means of transmitting them. Abundant too, are the later rabbinical references and injunctions re garding education. Rabbinical concern with the trans mission of Jewish ideas and practices from one generation
Julius B. Mailer, "The Role of Education in Jewish History," in The Jews: Their History. Culture. and Religion. Vol. 2. Edited by Louis Pihkelstein. 2 Vols” toew York: Harper and Brothers, 19^9, p. 896. 5 ’ This passage indicates the recognition of the importance of proper associations. to another is in great evidence throughout rabbinical literature. In fact, "the foundations of an extensive educational system were laid by the Pharisees long before the talmudic era, and were built on antecedents going back to the schools of wisdom and priestly training of ancient g Israel." Problems of education and pedagogical metho dology were discussed a great deal in the Talmud. The rabbis considered the acquisition of a good education to be one of the primary duties of each individual, and the means of providing an education was a major responsibility of the community.'
Thus, it is evident that Jewish education, the con scious desire and the action to transmit Jewish culture and religious thought are deeply rooted in antiquity. The concepts of education found in scripture and rabbinical literature continued to be stressed through subsequent periods of Jewish history.
Because of the duality of Judaism, that is, because of its theocratic nature, its objectives for Jewish edu cation are of religious origin and spirit.
Jewish education Is concerned with the transmission
Salo Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews. 5 vols. New 'itork: Columbia University Press, Vol. 2, p. 27^.
7 Ibid. 11
of Jewish religious beliefs and traditions. The major
agencies through which these objectives may be attained
are the home and the synagogue. The home is in every
culture, the major agency for education, for the trans
mission of cultural traditions. Judaism has throughout
history made the home the focal point for the teaching of
Jewish values and practices.
The family is commanded to practice prescribed ceremonies for the express purpose of perpetuating the knowledge of great historic events and for stimu lating the inquisitive mind of the child . . • the festivals and ceremonies were not and are not merely means of worshipping the Lord. They were and are the re-enactments of great historic moments in the people's past, not only to stimulate appropriate religious sentiments but also to preserve and trans mit precious group memories.8
The synagogue was and is the next most important
agency for educative purposes. According to one source,
". . . the element of Instruction played at least as
great a part in the founding of the synagogue as did prayer."^ Some of the educative features of the syna
gogue are to be found in the public reading of the Torah
on the sabbath, festivals, holidays and on Mondays and
Thursdays, in sermons, and in the schools conducted by
synagogues.
Simon Greenberg, "Jewish Educational Institu tions," in The Jews: Their History. Culture, and Religion, op. clt.. pp. 917-918.
9 Ibid. 12
Thus, Judaism has marshalled every force, has made use of every resource to assure Its propagation. And what
Is it that Judaism wishes to perpetuate? Judaism wishes to perpetuate its theology; its concept of the unity of
God and the unity of man. Judaism wishes to perpetuate the moral and ethical precepts; the social teachings of its prophets. Judaism wishes to preserve the foundation upon which western civilization is built.
Jewish education, then, is concerned with the trans mission of the theological, spiritual, moral, and ethical teachings of Judaism, as well as promulgating its tradi tions. It is concerned with teaching through practice and demonstration, Jewish customs, rituals and ceremonies, so that through the practice of ritual and ceremony, Jewish youth might be inculcated with Jewish ideals and ideas.
The body of knowledge through which these ends are to be attained consists of the following areas:
The Bible The Hebrew Language The Talmud and Rabbinical literature Jewish Philosophy Jewish lore and tradition Jewish Poetry The Prayerbook
These, then, are the religious aspects of Jewish education.
II. NATIONAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS
It has been previously emphasized in this chapter 13 how difficult it is to distinguish between Judaism as a faith to live by and the national life of the Jewish people. Judaism is a faith in which nationhood is an in tegral part of religion.
Though the Jewish national homeland was lost sev eral thousand years ago, the Jewish people never gave up hope for the eventual restoration of their homeland. By the rivers of Babylon they wept, and never ceased weeping and praying for the restoration of Zion. Their litera ture, their poetry, and their prayers reflected their hope, their yearning for the redemption of Israel. Wherever the Jews settled, they carried this hope with them and nurtured it and transmitted it to their children. They cherished their history, and through that history they and their progeny could identify themselves with the
Jewish people. They preserved the Hebrew language as the tongue in which their most sacred writings were written.
Solomon Schechter, founder of the Jewish Theological Semin ary, wrote, "The Hebrew language is the great depository of all that is best In the soul-life of the Congregation of Israel . . . .,tl0 Rabbi Joseph Hertz wrote, "Hebrew
Is the language of languages. It Is the key to all of
Israel!s spiritual treasures and the medium of Israelfs
Joseph H. Hertz (ed.), A Book of Jewish Thoughts. New York: Block Publishing Co., 1553* p."~T5, quoting Solomon Schechter. message to mankind . . . ." The Jews recognized the
truths of these statements from the very moment of exile
and. dispersion.
