INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES ISSN: 22775005

Review Article A Review on Zoopharmacognosy

M. Asad Ansari, Navya Khandelwal and Mahaveer Kabra Department of Pharmaceutics, Kota College of Pharmacy, Kota, Rajasthan, India. ______

ABSTRACT Self medication is a specific therapeutic behavioral change in response to disease or . The empirical literature on self medication has so far focused on identifying cases of self medication in which particular behaviors are linked to thearapeutic outcomes. The term “zoopharmacognosy” is relatively new to the field. The term is introduced in 1987 and it means self medication. It is the self medication process by an animal for any disease or wound by any animal or . The used or insect having the quality of curing the illness. Scientific investigation opened the doors for new medicines which are pointed out by the behavior of the animal towards self medication. Since the introduction of this sudy many new drugs are now in use which was found in the study of self medication behavior of an animal. So many new species are found which self medicate themselves for disease or other illness. The study will help us to increase our knowledge about the existence of the unknown drugs which are use by various .

Keywords: Zoopharmacognosy, antiparasitic, antibacterial, .

INTRODUCTION olfactory cues. . When wild animals “self- Scientists from various disciplines are medicate” with for example, they are currently exploring the possibility that many detecting aromas of in the smell of these species use plants ,, , and fungi sources but are also known to utilize as 'medicines' in ways that guard against minerals and structural compounds naturally future illness (preventive medicine) and/or occurring in bark, grasses, minerals, algae and relieve unpleasant symptoms (curative or other organic sources in their environment. therapeutic medicine). Some species, Plant Secondary Metabolites (PSM’s) have a particularly great apes, show an intention of number of protective functions on the body, purpose in their medication and in these they can bolster the efficacy of their body’s cases the term zoopharmacognosy use immune system which helps reduce specific plants with medicinal properties for vulnerability to infection or advanced disease the treatment and prevention of disease.1 states, offer protection from free radicals and Understanding the importance of effective against pathogenic bacteria, viruses, Zoopharmacognosy and its benefits to animals fungus and parasites. and humans will help solidify the urgency in So what are the implications and benefits of which mankind must conserve species rich zoopharmacognosy? The potential and habitat and preserve biodiversity. Only with benefits of zoopharmacognosy are huge, future collaborative research initiatives will particularly in sustaining and managing Zoopharmacognosy be able to unlock the wildlife, agriculture, ecosystems, livestock and many benefits to be shared by wildlife animal health and can help reduce the ecologists, public health professionals, industrial impact on the environment, pharmaceutical companies, conservationists, establishing a more synergistic relationship and the general public Beyond between humans and nature. Zoopharmacognosy’s obvious benefits, the So what are the implications and benefits of potential discovery of new medical cures, it zoopharmacognosy? The potential and also offers a whole realm of other possibilities benefits of zoopharmacognosy are huge, particularly in sustaining and managing A review of literature wildlife, agriculture, ecosystems, livestock and Zoopharmacognosy are based on well- animal health and can help reduce the developed sensory systems, in particular the industrial impact on the environment, olfactory (smell) system, because essential establishing a more synergistic relationship behaviours governing daily life, such as mate- between humans and nature. seeking, environmental mapping, food locating Associations between animal species, and and communication, are all dependent on environmental sources for health maintenance,

