BOBLME-2011-Ecology-11
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BOBLME contract: PSA-GCP 212/10/2010
For bibliographic purposes, please reference this publication as:
BOBLME (2011) Country Report on Pollution - Malaysia BOBLME-2011-Ecology-11 BOBLME: Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem
Malaysia
National Report on
Coastal Pollution Loading and Water Quality Criteria
Zelina Z. Ibrahim, Mohd. Pauzi Zakaria, Norhayati Mohd. Tahir*, Sutarji Kasmin, Abd. Muhaimin Amiruddin, Norliza Ismail and Khairiyah Abd. Rahim.
Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia
*Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
Country Report on Pollution - Malaysia
Contents
1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Peninsular Malaysia ...... 8 1.1. Bio-geographical features ...... 8 1.2. Coastal activities ...... 11 1.3 Overview of Sources of Pollution ...... 13 1.3.1 Land-based Sources ...... 13 1.3.2 Sea/Marine-based Sources ...... 15 1.3.3 Priority Categories of Parameters ...... 16 2. International Instruments, Conventions, Protocols and Programmes...... 18 2.1 Environmental Agreements and Programmes ...... 18 2.2 Maritime Agreements and Programmes ...... 20 3. Governance ...... 22 3.1 Policy, Legislation, Acts, Regulations and Orders ...... 22 3.2 The Environmental Quality Act, 1974 ...... 23 3.3 Institutional Mechanisms ...... 26 3.4 The Department of Environment ...... 28 4. Existing Water Quality Standards ...... 30 4.1 Effluent Discharge Standards ...... 30 4.2 Ambient Water Quality Standards ...... 31 4.3 Marine Water Quality Standards ...... 31 5 The National Water, Coastal and Marine Monitoring Programme and Current Status ...... 36 5.1 Environmental Monitoring ...... 36 5.2 River Water Quality Monitoring ...... 36 5.3 Coastal and Marine Water Quality Monitoring ...... 38 5.4 Oil Pollution ...... 43 5.5 Heavy Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) ...... 46 5.6 Harmful Algal Blooms ...... 52 6 Gaps and Challenges ...... 54 6.1 Governance Infrastructure ...... 54 6.2 Knowledge and Human Resources Management ...... 56 6.3 The Way Forward ...... 57
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: The Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem ...... 8
Figure 1.2: The Strait of Malacca ...... 9
Figure 1.3: States and River Catchments on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia...... 10
Figure 1.4: Percentage of Land Use According to State in West Coast Region in 2001 ...... 11
Figure 1.5: Ports in Peninsular Malaysia...... 13
Figure 1.6: Vessels Traversing the Straits of Malacca and Singapore Reporting to Klang VTS...... 16
Figure 1.7: Observed Exceedence of Malaysian Interim Marine Water Quality Standards ...... 17
Figure 2.1: MEH Demonstration Project Survey Area 1 ...... 21
Figure 5.1: Peninsular Malaysia River Basins Water Quality Status, 2008 ...... 37
Figure 5.2: State Population on West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 2003-2007 ...... 38
Figure 5.3: Percentage of Coastal Water Samples Exceeding Ambient Standards on West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 2008 ...... 39
Figure 5.4: West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia Water Pollution Point Sources by Sector ...... 40
Figure 5.5: Malaysia: Distribution of Sewage Treatment Plants by State, 2008...... 41
Figure 5.6: Distribution of Industrial Water Pollution Point Sources (Agro-based and Manufacturing Industries) by State, 2008...... 41
Figure 5.7: Marine Water Quality Nearshore and Offshore...... 42
Figure 5.8: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Seas...... 43
Figure 6.1: Malaysian Research and Development Expenditure ...... 57
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List of Tables
Table 1.1: Location of Major Industrial Lands on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia ...... 12
Table 1.2: Oil Refineries on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia ...... 12
Table 2.1: Progress in GPA Activities ...... 19
Table 2.2: International Maritime Conventions Adopted by Malaysia...... 20
Table 3.1: Other Legislation Relevant for Marine Water Pollution Control ...... 22
Table 3.2: Environmental Quality Act 1974 and Amendments ...... 24
Table 3.3: Regulations under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution ...... 24
Table 3.4: Orders under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution ...... 26
Table 3.5: Agencies Relevant to Water Resources Management ...... 27
Table 3.6: DOE EIA Report Guidelines Relevant to Coastal and Marine Projects ...... 29
Table 4.1: Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979...... 30
Table 4.2: National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia ...... 32
Table 4.3. DOE Water Quality Classification and Class Standards for Malaysia ...... 34
Table 4.4: Malaysia Interim Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards ...... 35
Table 5.1: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Waters, 1975–1997 ...... 45
Table 5.2: Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in Sediments and Perna viridis ...... 47
Table 5.3: Concentration of Heavy Metals in Cultured Fishes, Langat River Estuary ...... 47
Table 5.4: Hydrocarbons in Malaysian waters ...... 49
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List of Abbreviations
AMWQC ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
COBSEA Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia
COD Chemical oxygen demand
DANCED Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DID Department of Irrigation and Drainage
DO Dissolved oxygen
DOE Department of Environment
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EPU Economic Planning Unit
EQA Environmental Quality Act
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FCZ Free Commercial Zones
FIZ Free Industrial Zones
GEF Global Environment Facility
GPA Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land- based Activities
HABs Harmful Algal Blooms
HCH Hexachlorocyclohexane
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
ICS International Chamber of Shipping
IHO International Hydrographic Organization
IST Individual Septic Tanks
IMO International Maritime Organisation
IMWQS Interim Marine Water Quality Standards
INTERTANKO International Association of Independent Tanker Owners
IWK Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd
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JPBD Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa (Town and Country Planning Department)
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
MEH Marine Electronic Highway
MEHDP MEH Demonstration Programme
MIDA Malaysian Investment Development Authority
MMEA Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency
MyNODC Malaysian National Oceanography Data Centre
NH3-N Ammoniacal nitrogen
NH4 Ammonium
NIP National Implementation Plans
NPP National Physical Plan
NO2 Nitrite
NO3 Nitrate
NSC National Steering Committee
OCPs Organochlorine pesticides
PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls
PEMSEA Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia
PO4 Phosphorus
POPs Persistent organic pollutants ppb part per billion
PSP Paralytic shellfish poisoning
SiO4 Silicate
SS Suspended solids
Sv Sverdrup, unit of measure of volume transport equivalent to 0.001 km3/s
STP Sewage Treatment Plant t tonne
TSS Traffic Separation Scheme
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
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UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Culture Organisation
WPKL Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur (Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory) WQI Water Quality Index
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1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
1.1. Bio-geographical features
The Strait of Malacca lies in the southeastern corner of the BOBLME (Figure 1.1).The West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia forms the eastern shoreline of the Strait (Figure 1.2a). The Strait extends from the Andaman Sea, in the north, to the southern end of the Malay Peninsula. It is approximately 540 nautical miles or 1,000 km long. The northern entrance is 300 nautical miles or 555 km wide while the southern end is about 6.5 nautical miles or 12 km wide (MEHDP, 2010a). The Strait is about 100 m deep in the north and shallows to less than 30 m from One Fathom Bank, located approximately midway in the Strait (Figure 1.2b). The water volume passing through the Strait is small and estimated to be less than 0.01 Sv (1 X 106 m3s-1) (Namba and Ibrahim, 2002). The net current direction is northwestward at about 1 knot (0.5 ms-1) and varies with the seasonal winds (Ibrahim and Yanagi, 2006). The tidal pattern is predominantly semidiurnal with the diurnal inequality increasing southward. The tide ranges are meso-tidal in the north becoming macro-tidal in the centre, due to the funnelling effect. To the south the tide range tends to be micro-tidal. The tidal currents generally set southeastward during flood and northwestward during ebb.