And dispersed they were. The history of the Jews is bound up and interwoven with the history of almost every
nation on the face of the earth. In every country and
environment in which they found themselves, the Jews cher
ished and preserved their heritage, and added to it and
broadened it. They developed a rich literature which
dealt with every area of human endeavor. Works depict
ing life in the various Jewish communities and the culture
which developed were written. Great works appeared on
philosophy, theology, ethics, and morals.
The customs, traditions and folkways which are the
most prevalent among Jews in western countries today, are
those transmitted by the East-European and West-European
Jews. The East-European Jews developed a langugage which
came into wide usage among international Jewry. This
language using German as a base, Is known as "Yiddish.”
A great literature flourished in this language, in which
the hopes, aspirations, customs and folkways of the Jewish people are beautifully and inspiringly described. This
culture, too, is worthy of being added to the vast treasure
chest of Judaism, as it is a definite link of continuity 15 with ancient Judaism. All the accumulated experiences of the Jewish people over the centuries are an integral part
of their religious and national development and what the
Jewish people are today is a direct outgrowth of this ac cumulation of experience. As Abraham wrote,
Rabbinlsm was a sequel ;to the Bible, and if, like all sequels, it was unequal to its original, it nevertheless shared its greatness. The works of all Jews up to the modern period were the sequel to this sequel. Through them all may be detected the uni fying principle that literature in its truest sense includes life itself .... 12
It is this chain of continuity which the Jew hopes to propagate and maintain. One of the major aspects of
Jewish education is leading Jewish children to identify themselves with the Jewish people and their historic tra ditions. One tool used to achieve this objective is the teaching of Jewish history. Another area with which Jews are concerned, is the perpetuation of the Hebrew language for the reasons which were previously discussed. The transmission of the vast accumulation of Jewish thought and experience as expressed in Jewish literature is still another important aspect of Jewish education. Some Jewish groups are greatly concerned with perpetuating the Yiddish language and the literature which is written in that lan guage which so effectively and beautifully depicts Jewish life in Eastern-Europe during the last few centuries.
12 Ibid., quoting I. Abrahams, p. 6l. 16
The religious and national aspects of Jewish edu cation are intimately connected with yet a third aspect*
That of aiding the Jewish child to adapt and adjust not only to the Jewish Community of which he is a member, but also to the external environment, that is, the coun try of which he is a citizen. This aspect will be more fully discussed at the end of this chapter, when the re lationship of Jewish education to American education is discussed.
III. JEWISH DENOMINATIONS
i. In the United States, there are three major de nominations which generally represent American Judaism.
These are: Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism, dnd
Reform Judaism.
The Bible is accepted by all three as the founda tion of their religion. Second in importance to the
Bible are the interpretations to be found in the Talmud, the Midrash, and the Commentaries and Codifications which 13 have accrued over the centuries.
It Is in their approach to the Bible and its inter pretation, as well as In their observance of holidays and
13 Joseph Gaer and Alfred Volf, Our Jewish Heri tage. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 195Y, p. 22. 17 IK ritual, that they differ.
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodoxy relies upon the authority of the Bible as divinely revealed and follows strictly the interpre tations of the Mosaic law as set forth in the "Shulchan
Aruch," a work in which Jewish law was codified.^ The author of this work was Rabbi Joseph Caro who lived in the sixteenth century. 16 According to one authority, the orthodox Jew re gards his faith in the Divine origin of the Bible as un changing and unchangeable, and any deviation a mark of disloyalty. He will allow change in religious matters only if the change conforms with the law or can be sanc tioned within the confines of the lawj otherwise he re gards it as mere expediency.
Orthodox Jewry gained the first foothold in America.
The first representatives of orthodoxy were the "Sephardim,"
Jews and their descendants who came from Spain and Por- 17 tugal. Orthodoxy later received additional members
^ Ibid.
15 Jacob I. Hart stein, The Jews in American His tory. New York: Yeshivah University, 1955, p. 71.
1^ Gaer and Wolf, op. cit., p. 25.
17 Nathan Glazer, American Judaism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957, p. 15. through the influx of the Eastern-European Jews, whose
ritual praotices differed only slightly from those of their
Sephardic brethren.
Since orthodoxy has proved to be too rigid and in
flexible to many and because of its failure to meet the
challenge of life in America, the two other major divisions
of Judaism began to gain the ascendancy on the American
scene.