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is more in design with nature and other fluke); three protozoan, Entamoeba coli, characteristics of the land for and offers huge Endolimax nana, and Iodamoeba buetschlii (all potential in of which are amoebas); and one flagellate,  preserving biological diversity and Giardia Lamblia. Oesophagostomum environmental systems stephanostomum infections were associated  can be a valuable contribution towards significantly more frequently with bitter-pith creating stable agricultural chewing and leaf swallowing (in 14 out of 15 ecosystems cases, or 93%) than any of the other parasite  can contribute as indicators for species (Huffman et al. 1997). The evidence ecological networks beyond that of from Mahale points to this parasite as the food webs and environmental change stimulus for, and the only parasite directly assessments affected by, self-medication. The  Offers another tool in restoring fragile parasites of the genus Oesophagostomum or damaged habitats, helping the (Strongyloidea) called nodular worms, wilderness re-establish itself because they encapsulate themselves in  In sustaining the long term health of nodules in the intestinal wall during their our livestock, in disease prevention by development—are common parasites in the empowering the animals themselves proximal hindgut of rodents, pigs, , to strengthen their immune systems nonhuman primates, and humans .Several and resisting disease in the first species are found in and instance, as well as reducing the and occasionally in humans (Brack 1987, severity of symptoms should they Polderman and Blotkamp 1995). Some of occur. these nodular worm species are significant pathogens in domestic livestock and in Self medicative behaviour in African apes primates. Symptoms of moderate to heavy Observations of the great apes provide the infections of O. stephanostomum, O. bifurcum, clearest scientific evidence to date for direct and O. aculeatum found in apes range from forms of self-medication in animals. The anorexia, weight loss, enteritis, diarrhoea, hypothesis I am currently developing is that anaemia, and lethargy to intense pain that these behaviors aid in the control of intestinal simulates appendicitis. The direct economic and tapeworms or provide relief loss caused by Oesophagostomum species in from related gastrointestinal upset, or both. animal husbandry and the hazards it presents Perhaps because of their phylogenetic to human health have stimulated much research on their biology and control.4 closeness and common neural pathways of chemosensory perception, humans and chimpanzees, when displaying similar The of bitter-pith symptoms of illness, learn to associate and chewing select for similar properties in medicinal plants Detailed plant chemistry, behavioral .Unquestionably, the evolution of medicinal observations, and parasitological surveys of habits from the great apes to early hominids patently ill chimpanzees at Mahale led to the and modern humans has important hypothesis that bitter-pith chewing has implications for modern medicine. Thus, this medicinal value .Very much a collaboration of article reviews the evidence for self-medication scientific method and traditional knowledge , as a form of parasite control in the African these were the first reported observations to great apes, relates that information to the verify illness and obvious improvements in evolution of medicinal plant use in traditional health after chimpanzees ingested Vernonia human societies, and suggests how natural amygdalina Del. (Compositae), a putative plant products might play a role in modern medicinal plant. health care. 2,3,4 Impact of bitter-pith chewing on parasite Great ape self-medicative behavior and load parasite infection In general, when an individual chews the bitter A longitudinal investigation showed that pith of V.amygdalina, that individual is in ill Mahale chimpanzees are naturally infected by health, as evidenced by diarrhoea, lethargy, numerous parasite species. The species found weight loss, and nematode infection. In two were three nematodes, Strongyloides cases recorded in detail, recovery from such fuelleborni (thread worm), Trichuris trichiura symptoms was evident 20–24 hours after the (whip worm), and Oesophagostomum individuals chewed the bitter pith .In one of stephanostomum (nodular worm); one these cases, the eggs per gram (EPG) of trematode, Dicrocelium lanceatum (lancet faeces level of an O. stephanostomum

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infection could be measured; it was found to pulls a young shoot off a small tree called have dropped from 130 to 15 in 20 hours. Vernonia amygdalina. She peels away the shoot's bark and leaves with her teeth, and Chimpanzees’ acquisition of self begins chewing on the succulent pith. medicative behaviors and the evolution of Swallowing the juice, she spits out most of the medicine in traditional human societies fibres, and then continues to chew and The way in which proposed self-medicative swallow a few more stalks for half an hour. behaviors are individually acquired by the Recovered within 24 hours, both of these African great apes is a challenging topic for females resume business as usual. They were investigation .To suggest