URBAN GROWTH IN METROPOLITAN CAPE TOWN: IMPLICATIONS FOR INLAND AND COASTAL WATERS

Arthur Joseph Rex Quick

Rapid and poorly planned urban drainage catchments revealed that potentially negative impact of in­ growth in Metropolitan Cape Town is most will occur in the False Bay north creased potable water demand on the subjecting the inland coastal waters in shore catchment. Priority planning Berg, Riviersonde rend, Breede and the region to stress. Increasing ex­ concerns identified are: (1) the lack of Palmiet riverine ecosystems; and (5) tractive demands are being made on fundamental scientific information on the opportunity cost (e.g. water un­ inland water systems to provide pot­ coastal ecosystems, particularly those available for agriculture) of increased able water. Larger volumes o f liquid o f False Bay and Table Bay; (2) the abstraction of river and groundwater and solid waste, and increased storm- potentially detrimental fhealth) impact for urban consumption. The paper con­ water runoff are impacting negatively o f bacteria and viruses in urban runoff cludes by emphasising the need for a on inland and coastal water quality. and from treated wastewater discharge metropolitan inland and coastal waters Urban sprawl is detracting from the on inland water and coastal recreation management policy to address the lack aesthetics o f river catchments, and is nodes; (3) the potentially detrimental of coordinated policy and planning also impacting adversely on river and impact o f nutrients in urban runoff and within and between local authorities stormwater quality. An assessment of treated wastewater discharge on in­ and government departments. future urbanisation in terms o f major land and coastal ecosystems; (4) the

INTRODUCTION the urban area is detracting from the rised in Figure 1. There are three aesthetics of river catchments and also discrete drainage systems, the False Rapid urban growth is occurring in causing a deterioration in the quality Bay catchment, the Table Bay and Metropolitan Cape Town, with the of stormwater runoff (Quick, in press). Atlantic Ocean catchment and in the population growth rate during the past east of the metropolitan area, the decade averaging 4,5 per cent (Repub­ These developmental issues have catchments of the Berg, Bree (Rivier- lic of South Africa, 1985; 1991). The serious implications for planning and sonderend and Breede Rivers) and present population, which is approach­ management in Cape Town, particular­ Palmiet. ing 3 million people is growing at a ly in view of the fact that the future rate of 2,5 per cent and is predicted to economic growth of the region is de­ False Bay and its catchment, have increase to 3,5 million by the year pendent on tourism, high technology been described in detail by Jackson 2000 (Spies and Barridge, 1991). An manufacturing, insurance and finance (1991) and Quick (in press). The estimated 30 per cent of the economi­ (Bridgeman et al., 1992). All of these catchment is drained by eleven rivers cally active population are currently require high standards of environment and includes two coastal lakes (Zee- unemployed, and 60 per cent of quality. koevlei and Zandvlei) and the Steen- blacks, 40 per cent of coloureds and bras Dam which supplies 10 per cent Although (Gasson, 1989a and b; 1990) 19 per cent of whites are living below of Metropolitan Cape Town's water has described the urban demands being the minimum household subsistence (Department of Water Affairs and made on the natural systems of Metro­ level of R600 per month (Dewar et al., Forestry, 1992). The largest river politan Cape Town, no detailed infor­ 1990; Bridgeman et al., 1992). Prob­ system is the Eerste/Kuils River which mation is available on implications of lems of poverty and unemployment are drains a catchment of 710 km2. The urban growth for inland and coastal exacerbated by an acute housing short­ Sand, Zeekoe and Lourens Rivers waters. This paper, therefore, aims to: age, which is in the order of 100 000 dominate the remainder of the catch­ (1) describe the characteristics of the units (information from Town Planning ment and drain subcatchments of 93,83 major water bodies, rivers and catch­ Branch, Cape Town City Council). and 140 km2, respectively. The Cape ments; (2) evaluate the effects of Flats aquifer is situated on the central Increased potable water demand has present urbanisation cm water quality northern shore of False Bay. The resulted in the construction of dams and water demand; (3) identify areas aquifer is estimated to have a safe and greater abstraction of water from of potential future urban growth and yield of 15 - 20 x 106m3y~‘ (Gerber, rivers, particularly along the eastern implications for water quality and 1981; Vandoolaeghe, 1990; Ninham margin of Metropolitan Cape Town water demand; and (4) identify the Shand, 1992a). (Spies and Barridge, 1991; Department inland and coastal waters planning and of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1992; management priorities in Metropolitan The available information on Table in prep. a). Liquid and solid urban Cape Town. Bay has been reviewed by Quick and wastes are impacting negatively on the Roberts (1993). Two major river INLAND AND COASTAL WATER False Bay and Table Bay catchments systems drain into Table Bay, the Diep SYSTEMS (Quick and Roberts, 1993; Quick, in and the Salt/Black Rivers. A coastal press). Sprawl, including informal The inland and coastal waters of lake, Rietvlei, and a wedand area are housing settlements, along the edges of Metropolitan Cape Town are summa­ situated immediately to the north of

l Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 Figure 2. Place names and jurisdictional boundaries in Metropolitan Cape Town. Figure 1. The inland and coastal waters of Metropolitan Cape Town.

Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 the Diep River mouth. The Newlands Table 1: Population by Catchment aquifer (about which little is known) is situated in the Salt/Black River catch­ Catchment Population ment To the north of Rietvlei are the Salt River catchment and the Atlantis aquifer. The Atlantis aquifer is artifi­ Atlantic Ocean cially recharged using stormwater and is the potable water resource for South of Table Bay #1 73 152 Atlantis, supplying approximately 5,1 Table Bay Harbour *2 4 2 892 x 106m3y 1 (Ninham Shand, 1992a). Salt/^lack River 8 9 7 9 32 Two small river systems are situated to Diep River 98 645 the south of Table Bay, the Hout Bay North of Table Bay *3 80 118 River (which drains into Hout Bay) Total 1 192 793 and the Noordhoek Wetland system. Eastern Catchment The Berg, Riviersonderend and Pal- Berg River 4,4 119 107 miet catchments supply most of Total 119 107 Metropolitan Cape Town's water. According to the Department of Water False Bay Affairs and Forestry (1992), dams on Peninsula *5 21 36 4 the Berg River system supply 35 per Northwest shore *6 555 222 cent (126,4 x 108 m3 y 1) of Cape Northcentral shore * 7 8 86 6 24 Town's water allocation, whilst the Northeast shore *8 145 04 7 Riviersonderend catchment supplies Total 1 6 0 8 2 5 7 approximately 51 per cent (186 x ltfW y 1). Grand Total 2 9 2 0 157 URBANISATION

The jurisdictional boundaries of * 1 Groan Point to Scarborough * 2 Central business area and surrounding suburbs metropolitan Cape Town are shown in * 3 Bloubergstrand. Melkbosstrand. Atlantis. Philadelphia and Mamre * 4 Paarl/Mbekweni, Wellington. f-ranschoek/Groendal. Kylemore and Pniel Figure 2, and the extent of urbanisa­ * 5 Kalk Bay to Simonstown * 6 Sand and Zeekoe River catchments and stormwater catchments of Muizernberg. Pelican Park and Strandfontein tion in Figure 3. A breakdown of the * 7 Kuils River catchment and stormwater catchments of Weltevreden Valley. Mitchells Plain and Khayelitsha * 8 Sir Lowry's Pass. Lourens and Eerste (excluding Kuils River) River catchments and stormwater catchments of Strand and population by catchment is given in Gordons 8ay

Table 1. Most urbanisation has taken Sources: Cape Town City Council (Town Planning Branch. Surveys and Land Information Branch), and Western Cape Regional Services place in the Salt/Black Sand, Zeekoe Council and Republic of South Africa (1985. 1991). Spies and Barridge, 1991). The present False Bay are shown in Figure 5. and Kuils River catchments. The potable water resources being utilised Potential point sources of pollution in remaining area is dominated by to satisfy urban requirements are the catchment include 12 wastewater agriculture and mountains. It should be summarised in Table 2 and Figure 4. treatment works and 13 sanitary land­ noted that 95 per cent of the informal fill sites (Figure 5; Table 3). Areas of housing population is in the False Bay Urbanisation and environmental the coast where numerous small storm­ catchment, concentrated mainly in the water quality water outfalls discharge are also shown townships of Nyanga, Crossroads False Bay catchment as they are of concern with respect to (including KTC), Guguletu and Khaye­ water quality. litsha. Rivers, major stormwater outfalls, wastewater treatment works and indus­ The management of water quality in Virtually the entire metropolitan coast­ trial outfalls discharging directly into False Bay and its catchment has been line is utilized for recreation. Nodes where intensive water-contact recre­ Table 2: Present water resources for urban usage (Department of Water ation occurs are shown in Figure 3. Affairs and Forestry, 1992) There are only four inland water bodies which are used for water-con­ tact recreation, these are Zandvlei, Resource Yield (x 108m3y ') Zeekoevlei, Milnerton Lagoon and Rietvlei. Table Mountain dams and fountains 5.1 Steenbras Dam 36.0 Urbanisation and potable water Wemmershoek Dam 56.4

