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CITY_ _STATE/COUNTRY_ *Cannot be driven in the U.S. American Foreign Service Association Officers and Members of the Governing Board JOHN D. HEMENWAY, President LARS HYDLE, Vice President JOHN PATTERSON, Second Vice President FRANK CUMMINS, Secretary PAUL von WARD, Treasurer CHARLOTTE CROMER & THOMAS O’CONNOR, AID Representatives FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL ALFORD W. COOLEY, SAMUEL F. HART, KENNETH N. ROGERS & PATRICIA WOODRING, State Representatives AUGUST 1976: Volume 53, No. 8 PETER WOLCOTT, USIA Representative OLCOTT DEMING & GLENN G. WOLFE, Retired Representatives Journal Editorial Board RALPH STUART SMITH, Chairman G. RICHARD MONSEN, Vice Chairman JOEL M. WOLDMAN WESLEY N. PEDERSEN SANDRA L. VOGELGESANG ARNOLD P. SCHIFFERDECKER JAMES F. O'CONNOR GEORGE F. SHERMAN, JR. HARRIET P. CULLEY ARTHUR M. HANDLY Staff Shoes for the Feet of Japan ALLEN B. MORELAND, Executive Director RALPH E. HUSS 2 CATHERINE WAELDER, Counselor CECIL B. SANNER, Membership and Circulation Chapter and Verse in American Diplomacy CHRISTINA MARY LANTZ, Executive Secretary EDWARD DEVOL 4 Foreign Service Educational Financial Realities behind and Counseling Center Oil Power in Iran CLARKE SLADE, Counselor ANINDYA K. BHATTACHARYA 9 Journal SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL, Editor Word-Sleuthing NANCY JACKSON, Editorial Assistant GEORGE G. WYNNE 11 MclVER ART & PUBLICATIONS, INC., Art Direction Advertising Representatives Diplomacy: Some Professional and JAMES C. SASMOR ASSOCIATES, 521 Fifth Ave., Suite 1700, New Political Perspectives York, N.Y. 10017 (212) 683-3421 SMITH SIMPSON 15 ALBERT D. SHONK CO., 681 Market St„ San Francisco, Calif. 94105 (415) 392-7144 JOSHUA B. POWERS, LTD., 46 Keyes House, Dolphin Sq., DEPARTMENTS London SW1 01-834-8023/9. International Representatives. The Bookshelf 23 Letters to the Editor 29 AFSA News 31 The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is the journal of professionals in foreign affairs, published twelve times a year by the American Foreign Service Association, a non-profit organization. Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and is not intended to indicate the official views of the Department of State, the United States Information Agency, the Agency for International Develop¬ ment or the United States Government as a whole. While the Editorial Board of the JOURNAL is responsible for its general content, statements concerning the policy and administration of AFSA as employee representative under Executive Order 11636 on the editorial page and in the AFSA News, and all communications relating to these, are the responsibility of the AFSA Governing Board. 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Senator J.N.DolphofOregonrecommendedhimfor the Japanese Ministerandconsulstobestationedinthe Hyogo waslaterabsorbedbyandbecameapart of States AppraiserattheportofPortland.Lettersfrom sistant StateTreasureroftheOregon,amember gained bytheoperationofmost-favored-nationarticle permitted attheopenportsofShimoda,Hakodate, States toresideinYedo(Tokyo),andAmericanconsuls when Harrisperfectedaconventionwhichprovidedfor and consuls.In1858thattoeholdbecameafoothold of thePerryTreatyconcerningextra-territoriality,trade, Kanagawa, Nagasaki,Niigata,andHyodo. treaty formalizedtheprivilegesUnitedStateshad concluded atreatyofamityandcommercein1857.This first USconsulinJapan,andlaterMinister, United States,adiplomaticrepresentativeofthe in 1853-54becamemoresecurewhenTownsendHarris, The toeholdwhichCommodoreMatthewC.Perry Patton’s despatchonNovember 15,1885toAssistant Thomas McF.PattonofSalem,Oregon,hadbeenAs¬ In 1885Pattonendeavoredtopromotethecommercial had madeontheforbiddingshoreofenigmaticJapan US ConsulateinKobe,1885 # /RALPHE.HUSS (Continued onpage20) Feel at home with security... 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1 “I’m acquainted with affliction, Chiefly in the form of fiction, As ’tis offered up by strangers At the consul’s open door.” — Bret Harte Chapter and \erse in American Diplomacy Washington Irving EDWARD DEVOL

The American consul in and published nothing, but he had considered an important national Liverpool had been at the post not gone to Liverpool to gather resource and even writers of luke¬ four years. The pay was good and literary material. He had taken of¬ warm political allegiance were the working day short, but he found fice for the money it would bring often considered worthy of reward the job increasingly irksome. He and it had satisfied him in that re¬ for their literary output, rather than had seen too many stranded spect: he left England with $30,000. for specific contributions to party sailors, over-enthusiastic tourists, Not all the American writers victory at the polls. eccentrics who demanded his who served overseas tours in the Scores of writers found political endorsement of their impractical 19th century hoarded their pay as friends who arranged government schemes, and all the “beggars and well as Hawthorne, but most of employment for them both at home imposters who haunt the official in them needed the money. Author¬ and abroad. Thomas Paine was foreign ports.” ship was an uncertain livelihood secretary of a congressional com¬ In a letter to a friend back home and even the most famous did not mittee; Hawthorne and Melville he expressed a sentiment that can get rich. As Bayard Taylor, one served in custom houses; Whitman be appreciated by Foreign Service writer-diplomat, said of another— was a clerk in Washington; and officers of today: “I have received even Washington Irving “received even Mark Twain worked briefly and been civil to at least ten just $204,000 in more than 50 years as secretary to a Senator. thousand visitors since I came to of arduous literary labor .... four The list of writers who served England and I never wish to be thousand dollars a year, the wages abroad is long and varied. They civil to anybody again.” of a chief clerk.” wese secretaries, consuls and A month later, in August, 1857, A necessary qualification for chiefs of mission. They reaped the Nathaniel Hawthorne resigned. overseas service was having benefits of their patrons’ victories, While consul he had written little friends with political influence and and were sometimes the victims of the only entrance examination was a patron’s defeat. They enjoyed the how well one used such friends. salary and prestige of diplomatic Edward Devol joined the Press Division of Hawthorne’s friend was President service, but often chafed under the State’s international information program Franklin Pierce, the college class¬ unavoidable routine. in 1950. Before his retirement in January of mate for whom he had written a One of the first writers to serve 1975 he had served in several positions in USIA, including a tour in Athens. At the campaign biography in 1852. Not overseas was Joel Barlow, the time of his retirement he was Managing that writers became diplomats only Connecticut man whose output is Editor of I PS’s Press Division. by partisan actions. Literature was now read only by historians of 4 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 George Bancroft Cassius Marcellus Clay

American literature, but who was treat, and died of exposure in a legiance at all. The frontier lawyer hailed as a genius when his 4,700- snow-covered village in Poland. and duelist struck a blow for litera¬ line patriotic verse epic, “The Vi¬ Diplomatic status provided ad¬ ture and named Irving secretary of sion of Columbus,” appeared in vantages to an American abroad the Fondon legation. 1787. His American popularity suf¬ even if no official duties were ex¬ Irving blithely assumed his new fered when he became what his pected of its possessor. James Fen- post would leave him ample time to New England friends considered imore Cooper, already known as complete other books on Spain. entirely too fervent an admirer of the author of “The Fast of the Alas, says one biographer: “His the French Revolution. The lead¬ Mohicans,” sailed for Europe in diplomatic chores took up most of ers of the revolution were delighted 1826 with a commission as United his daytime hours; nor was it sensi¬ by his essays in their defense and States consul in Fyons in his ble to give up his evening social life his verses making satirical sport of pocket, thanks to Secretary of to devote that time to writing.” He British conservatives like Edmund State Henry Clay. It brought had even less time to himself when Burke. The Republic made him an neither money nor responsibility the chief of mission fell ill, and Ir¬ honorary French citizen, and sent —Cooper did not even reside in ving had to write the reports which him on a diplomatic mission to per¬ Fyons—but provided him with a the State Department expected suade Savoy to merge with France. useful identity as an official person from its legation. Both the Minister In those times of more casual during his eight years in Europe. In and Secretary of State Van Buren outlook toward the obligations of the same year, Washington Irving left it on record that the secretary American citizenship, Barlow’s began three years in Madrid as an of legation was quite effective in his service to France did not prevent “attache” to the US legation. No performance. George Washington from using his work was expected of him, either, In 1842, Irving was comfortable negotiating skills. In 1795, the hon¬ but the diplomatic status gave him in his country house near Tar- orary French citizen was sent to easier access to official archives in rytown, New York, making ready Algiers to obtain the release of collecting documents for his “Fife for what was to be the culmination American sailors held for ransom and Voyages of Columbus,” pub¬ of his life's work, his biography of by the Barbary pirates. In 1812, as lished in 1828. George Washington. “I have been President Madison’s Minister to A year later, Irving’s friends in astounded,” he wrote a friend, “by France, Barlow set out for Washington urged Andrew Jackson the intelligence of my having been Moscow to get Napoleon’s agree¬ to honor the now-famous author, nominated to the Senate as Minis¬ ment to a treaty of commerce, was even though he was no Democrat ter to Spain ... It was perfectly caught in the Grand Army’s re¬ and in fact had no strong party al¬ unsolicited.” FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 5 Again friends and admirers— Such publicity did no harm to White House.” Soon Henry’s among them Daniel Webster, now Bancroft’s political ambitions. He father was the recipient of a dip¬ Secretary of State—had proposed a was a fervent Democrat at a time lomatic appointment from the new diplomatic appointment and Presi¬ when there were few such crea¬ president and the disgruntled pri¬ dent John Tyler had consented. tures among Massachusetts’ lead¬ vate secretary went off to London Irving spent four years as Minister ing citizens, and Democratic ad¬ to be private secretary to the new to Spain. There were no serious ministrations rewarded him for it. American minister. diplomatic