that self-medication both suffering the effects of an intestinal is a behavioral tradition leaves open questions parasite infection. And, in case you haven't about how the behavior started and how guessed, they both ate from the same tree. individuals become predisposed to ingest medicinal plants .At one extreme, animals may bacteria for digestion have an innate tendency to select appropriate The folivorous, or leaf-eating, hoatzin, plants when ill, so that the role of tradition is however, uses specialized bacteria in the crop reduced to local enhancement (i.e., native to break down hard-to-digest leafy plant individuals have their attention drawn to plant material. Research indicates that the bird's gut species used by others; Huffman and bacteria also neutralize toxic secondary Wrangham 1994).However, with leaf compounds found in the plants it eats . swallowing and bitter-pith chewing, the species being ingested is not the only question to be Antimicrobial property of plant resolved; what parts of the plant are ingested According to biologist John Berry at Cornell and how must also be learned for the behavior University, sweet red fruits of Aframomum to be effective. Given the high degree of angustifolium, having antimicrobial properties conservatism in feeding habits actually pose a digestive threat to the normal, (Nishida 1987), random sampling of novel food healthy population of microorganisms found in items, especially when ill, does not occur the 's gut. After eating fruits of this wild frequently. Perhaps the traditional behavior ginger, antibacterial compounds in the plant began during a period of extreme food can temporarily damage these microbes, in scarcity, when ill and hungry apes who were turn upsetting the gorilla's digestive system if forced to try new foods recovered their health they aren't already a regular part of the diet. and associated their recovery with the new Evidence shows that the gorilla's micro biota food. has developed resistance to the biologically active components of the plant in areas where Future directions it is commonly eaten--an adaptation. As was true for Babu Kalunde almost a century ago, the study of animal self- Consumption of soil medication and ethno medicinal practices ‘Geophagy' is an act of deliberately consuming may provide important leads to future soil, stones and rock by herbivorous and sources of medicine. A closer look into the omnivorous , birds, reptiles and manner in which animals use natural plant insects. This behavoiur is observed and products studied in the context of self-medication in Japanese macaques (macacca mulatta), Really Wild Remedies—Medicinal Plant Use mountain gorillas (gorilla gorilla), chimpanzees by Animals (pan troglodytes) and African elephants. Pausing only to wipe the feverish sweat from Geophagy is suggested as a means to her brow, the WaTongwe woman finishes maintain gut pH, to meet nutritional crushing a few leaves and stems a fellow tribe requirements for traces minerals, to satisfy member brought her from the mujonso, or hunger for sodium to detoxify previously "bitter leaf," tree. She soaks them in a bowl of consumed plant secondary metabolites and to cold water while her stomach aches with a dull combat intestinal problems like .5,6 pain. Closing her eyes and grimacing in anticipation of the liquid's foul taste, she holds The Importance of Being the Fittest her nose and gulps down the bitter elixir, In biology, ‘fitness’ is measures of an hoping this reliable remedy will rid her of the individual’s ability to survives and reproduce. It intestinal pain that's plagued her for days. is measured by the number of viable offspring Nearby, in Tanzania's Mahale Mountains an animal can produce compared to other National Park, a lethargic chimpanzee individuals in the same population. A wild suffering from diarrhoea and malaise slowly animal has to be healthy and fit in order to

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compete successfully with others to reproduce. circumscribes the distribution of mosquito- Parasites play a crucial role in mate-selection borne diseases, while weather affects the by directly affecting host fitness. Recent timing and intensity of outbreaks (Gill 1920a,b; studies on mate-selection in birds and Dobson and Carper 1993). Paleoclimatic data mammals have evidently shown that females (Elias 1994) demonstrate that geographic preferred non-parasitized male over the shifts of beetles have been closely associated parasitized one. Choosy females may with changes in climate. Their distribution— indirectly use secondary sexual characters as using the mutual climatic range (MCR) method an indicator for the presence of effective