The water demand for Metropolitan Allocations from Voelvlei Dam 70.0 Cape Town during 1991 was estimated Paarl and Wellington (Municipal dams and Berg River) 2.0 to be 260 million m3y'‘ (Water Re­ Stellenbosch (Municipal dams) 5.7 search Commission, in prep.). Most of Strand and Somerset West (Lourens River) 3.5 this water is utilised for domestic consumption (55-70%) with smaller Riviersonderend Scheme (Permanent allocation) 93.0 volumes being consumed by industry Riviersonderend Scheme (Temporary allocation) 93.0 (10-15%) and commerce (5-10%; Total 3 64.7

3 Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 Metropolitan Cape Town. Figure Figure 4. Urban bulk water supply infrastructure and potable water resources for Figure Figure 3. Urbanisation in Metropolitan Cape Town.

Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 4 reported in detail by Quick (in press). Table 3: Wastewater treatment works in Metropolitan Cape Town, According to this study the two pri­ volumes of discharge during 1992 and receiving waters (numbers mary water quality concerns were: (1) refer to sites shown in Figure 6) the effect of nutrient loading on both the inland waters and the bay; and (2) Treatment Works Discharge Volume Receiving water the health risk associated with the poor M l/d a y microbiological water quality (bacterial and viral) of rivers, stormwater and 1. Simonstown 2,0 False Bay treated wastewater outfalls discharging 2. Cape Flats 135,0 Zeekoe Canal in the vicinity of inland and coastal 3. Mitchells Plain 25,0 False Bay recreation nodes. 4.Bellville 40,0 Kuils River 5. Kuils River 1,5 Kuils River The main sources of both nutrients and 6.Cape Corps 0,5 Kuils River bacteria/viruses are runoff from urban 7.Zandvliet 20,0 Kuils River and agricultural land (non-point sour­ 8. Macassar 19,0 Eerste River ce), and discharges from wastewater 9, Scottsdene 3,3 Kuils River treatment works (point source). Nutri­ 10.Elsenberg 0,4 Eerste River ent enrichment of inland and coastal 11. Stellenbosch 12,0 Eerste River water bodies increases the potential for 12. Gordons Bay 1,5 False Bay algal and diatom blooms and may also 13. Wildevoelvlei 4,1 W ildevoelvlei result in the deoxygenation of the 14.Athlone 109,0 Salt/Black River bottom water (Harding and Quick, 15.Borchards Quarry 29,7 Salt/Black River 1992; Quick and Roberts, 1993). Both 16. Parow 0,8 Salt/Black River have negative impacts on ecosystems 17. Milnerton 19,8 Rietvlei/Diep R and on the aesthetic and amenity value 18.Kraaifontein 5,5 Kuils River of water bodies (Thornton et al., 1989; 19. Pniel 0,8 Berg River Quick and Johansson, 1992). A third 20. Paarl 15,1 Berg River concern relates to the probable con­ 21. Wellington 3,1 Berg River tamination of the Cape Flats aquifer (a 22.Melkbosstrand 1,5 Salt River potential source of potable water) by 23. Atlantis/Wes Fleur 5,4 Salt River the Mitchells Plain Works, Swartklip