problems but routine He was Collector of the Port of Lincoln, with a war on his hands duties were time-consuming and Boston under Van Buren (and ap¬ and a constituency eager for public once again he found no time for pointed Hawthorne to the Boston employment after 30 years of writing. When Polk succeeded Custom House); and Secretary of largely Democratic administra¬ Tyler, Irving expected to be re¬ the Navy early in Polk’s adminis¬ tions, “made the most thorough¬ placed, and resigned before his tration. In 1846, Polk sent him to going sweep of the government successor was named. London as Minister, where he re- service ever seen up to his time.” In Paris during the 1820s Irving For the thousands of applicants had collaborated on several plays there were thousands of jobs, both with an old acquaintance from New ‘‘Washington was a at home and abroad. Yet, not all York, John Howard Payne, who could be put on the payroll. had lived in Europe for years as an dismal school . . . Among the throngs of office- actor and playwright. Among The vultures descended seekers that spring was Herman Payne’s enormous output (one au¬ Melville, 41 years old, discouraged thority says he wrote more than 60 on it in swarms author and not-very-successful lec¬ plays) was an 1823 work called and tore the carrion of turer on his European travels. His “Clari, the Maid of Milan,” in most recent books were not the which a simple country girl who political patronage into kind the public wanted to read and has eloped with a duke sings the fragments and gobbets he needed money. Friends per¬ nostalgic song, “Home Sweet suaded him to go to Washington Home.” In the same year that of fat and lean, and seek the consulate at Florence. President Tyler sent Irving to on the very steps He had tried for a consulate once Madrid, he appointed Payne US before—in 1853, the same year his consul in Tunis, a post from which of the White House.” friend Hawthorne took up his he was dismissed by the Polk ad¬ duties in Liverpool. Nothing came ministration. When the political of his application then or now. wheel of fortune rotated again in mained until Zachary Taylor re¬ Melville spent several days in 1851, Whig Millard Fillmore sent moved him. Bancroft made good Washington. He even attended a Payne back to the Tunis consulate, use of his three years abroad, re¬ White House levee and was one of where he died a year later. turning home with “the most com¬ the hundreds who shook hands The 1840s brought the first dip¬ plete collection of source material with the President. He was perhaps lomatic assignments for two Bos¬ from British and French national not a forceful enough job-seeker ton writers. The younger was John archives any American historian and detested the humiliation of Lathrop Motley, the 27-year-old had acquired.” He, too, would be waiting long hours in the ante¬ author of a mediocre novel when he seen again in an overseas mission. chambers of men who were too went to St. Petersburg as secretary busy or too important to see him. of legation under Tyler. He was to He wrote his wife: “I have been publish another novel, but his fame The spring of 1861 in Wash¬ unable to accomplish anything in would come from his books on the ington brought Lincoln’s in¬ the matter of the consularship— history of the Netherlands. Motley auguration, threat of war, and have not in fact been able as yet so did not like St. Petersburg: the cli¬ thousands of applicants for patron¬ much as even to see anyone on the mate was bad, his duties uninspir¬ age jobs. They drove Lincoln al¬ subject.” The consular service was ing, and the cost of living high. He most to distraction, invading the never to have the author of “Moby quit after a few months, but his White House and streaming into Dick” on its rolls. taste for diplomacy was not yet the offices of all who might have Another applicant managed to satisfied; he would eventually find the power of appointment under get an interview with Lincoln’s two opportunities to practice it in more the new Administration. young secretaries, John Hay and congenial surroundings. Henry Adams, the 23-year-old John Nicolay, who were impressed George Bancroft was one of the grandson of one president and by the 24-year-old Columbus, really political creatures among the great-grandson of another, saw it Ohio, newspaperman, and author writers who served in US overseas all from his position as private sec¬ of one of the numerous campaign missions. He had published essays retary to his Congressman father biographies of Lincoln in 1860. The and criticism as a young man, but and did not like it: “Washington President knew about William his real recognition came with the was a dismal school. . . . The vul¬ Dean Howells, of course, although first volumes of his “History of the tures descended on it in swarms his first knowledge of the young au¬ United States,” in the 1830s. Re¬ that darkened the ground, and tore thor had irritated him. Howell’s viewers called it a masterpiece that the carrion of political patronage publisher had advertised that his would last “while the memory of into fragments and gobbets of fat was an “authorized” biography. “I America lasts.” and lean, on the very steps of the authorize nothing—will be respon- 6 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 sible for nothing,” Lincoln wrote He decided never to be “useful” not financially secure and could the publisher and refused even to again. make good use of the salary of lega¬ look at the proofs. Aboard ship with the Adams tion secretary. He also had a taste Still, Howells had performed a family when they sailed for En¬ for more travel and an interest in service, and had come to Washing¬ gland on May 1, 1861, was a Lin¬ higher rank in the diplomatic ser¬ ton well-equipped with recom¬ coln appointee who would be a vice. mendations from Ohio politicians. thorn to another writer. The ship¬ Cameron and Taylor got along Soon he sailed off to Venice as board companion was Cassius well, but the former Secretary of consul and spent the war in peace¬ Marcellus Clay, Kentucky Repub¬ War could not endure his exile for ful, almost undisturbed study of lican, veteran abolitionist, “eccen¬ long, and yearned for political of¬ Italian literature and the composi¬ tric egotist,” and now US Minister fice in Washington. He returned to tion of poetry. His Venetian ex¬ to Russia. Pennsylvania to run for the Senate perience produced two travel As the war grew fierce, Clay and Taylor was left in charge of the books. The first of his score of tired of diplomacy and made it legation for several months. His novels was not published unitil known he would prefer to come successful management of affairs 1871. led him to believe not only that he In London Henry Adams actu¬ “He refused to was capable of being Minister, but ally worked quite hard as an unpaid also that he had a claim on the job. member of the legation. The entire practice the military art He sent a stream of letters to staff consisted of the Minister, the as long as the Washington to gain support for his secretary, an assistant secretary, claim. He obtained pledges from and Henry, who described himself Administration did not influential men to place his request as doing the work of a second sec¬ declare slavery before the President—Vice Presi¬ retary: copying documents and dent Hannibal Hamlin, George correspondence, filing letters, and abolished, and Lincoln, Bancroft, former diplomat and studying the newspapers in order to quite aware of the Navy Secretary, and Cameron report to the Minister on British himself. views toward the United States. importance of the Taylor’s friends wielded less in¬ These views were generally hos¬ eccentric Kentuckian, fluence that those who pressed tile and in one instance the youthful returned him to Lincoln in a different direction. second secretary and foreign ser¬ Yet, Cameron wrote his former vice dependent caused a temporary his former post.’’ subordinate, all was not lost; al¬ increase in the hostility. Deter¬ though the St. Petersburg mission mined to be “useful” in other ways home and be a general. Early in was not to be Taylor’s, the than clerking, he provided the few 1862, Lincoln was able simulta¬ President would probably give him friendly editors in London with neously to gratify the Kentuckian’s a special mission to Persia. A tem¬ “news and views that should have yen for military rank, and to rid porary assignment, but an interest¬ a certain common character, and himself of Simon Cameron, the in¬ ing one. prevent clash.” This press-officer fluential Pennsylvanian whose ten¬ Taylor never went to Persia, for activity caused no harm and may ure as Secretary of War had been the new Minister was Cassius Clay even have done some good. The marked by a dismaying degree of himself. He refused to practice the harm resulted from Henry’s use of favoritism and graft in the letting of military art as long as the Adminis¬ his pen. contracts. Clay came home and be¬ tration did not declare slavery abol¬ A Boston newspaper published came a major general; Cameron ished throughout the seceded his long account of a visit to Man¬ went to St. Petersburg as his suc¬ states, and Lincoln, quite aware of chester, whose mills were suffering cessor. the political importance of the ec¬ from the effects of the Union In May, 1862, the State Depart¬ centric Kentuckian, patiently re¬ blockade on Southern exports of ment sent Cameron a new secre¬ turned him to his former post. cotton. The article made passing tary of legation, 37-year-old Bayard Taylor resigned in disgust. It would reference to aspects of London life Taylor, who was a formidable fig¬ be another fifteen years before his and manners which young Adams ure in his own right—journalist, es¬ ambition to be chief of mission was did not find to his liking. sayist, poet, master of several lan¬ satisfied. Unfortunately, the Boston editor guages, writer of successful travel The Civil War brought back into disregarded his request not to put books. Indeed, Taylor seemed to service John Lathrop Motley, the his name on the article. When the have gone almost everywhere: he Bostonian who had so disliked St. London TIMES learned of it, the re¬ was in California during the Gold Petersburg’s climate and high sponse was a scathing editorial Rush, had sailed with Commodore prices in 1841. Since then he had about the insolent young American Perry to Japan; had ascended the published another novel, written who had dared to laugh at his bet¬ Nile as far as the Second Cataract. literary and historical essays, and ters. It was an embarrassment to His book on a walking tour of even served a term in the Mas¬ the chief of mission, and taught Europe had gone through 20 edi¬ sachusetts legislature. He had also Henry a lesson that all foreign ser¬ tions. He had been invited to read found his subject, and in 1856, after vice dependents must absorb: they his poetry at Harvard, and in his ten years of research, in European are not quite the “independent and lifetime came to be regarded as the archives, published at his own ex¬ free citizens” Henry had at