Bay of Bengal
AS
Peninsular MS Malaysia
Indian Ocean
AS - Andaman Sea, MS - Malacca Strait
Figure 1.1: The Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (source: http://www.seaaroundus.org/lme/34.aspx accessed 29 May 2010)
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a. Eastern Corridor of the Strait of Malacca on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Source: Chart No. MAL 5, National Hydrographic Centre at http://www.hydro.gov.my/images/charts/mal%205.jpg accessed 30 May 2010, Ismail et al. 2003)
. b. 3D Bottom Surface and Longitudinal Cross Section of the Strait of Malacca (Source: Hii et al. 2006)
Figure 1.2: The Strait of Malacca
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The area experiences uniform temperatures (22-33 oC), high humidity (70-90%) and abundant rainfall (2400 mm) (Malaysian Meteorological Department, 2010). Four main seasons may be distinguished: the southwest monsoon, the northeast monsoon and two inter-monsoon seasons. Maximum rainfalls occur in October-November and April to May, during the early part of the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon, respectively.
There are eight coastal states that line the eastern corridor of the Strait of Malacca, on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. From north to south, they are Perlis, Kedah, Penang (Pulau Pinang), Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, and Johore (Figure 1.3a). The Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya lie within the state of Selangor and they contribute to discharges through the state of Selangor.
Most rivers on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia are short and steep. There are over 37 river catchments (Figure 1.3b) discharging into the Strait of Malacca. Much of the larger rivers are harvested for public water supply and have altered flow regimes. These rivers are the main sources of land-based pollution into the coastal waters and most are monitored for streamflow by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) and for water quality by the Malaysian Department of Environment (DOE).
a. States and Federal Territories b. River Catchments Monitored by DOE for (source: © 2009 Golbez, Mdzafri. Water Quality http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Malaysia (source: _states_named.png accessed 29 May http://www.enviromalaysia.com.my/product 2010) s_d_waterquality3.php accessed 29 May 2010 ) Figure 1.3: States and River Catchments on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
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The coastal landscape varies from alluvial coastal plains to hills to rocky outcrops. The natural coastal land cover is varied, with mudflats, sandy beaches, mangroves, seagrass meadows and algal beds, coral reefs, limestone and granite cliffs, estuaries, fine sand tidal flats and small island ecosystems. Ismail et al. (2003) have summarised the rich biodiversity of habitats found on the West Coast. Studies on the marine ecosystems have concentrated on mangroves (Nixon et al., 1984; Ong et al., 1991; Othman, 1994; Chong, 2006), coral reefs (Tan and Yusoff, 2002; Toda et al. 2007) and seagrasses (Bujang et al., 2006). The hinterland land cover is mainly paddy, plantation agriculture, secondary jungle, and virgin rainforest. The current circulation in the Strait and surrounding waters has been described by Wrytki (1961).
1.2. Coastal activities
The hinterland of the west coast is the most developed portion of Peninsular Malaysia, with major coastal urban developments in Penang, Selangor, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan. The landuse has been summarised by the National Physical Plan (JPBD, 2009) (Figure 1.4). Much of the landuse is agriculture and forest lands. Built-up area comprises only 5.6% of the total area. The 25 Free Commercial Zones (FCZ) and Free Industrial Zones (FIZ) located along the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia are listed in Table 1.1. Currently, there are four oil refineries on the west coast of Malaysia (Table 1.2).
Figure 1.4: Percentage of Land Use According to State in West Coast Region in 2001 (source: JPBD, 2009)
In addition to activities on land, the Strait of Malacca is an important seaway and is significant to the fisheries industry of Malaysia. The total number of fishermen in the west coast is approximately 40,800, forming approximately 40% of the total fishermen in Malaysia. The total number of fishing
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vessel amounts to 17,932 fishing vessels, which is higher than any other part of Malaysia (Department of Fisheries Malaysia, 2010).
The major ports (Figure 1.5) in Malaysia are expected to invest more than RM6 billion to expand their capacities, handling facilities and services. The three major federal international ports on the West Coast: are Penang Port, Port Klang and Port of Tanjung Pelepas. The Ministry of Transport's policy is to make Port Klang as the national load centre and the regional trans-shipment hub, and to develop the Port of Tanjung Pelepas as the trans-shipment hub for the southern region of Malaysia (MIDA, 2010).