Sanitary landfill site, Khayelitsha Information from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Western Cape. township and Phillipi farming area wastewater treatment works and a FUTURE URBAN GROWTH AND (Vandoolaeghe, 1990; Ninham Shand, single sanitary landfill site are located IMPLICATIONS 1992a). in the Salt River catchment The False Bay catchment is the area Table Bay and Atlantic Ocean catch­ Details on the water quality status in which faces the most intense develop­ ment Table Bay are given in Quick and ment pressure (Figure 6). Much of the South of Table Bay two wastewater Roberts (1993). They noted the same stormwater runoff from these potential outfalls, two rivers and numerous general water quality concerns for developments will impact on water small stormwater outfalls discharge Table Bay and its catchment as those quality and flow in the Zeekoe and into the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 5; described earlier for the False Bay Kuils River catchments. Wastewater Table 3). There is only one treatment catchment will impact primarily on the Cape works and one landfill site situated in Flats, Mitchells Plain, Zandvliet and Berg, Bree (Riviersonderend and the Noordhoek area. Stormwater from Macassar Treatment Works. Breede) and Palmiet catchments urban areas is discharged through Increased runoff from development in numerous small stormwater outfalls. Only a small portion of the Berg, the Kuils River catchment will in­ Riviersonderend and Palmiet catch­ A single wastewater and two industrial crease the flood risk in the middle and ments are included in the metropolitan outfalls discharge into Table Bay. The lower reaches of the river (N inham area, therefore, a detailed discussion of Bay also receives discharges from two Shand, in prep.). water quality issue affecting their rivers and a number of stormwater entire catchments is considered beyond Along the Atlantic coastline $outh of outfalls. Three treatment works and the scope of this paper. It is, however, Table Bay the only potential develop­ two sanitary landfill sites are located important to note that these catchments ment is in the Ocean View/Noordhoek in the Salt/Black River catchment. In supply 86 per cent of Metropolitan area. This will impact on the Noord­ the Diep River catchment there are Cape Town's potable water allocation. hoek wetlands and beach, and the two wastewater treatment works and Dams and water abstraction are having Kommetjie Beach. In the greater Table four landfill sites (two of which are for a major impact on the hydrology, Bay catchment potential development hazardous chemicals). ecology and aesthetics of these riverine areas which will impact on inland To the north of Table Bay there are systems (Figure 4; Table 2; and coastal waters include: Ysterplaat, discharges of stormwater from Blou- Department of Water Affairs, in prep, Wingfield Acacia Park South, Marconi bergstrand and Melkbosstrand, and a and b; 1992; 1991a). Beam, Milnerton, Bloubergstrand and discharges from the Salt River and Koeberg nuclear power station. Two

5 Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 0 © 0 0 © © Town. Figure Figure 6. Potential future development and redevelopment in M^ropolitan Cape

tf and and industrial discharges along the coastline of Metropolitan Cape Town. Figure Figure 5. Major river and wastewater catchments, and river, stormwater, wastewater

Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 6 Table View. Milnerton, Bloubergstrand Berg and Palmiet Rivers. Their pri­ stormwater and treated wastewater and part of Table View drain directly mary objective is to determine the outfalls along the north shore coast. into the surf zone. The remaining quantity and quality of water required • The direct and indirect (secondary) potential developments drain into the to maintain the desired status of the lower reaches of the Diep River (in­ ecology in dimensions of time and effects of increased nutrient loading cluding Rietvlei and Milnerton La­ space (Department of Water Affairs on river, surf zone and Bay ecosys­ tems. goon), which in turn will impact on and Forestry, in prep. b). Table Bay in the vicinity of discharge To this end a number of studies have • The direct and indirect (secondary) into the ocean. been conducted, and are continuing, on effects of low income housing A range of future water demand sce­ the Palmiet and Berg Rivers. These development, agriculture, Mitchells narios are shown graphically in Figure studies cover a broad range of topics, Plain Wastewater Treatment works 7. The most likely scenario according which include hydrology, terrestrial and the Swartklip sanitary landfill to Spies and Barridge (1991), assumes and aquatic ecosystems and socio­ site on the future use of the Cape the 1970-1990 pattern of growth (10 economic concerns (CSIR, in prep.; Flats aquifier as a potable water years of fair economic growth fol­ Department of Water Affairs and resource. lowed by 10 years of stagnation), in Forestry, in prep, a and b, 1991a; • The need to improve our informa­ which water use increases at one and a Ninham Shand, in prep., 1992b). Little tion base on the options for manag­ half times the population growth information is available on the Breede ing the water quality of stormwater Using this scenario the Water Research and Riviersonderend Rivers. runoff, the loading of nutrients Commission (in prep.) predicted that Management concerns for False Bay entering the Bay and implications in order to meet both the irrigation and and catchment for the Bay ecosystems, the mixing urban water demand additional re­ dynamics of outfalls and rivers sources would be needed by 1995. • The direct effects of present and flowing into the surf zone, and the Potential future water resources are future urbanisation (particularly circulation and flushing of False summarised in Table 4. low cost and informal housing) and Bay. proposed densification in the Cape Increased potable water demand in • The need for an officially consti­ Metropolitan Cape Town will impact Flats on storm water/waste water/ river micro-biological and nutrient tuted body, with representatives primarily on the riverine ecosystems of water quality. from local and government authori­ the Berg, Bree and Palmiet catch­ ties, the users of the Bay, and ments. Because the negative impacts • The direct effects of above urbani­ affected communities to manage of water abstraction, dams and inter­ sation on flooding in the lower False Bay. basin transfer of water on riverine reaches of the Kuils River. ecosystems have been well document­ Management concerns for Table Bay ed nationally and internationally (Dav­ • The direct and indirect (secondary) and Atlantic catchment ies and Day, 1986; Moss 1992; effects of poor micro-biological • The direct effects of urbanisation Wetzel, 1992) the Department of water quality cm recreation in lakes (particularly informal housing at Water Affairs and Forestry has been (Zeekoevlei and Zandvlei) and in the Marconi Beam site) on micro­ conducting impact assessments on the the vicinity of river mouths, and bial and nutrient quality of storm­ water, and indirect (secondary) effect on the Rietvlei ecosystem, and recreation in Diep River la­ goon and mouth area.