to map fossilized species assemblages— is genes. In mammals, many empirical studies particularly sensitive to changes in minimum have evidently shown that females can temperatures (TMINs or night time and winter discriminate between healthy and diseased temperatures), as illustrated by shifts in males on the basis of their odour and it has species accompanying the Younger Dryers also been demonstrated that females prefer and those at the end of the last glacial the odour of non-parasitized males. It has maximum .Indeed, the battle between insects been believed that females could avoid and plants may have been key to climate infection and gain genetic benefits in terms of control during the carboniferous period: by more viable offspring by mating with non- developing and coevolving multiple means of parasitized males. Therefore, being the fittest defending against , woody terrestrial is vital in the life time of any organism that plants may have thrived, drawing down competes for mate populations. Thus, atmospheric carbon and cooling the biosphere parasites can affect host fitness and may (Retallack 1997). A growing number of eventually have an influence on the evolution investigators propose that vector-borne of overall life history strategies in animal diseases (VBDs), (e.g., involving insects and societies. Therefore, one of the main selective snails as carriers), could shift their range in pressures which would have led the animals to response to climate change 1996; Carcavallo use medicinal plants is believed to be parasitic and de Casas 1996). Models, incorporating pressure .To overcome the fitness loss due to vectorial capacity (temperature-dependent parasitism, animals have evolved a variety of insect reproductive and biting rates and anatomical, physiological and behavioural microorganism reproductive rates), uniformly adaptations. In addition to the immunological indicate the potential for spread of the defense, avoidance and removal of parasites geographic areas that could sustain VBD are the two behavioural strategies animals use transmission to higher elevations and higher to reduce parasites. Other behavioural latitudes under global warming (2 ´ CO2) adaptations evolved against parasites may scenarios Matsuoka and Kai 1994; Martin and also include the avoidance of food materials Lefebvre 1995)The transmission season may which are potential sources of parasites, the also be extended in the United States indicate use of prophylactic substances and the a potential for the northern movement of consumption of therapeutic substances. mosquito-borne encephalitides (e.g., western In general, animal self-medication has been equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis categorized into two types – preventative encephalitis) within the continental United (prophylactic – act of using medicinal plants States and Canada . Simulations of the without any symptoms of infection or before changes in virulence due to global infection) and curative (therapeutic – act of temperature increases during the past several using medicinal plants only after infection or decades show patterns strikingly similar to illness).7,8,9 those found in the double CO2 simulations (N. Graham 1998, unpublished manuscript).This Self medicative mosquitos’ behaviour article examines recent evidence that indicates According to the World Health Organization upward movements in disease-carrying (1996), 30 new diseases have emerged in the insects, upward plant migration, the retreat of past 20 year .In addition; there has been tropical glaciers, and the upward shift in the resurgence and a redistribution of of old freezing isotherm in the Tropics, all suggesting diseases on a global scale. Diseases such as the possibility of climatic changes in recent malaria and dengue (“breakbone”) fever, decades. We will focus here on mosquito- carried by (vectored by) mosquitoes, are borne diseases and the implications for human among those undergoing resurgence and health and human activities. redistribution (Gubler and Kuno 1997). The most recent and relevant data from the Arthropods are exquisitely sensitive to climate. physical and biological sciences indicate a Throughout this century public health significant warming trend this century researchers have understood that climate [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Moreover, Diaz and Graham (1996) report spot butterflies (order Lepidoptera) has shifted that, since 1970, the elevation of the freezing northward. Population extinctions are four level (0°C isotherm) in tropical latitudes (30°N– times greater at the far southern end of its 30°S) has shifted upward approximately 150 m range (in Mexico) than