Table 1.1: Location of Major Industrial Lands on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia Industrial Zone Area State Free Commercial Butterworth; Bayan Lepas Penang Zones North, South and West Port of Port Klang; Port Klang Free Selangor Zone; Pulau Indah MILS Logistic Hub; KLIA Port Tanjung Pelepas Johor Free Industrial Bayan Lepas I, II, III, IV; Seberang Perai; Kinta; Jelapang II Penang Zones Telok Panglima Garang; Pulau Indah (PKFZ); Sungai Way I Selangor and II; Ulu Kelang Batu Berendam I and II; Tanjung Kling Malacca Tanjung Pelepas Johor
Table 1.2: Oil Refineries on West Coast Peninsular Malaysia
No. Refinary Company State Production 1 Melaka I Refinery Petronas Penapisan (Melaka) Sdn Bhd Malacca 126,000 bbl/d (20,000 m3/d) 2 Melaka II Refinery Petronas/ConocoPhillips Malacca 170,000 bbl/d Malaysia Refining Company Sdn Bhd (27,000 m3/d) 3 Port Dickson Royal Dutch Shell Negeri 155,000 bbl/d Refinery Shell Refining Company (FOM) Bhd Sembilan (24,600 m3/d)
4 Esso Port Dickson ExxonMobil Selangor 86,000 bbl/d Refinery Esso (Malaysia) Bhd (13,700 m3/d)
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Figure 1.5: Ports in Peninsular Malaysia. (source: www.portsworld.com/main/ports.htm, accessed 30 May 2010)
1.3 Overview of Sources of Pollution
1.3.1 Land-based Sources
Land-based, point and non-point pollution sources are important in causing marine pollution. The DOE categorises point sources into sewage treatment plants, manufacturing industries, agro-based industries, and animal farms. Recent studies of catchment pollutant loading estimates in Malaysian rivers indicate that non-point pollutant contribution may be equivalent or greater to that of point sources. About 83% of the population in Peninsular Malaysia have access to sewage treatment. The discharge from sewage treatment plants is mandated to a standard enforced by the DOE. However, many rural and older houses in urban areas still use an individual septic tank with kitchen wastes being directly discharged into storm drains. Industrial activities, particularly involving heavy metals, such as mercury and lead or cadmium, also cause pollution of coastal areas. In Malaysian coastal waters, oil and grease, suspended solids and Escherichia coli (E. coli) are identified, in the annual DOE Malaysia Environmental Quality Reports, as being the main contaminants of coastal waters.
Effluent discharges from large-scale manufacturing or heavy industries, such as the oil refineries and the FIZ/FCZ complexes, including food processing industries are regulated by the Department of Environment, and have to meet specific industrial and sewerage discharge standards prescribed under the Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA 1974). The oil palm and rubber industries are licensed under two separate regulations, also under the Environmental Quality Act 1974. Although large industries are well regulated, smaller and medium industries may be exempted, due to the small
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discharge volume for example, or given temporary contravention licenses. In addition, many agro- based and land development activities are not classified as an "industrial plant" and are not under the purview of the Department of Environment. Such activities can result in pollution of waterways.
Some examples of the main land-based polluting activities sources have been identified by Dato Ahmad Fuad Embi, former Deputy Director-General Drainage and Irrigation Department (pers comm. Dato Ahmad Fuad Embi, former Deputy Director-General Drainage and Irrigation Department, 31 May 2010), based on his knowledge of numerous studies and observations, as:
· Earth Works - Inadequate and incompetent land management practices during land clearance, earthworks, during construction or development activities, result in substantial surface erosion and suspended sediment pollution during high-intensity rain events;
· Wet Markets - In almost all cases, the biggest single contributor of solid waste and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) to urban drains and rivers (e.g., 70% in Sg Pinang in Penang state). Almost all have waste water without treatment facilities;
· Abattoirs/Slaughterhouses - Also a big contributor of BOD, from blood and animal entrails;
· Chicken Processing Stalls - Usually conveniently situated next to main drains or rivers, to enable flushing of feathers and chicken remains directly to the waterways. This is a big source of BOD;
· Landfills near Rivers - Usually the biggest source of solid wastes when situated on the banks of the river concerned. High flows constantly erode the wastes from the site and the toxic leachate seeps out continuously;
· Squatters on River Reserves - Big sources of solid waste, untreated sewage, together with pest infestation, to the rivers concerned;
· Shared (‘Kongsi’) accommodation for workers at construction sites - These are big sources of solid waste, sewage, etc., as they are not served by any public services or facilities;
· Plastic Bags - Almost all urban rivers have beds heavily lined with plastic bags. Plastic bags are a big source of pollution everywhere, especially at night markets locations;
· Individual Septic Tanks in old housing areas - Old housing areas use septic tank sewage systems which, in most cases, are never or rarely desludged. These are sources of very high BOD concentrations discharged to the drains in such areas;
· Old Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) not under the national sewerage system management - About 50% of existing STPs are not under the national sewerage services. These are mostly run by private contractors commissioned by the Local Authorities. Most are old ‘end-of-life’ facilities, and release a lot of effluent to drains and rivers;
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· Restaurants and food stalls - Almost all restaurants, food shops, in urban areas release substantial amounts of waste food and fats which end up rotting in the drains in urban areas, making them stink and creating health hazards by breeding disease vectors (mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats);
· Sand Mines in and upsteam of rivers - Sand mining in upper catchment hills cause severe degradation of pristine headwaters, resulting in heavy sedimentation in the river channels;
· Pig Farming Areas - Present Pig Farming areas are all badly regulated, passing out concentrated effluents to rivers, leaving them stinking and dead from the sludge lining up the river banks;
· Aquaculture in tidal flats - Large scale clearing of mangrove areas is a typical result of aquaculture activities, especially in the upper Perak state area. The sludge from prawn farms are toxic and have contaminated many estuaries; and
· Logging of Permanent Forest Reserves - The threatened logging of the Ulu Muda permanent forest reserves by the Kedah State Government can have severe consequences to the catchment, resulting in heavy sedimentation, degradation of water quality, depletion of aquatic and fish life, and would have a permanent effect on the water supply to Sg Muda, especially in the dry season.
These smaller industries and activities are often under the jurisdiction of the local district or town authorities, or even state authorities, who often have insufficient manpower to evaluate and enforce state and local by-laws, when available.