• The direct effects of potential future development at the Marconi Beam site, along the Milnerton coast, and at Ysterplaat, Wingfield, Acacia Park South, Bloubergstrand and Table View on microbial and nutrient quality of stormwater, and loading of wastewater to the Milnerton Works. The secondary impacts of these potential develop­ ments on water contact recreation (Rietvlei, Milnerton Lagoon, Table YEAR Bay coastline) and river, estuarine Figure 7. Future water demand scenarios tor Metropolitan Cape Town. 1 = 4% growth; and marine ecosystems (in close 2 = return to the 1960's, high economic growth, little informal housing, water use proximity to rivers and outfalls) Increases at )ust over double the population growth; 3 = third world future, population growth dominated by rapidly expanding poor population, Increased should also be assessed. water use follows the pattern of the 1980’s; 4 = second world future, assumes 1970 to 1990 pattern of growth (10 years economic growth, 10 years economic • The direct effects of potential stagnation), water use Increases at 1,5 times the population growth; and future urbanization on microbial 5 = forecasts provided by local authorities (source: Spies and Barridge, 1991). and nutrient quality of stormwater

7 Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 Table 4: Summary of potential future conventional sources of potable • The need to collate information and water in Metropolitan Cape Town - refer also to Figures 1 and 4 initiate relevant research on the (sources: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1992; in Riversonderend and Breede Rivers. prep, a; Water Research Commission, in prep.) Please note that many of these issues are currently being investigated by the Resource Estimated Yield * Department of Water Affairs “ and (x 1 0sM3Y'') Forestry (Department of Water Affairs High probability of development and Forestry, in prep. a). 0 Palmiet Phase 1 (aqueduct from Rockview Dam to Steenbras, and 36 CONCLUSION pipeline to Faure treatment works) There are three key problems relating 0 Lower Berg River: Voelviei/Lorelei 1 (pipeline from Berg River to 15 Voelvlei Dam) to the present management of the inland and coastal waters of Metropoli­ 0 Upper Berg River: Skuifraam Dam 80 tan Cape Town. Firstly, there is a lack of essential research information Further evaluation needed Research priorities identified were: (1) 0 Klein Drakenstein diversion (dam in Elands River, Breede system, and 35 the need to improve our information pipeline to Riviersonderend Scheme) base on the options for managing the 0 Eerste and lourens River diversions (direct diversion of high water 15 quality (both nutrient and bacte­ flows to Faure treatment works) rial/viral) of stormwater runoff enter­

° Cape Flats Groundwater 18 ing rivers and discharging into the coastal zone; (2) the need to determine 0 Newlands Groundwater 10-15 the potential effect of nutrient loading 0 Lower Berg River: Voelviei/Lorelei Phase II & III 110 on coastal zone and bay ecocystems; and (3) the need to collate information ° Lower Berg River: Raising of Misverstand Dam wall 110 and initiate research on the Rivierson- 0 Lower Berg River Groundwater 78 derend and Breede Rivers.