at the far northern end (equivalent to about 1°C of local warming). of its range (in Canada), and about two and The rise in tropospheres temperatures is one-half times as great at lower elevations as reflected in the mass balance of many compared to populations above 8000 feet. glaciers, and ice caps from the Tropics to the Similar changes in range are being observed midlatitudesare currently retreating, many at for other butterfly species in Europe (C. rates that continue to accelerate (Kaser and Parmesan 1997, personal communication).10 Noggler 1991; Hastenrath and Kruss 1992; Thompson et al. 1993; Haeberli 1995; IPCC Biodiversity and conservation 1996). For example, the edge of the Qori Kalis implications glacier that flows off the Quelccaya ice cap Regrettably the species-rich tropics are also high in the Peruvian Andes Mountains was not immune to large-scale farming and retreating at a rate of 4 m (13 ft) annually ranching. The world recently has seen a between 1963 and 1978. By 1995, that rate growing trend of large scale operations in the had. Many of the smaller ice fields may soon tropics, thus threatening the stability of the disappear, potentially jeopardizing local water world’s tropical rainforests. Although tropical supplies that are critical for human rainforests do not cover much of the earth’s consumption, regional agriculture, and surface, they are home to most of the earth’s generation of hydroelectric power. species. Yet, as slash and burn agriculture, Past and potential displacements of plant legal and illegal logging, cattle ranching, distributions in response to climate change has mining and climate change pose serious received considerable attention (Jacobson et threats to the tropical rainforests, humans al. 1987; Davis 1989; Davis and Zabinski must make an effort to conserve or at least 1992; Billings 1995). From a climatic better manage what’s left of our planet’s most perspective, a small displacement of plant diverse ecosystems. Since research shows distribution corresponds to a much larger that plants provide medicinal benefits, it is latitudinal displacement. To accommodate to a imperative that we conserve and study as 2°C rise in temperature in the Northern many as possible before they and their Hemisphere, for example, plant distributions benefits are lost forever. Climate change may rise 500 m in elevation or shift 300 km especially raises a threat to preserving poleward (MacArthur 1972; Peters 1991). tropical plant species, since the tropics Upward displacements of plant distributions fluctuate relatively little in temperature, the have been documented on 26 alpine peaks species that live there have evolved to recently updated to 30. Maximum upward survive in very specific temperature displacement rates of plant distributions conditions. Yet, as the climate changes, and approach 4 m per decade. In extra tropical the Earth heats up a few degrees, these latitudes the evidence is more complex and species with lower survival threshold, will be the influence of changes in storm tracks unable to cope with the changes and thus will associated displacement of plant go extinct. Plants that are able to survive the distribution corresponds to a much larger change in temperature will emit stronger latitudinal displacement. To accommodate to a aromas due to the warmer climate, which can 2°C rise in temperature in the Northern confuse animals that rely on those plants for Hemisphere, for example, plant distributions self-medication. This is due to the positive may rise 500 m in elevation or shift 300 km correlation between increased concentrations poleward (MacArthur 1972; Peters 1991). of plant secondary metabolites and warmer Upward displacements of plant distributions temperatures. Although climate change may have been documented on 26 alpine peaks be out of our control, Zoopharmacognosy recently updated to 30. Maximum upward researchers can work together with displacement rates of plant distributions conservationists to help preserve the habitat approach 4 m per decade. In extra tropical of biodiversity in the tropics. Through studying latitudes the evidence is more complex and animal self-medication and plant secondary the influence of changes in storm tracks metabolites, researchers and conservationists associated with changes in the westerlies can help maintain healthy and holistic dominates the signal (Hurrell 1995; Hurrell and ecosystems, while also sharing their van Loon 1997). Insects may also prove to be knowledge to help local forest-dwelling and useful indicator species. Parmesan (1996) farming communities benefit from found that the distribution of Edith’s Checker Zoopharmacognosy and conservation.