1.3.2 Sea/Marine-based Sources
Pollution from land-based activities eventually reach the sea. Sea pollution is generated by land, atmospheric and sea sources. Most of the sea-based pollution is due to oil or ballast water discharged from ships (either intentionally or accidentally due to collision or grounding). Pollution from sea-based sources are mainly oil-based although other waste trash may also come from ships. Other sources include shipping traffic, port operations and off-shore oil and gas exploration and production rigs. Due to the high traffic volume in the Strait, it is difficult to track ship movements, monitor activities and enforce compliance with international rules. As a result ships may take advantage of this to illegally dump wastes during operational activities. This contributes to marine pollution problems in the Strait. The main component in crude oil, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), is toxic to marine life and very difficult to clean up. It could remain for years in the sediment and marine environments. Marine species that are constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit physiological problems and are susceptible to diseases.
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In an effort to reduce ship collisions and the resulting discharge of oil, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has adopted the Mandatory Ship Reporting System in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, known as "STRAITREP", as proposed by Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Based on the record of reporting vessels the number of ships passing through the Strait is increasing at approximately 7.5% per year over the last few years (Figure 1.6). About 54% of transiting vessels in the Straits are general cargo vessels and container ships, while about 35% are crude oil and petroleum products carriers. All these vessels are potential sources of pollution. The numbers recorded by the STRAITREP is only that from reporting vessels. This may seriously underestimate the total vessel traffic, as Kamaruzaman (1998) estimated a number of some 600 vessels daily, including fishing vessels, traditional small crafts, pleasure crafts. This gives a number of 213,600 vessels over a period of one year for 1998, which is more than five times the number of reporting vessels recorded in 1999.
Vessels Reporting to Klang VTS
90,000 30
80,000 25 70,000 20 60,000
50,000 15
40,000
Vessels 10 30,000 5 20,000 % Increase in Reporting 0 10,000
0 -5 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Year
Note: bars indicate number of vessels; line indicates % increase in reporting
Figure 1.6: Vessels Traversing the Straits of Malacca and Singapore Reporting to Klang VTS. (Source: Malaysian Marine Department, http://www.marine.gov.my/ accessed 29 May 2010; MEHDP, 2010c)
1.3.3 Priority Categories of Parameters
In the 2008 Malaysian Environmental Quality Report, the DOE (2009) has prioritised three parameters as being of major significance to marine pollution (Figure 1.7). They are Total Suspended Solids, Oil and Grease and E. coli. Suspended Solids is high in coastal areas where rivers discharge. Oil and Grease are problematic in high maritime traffic areas. Coliform levels often exceed the interim ambient standards near urbanised locations.
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a. Exceedence for Years 2006 to 2008.
b. Exceedence by State, 2008.
c. Exceedence by Island Type, 2008. Figure 1.7: Observed Exceedence of Malaysian Interim Marine Water Quality Standards (Source: DOE, 2009)
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2. International Instruments, Conventions, Protocols and Programmes
2.1 Environmental Agreements and Programmes
Malaysia participates actively in the regional and international fora on environment and has good working relationships with a number of international organizations, including the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia (COBSEA), UNESCO, GEF/UNDP/IMO, and PEMSEA. Malaysia is a party to the following international environmental agreements relevant for marine pollution: Convention on Biological Diversity; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; Hazardous Wastes; United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; Marine Life Conservation; Ozone Layer Protection; Ship Pollution; and Wetlands.
Most of these Multilateral Environmental Agreements are managed by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, through the DOE. For example, the DOE regulates toxic and hazardous wastes and ozone-depleting substances in accordance with the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. For the Montreal Protocol, a National Steering Committee was established under the DOE which serves also as the national focal point. Trade aspects of toxic and hazardous wastes are controlled under the Customs Act, 1967, and enforced jointly by the Royal Customs and Excise Department and the DOE. For chemicals in general, the DOE plays the role of the Designated National Authority for industrial chemicals other than pesticides. Pesticides are controlled by the Pesticides Board, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro- based Industries. The DOE is designated as the Malaysian National Correspondent for the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, the International Programme on Chemical Safety, the implementation of the London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade (Amended), 1989, the operation of the information exchange service and the prior informed consent procedure, and other international chemical programmes. Marine life agreements involve the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industries. Ship pollution is managed by both the DOE and the Marine Department Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Transport.
Implementation of Agenda 21 is monitored by an Inter-Agency Planning Group (IAPG) under the Prime Minister's Office. In line with its commitment to Agenda 21, Malaysia signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1993; Convention on Biological Diversity 1992; Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Toxic and Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal; the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands; and the Convention to Combat Desertification. In 2000 COBSEA endorsed the Regional Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
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Environment of the East Asian Seas from the Effects of Land-based Activities. Malaysia participates in the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA). Progress in the region is measured based on five indicators (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Progress in GPA Activities
No. Indicators Progress 1 Development and Malaysian environmental laws have been revised and implementation of national updated; new scheduled wastes regulations (2005). legislation, policies and strategies 2 Strengthening of institutional Malaysia has already set up a Department of arrangements Environment 3 Development of capacity in River Rehabilitation Programmes for 26 rivers identified integrated watershed and based on pollution threat and importance for the use of coastal management and drinking water, fisheries and tourism. In 2006, studies scientific input to policymaking had been carried out on six rivers. and decision-taking programs 4 Increased access to safe water Malaysia has embarked on a privatization program of all and improved sanitation and sewerage services, and is committed to providing sewage services treatment facilities for 100 percent of its urban population by 2015. The private concessionaires now operate over 8,400 sewage treatment plants throughout Malaysia. The government budget allocation for pollution prevention and control (to Department of Environment) amounts to $27.4 million (2004); and the operation and maintenance costs for private sewage treatment plans amount to $55.1 million (2005). 5 Forging of partnership Malaysia hosted the East Asian Seas (EAS) Congress arrangements for sustainable 2003 focused on the theme Regional Implementation of development of coasts and WSSD Commitments for the Seas of East Asia. oceans. There are National Environmental Awareness Campaigns for both public and rural areas; awareness campaigns for specified groups (industrial, local community, NGOs and journalists); Environmental Awareness Camps for primary and secondary school teachers; Environmental Competitions between Institutions of Higher Learning; and Sustainable Schools Programme Environment Award. There is increased collaboration with NGOs in sustainable management activities and programmes, especially in community river management and rehabilitation. Source: http://www.unescap.org/drpad/vc/orientation/legal/3_aware_mly.htm; http://www.cobsea.org/documents/Meeting_Documents/EAS%20IGR2%20Prep/Partnership%20Oppo rtunities.pdf
Malaysia became a signatory to the Stockholm Convention on POPs on 16 May 2002 and is one of the 12 countries selected to implement a GEF/UNEP-funded project entitled “Development of National Implementation Plans (NIP) for the Management of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Malaysia”. The Malaysian government had established a National Steering Committee (NSC)
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structure for the management of POPs at national level (Ramachandran and Mourin, 2006). The NSC on POPs is the main body that was established to look specifically into various aspects related to the management of POPs. Public input in the development of the NIP is considerably lacking. Awareness among Malaysian public regarding POPs is still low. The NIP report reports that as many as 80% of Malaysians did not have knowledge about POPs. More than 60% did not consider POPs as hazardous (Sangaralingam, 2005).