first country’s most distinguished poet. pense “The Rise of the Dutch Re¬ thought himself to be in London. Despite his reputation, he was public,” a vivid three-volume ac-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, .1976 7 Motley, the gentleman and scholar, was insulted at being re¬ quired to dignify the slurs by formal comment. He wrote Seward that although he did not approve of all aspects of the President's policy, he had expressed no public disap¬ proval; he had certainly never ut¬ tered words of disrespect for the President or the Secretary. He ended his indignant letter by offer¬ ing his resignation. Seward re¬ ported this to the President. An¬ drew Johnson knew Motley was a Sumner man and Sumner had be¬ come his bitter enemy. “Let him go,” Johnson told Seward and Motley’s pleasant years in Vienna came to an end. Two years later, Sumner was still looking out for his friend and persuaded Grant to give Motley the London legation. Within James Russell Lowell months, Sumner was thwarting Grant’s effort to get Senate ratifi¬ cation for a treaty for the purchase of Santo Domingo. To get the “No, never say nothin’ without you’re compelled tu, obstructionist Senator out of the An’ then don’t say nothin’ thet you can be held tu.” way, Secretary of State Fish of¬ fered the London legation to — The Biglow Papers, James Russell Lowell Sumner himself. His refusal did not save the job for Motley. As a Sumner man, he would have to go. count of the 17th century Dutch could not be casually disregarded. Motley received a letter from struggle for independence. Al¬ Motley was appointed Minister to Fish, inviting him to resign. He re¬ though commercial publishers had the Austro-Hungarian Empire and fused. Next came a copy of the let¬ said it would not sell, the public served in Vienna until 1867. In ter informing the Queen of his suc¬ bought 15,000 sets in the first two 1869 Grant named him Minister to cessor, and instructions to turn years, and Motley was encouraged the Court of St. James. over all government property to the to continue the work on Dutch his¬ Motley enjoyed both the assign¬ legation secretary. So ended the tory that occupied him for the rest ments. He was able to continue his diplomatic career of John Lathrop of his life. research, travel about Europe, and Motley, twice a casualty in the In 1861 he was in London con¬ visit frequently with his close political battles of Charles Sumner. tinuing his research. Disturbed by friend Otto von Bismarck, a fellow the considerable sympathy for student at Gottingen in the 1830s. Southern independence in the Pleasant as Vienna and London In the 19th century Massachu¬ British press, Motley wrote two were, both sojourns ended badly. setts seemed to grow an in¬ long letters to the London TIMES, Late in 1866, Motley received a let¬ exhaustible supply of writers and amounting to “a plea for the sa¬ ter from Secretary of State Seward. none was more famous than James credness of the Union as an organ¬ A private American citizen had Russell Lowell. Poet, political es¬ ic, vitalized whole.” As a historian written the President that he had sayist, critic, successor to Longfel¬ of European reputation, his views heard several American diplomats low as Harvard professor of carried some weight and may have in Europe, including Motley, ex¬ modern languages, first editor of changed a few minds among read¬ press strong disagreement with the ATLANTIC MONTHLY—there ers of the TIMES. More signifi¬ Johnson’s Reconstruction policy, was nothing he could not write and, cantly, the letters were reprinted in and—much more serious—speak it seemed to Boston and Cam¬ America and much appreciated by contemptuously of the President, bridge, little he did not know. He the harassed Lincoln administra¬ the Secretary, and the American was without doubt the leading man tion. Furthermore, Motley was a democratic system. of letters in the second half of the friend of Charles Sumner, of the At the President’s direction. century. Today we pay him little Chairman of the Senate Foreign Seward asked for comments by all attention, although anthologies Relations Committee. the diplomats named by the sometimes print some of his essays Inquiries were made. Motley had traveler, assuming they would sim¬ or “The Vision of Sir Launfal,” in never lost his interest in diplomacy, ply deny the charges and the an¬ which appears the familiar line, the White House was grateful for noying matter could then be “What is so rare as a day in June?” his support, and Sumner’s desires dropped. Continued on page 25

8 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 “Nationalism in the 20th century is as antiquated and as dangerous as Greek city-statism was in the first century.’’ — Arnold Toynbee

Financial Realities Behind Oil Power in Iran

ANINDYA K. BHATTACHARYA One of the key issues that Of all OPEC members, Iran has product and that the supply of oil will affect the “interdepen¬ consistently adopted the most will probably be depleted by the dence" of nations in the next de¬ hardline approach to oil prices and end of this century. Iran has also cade and perhaps beyond is the has embarked upon by far the most emphasized the point that, even question of “recycling” of pet¬ spectacular development plan. with high prices, oil is still cheaper rodollars accumulated in the hands Dwindling oil income could have a than alternative ways of obtaining of member states belonging to the profound impact on both the Ira¬ energy, and that one can get about Organization of Petroleum Export¬ nian ideology relating to oil price 10,000 derivatives from oil in the ing Countries (OPEC). The future and the Iranian Fifth Five-Year petrochemical field—derivatives stability or turmoil in the interna¬ Development Plan lasting from that are unobtainable from other tional system will be shaped to a 1972-73 to 1977-78 (Iranian years energy sources. large extent by how the western 1352-56). Using her privileged position in world carries on its relations with the cartel, Iran has been in the The Iranian Position forefront of the OPEC drive to major oil-producing countries in on Oil Prices trade and investment areas. push oil prices upwards, and has As the year 1976 unfolds, the With a population greater than benefited handsomely from the prospect of an ever-growing oil- that of all Persian Gulf states put quadrupling of oil prices since Oc¬ revenue surplus of OPEC is in¬ together, an industrial base broader tober 1973. Between 1973 and 1974, creasingly being replaced by that of than that of other countries in the Iranian oil income quadrupled, a potential downward trend in such area, and a military machine might¬ crude oil production and oil exports revenues in the years to come—a ier than that of neighboring coun¬ went from 5.9 to 6 BBD, and Ira¬ phenomenon aptly characterized tries, Iran—the second largest pro¬ nian GNP and per capital GNP by First National City Bank as the ducer of oil in the cartel and the growth rates recorded most im¬ “final act in a drama.” Dwindling fourth largest in the world—has pressive gains. Today, Iranian per oil income of OPEC connotes a been one of the most influential and capita GNP stands at a respectable two-fold significance. In the first articulate members of OPEC, voic¬ $1,500 in current prices—three place, the concerns of 1974 have ing OPEC demands vociferously times the amount registered in become obsolete. The specter of vis-a-vis the industrialized world. 1973. According to Iranian authorities, “too much money in the wrong The Iranian Fifth hands” creating havoc in interna¬ the industrial world built its post¬ Five-Year Plan tional trade and finance has lost war prosperity largely on “cheap” much of its importance as a major oil, the posted price of which was The Iranian Fifth Five-Year policy issue in the industrialized lowered unilaterally by western oil Development Plan is more ambi¬ world. It is now clear that western companies from $2.17 a barrel in tious than anything undertaken in pessimists had exaggerated the 1947 to $1.79 by 1969—a move the country so far. All targets have “chaos” scenario and had paid lit¬ viewed in Iran as a sheer “exploita¬ been revised upward in anticipation tle attention to the multiple in¬ tion” of the country’s most pre¬ of rising oil revenues. The Fifth tricacies of OPEC dependence on cious resource. At the same time, Plan has committed $69.6 billion in the western world. Secondly, de¬ the prices of agricultural and indus¬ total fixed capital investment in the clining oil revenues could lead to trial goods that Iran needed to im¬ civilian sector of the economy— widening current account deficits port from the western world rose nearly twice the amount earmarked of many OPEC countries and sharp by an average of 300 percent during in the initial 1973 version of the revisions in ambitious diversifica¬ the same period. The Iranian au¬ Fifth Plan and seven times larger tion programs of the vast majority thorities feel that oil is much too than the sum invested during the of oil-producing nations. “noble” a product to be put to in¬ Fourth Five-Year plan. Anindya K. Bhattacharya is Assistant discriminate “inferior” uses such The Bank Markazi (Central Professor of International Business at the as heating, fuel, and electricity, and Bank of Iran) Annual Reports and School of Business Administration of Adel- should be conserved for use as the Budget of the Imperial Gov¬ plii University in New York. This article is feedstock for chemical and pet¬ ernment of Iran published annually an abbreviated version of the author's forthcoming book on "The Myth of Pet- rochemical products—a measure by the Plan and Budget Organiza¬ ropower" to be published by Lexington all the more desirable in view of the tion convey a good impression of Books, D.C. Heath and Company. fact that oil is a non-replenishable the revenue sources and expendi- FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 9 ture allocations during the Fifth fallen far short of what had been and Development (OECD). Plan. On the revenue side, oil in¬ expected in the budget. The falling demand for crude oil come is expected to account for as The problem is that, since the and the erosion of the real value of much as 83 percent of total re¬ last quarter of 1974, petroleum oil income are causes of great con¬ venues anticipated during the Fifth production levels in Iran have been cern to the Iranian authorities. Plan period. The importance of falling, and Iranian oil exports have While the Iranian foreign exchange taxes (both direct and indirect) and experienced steadily declining vol¬ position remains healthy, much of other revenues pales into insignifi¬ umes. it is being drawn down to meet cance by comparison. The country Much of Iran’s problem on the Iran’s commitments abroad, in¬ is expected to engage in deficit oil-revenue front derives from the cluding payments for imports of financing to the tune of $2.9 billion, fact that the demand for heavy fuel goods and services and foreign-aid much of which is supposed to be oil has plummeted in the developed disbursements. Morgan Guarantee financed through utilization of world due to depressed conditions Trust estimates indicate that in foreign loans. in the industrial use of residual fuel 1975 Iran borrowed more than $265 On the expenditure side, defense and fuel substitution. Western oil million from the Euro-currency allocations comprise the most im¬ companies complain that Iranian market, and that such borrowings portant element in the budget, tak¬ heavy crude oil is overpriced at exceeded $420 million in the first ing up more than a quarter of total $11.28 per barrel in relation to both quarter of 1976 alone. allocations. Among the civilian what the market could take and to In order to get around the prob¬ sectors of the economy the largest other OPEC deals that are avail¬ lem of dwindling oil income and ris¬ amount of development funds has able elsewhere due to “price shav¬ ing commitments, The Shahanshah been allocated to the economic af¬ ing.’’ The oil companies want a re¬ of Iran has proposed an “index¬ fairs sector, followed by social af¬ negotiation of the 1973 oil agree¬ ing' ' method for valuation of the fairs and public affairs. Within the ment with Iran, whereby they are price of oil, whereby the latter will economic sector, the largest required to put up 40 per cent of be tied to the imported price of a amounts have been earmarked for total capital costs involved in oil “basket” of goods that Iran needs. industries and mines, followed by exploration and development of oil Also, Iranian officials have hinted oil and gas and transportation—a fields. that the future price of oil will clear indication of the govern¬ At the same time, imports of cap¬ probably have to go up to $15 a bar¬ ment’s desire for industrial diver¬ ital goods, intermediate goods, and rel when the present OPEC price sification. In the social field, hous¬ consumer goods, have been rising expires at the end of 1976. Finally, ing and education occupy the high¬ at a rate much faster than antici¬ the Iranian authorities expect that est priority reflecting the country’s pated. Some of the increase in the some non-essential imports in the awareness of the infrastructure dollar value of imports can be at¬ consumer-goods sector and the bottlenecks facing Iran today. tributed to worldwide inflation, overseas aid and investment pro¬ As far as the Iranian balance- which has also been eroding the grams will probably have to be cut of-payments situation is con¬ real value of Iran’s oil income. back. cerned, the projections for the Moreover, Iran has committed Fifth Plan show a positive net cur¬ vast sums of money totaling $12 bil¬ The Future Scenario: rent account due to excess oil- lion in foreign official assets. A Implications and Conclusions export receipts and a negative net First National City Bank study in¬ The overall picture for the Ira¬ capital account due to repayments dicates that the accumulation of nian economy is far from bleak, de¬ of foreign loans and credits. The Iranian net assets abroad will reach spite some short-run problems aris¬ overall balance of payments is ex¬ its peak in 1976 and then start to ing out of oil-export receipts. The pected to show a tidy surplus. decline, leading to a negative figure foreign-exchange reserve position The estimates for the Fifth Plan by 1980 due to either a running of the country remains basically assume, among other things, a sus¬ down of accumulated capital assets enviable. The domestic inflation tained rate of growth in oil-export or extensive borrowing in the pri¬ rate, which had been averaging be¬ receipts and are subject to revi¬ vate capital markets of the west. tween 25 to 30 per cent per annum, sions, depending upon the actual Finally, Iran, like other OPEC has been controlled quite effec¬ outcome, which, as we know to¬ members, has embarked on an im¬ tively by official subsidies of basic day, has diverged substantially pressive foreign aid program. Dis¬ foods and severe crackdowns on from initial projections. bursed aid as a percentage of Ira¬ blackmarketeers. nian GNP amounts to nearly two Even assuming the worst Dwindling Oil Income: Possible per cent, and the chief beneficiaries scenario for Iran—namely, a drop Modifications of Targets of Iranian aid have been India, in demand for oil combined with a The extremely ambitious targets Pakistan, Egypt, Turkey, Sudan, glut in the supply of oil—the vast of the Fifth Plan appear to be and Syria, together with African diversification programs already headed for some revisions in the countries south of the Sahara. The undertaken will have borne fruit by years ahead. The unlimited growth Iranian aid performance contrasts the 1980s. By around 1985-90, pet¬ in oil income assumed in the Fifth with some 0.3 per cent in official rochemical production, together Plan projections is already checked development aid from developed with natural gas, iron and steel, by recession-induced demand con¬ countries of the west belonging to copper and rubber, and invisible ditions in the industrialized world. the Development Assistance exports such as shipping and oil Actual oil-revenue income in 1975 Committee (DAC) of the Organi¬ tankers, will bring in sufficient rev- and in the first quarter of 1976 has zation for Economic Cooperation Continued on page 28

10 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 Does a Bicentennial Excur¬ “The question is,’’ said Alice, for soap is xabort. One can see the sion Fare entitle you to take a whether you can make words Portuguese and French influence round trip inside two hundred immediately.” The letter adds that years? And what about a bimonthly mean so many xemang stands for cement in Viet¬ publication? Does it come out different things.”— namese. In Japanese, incidentally, every two weeks or every two Lewis Carroll it’s semento ( -if / H ), not months? really too far from the original If patches of ambiguity persist in Latin caementum, which meant the daily use of our own language rough stone or stone chippings. by native speakers of English, how Foreign words absorbed become can we fairly poke fun at what your own but direct translations other people do to and with English can be tricky. I have heard the and their own or neighboring lan¬ story of a Japanese businessman guages as they keep shaping words picking up the phone in his New to suit their perceptions of the Word Sleuthing: York hotel room and startling the world around them. It may not be caller with a high-pitched: “if if.” fair, but it’s fun anyway and as ex¬ All Japanese shout mushi mushi citing and harmless as stalking big Or ( V ) *nto the receiver game with a camera. Yet it is defi¬ when they pick up a ringing tele¬ nitely less strenuous and less cost¬ phone. It means hello hello when ly, a game that can be pursued at voiced in combination but for some diplomatic receptions even in times “Anyone absurd linguistic reason that totally of crisis as I have discovered in escapes me, just plain mushi trans¬ three trips around the world over lates as the preposition if. It the past eighteen months. The for doesn’t pay to stick too closely to source of supply never seems to the dictionary. By the same token, dry up and each etymological track¬ consider the impact on the guest at ing report published in these pages a formal dinner in the home of a brings new leads and reminiscences Deckchairs Japanese dignitary of this sentence, from readers bitten by the same delivered in halting English by the bug. apologetic host: Beyond the funny looks or poig¬ on the “We can offer you nothing to nant meanings of the borrowed and eat, will you now please proceed to reprocessed words themselves, lit¬ the dining room.” eral translations and misinterpreta¬ Titanic?” This is a literal rendering into tions cause words to become the English of the same self-dis¬ key to comic or tragicomic situa¬ paraging politeness that causes tra¬ tions. I hope readers will delve into ditional Japanese to refer to their their own memories to add to the “stupid” sons or daughters when starter collection recalled from the talking with parental pride to vantage point of this writer’s strangers about their children. template on reality. GEORGE G. WYNNE Words also play mean tricks In Japan this time I discovered when taken quite literally without the constant use by media people of allowing for slight variations in the word Maskomi ( t X 3 ; ). pronunciation. What I took to be It sounds very legitimate Japanese. the same sort of self-depreciation It means “mass communications,” was told the combination was made as practiced in Japan when the a direct borrowing from English to up after the first war by students dean of an applied arts faculty in create a new indigenous concept. returning from abroad. Indonesia kept talking about “the The masters of eclectic acquisition Much earlier imports were rotten furniture designed by the reached into two languages— “shappo” ( P'Y 'Y 'S' ) and students,” turned out to be no English and German—to shape “shabon” ( <3$ "J ) orig¬ value judgment but the way rattan bakshan ( / '-yj X a wide¬ inating in France respectively as is pronounced in Bandung. I felt ly-used colloquial term used to de¬ chapeau (hat) and savon (soap). pretty silly about politely protest¬ scribe, with an admiring grin, the Today these words are used only in ing the skills and talents of the lilting hips of the lady hurrying just country dialect in the prefectures young designers. He was abso¬ ahead of you along a Tokyo where the foreigners first stepped lutely right on the pronunciation, sidewalk. “Back” is self-ex¬ ashore. City Japanese use “boshi” incidentally. I found out later that planatory, “shan” is a somewhat for hat and “sekken” for soap, and rattan comes from the Malay ro- altered German schon (beautiful) amusingly consider the European tan, a climbing palm with tough, that has lost its umlaut. Honest. I imports as country bumpkin words. flexible stems. Local versions of savon for soap There is less confusion when George G. Wynne, USIA, has been a con¬ have entered several Asian lan¬ words are borrowed directly from tributor to the JOURNAL for many years— on guages. For example, R. L. another language, soon lose their subjects ranging from missing obelisks to Vietnamese proverbs through urban prob¬ Kranker of USAID Bangkok imported appearance and identity lems and into government travel vouchers. writes: “in Vietnamese the word and have to be learned as standard