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Unfortunately for conservation efforts, lack of we may have duped ourselves into thinking international cooperation, greed and we must have all the answers and therefore conversely poverty drive people to use the ability, and right, to treat our planet as we natural resources carelessly, without fear of see fit, in reality we do not. Oddly enough, consequences or simply out of sheer today we feel as desperate and helpless as desperation. For these reasons, as humans people did a hundred years ago, before we must overcome our own selfish ambitions antibiotics and mass immunizations. Despite and act quickly to halt the destruction of vital our exceptional achievements, we still find ecosystems, such as the tropical rainforests, ourselves asking: How will we solve the AIDS before it is too late for the species and crisis? Treat the increasing numbers of communities, who rely on them. cancer patients? Halt soil erosion? Save the Zoopharmacognosy may be ideally suited to rainforest? Yet, despite all the doom and promote conservation efforts for both the gloom, we must not despair and must simply sake of ensuring continued animal-self seek new opportunities, beyond our medication in the wild as well as supporting anthropocentric outlook, to solve the Earth’s the discovery of human cures. Although we and our own calamities. should try to preserve species their intrinsic Zoopharmacognosy will shed light on new value alone, there is also a huge monetary solutions for our ever-expanding medicinal gain to be had if pharmaceutical companies needs. Through observation and and agricultural industry could better understanding of animals’ self-medication understand nature’s remedies. Not only behavior, we can find new cures for our would it generate profits for major world’s medical needs. The only way to do pharmaceutical companies, it would also this is to conserve habitats since we do not generate income for rural communities, and understand fully the consequences of allow people to better understand animal destroying countless ecosystems and needs and thus encourage more humane species. However, if we continue to observe treatment of animals. and learn from animal behavior we can There is no doubt that the earth’s climate has understand what constitutes a holistic fluctuated over time and will continue environment for them as well as ourselves. changing; species have gone extinct and will After all, we are also trying to survive on this continue disappearing; ecosystems have self-contained bio-dome known as Earth. deteriorated and will continue to crumble in Everything we have ever concocted to benefit the future, regardless of human interference, mankind has been found right here in our and beyond our own extinction. The current own world. environmental concern and apprehension As humans we have the capacity to digest however, lies not in the fear that we are knowledge, develop the most incredible causing change in our natural world, but in technologies, and discover vital medical the fact that the rate of these changes has cures. Yet, despite our abilities, we are been dramatically hastened by human activity limited. The human mind is an incredible and far exceeds the environment’s ability to instrument, which has the power to change recover. Our never-ending appetite for the world. But, no matter how many natural resources, physical space, energy, unimaginable and daring feats we have and our lack of concern for anything other accomplished and how advanced our than our own species, have resulted in an technology might be, we still must admit we alarming rate of habitat destruction and loss do not have all the answers. We do not have of species, putting both biodiversity and all the solutions to our problems, all the cures humans at risk. Human intelligence and the to our ailments, and we never will, but all we capacity to problem-solve have hindered our can do is to keep searching. conservation efforts of natural resources and Maybe it’s time to look beyond ourselves, species, simply because we think we will be beyond our incredible, but limited capacities, able to come up with a quick fix in the future. to find the answers to our problems before Yet, undeniably, the human community has there is nowhere left to look. Maybe overcome tremendous hurdles when faced Zoopharmacognosy can show us the with worldwide dilemmas.11 solutions quicker. We must now take responsibility of our mismanagement, CONCLUSION overuse and disregard of the species of this In the twentieth century scientists discovered world. Once we are able to unlock all the and mastered such medical miracles as potential benefits of Zoopharmacognosy and Penicillin and Immunizations for Tuberculosis, its positive implications for conservation, then Measles, Mumps and many others. Although and only then, can we revolutionize our