2.2 Maritime Agreements and Programmes
Maritime agreements are under the purview of the Marine Department, Ministry of Transport. The list of international conventions adopted by Malaysia is given in Table 2.2. Malaysia has ratified MARPOL 73/78 Annex V and has 15 ports that have reception facilities for garbage waste. The garbage removal and disposal services at these facilities are provided by private contractors.
Table 2.2: International Maritime Conventions Adopted by Malaysia.
No. International Shipping Conventions 1 Convention on the International Maritime Organization, 1948
2 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG)1972, as amended 3 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974, as amended 4 Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974, as amended 5 International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969
6 Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO)1976, as amended 7 Operating Agreement on the International Mobile Satellite Organization 1976, as amended 8 International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) 1978, as amended 9 International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (FUND) 1971 10 Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973, as amended (Annex I, II & V) 11 International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co- operation (OPRC) 1990 12 Amendments Adopted in November 1991 to the Convention of the International Maritime Organization (Institutionalization of the Facilitation Committee) 13 Protocol of 1992 to amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) 1969 14 Protocol of 1992 to amend the International Convention on the Establishment
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of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage 1971
15 The International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 (Bunkers Convention 2001) 16 The International Convention for the Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, 1976 as Amended by Protocol of 1996 (LLMC Convention 1996)
The Strait of Malacca is one of the busiest sea lanes in the world, especially for oil tanker traffic. Due to the high volume of shipping, the Strait is highly susceptible to ship-based marine pollution, such as oil and grease. To reduce accidents, shipping traffic in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are managed by an International Maritime Organisation (IMO) approved routing system since 1977. The system comprises a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) and a Deep-Water Route, as well as specific navigating rules. The TSS applies in the southern half of the Strait which is narrow and shallow, increasing the risk of ship collision or grounding. A key hydrographic survey (Figure 2.1) within the shallow areas of the TSS of the Strait of Malacca and Singapore is underway as part of the Marine Electronic Highway (MEH) Demonstration Project (Sekimizu et al., 2001). This is a regional project that IMO is executing for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) / World Bank. The purpose is to produce an updated electronic navigation chart of the area. The MEH is a co-operative arrangement with Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, as well as the Republic of Korea, the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and the International Association of Independent Tanker Owners (INTERTANKO) (MEHDP, 2010a).
Figure 2.1: MEH Demonstration Project Survey Area 1 (Source: MEHDP, 2010b)
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3. Governance
3.1 Policy, Legislation, Acts, Regulations and Orders
In 2002 Malaysia approved a National Policy on the Environment which integrates the three elements of sustainable development: economic, social and cultural development and environmental conservation. Although the Environmental Policy is relatively recent, control of pollution and environmental impacts have been legislated much earlier through the EQA 1974. In addition to the EQA, there are other complementary regulations such as laws governing resource use, vessel operation and conduct, land use pattern, and other local government by-laws on earthworks, earth removal, mining, sanitation and solid waste disposal (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Other Legislation Relevant for Marine Water Pollution Control
No. Legislation 1 Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1952 2 Land Conservation Act, 1960 3 National Land Code, 1965 4 Forestry Act, 1984 5 Exclusive Economic Zone Act, 1984 6 Merchant Shipping (Central Mercantile Marine Fund) Rules 1984 7 Fisheries Act, 1985 8 Sewerage Services Act, 1993 9 Sarawak Natural Resources and Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order, 1994 10 Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act, 1998 11 Sabah Conservation of Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order, 1999 12 Exclusive Economic Zone (Appointment of Authoritized Officer) Order 2001 13 Customs (Prohibition of Import) Order 1998, (Amendment), 2006 14 Customs (Prohibition of Export) Order 1998, (Amendment), 2006 15 Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act, 2006
Malaysia does not yet have a coastal management policy although there are many management initiatives which have resulted in coastal management planning documents. Among the notable approaches implemented on the West Coast are Integrated Shoreline Management Plans developed for Penang, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan, under the DID which controls development on the coastline, and the integrated coastal management strategy for Port Klang, Selangor, developed with assistance and training under GEF/UNDP/IMO/PEMSEA Regional Programme and implemented by the Selangor Waters Management Authority.
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The Government has been in the process of developing a coastal management policy and studies have been undertaken since the 1990s. A draft National Coastal Resources Management Policy was prepared under the oversight of the Agriculture Section of the Economic Planning Unit (EPU), at the time. According to Mokhtar (2003), this document formed the basis for an EPU-DANCED project on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), comprising pilot studies on coastal profiles in Penang, Sabah and Sarawak. These studies were complemented by a federal component focusing on institutional and legal frameworks for establishing an ICZM in Malaysia. The biggest problem in the formulation of a national marine or coastal management policy is the very many different parties involved - both public and private - aside from any consideration of national security issues and transboundary concerns. The constitutional structure in Malaysia establishes that land, and waters up to 3 nautical miles, is under State rather than Federal Government jurisdiction. Thus, any policy would have to take into account the rights of the individual States, in addition to any concerns of agencies responsible for resources management and enforcement at sea.