Conservative Judaism
In actuality, Conservative Judaism was the last to appear upon the scene, so far as chronology is concerned.
The Conservative movement began in Germany toward the mid dle of the nineteenth century. It was transplanted to the
United States in the final quarter of the nineteenth cen tury, but did not flourish until early in the twentieth 18 century.
Conservative Judaism Is generally considered to be in the center between Orthodoxy and Reform. Actually, in some aspects, it comes very close to both.
Conservatism attempts to adapt tradition to con ditions of life. "The Conservatives recognize the need for constant modifications and adjustments to changing times, to the advance of science and historic circumstances.
18 Gaer and Wolf, op. cit., p. 2 k .
19 Ibid.. p. 26. 19 Conservatism, therefore, chooses those elements of obser
vance which are most suitable for modern life. Wherever
it is considered necessary, changes are made in the actual Of) practioe of Jewish law.
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism also originated in Germany but at a much earlier date. It was brought to this country in
the middle of the nineteenth century. Of the three denom
inations, it is the most liberal so far as Biblical inter pretation is concerned. Reform Judaism rejects the or thodox doctrines of complete and final revelation and the
eternal binding authority of the written and oral la w . ^
Reform represents, actually, a radical adaptation of tra- 22 ditional norms and practices.
Some of the practices introduced by the Reform
consisted of modifications of services to Include the
English language, the seating together of men and women, the use of a musical instrument during services, and the abandonment of the custom of wearing a hat or skull cap during services. The use of the prayer shawl and phylac-
20 Ibid., p. 26. 21 Julian Morgenstern, The Encyclopedia of Jewish Knowledge (19^6 ed.), p . 2 6 7 . 22 Marshall Sklare, Conservative Judaism. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 195*>.» p. ££. 20 teries has also been discontinued. Another practice in
stituted by the Reform was the abolition of the second day of holidays.
Although Reform met with great difficulties and with vehement and, at times, vituperative opposition from the orthodox groups, it began to take a firm hold on
American Jewry and began to grow and flourish. Reform
Judaism became a powerful and important force within the
American Jewish Community.
IV. VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPED
BY THE DIFFERENT DENOMINATIONS
Each of the three denominations developed systems and methods of education in consonance with their philoso phies and ideologies. Conservative Judaism, however, does not really belong In a discussion of Jewish education prior to the twentieth century. A description of this movement has been included because of its beginnings in the final quarter of the nineteenth century. It did not become the great influential and dominant force in Judaism and Jewish education which it is today, until the present century.
The major contributions to the furtherance of
23 David Philips on, The Reform Movement In Judaism. New York: The Macmillan Co.7T907“,pp."3'58'-3<39. 21
Jewish education were made by the Orthodox and Reform groups during the early period of American Jewish history.
The various systems and methods of education developed by these groups stemmed not only from their theological and ideological philosophies, but were also adaptations of methods used in the countries of their origin.
As will be seen in greater detail in further dis cussions of the educational facilities which were developed, most of the educational institutions were transplanted by arriving immigrants during different periods. One
Institution which was indigenous to America and which was borrowed from the Protestant groups by the Reform group, was the Sunday School. The Sunday School was later adopted by both the Orthodox and Conservative groups.
The major educational institutions, however, which were founded in this country, such as the Yeshivah, the Cheder and the Talmud Torah, were importations which were gradu ally adapted and adjusted to the American environment.
V. RELATIONSHIP OP JEWISH EDUCATION
TO AMERICAN EDUCATION
The American nation is made up of many hetero geneous and diverse cultural, national, religious and racial groups. In order that the democratic form of government might prevail and progress, a neutral public school system developed. No one group gained the ascendancy 22 over another. Each group was encouraged to do that which
Its own desire for self-preservation and perpetuation had led it to do, that is, to maintain its own uniqueness and diversity. For "Democratic Society is a society based on the equal right of different people freely to live and to ti 2h grow according to their differences. Each group, within the context of American nationalism, therefore has two basic educational aims:
1. Helping the child to adjust to his religious or cultural group so that he may become a well ad justed member of that group and a contributor to the perpetuation of the group.
2. To help the child, through his cultural and religious heritage, to become a good loyal citizen, and a creative member of the nation as a whole.