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world. John Muir, a Scottish-American Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. preservationist, once wisely said, "One http://www.dartmouth.edu/~mpayres/ learns, that the world, though made, is yet pubs/ Ayres_1993.pdf being made. That this is still the morning of 2. Conservation International. 2010. creation." One would only hope we create a “Human Health and the world, which we and all other species can Environment.” thrive.12 www.conservation.org/learn/health/P ages/health.aspx FUTURE PERSPECTIVE 3. Conservation International. 2010. As was true for Babu Kalunde almost a “Nature’s Pharmacy.” century ago, the study of animal self- http://www.conservation.org/ medication and ethno medicinal practices may fmg/articles/pages/natures_pharmacy provide important leads to future sources of _washington_dc.aspx medicine. A closer look into the manner in 4. Epstein, Paul R., et. al. 1998. which animals use natural plant products may, “Biological and Physical Signs of for example, provide novel insights into viable Climate Change: Focus on Mosquito- new strategies for suppressing or slowing borne Diseases.” Bulletin of the down the rate of acquisition of chemo American Meteorological Society. resistance by parasites that infect livestock Vol. 79. No 3. Pp. 409-417. and humans A strong movement is under way http://www.decvar.org/documents/eps in many African nations to evaluate and tein.pdf1. integrate those traditional medicines shown to 5. Ohigashi, H., Jisaka, M., Takagaki, be effective into modern health care programs. T., Nozaki, H., Tada, T., Huffman, M. My collaborators and I in Africa and elsewhere A., Nishida,T., Kaji, M. & Koshimizu. realize the importance and urgency of such K. (1991). Bitter principle and a efforts. Our multidisciplinary approach to this related steroid glucoside of research, wherein the biological activity of 6. Vernonia amygdalina, a possible novel plant-derived compounds is assessed medicinal plant for wild chimpanzees. against parasite species found across a wide Agricultural and Biological Chemistry. range of hosts, the chances of success. At the 7. Further observations on the use of same time we recognize the importance of the medicinal plant, Vernonia preserving the intellectual property rights of amygdalina (Del) by a wild individuals, regions, and countries to any new chimpanzee, its possible effect on discoveries derived from indigenous plant parasite load, and its phytochemistry. material. One objective of this research is to African Study Monographs 14(4): integrate our results into local health care and 8. Koshimizu, K., Ohigashi, H., Huffman, livestock management systems so that locally M. A., Nishida, T. & Takasaki, H. available plants can be properly used to the (1993). Physiological activities and benefit of all. Recently, Mohamedi said that he the active constituents of potentially had heard of a traditional healer located east medicinal plants used by wild of Mahale who was using mulengelele to treat chimpanzees of the Mahale AIDS patients. He cautioned that he had not Mountains, Tanzania. International tried it on patients himself, so he could not Journal of Primatology . verify its effectiveness. My colleagues and I 9. Jisaka, M., Ohigashi, H., Takegawa, were investigating the properties of K., Huffman, M. A. & Koshimizu, K. mulengelele root, in the laboratory as this (1993). Antitumoral and antimicrobial article was being prepared. Our primate activities of bitter sesquiterpene ancestors and the wealth of traditional lactones of Vernonia amygdalina, a medicine. Africa, the birthplace of humankind, possible medicinal plant used by wild may also have been the starting point for the chimpanzee. Bioscience, evolution of modern medicine. That continent Biotechnology, Biochemistry . too has an important role to play in the world’s 10. Gasquet, M., Huffman, M. A., & future.13 Wrangham, R. W. (1994). Les plantes medicinales utilises par les REFERENCES chimpanzes sauvages. Metissages 1. Ayres, M.P. 1993. “Global changes, en Sante Animale (Eds.) K. Kasonia plant defense, and herbivory.” Pages & M. Ansay, Namur: Presses 75-94 in P.M. Kareiva, J. G. Universitaires de Namur (Belgium). Kingsolver, and R. B. Huey, editors. 11. Koshimizu, K., Ohigashi, H. & Biotic interations and global change, Huffman, M. A. (1994). Use of

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Vernonia amygdalina by wild Wrangham, W.C. McGrew, F.B. de chimpanzees; Possible roles of its Waal & P.G. Heltne, Harvard Univ. bitter and related constituents. Press, Mass. Physiology and Behavior 5(6). 13. Huffman, M. A. (1997). Current 12. Huffman, M. A. & Wrangham, R. W. evidence for self-medication in (1994). Diversity of medicinal plant primates: a multidisciplinary use by chimpanzees in the wild. In perspective. Yearbook of Physical Chimpanzee Cultures. (Eds.) R.W. Anthropology

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