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 11 Malay by the language student. found 200 grams of Sheep’s Eggs, words flit back and forth between Some examples are almari for which I suspect is a literal transla¬ languages. But occasionally, with¬ wardrobe or closet from the French tion of an Arabic term with a more out knowing any words, the total armoire, which then becomes al¬ virile connotation. Side dishes fea¬ meaning is revealed. Early in the mari es for refrigerator, es being ture Rice with Espagodi, Sheep 19th century the story was told of a ice, thus ice closet. Similarly, lior- Legs Broth and to wash it all down German journeyman carpenter loge, French for clock, becomes the menu offers a choice of: whis¬ who walked all the way to the arlogi for wrist watch in Bahasa In¬ key 1 liter, V2 liter, !4 liter or for Netherlands port of Amsterdam. donesia. dainty tastes, whiskey 1 cup, be¬ He was impressed by the wealth of Total confusion reigns where fore proceeding to such sweets as the great city. As he walked along familiar words or symbols in one Gelley with Fruit. These jottings all the docks sturdy ships unloaded language acquire a completely new have to do with funny situations precious spices from the orient. meaning in another. A traffic sign that result from misspellings or mis¬ “Whose are these ships?” the with a long-skirted figure, which interpretations. (An American journeyman asked a passerby. might mark the door of a ladies’ Arabist told me he saw a sign Pubic Kannitverstan, came the answer in room in some countries, denotes a Barber along the route to town Dutch. I do not understand. He pedestrian crossing in Burma from the airport in Saana. Public walked past a magnificent mansion where both sexes wear the lungi. In was meant according to the Arabic along main street. When inquiring Bahasa Indonesia, on the other script above, which leads me to after the ownership, he once again hand, a small 2 above a word or a voice the pious hope our PAOs hears Kannitverstan. On and on he phrase which makes the sentence exercise care in the selection of walked, taking in the sights of the look like a formula or an equation, sign painters in the Arab states.) bustling port city. A gilded carriage merely signifies the plural form as Inside each language though,the drawn by four horses clattered in bnku2 which means books. As I sonorous beauty of onomatopoeic past. Inside a beautiful lady in a drove around Colombo, the capital words that echo the sounds or lace gown. Whose consort? Kan¬ of Sri Lanka, where English is still sights they depict provide a charm¬ nitverstan, of course. He walked the official language, I saw such ing commentary on what the same for hours. Everything seemed to signs as Motor Car Halting Place external world sounds like to dif¬ belong to Kannitverstan. Dusk fell which means Bus Stop. “Do you ferent language users. Donner is when, you guessed it, a stately fun¬ know Dudley Perera, he is one of thunder in German. On this trip I eral procession hove in sight. Our the blind Pereras” was a question picked up the like word used in tired journeyman was on his way to put to me, a string of words that Afghanistan—babaghorghori. It the inn for his night's lodgings but made surface sense, only it didn’t. translates literally to grandfather of he had just enough energy left to There is no clan of sightless noise. Try it with cock-a-doodle- ask the day’s final question: “And Pereras. The key to that particular doo, the rooster’s call, as imitated who is the poor fellow they are lay¬ puzzle is held by every Ceylonese by different languages. For but¬ ing to rest?” Of course it was Kan¬ who know that the Portuguese gave terfly it’s papillon in French, nitverstan. The simple journeyman their names to many of the inhabi¬ farfalla in Italian, cho cho without understanding anything, tants when they took over the is¬ had understood everything. land hundreds of years ago. Today ( tkjjy ) in Japanese. You Misunderstood words had led to there are thousands of Pereiras and can almost touch those fluttering an eternal truth on the imperma¬ thousands of Pereras. A blind Per¬ wings. So what’s wrong with nence of life. But misreading sig¬ era obviously is one without the i. Schmetterling, said the German nals rarely leads to such valid re¬ Silly, but no more so than the pre¬ professor. Speaking of butterflies sults. The Austrian mission in fix dinner I saw listed on the menu did you know that in Indonesian, Hongkong is still smarting over the of the good ship Dandy, the excur¬ kupu kupu maiam or night but¬ huge ice sculpture of a kangaroo, sion boat on the Potomac. Perhaps terflies, —can you sense the ner¬ masterwork of a Chinese chef, that some components of the meal were vous fluttering of the wings? —is graced the center of the buffet table prefabricated, but I think what the the name given to ladies of easy vir- at the diplomatic reception on its management had in mind was prix ture. national day celebrated at the local fixe, phonetically. We have been concerned with luxury hotel some years ago. I apologize for the diversion to meaning and changes of meaning as Not only words but intentions quote at this point from a Damas¬ are frequently misunderstood in a cus restaurant menu. This comes cross-cultural setting. When the under the rubric of restaurateurs as British Ambassador presented two agents of cross-cultural gastro¬ Yorkshire puppies together with nomic transmission, or what you his credentials to the last Empress can do to international dishes if of China, the formidable dowager you really try: Continental favo¬ Tzu Hsi as a personal remem¬ rites include a tender Feeleh Mi- brance from Queen Victoria, he non, a succulent Shatoberyan, a was served the dogs soon thereaf¬ racy Steak Boaveer, or for larger ter at an imperial banquet in his appetites a Max Greet. The more honor. Little brown dogs were a adventurous might try Frogs delicacy. What could be more Panieh, Birds 10 or Chicken Kind¬ courteous than to ask the envoy to ness. Under the Arabic Dishes are share in the enjoyment of his

12 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 sovereign’s thoughtful gift? It language purists are extremely when it comes to automotive terms would have been unthinkable for upset at the damage English has given the predominance of Detroit the Ambassador to refuse the prof¬ done to the tongue of Dante and products throughout the hemi¬ fered dish. The Empress herself d’Annunzio. Italish has become a sphere. The words imported with had announced its contents. In his first cousin to Franglais. The lan¬ the cars have largely replaced the memoirs he described what fol¬ guage of politics is international. original Spanish terms. There is lowed as the worst moment of his Terms like leader, meeting, slogan, antifris (anti-freeze) for anti- diplomatic career. He had to swal¬ boicotaggio (boycott), strategia congelante, bomper (bumper) for low more than his pride. nucleate, I’austerita fill the daily paragolpes, chouk (choke) for ob- From China misinterpretations papers as can be expected. But turador, guaiper (windshield and mistranslations like fhe Boxer now there are also English buzz¬ wiper) for limpiavidrio, troc or Rebellion even enter world history. words that have acquired new troque (truck) for camion, es- The I-He-Chuan or righteous meanings after taking root in Italian pidometro (speedometer) for vel- united band was mistakenly ren¬ soil. II footing (in France le foot¬ ocimetro, flat or flat ay a (flat tire) dered into English as righteous ing) means jogging. II crack is not for llanta, desinflada and bloaut united hand, which obviously the result of too much footing or (blowout) for revent on. meant fist, hence boxer. the inmate of a mental institution, Professor Levitt notes that Even people who speak the same but a generally accepted term for American trademarks have become language can have trouble under¬ bankruptcy. In the clothing de¬ generic words in their own right. In standing correctly when the ad¬ partment, il clergyman is a Peru, cuaquer (from Quaker oats) renalin starts pumping. Henry cassock-like garment, il trench a has replaced the regular word for Dunlap vouches for this story. It raincoat and il montgomery a duffle oats—avena. Similarly, bividi happened to a pilot friend of his: coat. This is only a hasty sampling (from B. V. D.) now means a sleeve¬ Early in World War II, a nervous from the eternal city that echoes less shirt for men, flit (which is no tail gunner soloed for the first time each afternoon to the tooting of au¬ longer seen widely in the United on target practice at an aerial gun¬ tomobile horns as people head States) is any liquid insecticide, nery school somewhere in the home during il rush to seek il relax. scotch or escoch a transparent Southwest. Just the pilot and him. I’ll ask my son who goes to school adhesive tape, and klinex, a paper Everything seemed to go well as he there to supply me with more. handkerchief. sat strapped into this parachute The slogan and boycott men¬ Before and after dinner, Latinos gear by the open hatch, firing burst tioned above have interesting are required to cope with such after burst at the towed target. But Gaelic-Irish antecedents known to words as coctel (cocktail), guisqui after a couple of minutes, the pilot relatively few people. Sluagh- (whiskey), brandi, jaibol (highball), tapped him on the shoulder. The ghairm meant a battle cry or an as¬ colcrin (cold cream), champu spent rounds were interfering with sembly signal, while Boycott was (which incidentally came via his control of the guide wire for the the name of an Irish captain os¬ English from the Hindi champo, rudder. The wire ran along the tracized by his neighbors during the 2nd person singular imperative floor of the small aircraft. “Save land league troubles in Ireland in “rub!”, shampoo). your brass,” the pilot shouted. It the 1880s. I am indebted to Burton Besides the words that have was standard procedure to scoop E. Ashley for another Gaelic ori¬ entered “standard” Latin Ameri¬ up the expended brass, but the ex¬ gin, this one of the expression can Spanish, there are numerous cited gunner was neglecting his “putting the kibosh on someone,” local, regional and colloquial forms check list. “Save your brass,” the which as everyone knows means to on which the impact of English is pilot shouted again, pointing to the squelch, or put an end to a bother¬ obvious. cluttered wire. Suddenly the plane some person, stop him in his In Puerto Rico jolope means lurched. The pilot was alone. A tracks, as it were. According to an holdup, pana (derived from part¬ parachute drifted down in the dis¬ article quoted by Ashley kibosh is ner), is an intimate friend and to- tance. derived from the Gaelic cie bais, fete, a derivative of tough, is a “Why the hell did you jump?” meaning the “cap of death”—and braggart. Retired FSO Jesse Lee was the first question the pilot put nothing, the article observes accu¬ writes from Puerto Rico where he to the gunner back at the base hos¬ rately, can be more final than that. spent his childhood that heavy and pital. The gunner was in a cast. With the giant of the North loom¬ tall persons started being called They had him in traction with a ing over Latin America it is small gordemis some years after the fractured ankle. wonder that the influence of Americans took over the island in “What choice did I have? You English on Spanish exerted through 1898. The reason: “When the kept pointing down and shouting: the press, trade and industry, the Americans came they appeared to ‘Save your Ass.’ ” movies, sports and travel is even the locals to be very much bigger After this tour d'horizon of mis¬ more pronounced than in the case and fatter than they were and they taken signals and nonverbal com¬ of French or Italian. Professor were also saying ‘godammit’ all the munications let’s now return to the Jesse Levitt of the University of time. A fat person in Spanish is a kind of word borrowings that Bridgeport gives an impressive col¬ gordo,” hence the connection. characterize contemporary mas- lection of instances from colloquial About the same time, Jesse writes, komi society and the influence of Spanish south of the border in a re¬ “the Americans introduced safety English as a world language. Like cent article published by the cans, presumably for garbage. This their French neighbors we dealt English-Speaking Union. The ten¬ has become safacon, which is the with in an earlier article, Italian dency is especially pronounced only word here for containers to FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 13 throw garbage in.” Finally,- he re¬ trade-mark) of neighboring Aus¬ ing open the small peephole win¬ ports that after Charles Lindbergh tria. dows in their kitchens, peering out made his transatlantic crossing he The Austrians, in turn, just to and exclaiming, “was ist das?” in visited Puerto Rico, and fruit ices cite one example, have made Kar- reponse to the disturbance. This is started to be called “Lindbergs” in fiol (cauliflower) phonetically from said to have happened so often that his honor. The “d” gradually dis¬ the Italian cavola fiori (French: the French came to expect ‘Was ist appeared and to this day they are chouxfleur) whereas the literal das?’ to be uttered at the little win¬ linbergs. Gordemis and safacon Germans use Blumenkohl which is dows and gradually came to iden¬ are still in use as originally devised. an exact translation of “flower tify the phrase with the place of ut¬ Back to Professor Levitt who cabbage.” Such instances abound. terance.” I had a much more grisly notes that in Costa Rica chinchibi But word borrowings are repaid definition harking back to the guil¬ is ginger beer, sontin, from the with compound interest. It is this lotine. Both may be correct. English “something” as in “Let’s secondary application of originally In modern-day Spanish, finally, eat something,” is a light snack, borrowed terms, that acquire a new rancho, which started as a humble and a tanchec, derived from “time meaning and then re-enter their shelter, came to mean a large farm, check” means “a check given to a original language as foreign im¬ after being borrowed by English worker being laid off.” ports, that is of special interest to and returning to Latin America Sig Maitrejean of the USIA In¬ the language sleuth (sloth, from old with the same connotation as the spections staff told me that in Peru Norse, a track, a trail). A classic North American ranch. Professor a sweater is a chompa, derived example is the English riding coat Levitt also advises that cafeteria, from the British jumper. A yamper, which became phonetically a red- originally “a place where coffee is on the other hand, says Levitt, is ingote in French and returned to sold as a drink,” has now acquired “a sleeveless dress,” from more English in the Webster definition as the meaning current in English. recent American usage. “a long unlined lightweight coat This entire article has been de¬ Retired FSO Bob Owen writes open down the front, worn by voted to foreign words in various that during his 1946 to 48 tour in women.” There is chic, a direct contexts and the amusing connota¬ Santo Domingo (then Ciudad loan from the French for smart or tions or comedies of error they Trujillo), a term commonly used stylish in appearance and dress, evoke. Equally devastating can be for a saddle blanket was oosah, which the French in turn borrowed a perfectly proper English word written usa, “derived from the from the German schicklich, or used by a foreigner with a fine USA with which the saddle blan¬ proper, and which came back into sense of timing. Let me close by kets of the US Marine occupiers’ German in the last century in its reporting that the head of an mules and horses were prominently French orthography and meaning. American Embassy section in a adorned some years earlier.” Professor Walter J. Mueller, a re¬ small oriental country was known A nearly untapped area that tired FSO and FS1 linguist writes: among his colleagues as a stuffed could provide grist for another arti¬ “Another German word appropri¬ shirt. He took little interest in the cle is the use of colloquial loan ated by the French during the local environment and citizenry but translations which somehow sound Thirty Years’ War, actually a never relaxed in his efforts to im¬ even sillier in the borrower’s lan¬ phrase, was bei Wache (at watch) press visiting firemen from Wash¬ guage than in the lender’s—perros referring to a military unit at rest ington with his sophistication and calientes for hot dogs. Readers are but with sentries on duty. The wide range of contacts. A visitor invited to send examples. French took this term over as from headquarters knocked on his The custom of importing other bivouac." Later the Germans bor¬ door one day and our pompous peoples’ words together with their rowed the French word back as das friend got him invited on very short goods is not of recent vintage, nor Biwak with the same military sig¬ notice to a formal dinner hosted by is it confined to any one geograph¬ nificance of temporary encamp¬ the Ambassador. ical area. In the trademark depart¬ ment with which it is used in As he swept through the lobby of ment, like the phonetic bic, eye-ex English. the Ambassador’s residence, with (Ajax), tee-day (Tide) and oover Dr. Mueller also questions my the visitor in tow, the impeccable (Hoover) reported earlier, there is report on the derivation of le vasis- Chinese butler in his spotless white now also the pakaa, (phonetic) tas, a transom window that came tunic with the gold eagle buttons Thai word for fountain pen. Proba¬ into Russian via French from padded over deferentially: “What bly the first pens that came to Thai¬ German (see FSJ Dec. 74). He would you like to drink, Sir?” the land were Parkers. says: “Documentation in the field soft-spoken servant addressed each Gerry Gert’s letter from Berlin of German linguistics traces this in turn. The Washington guest gave adds to the many Russian words of word back to the Thirty Years’ his order first. Then came the local eighteenth century German ori¬ War when French troops, among dignitary: “1 am going to have the gin, galstuk ( rA.TICTYK ) from others, were in action in Germany. usual, Chin,” he stated in a voice Halstuch—neck cloth (now necktie According to the documentation, just a shade too high and a manner in Russian) and fortuk—apron these troops or bands of armed a shade too patronizing, demon¬ (from the obsolete German Vor- men, would come riding into strating within earshot of the vis¬ tuch—front cloth). And he notes towns, villages and courtyards, itor, his familiarity with the Am¬ that in Serbocroatian a shrafziger is making a wild clatter on the bassador’s home and the contents a screwdriver and a gas range a cobblestones, shouting, shooting of his liquor cabinet. shporhert, obviously from the and the like. The sudden noise The blow fell from the mysteri¬ Schraubenzieher and Sparherd (a would set maids and others to fling¬ ous East: “What is the usual. Sir?” 14 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 “The theorists of the sixteenth century contended that the first diplomatists were angels, in that they served as ‘angeloi’ or mes¬ sengers between heaven and earth.”—Sir Harold Nicolson

DIPLOMACY: some professional and political perspectives

SMITH SIMPSON

Diplomacy, as George San¬ own in the Foreign Office, he re¬ lomatic establishment. Its argu¬ tayana said of beauty, seems sorted to the Oxford English ment that diplomacy is an art rein¬ to be something not quite describ- dictionary which said that diplo¬ forced the view held by our prac¬ able. “What it is and what it macy is the management of interna¬ titioners that diplomats are born means,” as the philosopher said of tional relations by negotiation. not made, and there is nothing his subject, “can never be said.” Then, through emphasis on the role about it which can be taught. Any Few indeed have addressed the which writing plays in sharpening attempted instruction was a waste question of what diplomacy is and diplomacy into an instrument of of time and the sooner the newly what it means, and fewer still have precision, Nicolson wound up in¬ commissioned officers were hus¬ given much thought to whether it sisting that it is not a verbal but a tled to their first assignments the can be taught. Yet, as the United written art. better for them and everyone else. States has endeavored since World This, we should have recog¬ So preparatory time was reduced War II to match diplomatic re¬ nized, is absurd. Being a political from months to weeks—limited to sources to the demands of world process, diplomacy is as much oral six for the past several years. politics, sometimes with disastrous as scriptural and indeed finds ex¬ Compared to the three years de¬ results through a failure adequately pression in a variety of modes rang¬ manded by the legal profession, the to conceptualize diplomacy and its ing from body language to the de¬ four by the medical and corre¬ limits, it has become more and ployment of military forces. As in sponding periods by other profes¬ more urgent to do precisely this. local and national politics, it is es¬ sions this should have warned us One of the first to try to define sentially maneuver for political and that our emphasis upon the art of diplomacy was Harold Nicolson, economic advantage, including diplomacy seriously undermined subsequently knighted, who com¬ more than is involved in normal any claim of professional status for posed a graceful dissertation in negotiation, even if one stretches it. 1939. Unfortunately, he took an that term to its outermost limits of Nor did anyone question why, if overly limited definition. Instead of elasticity. Nicolson's problem may diplomacy is an art, it is the only art extracting a realistic meaning from have been that his book was writ¬ form deficient in teachable princi¬ his father’s experience in the ten for the “Home University” ples, techniques and approaches. British diplomatic service or his series of a British publisher and The rudiments of every other art therefore had to be oversimplified have been taught from time im¬ Smith Simpson, a retired Foreign Service for readers of limited education. memorial—those of sculpture to officer, is author of "Anatomy of the State This problem became our own, Phidias, those of painting to Department,’’ as well as many articles on for his little book, being the only Michelangelo, those of music and US diplomacy. These articles have ap¬ treatise in our language, in addition composition to Beethoven. What is peared in the JOURNAL, THE NATION and THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY to being written with seductive so special about the art of diplo¬ OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. charm, became the bible of our dip¬ macy?