In addition to policies and administrative application of rules, some environmental instruments (EIs) for environmental protection are applied. General tax incentives coupled with other instruments (grants and subsidies) have been in place for the last 10 years (Khor and Obid, 2006). Only very few recent projects, however, directly concern environmental conservation and rehabilitation in coastal areas, in contrast with the many community-based and inland environmental projects.
3.2 The Environmental Quality Act, 1974
The most important legislation in Malaysia governing water quality management is the EQA 1974, and its amendments (Table 3.2). The objective of the EQA is pollution prevention, abatement and control, as well as environment enhancement. The legislation sets limits of allowable pollutant discharge levels for both land and sea-based sources. Currently this Act has 29 regulations, 21 Orders, and 3 Rules (for compounding of offences) associated with it. Of the 29 regulations under the Act, 26 are relevant for water pollution control (Table 3.3). The remaining three are related to air and noise. The two air regulations are included in Table 3.3, as atmospheric fallout, through dry and wet deposition, can contribute to water pollution. The regulations are for control of water pollution relate to licensing, crude palm oil, raw natural rubber, scheduled (toxic) wastes, sewage and industrial effluents, halon and refrigerants, and petroleum products. The discharge standards and procedures for handling the various types of wastes, both from land and sea-based sources, are given in the Regulations. In addition to the regulations there are several Orders which govern prescribed activities and prescribed premises (Table 3.4).
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Table 3.2: Environmental Quality Act 1974 and Amendments
No. Name 1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 2 Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1985 3 Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1996 4 Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1998 5 Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 2001 6 Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 2007
Table 3.3: Regulations under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution
No. Name 1 Environmental Quality (Appeal Board) Regulations 2003 2 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) (Amendment) Regulations 2000 3 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978 - P.U.(A) 280/78 4 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Diesel Engines) (Amendment) Regulations 2000 5 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Diesel Engines) Regulations 1996 6 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Motorcycles) Regulations 2003 7 Environmental Quality (Control Of Emission From Petrol Engines) Regulations 1996 8 Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration In Motor Gasoline) Regulations 1985 9 Environmental Quality (Control Of Petrol And Diesel Properties) Regulations 2007 10 Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution From Solid Waste Transfer Station And Landfill) Regulations 2009 11 Environmental Quality (Dioxin And Furan) Regulations 2004 12 Environmental Quality (Halon Management) Regulations 1999 13 Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009 14 Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations 1977 15 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises Scheduled Wastes Treatment And Disposal Facilities) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 16 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) (Amendment) Regulations 1982 17 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977 18 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) (Amendment) Regulations 1980 19 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978 20 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment And Disposal Facilities) Regulations 1989 21 Environmental Quality (Refrigerant Management) (Amendment) Regulations
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2004 22 Environmental Quality (Refrigerant Management) Regulations 1999 23 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) (Amendment) Regulations 2007 24 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989 (Revoked) 25 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005 26 Environmental Quality (Sewage And Industrial Effluents) (Amendment) Regulations 1997 (Revoked) 27 Environmental Quality (Sewage And Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 28 Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009
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Table 3.4: Orders under EQA 1974 Relevant for Water Pollution
No. Name 1 Environmental Quality (Declared Activities) (Open Burning) Order 2003 2 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers Halon Management) Order 2000 3 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers On Marine Pollution Control) (Amendment) Order 1994 4 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers On Marine Pollution Control) Order 1993 5 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers On Marine Pollution Control) Order 1994 6 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers) (Investigation Of Open Burning) Order 2000 7 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers) (Perbadanan Putrajaya) Order 2002 8 Environmental Quality (Delegation Of Powers) Order 2005 9 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assesment) (Amendment) Order 1995 10 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assesment) (Amendment) Order 1996 11 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) (Amendment) Order 2000 12 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987 13 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Conveyance) (Scheduled Wastes) Order 2005 14 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Order 1977 15 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) (Amendment) Order 1978 16 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Order 1978 17 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment And Disposal Facilities Order) 1989 18 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment And Disposal Facilities) (Amendment) Order 2006 19 Environmental Quality (Prohibition On The Use Of Chlorofluorocarbons And Other Gases As Propellants And Blowing Agents) Order 1993 20 Environmental Quality (Prohibition On The Use Of Controlled Substance In Soap, Synthetic Detergent And Other Cleaning Agents) Order 1995
3.3 Institutional Mechanisms
In Malaysia, the administration and management of water resources is carried out by Federal and various state government agencies. The Federal Government sets the policies and undertakes studies at the national level for overall planning and development purposes. The National Water Resource Council established in 1998 has the responsibility of streamlining water resource development and management activities of all states. Recently, the Federal Government initiated the National Water Resource Studies to evaluate availability of water resources to the year 2050.
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The relationship between the states and Federal Government in terms of legislative and executive powers is governed by the Federal Constitution. Under the Constitution, land is a state matter and, hence, state governments have legislative powers over rivers, lakes, streams, aquifers, including turtles and riverine fishing, including waters up to 3 nautical miles offshore. The key agencies that deal with the implementation, management and monitoring of water resources, and their roles, are described in Table 3.5. In addition to government agencies, there are universities and NGOs who are relevant to marine water quality.