Referring to the specific nature of Jewish education,
Chipkin states:
Jewish education in America is essentially a pro cess in social adjustment and cultural self-preserva tion. This process bears both an American and a Jewish aspect. In its American aspect it seeks the harmonious integration of the Jew, whether as an individual or as a group, into the social pattern and cultural life of America. In its Jewish aspect, it aims at the cultural self-preservation of the group and at the enrichment of personality in the individual. Specifically, this process becomes a problem in group survival, character development, and effective citizenship in a democracy.25
Horace M. Kallen, "Religious Education in Democratic Society," Of Them Which Say They Are Jews and Other Essays on the,Jewish Struggle for Survival. EdT5e'd by Judah Pilch. New York: Block Publishing Co., 195^* P. 195. 25 Israel S. Chipkin, Twenty-Five Years of Jewish Education in the United States. New York: Jewish Educa tion Association of New Yorkfcity, 1957, p. 27. 25 The primary functions of the Public school are to provide equal educational opportunities for all children of all groups and to help these children adjust to society that they may become well-adjusted, responsible thinking citizens of a democracy. American education is concerned with the transmission of the American culture, the American way of life. American culture, however, is enriched by the contributions from many diverse cultures. The Ameri can culture and Judaism are two dynamic cultures, one complementing the other, each blending harmoniously with the other.
Jewish education supplements American education, it does not take its place. Kallen states:
In democratic countries the great center of refer ence and context of all education is the public school. This is especially the case in our own country. What ever a Jewish or any other kind of community do about their special cultural disciplines has to be done in some sort of dynamic relationship to the general public school system .... Intellectual and spirit ual interpretation of America may depend upon what the public school lacks and the Jewish school sup plies. Hence, what we teach and how we teach it be come matters of prime importance not only for the Jewish Community which is a part of the greater American Community, but for the whole nation.26
Israel Chipkin expresses the relationship of Jewish education to American education as follows:
Jewish education Is . . . the wholesome process . . . which seeks the • enrichment of the personality of the
Kallen, Horace, "Jewish Education and the Fu ture of the American Jewish Community," Pilch, op. clt.. pp. 185-184. 24
Individual Jew and calls forth the social responsi bility and spiritual manifestations of Jewish group life, so that both Individual and group may be in tegrated harmoniously Into the American environment by contributing creatively to Its social patterns and cultural values. Prom this point of view, Jewish education is also a process of Americanization and an expression of American democracy. It is a force for intelligent and effective citizenship. It sup plements the work of the public school and emphasizes the respect for individual and group differences.27
In stressing the supplementary nature of Jewish
education, Chipkin says:
The individual Jew is primarily the product of the public school and the general environmental influences. The Jewish school and Jewish group life are the sup plementary forces which help to complete this product and to improve its quality. We must never lose sight of the fact that the Jewish educational process is only a tributary current in the general educational process to which the individual Jew and non-Jew are constantly subjected. Both the public school and the Jewish school are in the words of Dewey, "steadying and integrating agencies."28
Jewish education by supplementing American educa
tion, makes an important and constructive contribution to the nation as a whole, being a force for the develop ment of better citizenship. In discussing this specific point, Dushkin makes the following comparison:
Just as the American public school enriches the personality of its children, by transmitting to them the experiences and spiritual heritage of America and humanity, so do the Jews wish to add to this enrichment by giving to their children the historic experiences of the Jewish people and the ethical
Chipkin. on. cit.. p. 29.
28 Ibid.. p. 30. 25 Ideals which, the Jews have thought worthwhile strug gling for these many centuries. According to this view, the personality of the Jewish citizen of America would be extended in three directions: in space, by connecting him with the Jews of the entire world, cutting across territorial limitations; in time, by giving him the long historic perspective of his people, making him the immediate scion of centuries of development and of struggle; and in content, by giving him an additional culture, another language and literature, the ethical ideals of the prophets and the martyrs of Israel, and the religious atti tudes of the "People of the Book."29
Jewish education, for these reasons, is necessary
not only from the point of view of the ethnic group, but
also from the viewpoint of a democratic society interested
in the total adjustment of the individual and in the en richment of life.
29 Alexander Dushkin, Jewlsh Education in New York. New York: The Bureau of Jewish Education, 11518, pTTO.
Emanuel Gamoran, Changing Conceptions in Jewish Education. New York: The Macmillan 6 0 ., 1 9 2 5 , Book 2, p. 4e>. CHAPTER III
DEVELOPMENT OP THE JEWISH COMMUNITY IN AMERICA
Driven by the Inquisition from Spain and Portugal,
Jews from the Iberian Peninsula made their way to Holland, where they were accepted and permitted to exercise free dom of conscience. Under Dutch liberality, Jews made their way to Recife in Brazil when that city came under the dominion of Holland. There, the Sephardic Jews built 1 up a flourishing community. When Recife was besieged by the Portuguese from 1645 on, the Jewish inhabitants fought fiercely beside the Dutch to defend that city, for they knew that with the occupation of Recife by the
Portuguese, the Inquisition would again be used against them. On January 27, 1654, however, Recife fell to the
Portuguese. Some of the Jews went to Holland. Others 3 went to other places.
I. JEWS