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 15 The conventional wisdom of our have been incubated by this con¬ a diplomatic career. The Fletcher establishment responded that di¬ ceit. School of Law and Diplomacy (di¬ plomacy does not deal with physi¬ Without contesting that an art of plomacy, mind you) has seriously cal things—marble, canvas and diplomacy exists—as it does in all tackled this subject only in recent pigment, keyboards, sound waves political processes—we should years under the deanship of a col¬ and the like—but with human be¬ consider whether scientific ingre¬ league of ours. The Georgetown ings and these in cross-cultural dients are present as well. This School of Foreign Service is doing situations demanding an inborn possibility has been almost totally so this year. But the surprise par perceptivity and judgment. These, ignored, even by scholars who excellence has been the Foreign it maintained, could not be im¬ have labored at the definitional Service Institute, supposedly es¬ parted. They were natal dispensa¬ task. Practitioners have always tablished, among other things, to tions, conferred by the right kinds greeted the suggestion with a snort ready newly commissioned officers of ancestors. The developing sci¬ of derision, for only the physical for diplomatic service. FSI has ence of psychology came more and sciences, with their mathematical ducked not only the issue of more to contest this but we prac¬ exactitude, have come to their whether diplomacy as an art can be titioners have always been leery of minds. Even among scholars only taught but also the issue of whether psychology, so any discussion of one has been so bold as to assert instruction in diplomacy as a politi¬ the nature and instructibility of di¬ that diplomacy is “both the art and cal process can and should be plomacy backed off before the science by which each state at¬ provided in its “basic officers question could be seriously consid¬ tempts to achieve success in its course.” In fact, the Institute has ered whether the flowering of an foreign policy short of forcing con¬ not even taught diplomatic prac¬ inherited gift could be accelerated clusions by armed conflict.” This tice, this being treated as some kind by suitable instruction. The point was the French encyclopedist of Martian irrelevance to the therefore seems never to have pen¬ Grolier. Our own scholars have routine, desk-bound “jobs” which etrated the wise old heads that in¬ generally been content with such are viewed as awaiting the young struction in an art is not necessarily generalities as “the management of officers. “They won't be involved intended to create but to fan and international relations,” “the use in diplomacy for years,” has been refine a genetic gift. Nor did the of accredited officials for intergov¬ the conventional view which has point register that there are differ¬ ernmental communication,” “the guided the Institute, as though a ent degrees of native endowment, business or art of conducting inter¬ diplomatic service is somehow not so that appropriate assistance national intercourse” (at least a diplomatic service until one ad¬ might enable a third-rate genius to there’s the art ingredient), or sim¬ vances to senior ranks. This, of become a second-rate; a second- ply “the manner in which interna¬ course, reflects the Nicolson ec¬ rate, to enter the sacred portals of tional relations are conducted.” centricity, for it is quite true that, the first-rate; and the first-rate to Occasionally one has thrown in the with few exceptions, only senior become even more accomplished in towel completely by saying “di¬ officers are likely to participate in a short time. This redounds to the plomacy is what diplomats do.” sufficiently high-level negotiations benefit, in this case, of the employ¬ Relatively few have endeavored to to yield written agreements. ing government and the tax-paying separate out the political pro¬ The consequences of this wide¬ nation it represents. cesses, such as discussion, negotia¬ spread abjuration of instruction in In addition, an exaggerated em¬ tion, conciliation and representa¬ diplomacy have appeared in two phasis upon the genetic ingredient tion. This, although an incomplete major areas. Within the diplomatic subjected our diplomacy to inordi¬ inventory, takes the right path. establishment we have been com¬ nate risks of overly personalized Innumerable political science pelled to navigate without a clear performance. In the minds of those departments in our institutions of concept of our calling and what it who rose to senior levels by gift, higher learning insist that a political demands. Over the years we have luck or maneuver a dangerous sup¬ process possesses distinguishable tacked this way and that in our re¬ position of elitism was nurtured. scientific ingredients. They also cruiting and examining objectives Officers, when entrusted with concede that diplomacy possesses and methods. We have swung from supervisory responsibility, all too these by including it in their text¬ separate diplomatic and consular frequently conducted themselves books and courses on international branches to a single service and according to their own lordly lights relations but in so casual and back to a fragmentation into five rather than by professional criteria, abstract a way as to have little con¬ divisions—not just two—with no with the result that colleagues and nection with its arduous, complex basic, unifying instruction to syn¬ sometimes whole missions, consu¬ and risky operations. It is surpris¬ thesize them. We have viewed the lar posts and our government itself ing, too, that almost no courses on Service less as a profession de¬ were victimized by arbitrary, un¬ diplomacy have been offered for manding preparatory professional ethical, sometimes even cruel, be¬ in-depth treatment of a political instruction than as an aggregation havior. In recent decades when process which constitutes our prin¬ of assignments, “jobs,” “slots,” such was available, an inspector or cipal alternative to war and on “tracks,” “cones” and classes. team of inspectors has had to be which, therefore, humanity’s With professional criteria of per¬ dispatched from Washington to chances of survival depend. More formance and values failing to win rein in a wayward and imperious astonishing, this has been the case ascendancy, promotion has be¬ chief of mission. Not a few of our until very recently even in schools, come a consuming obsession. In problems with Presidents, Sen¬ graduate and undergraduate, estab¬ this bewildering situation it is small ators, Congressmen and the public lished to prepare those interested in wonder that almost as many differ- 16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 ent Foreign Services have emerged resources we do not possess, or lomatic, resources. A strong “na¬ in the minds of officers as officers even to formulate in convincing tional defense posture” means a themselves, each visualized in terms any objection to such strong military, not a strong dip¬ terms of the individual’s own ex¬ ventures on the ground of in¬ lomatic establishment. Funds perience and observation. The adequate resources. Hence, it was generously bestowed upon the mili¬ Service—indeed the entire dip¬ not the diplomatic establishment tary and intelligence agencies en¬ lomatic establishment—is a kind of but pressure from Congress which able them to work with whole Rorschach inkblot interpreted not averted a preposterous attempt to banks of computers while the State professionally but in response to shore up an unshorable resistance Department limps along with a the human tendency to react emo¬ to the Soviet-Cuban push in An¬ handful and is not even certain as tionally to personal stimuli. gola. In the United Nations, un¬ to how these can contribute to “di¬ We therefore find ourselves con¬ clear as to what is required of us — plomacy,” although its officers call stantly unhappy with what we have and judging in an almost Nicol- constantly upon the banks of other done in the name of “reform” and sonesque way the prime qualifica¬ agencies to disgorge desired infor¬ are forever casting about for some¬ tion of effective UN diplomacy to mation. Congressmen, lacking a thing different without really know¬ clear idea of the international polit¬ ing what we want. We do not know ical process, clamor to control the how to conceptualize specialists, “Starved of analysis entire sequence of foreign affairs including administrative officers, by legislative fiat. Confidences, on who, because of this uncertainty of what a national which much diplomacy rests, are and victimization, real or imagined, government does with scattered to the winds. Because the hardly know how to conceptualize First Amendment guarantees free¬ themselves and in desperation seek policies and problems, dom of speech and publication, ev¬ high-sounding diplomatic titles to our university erything must be blabbed; diplo¬ make clear that they truly “be¬ graduates—and thus macy and its requirements count long.” We swing into a “global as¬ for nothing; all must be bugled from signment policy” without first the more educated the rooftops. To the consternation analyzing the sources of the de¬ part of our adult of friendly governments and ficiencies it is conceived to over¬ sources of intelligence, our diplo¬ come and land in an Assistant Sec¬ population— are, macy is buffeted helplessly be¬ retary’s position a first-rate senior like the rest of the tween Congressional hoopla and officer who lacks familiarity with litigation. In all this burlesque, the the bureau’s geographical region. citizenry, virtually meaning of detente becomes so Then, in a few months, to every¬ illiterate on how bewildering and use of the very body’s embarrassment, we must term such a political liability, the shift him elsewhere because he governments President considers himself obliged cannot produce instant “creative deal with each other.” to jettison it from his vocabulary. policies” for a region of which he is Such wandering confusion is not ignorant. of recent origin. While its genesis We pursue labor-management be competence in the art of lies beyond the limits of discussion bargaining and the resolution of composition—we veer from one here, its impact had become suffi¬ grievances without relating these to type of diplomacy to another, tack¬ ciently evident by 1970 to persuade diplomacy and the qualities of ing from reason, consultation and the American Academy of Political mind, character and personality, or quiet maneuver to what strikes al¬ and Social Science to finance a the erudition, culture, personal lies and friends as impish and flam- two-day meeting to search for an¬ sacrifice and team play which di¬ buoyant volubility, thereby ampli¬ swers to five questions: what is di¬ plomacy demands and therefore fying opposition to us. plomacy (i.e., how should it be without a clear notion of how these The other area of significant im¬ conceptualized, as an art, a sci¬ new bargaining and grievance pro¬ pact lies outside the diplomatic es¬ ence, or both)? Can it be taught? If cedures must fit into the develop¬ tablishment. Surfeited with a dis- so, how? What resources required ment and implementation of foreign cusssion of foreign policy, policy for instruction are available and policy. In the midst of such confu¬ making procedures and “area prob¬ which need amplification and re¬ sion, our Foreign Service Associa¬ lems” but starved of analysis of finement? Finally, should it be in¬ tion, in its efforts to persuade offi¬ what a national government does cluded• in the liberal arts curricula cers of its effectiveness, has found with policies and problems, our of our institutions of higher learn¬ bread-and-butter issues the easier university