Table 3.5: Agencies Relevant to Water Resources Management
No. Agency Role 1 Department of Irrigation and Involved in development works, operations, and maintenance Drainage, Ministry of Natural of water supply and infrastructures. Also, provides other Resources and Environment technical services such as flood control, coastal pollution information, hydrological data collections, irrigation and river conservancy. 2 Department of Environment Its mission is to promote, ensure and sustain sound (DOE), Ministry of Natural environmental management in the process of nation building. Resources and Environment Has responsibility to ensure the water in rivers is clean by controlling and monitoring pollution. Also undertakes mitigation measures through implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for projects. 3 State Water Departments State agencies are responsible for water abstraction, treatment, and distribution to consumers and industrial users 4 Local Authority, State The local authorities indirectly influence the state of rivers and Governments water resources through their overall development plans and land use decisions. 5 Department of Town and Controls land use patterns and pace of development as the Country Planning, Ministry Department gives the final approval to developers. Land-use Housing & Local zoning directly affects river and water resources. Government 6 Forestry Department, Responsibility to manage state gazetted forests, peat wetlands Ministry of Natural and mangrove forests as well as catchment areas and rivers Resources and Environment within forests. It also controls logging activities through the selective management system (SMS). 7 Fisheries Department, Develops and manages the country's fisheries sector in Ministry of Agriculture and a dynamic, competitive and sustainable manner based on Agro-based Industry scientific research and quality services. 8 Malaysian Institute of Marine Private advisory body under the Ministry of Transport Affairs (MIMA), Ministry of Transport 9 Malaysian Maritime Formed in April 1999 to resolve overlapping functions and Enforcement Agency jurisdiction. The agency functions are to enforce law and order (MMEA) under any federal law, perform maritime search and rescue, prevent and suppress the commission of an offence, lend assistance in any criminal matters on a request by a foreign State as provided under the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 2002 (Act 621), carry out air and coastal surveillance, establish and manage maritime institutions for
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training, ensure maritime security and safety. On the high seas, MMEA play a major role in maritime search and rescue, controlling and preventing maritime pollution, preventing and suppressing piracy and preventing and suppressing illicit traffic in narcotic drugs. In times of war, emergency or special crisis, the Agency may be placed under the command and control of Malaysian Armed Forces by order of the Minister. 10 National Oceanography National central point for marine science and oceanographic Directorate Division, Ministry R&D activities in Malaysia; national marine science and of Science, Technology and oceanography R&D agenda; coordinate and monitor research Innovation in marine science and oceanography. 11 Fisheries Research Institute, Government research institute focusing on the aquatic Fisheries Department, environment. Research focuses on six major disciplines of Ministry of Agriculture and research such as fishery resources (marine and inland), Agro-based Industry aquaculture, aquatic ecology, biotechnology, fisheries product development and fish health. 12 National Hydraulic Research Research center for water and its environment in the services Institute of Malaysia, Ministry as an expert center on water and its environment management of Natural Resources and to ensure sustainable growth in order to improve the quality of Environment life and well being. Referral centre, co-ordinate research activities, conduct consultancy service centre in development projects related to water and its environment. 13 Universities Provides expertise in various fields such as environment, engineering, biology and chemistry, contributing to the development of national reports on water resources, quality, health. University research studies contribute to improving understanding of processes and factors. The relevant research Centres of Excellence for coastal and marine studies are distributed among the universities. 14 NGOs Some of the local community groups and NGOs that are active on environmental issues include: Friends of the Earth (Sahabat Alam Malaysia), World Wildlife Fund for Nature (Malaysia), Malaysian Nature Society, Malaysian Fisheries Society, Environmental Protection Society of Malaysia, Public Media Club, and various charity organizations.
3.4 The Department of Environment
The DOE was institutionalised in 1975 and acts to enforce the EQA 1974. The Department’s main role is to prevent, control and abate pollution through the enforcement of the EQA 1974 and its 34 subsidiary legislations. Another role of the DOE is to promote environmental awareness. This is largely through formal and informal education, wide dissemination of environmental information through environmental publications, seminars, workshops, lectures, and the mass media. At present the Department has more than 1,500 staff, dispersed between 15 States Offices and 26 Branch Offices.
The DOE has also adopted a preventive approach in order to minimize adverse environmental impacts and to enhance environmental quality. The requirement of environmental impact assessment
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(EIA) for prescribed projects has served as one of the useful tools in decision-making and management. The Malaysian EIA system is regulated under the EQA 1974 as the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order (1987). Guidelines for the development of the EIA report related to water quality and the coastal and marine environment are listed in Table 3.6. For development projects not subject to EIA, the regulations require project siting evaluation and pollution control assessment prior to project implementation. The pollution control and prevention strategy is supported by other on-going environmental programs including training, new program formulation, inter-agency and federal state cooperation and coordination and international affairs.
Table 3.6: DOE EIA Report Guidelines Relevant to Coastal and Marine Projects
No. Guideline Title 1 EIA Guidelines For Coastal Resort Development Projects 2 EIA Guidelines For Petrochemical Industries 3 EIA Guidelines For Development Of Tourist And Recreational Facilities On Island In Marine Parks 4 EIA Guidelines For Fishing Harbours and/or Land Based Aquaculture Projects 5 EIA Guidelines For Coastal and Land Reclamation
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4. Existing Water Quality Standards
4.1 Effluent Discharge Standards
The standards for water quality may be categorised as discharge standards and ambient standards. The maximum discharge limits for inland waters, and discharge of effluent and sludge onto land, including accidental spills, of more than 60 m3, are enforceable and listed under the Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 (Table 4.1). There are three effluent standards. Standard A applies to discharges upstream of a public water supply intake point on a waterway. Standard B applies to discharges downstream of a water intake point. The third standard is other than Standard A or B. In addition there are seperate standards for industries processing oil palm and rubber.
Table 4.1: Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979.
Standard Parameters Units A B Other 1 Temperature degC 40 40 45 2 pH - 6.0 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0 5.0-9.0 3 BOD5 at 20oC mg/l 20 50 400
4 COD mg/l 50 100 1000 5 Suspended Solids mg/l 50 100 400 6 Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05 0.10 7 Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02 2.0 8 Chromium, Hexavalent mg/l 0.05 0.05 2.0 9 Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.10 2.0 10 Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.10 10 11 Lead mg/l 0.10 0.5 10 12 Chromium, Trivalent mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 13 Copper mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 14 Manganese mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 15 Nickel mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 16 Tin mg/l 0.20 1.0 10 17 Zinc mg/l 1.0 1.0 10 18 Boron mg/l 1.0 4.0 - 19 Iron (Fe) mg/l 1.0 5.0 50 20 Phenol mg/l 0.001 1.0 5.0 21 Free Chlorine mg/l 1.0 2.0 5.0 22 Sulphide mg/l 0.50 0.50 2.0 Not 23 Oil and Grease mg/l 10.0 100 detectable
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4.2 Ambient Water Quality Standards
The ambient National Water Quality Standards for inland waters and waterways, and Water Quality Classes, are not enforceable and serve as a planning and monitoring tool (Table 4.2). A Water Quality Index has been derived by the DOE for public information (Table 4.3). The DOE Water Quality Index (WQI) is used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to pollution load characterization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as stipulated in the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS). The WQI comprises weighted linear aggregation of sub-indices of Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N), Suspended Solids (SS) and pH.