0 Breede River (pumping of water from Brandvlei Dam to 100 Secondly, there is a lack of co­ Theewaterskloof Dam) ordinated policy and planning within,

0 Olifants River (diversion to Berg River catchment) 90 and between, the numerous different local and government authorities in 0 Diep River (Platrug Dam) 12 Metropolitan Cape Town. Thirdly, no 0 Palmiet Phase II (Damming of lower Palmiet River) 44-106 single authority is responsible for the control of marine pollution. The re­ 0 Sewage effluent - direct re-use after reclamation 8 0 -1 0 0 sponsibility has been fragmented - exchange for irrigation water 20 between several government Depart­ * The entire yield of each of these resources as given above will not necessarily be available to ments including the Departments of the metropolitan area as environmental and/or local demands may receive priority. Transport, Water Affairs, Environment Affairs and National Health and and loading of wastewater to the Management concerns for the Berg, Population Development, and Provin­ Wildevoelvlei Works, and secondary Bree and Palmiet catchments cial and Local authorities (Lusher and effects on the Noordhoek Wetland and Ramsden, 1992). • The need to fully assess, on a Atlantic coastline ecosystems, and water-contact recreation on Noordhoek regional scale, the environmental, Despite the problems noted above, social, economic and opportunity and Kommetjie Beaches. there is cause for optimism. Central costs of utilising conventional government is aware of the lack of • The direct effects of urbanisation potable water resources. coordination and fragmentation of on nutrient loading into Table Bay environmental management and is • The need to investigate the and potential indirect (secondary) taking steps to address these issues feasibility of utilising unconven­ effect on the Bay ecosystem. (Council for the Environment, 1989a, tional potable water resources such b and c; Department of Water Affairs • The need for a water quality as: treated wastewater, sea water and Forestry, 1991b; Presidents Coun­ monitoring programme in the desalination, icebergs, importation cil, 1991). Positive developments are Harbour area. by tanker and a dual reticulation also occurring at the metropolitan scale system. • The need for research to determine in Cape Town. The two major local the pollution status (particularly • The need to investigate implement­ authorities (Cape Town City Council with regard to nutrients) of the ing water demand management and the Western Cape Regional Ser­ whole of Table Bay. including water efficient plumbing, vices Council) began working toward a water efficient gardening, leak Metropolitan Development Framework • The need for a management com­ detection and prevention, tariffs, in February 1991 (City of Cape Town, mittee which includes local authori­ rainwater tanks, bathwater tanks, 1992). ties, government bodies and the restrictions and universal metering. users of Table Bay.

Town and Regional Planning No. 35, 1993 8 In addition, a number of coordinated future environmental policy take cog­ resources (financial, human, land etc.) metropolitan/regional planning forums nisance of the planning priorities in by local government, private sector, have been initiated, all of which recog­ developing cities, which have been non- government organisations and nise the need to include all the major identified by Stren and White (1989), individuals; (6) the integration of stakeholder groups. These include the Bartone (1991), Clark (1991), World appropriate environmental policy, Western Cape Economic Development Bank (1991), Hardoy et al. (1992) and planning and management, based on Forum, the Transportation Forum, the Stren et al. (1992): (1) the promotion sustainable development, in the overall Electricity Forum and others. Signifi­ of economic growth and development urban planning process; and (7) the cant developments with regard to the to create optimum employment oppor­ provision of co-ordinated, accountable, management of water quality include tunities; (2) the facilitation of equitable metropolitan/regional planning and the formation of the False Bay and access to urban facilities/opportunities management. Table Bay Water Quality Committees (particularly employment); (3) the and the False Bay Forum. facilitation of affordable, appropriate and accessible housing/shelter by the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The next step should be the formu­ private and public sector; (4) the lation of a metropolitan inland and Drawings in this paper are by Viera provision of essential services, notably coastal waters management policy Sokal. Stephen Granger, N inham potable water and waste/wastewater which forms part of a larger environ­ Shand Inc., is thanked for his assistance. removal; (5) the promotion of effi­ mental management policy for Metro­ cient, equitable and sustainable use of politan Cape Town. It is essential that

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