graduates—and thus the ing as part of what educated citi¬ to address. The idea of service has more educated part of our adult zens should know of the world in thus been further eroded. population—are, like the rest of the which they live? A monograph, Our lack of a sense of profes¬ citizenry, virtually illiterate on how “Instruction in Diplomacy: The sional mission has become manifest governments deal with each other. Liberal Arts Approach,” set forth in broad sectors of our foreign af¬ Thus it happens that when “na¬ the papers circulated in advance of fairs. Without a clear understand¬ tional defense” is promoted by the meeting, the discussion of par¬ ing of diplomacy and the resources Presidents, Congressmen and ticipants, a bibliography of books it demands, the State Department media it is invariably concep¬ on diplomacy and the meeting’s has been unable to head off rash tualized in terms of military and consensus that diplomacy is both involvements requiring diplomatic economic, never in terms of dip¬ an art and a science, it can and FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, A ugust, 1976 17 should be taught as a liberal arts from which comes (or fails to Nations meeting, which was a subject and adequate materials do come) the agrement permitting a face-saving tactic to cover retreat, exist for the purpose. government to send a particular in¬ for he never resumed his post in Although distributed widely in dividual as its ambassador. Not Washington. the political science community, only do strategies and tactics play a Tactical exercises are also in¬ the monograph elicited only a lim¬ part in this but agrement, far from volved in the recall of diplomats, ited response. Nearly two cen¬ ending that stage of the political either at the request of the host turies of neglect in this country process, must sometimes be rein¬ government or the initiative of the were not going to be ended by a forced by additional political acts, sending government, the suspen¬ single clarion call. But several in¬ as illustrated by the agreement of sion and rupture of diplomatic rela¬ teresting developments ensued. our government to receive Lord tions and the ways by which gov¬ Among them was the creation of a Flalifax as the British ambassador ernments continue their communi¬ permanent Committee for the in 1941. As Foreign Secretary in cation when formal relations are in¬ Study of Diplomacy, meetings of the Chamberlain Government, terrupted. which have been’ sponsored by Halifax had been conspicuously Thus the ground was cleared for American and Georgetown univer¬ associated with appeasement and a study of actual cases of diplomat¬ sities; and the School of Continuing was anathema to many of FDR’s ic “push and shove.” Just as one is Education at Georgetown decided New Deal colleagues. With their fired in imagination and sharpened to offer a course on diplomacy. So, unfavorable reaction to Halifax’s in analytical ability when visiting in the fall of 1972, some' five appointment finding expression in an historic site, recalling what he months after the monograph’s ap¬ the media, FDR, to put an end to knows of people and events as¬ pearance, preparation began for the objections, went down Chesa¬ sociated with it and finding every pioneering instruction on “The peake Bay to meet the envoy and detail of the place springing forth Dynamics of Diplomacy.” Starting his wife, who arrived on the newest with unsuspected meaning, so with the following February, the course and strongest battleship of the his involvement in a specific case in attracted an astonishingly large British fleet, the King George V, which diplomats have had to ma¬ enrollment including two Foreign Churchill’s ploy to “clothe the ar¬ neuver. These provide sufficient Service officers, officers from the rival . . . with every circumstance detail to enable the analyst to grasp Canadian, Italian, Soviet and sev¬ of importance.” The tactics of quite precisely what the situation eral African embassies and one these two wily politicians worked. was, the strategic and tactical prob¬ from the Estonian legation, an Air No more was heard from the criti¬ lems it posed and how the dip¬ Force captain, several housewives, cal New Dealers. The visible lomats resolved them. One’s per¬ a graduate and an undergraduate Presidential imprimatur had had to ceptivity is sharpened as well as his student from Georgetown. be added to the invisible agrement ability to extract the significance of The thrust of the course was the to make Halifax truly acceptable each detail which otherwise might application to diplomacy of the and able to perform effectively. have been overlooked. The most concepts of strategy, tactics and By similarly treating the organi¬ nebulous factor of all in di¬ techniques, as well as the roles of zation and functioning of embassies plomacy—that of personal qualities learning, character and personality and their location, design and con¬ and skills—is detectable. The stu¬ traits and skills of diplomats, struction, as well as the privileges, dent thus finds that he is educating thereby treating diplomacy as both immunities and roles of diplomats, himself to an extraordinary degree science and art. After analysis of these, too, came alive as dynamic in the subtleties of a political pro¬ the nature of diplomacy, with some factors. Even protocol, which is cess which, by any other approach, historical and comparative per¬ widely regarded as a meaningless is only general and abstract. spectives, the establishment of dip¬ exercise in social amenities is sus¬ That first class delved into four lomatic relations was discussed in ceptible to tactical exploitation. In such case studies. The first was strategic and tactical terms, which a reverse of the Halifax case, for written by James J. Wadsworth on brought alive the dynamics in¬ instance, President Truman used how the “Atoms for Peace” idea volved in the recognition of states the courtesy call of a new Czech was negotiated painstakingly and and governments, the various shad¬ ambassador in 1951 to tell him what ingeniously from 1953 to 1957, end¬ ings of diplomatic relationships Americans thought of his govern¬ ing in the creation of the Interna¬ which can exist and the ingenious ment’s arrest, imprisonment and tional Atomic Energy Agency—a ways in which governments get “trial” of an Associated Press cor¬ good example of quiet, global di¬ business done in the absence of respondent, administering to him plomacy pursued through both such relations. The fascinating way the rough side of his Missouri multilateral and bilateral means in which the United States and the tongue. Where the President left over a long, exacting course during Peoples Republic of China had off, Dean Acheson resumed when the Cold War. engineered the creation of quasi- the envoy arrived to pay his cour¬ The second, extracted from diplomatic relations was so recent tesy call on the Secretary of State. Spruille Braden’s “Diplomats and as to make unnecessary much This was followed by an ambush of Demagogues” (with supplemen¬ elaboration of the point that dip¬ American journalists outside tary assistance from Braden’s col¬ lomatic relations are of great Acheson’s office. So unnerved was leagues and published materials in variety and their construction is no the envoy by all of this he never the “Foreign Relations of the routine or simple matter. ventured forth to diplomatic haunts United States”), dealt with the So, too, with the selection of dip¬ again and six weeks later was or¬ negotiation of an end to the Chaco lomats and the agreation process dered to Paris to attend a United War through multilateral diplo- 18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, August, 1976 macy conducted almost entirely in diplomat, which made comments of cultures and ideologies, reveal a single capital. With the flair of a on the issue of career versus politi¬ most of the basic diplomatic func¬ true raconteur, Braden takes his cally appointed officers apropos. tions— reader through the complex A case study of our involvement • gathering, evaluation and re¬ maneuvers, counter-maneuvers in Vietnam, concentrating largely porting of information and personal factors—friendships, on the roles of the State Depart¬ • forecasting of developments learning, experience in private ment and Embassy Saigon and • maneuvering for political or negotiations as a mining engineer, supplemented by Chester L. economic advantage personal traits and skills—which he Cooper’s “The Lost Crusade,” • advising and persuading the utilized in Buenos Aires over a brought the course to an end, with diplomat’s own as well as other three-year period to wind a tortu¬ one of the many insights emerging governments on policies and tactics ous, chicanery-bestrewn path to a being the importance to the modern • managing (or trying to manage) peaceful settlement of a protracted diplomat of some knowledge of the crises war. Like a Bayeux embroidery military factor in foreign affairs. • coordinating the various com¬ chronicling the Norman conquest This is demanded not only by ponents of diplomatic missions of Britain, this account possesses Great Power politics but by the • working with military and in¬ fascinating detail—threats and necessity of the diplomatic estab¬ telligence organs operating outside insults, venality, stupidity, sly lishment exerting a restraining in- those missions double-crossing and outright lying • creating a favorable public and theft of documents—in which opinion in the host society diplomacy and the domestic poli¬ “Presidential use of — and the issues which they tics of various governments inter¬ the military raise. Synthesized, the cases pre¬ mingled, providing perspectives sent—more adequately than a missing in the Wadsworth study. establishment for dictionary—a definition of diplo¬ As part of his masterful orchestra¬ crucial advice, on-site macy. They show that diplomacy tion of diplomatic resources, Bra¬ is, as all politics, the art of the den used dinner parties effectively. investigation and possible but that what is possible Knowing in advance who would sit appraisal and even as often depends upon the quality of next to his Chilean wife, whose diplomacy itself. They show that family had standing and influence a source of diplomacy is describable—that in South America, he primed her ambassadorships there is no impenetrable, unin- on what points to get across to her repeated a message structable mystique about it. What table companions, what questions it is and what it means can be said. to ask, what suggestions to make, which has scarcely That saying is urgent indeed, what encouragements and discour¬ been heard.” both to newly commissioned dip¬ agements to convey. More than lomatic officers for professional once this saved his efforts from the reasons and to the general public brink of failure and of course fluence upon Presidents who, in for a more effective performance of illustrated nicely one of the con¬ troubled times, are always more our democracy in the world arena. tributions a wife can make to the impressed by the visible indicia of We have lost the advantages of political process. military power and the military’s emergence from World War II as The third case study, one of “can do” zeal than by the advice of the recognized world leader, with bilateral diplomacy, was provided diplomats of no professional train¬ seemingly unlimited resources and by chapters four and five of Ellis ing and almost total ignorance of a nuclear monopoly. We must now Briggs’s “Farewell to Foggy Bot¬ military resources and their limits. depend more than ever before upon tom,” in which the tactics em¬ Presidential use of the military es¬ diplomatic skill. For this, a clear ployed by a communist govern¬ tablishment for cruci