4.3 Marine Water Quality Standards
The objective of the Malaysian Interim Marine Water Quality Standards (IMWQS) (Table 4.4) is for the protection of the coastal and marine water quality. This brings indirect protection for the various beneficial uses of the coastal and marine resources. The IMWQS was based on ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria (AMWQC). These criteria have been derived for the specific beneficial uses of the coastal and marine resources of significance in ASEAN marine waters. Four water use Classes have been identified.
In the third quarter of 2011, the Department of Environment awarded a project on “Study on the Establishment of a Marine Water Quality Index”. The purpose of the study is to evaluate and review the current interim standards for Marine Water Quality and to propose the concept and method for formulating a Marine Water Quality Index for Malaysia. The project is expected to end by the third quarter of 2012.
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Table 4.2: National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
a) Water Quality Standard Levels
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b) Water Quality Classes and Uses
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Table 4.3. DOE Water Quality Classification and Class Standards for Malaysia
c) DOE-Water Quality Index and Water Quality Classification
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Table 4.4: Malaysia Interim Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards
Parameter Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class E Marine Life, Preservation, Fisheries, Mangroves Marine Coral Reefs, Ports, Oil & Estuarine & Benefical Uses Protected Recreational Gas Fields River-mouth areas, Marine and Water Parks Mariculture ≤ 2°C ≤ 2°C ≤ 2°C ≤ 2°C Temperature increase over increase over increase over increase over (°C) maximum maximum maximum maximum ambient ambient ambient ambient >80% Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 5 3 4 saturation 50mg/L (25 25 mg/L or ≤ 100 mg/L or ≤ 100 mg/L or ≤ mg/L) or ≤ 10% increase 10% increase 30 % increase 10% increase Total suspended solid in seasonal in seasonal in seasonal in seasonal (mg/L) average, average, average, average, whichever is whichever is whichever is whichever is lower lower lower lower Oil and grease (mg/L) 0.01 0.14 5 0.14 Mercury* (µg/L) 0.04 0.16 (0.04) 50 0.5 Cadmium (µg/L) 0.5 2 (3) 10 2 Chromium (VI) (µg/L) 5 10 48 10 Copper (µg/L) 1.3 2.9 10 2.9 Arsenic (III)* (µg/L) 3 20(3) 50 20 (3) Lead (µg/L) 4.4 8.5 50 8.5 Zinc (µg/L) 15 50 100 50 Cyanide (µg/L) 2 7 20 7 Ammonia (unionized) 35 70 320 70 (µg/L) Nitrite (NO2) (µg/L) 10 55 1,000 55 Nitrate (NO3) (µg/L) 10 60 1,000 60 Phosphate (µg/L) 5 75 670 75 Phenol (µg/L) 1 10 100 10 Tributyltin (TBT) (µg/L) 0.001 0.01 0.05 0.01 Faecal coliform (count faecal coliform /100mL) (Human health protection 100 100 70 200 for seafood consumption - (70) (70) Most Probable Number (MPN)) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAHs) 100 200 1000 1000 (ng/g) *IMWQS in parentheses are for coastal and marine water areas where seafood for human consumption is applicable. (Source: DOE, 2009)
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5 The National Water, Coastal and Marine Monitoring Programme and Current Status
5.1 Environmental Monitoring
The DOE conducts a national water quality monitoring programme for the whole country. The monitoring programme covers air, river water, ground water, coastal and marine waters. The purpose is to detect water quality changes and identify pollution sources. Each year the results of the monitoring is summarised in an Environmental Quality Report. Monitoring of industrial effluents is also carried out, normally by requiring industries to submit effluent quality reports. Monitoring is, in most cases, now conducted by a designated private contractor, Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.
5.2 River Water Quality Monitoring
The DOE has been conducting river water quality monitoring since 1978. The purpose is to establish the status of water quality and observe water quality trends. Identification of major pollution sources in a river catchment is also carried out. A total of 1,064 manual river water quality stations are located in a total of 143 river basins throughout the whole of Malaysia. Sampling is carried out at regular intervals from designated stations for in situ observations and laboratory analysis to determine the physico-chemical and biological characteristics. Depending on the level of development in the catchment, water quality sampling is carried out at each station from 3 to 12 times a year. The more developed the area the more frequent the sampling. A total of 10 automatic water quality monitoring stations had been installed to monitor river quality changes on a continuous basis on the West Coast. They are located on Sg.Perai (Seberang Perai – Pulau Pinang), Sg. Perak (Perak), Sg. Selangor (Selangor), Sg. Jinjang (WPKL), Sg. Langat (Selangor), Sg. Linggi (Negeri Sembilan), Sg. Labu (Negeri Sembilan), Sg. Batang Benar (Negeri Sembilan), Sg. Melaka (Malacca), and Sg. Putat (Malacca).
Water quality status is categorized into clean, slightly polluted or polluted conditions (Table 4.3). The DOE-WQI value is used also to classify river water quality into in Class I, II, III, IV or V. Thus, in nearly every station the six parameters of DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS and pH are always measured. Other parameters, such as heavy metals and bacteria, may be measured according to site requirement. The results of river water monitoring for 2008 is shown in Figure 5.1.
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Figure 5.1: Peninsular Malaysia River Basins Water Quality Status, 2008 (Source: DOE 2009)
The DOE annual Environment Quality Report (DOE 2009) identifies the problematic river basins in 2008 (Figure 5.1). These are River Pinang, Juru, Merlimau, and Danga which discharge into the Malacca Strait. These rivers are polluted due to their small catchment size and relatively highly developed conditions. For these river basins, the major pollutants detected were BOD, NH3-N and SS. High BOD can be attributed to untreated or partially treated sewage and discharges from agro- based and manufacturing industries. The main sources of NH3-N were livestock farming and domestic sewage, whilst the sources for SS were earthworks and land clearing activities. Figure 5.1 also shows that the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia is more polluted than the East Coast. This is due to the higher population density and urbanization conditions on the West Coast.
The National Physical Plan (NPP) has projected that the population in Peninsular Malaysia will increase from 18.5 million in year 2000 to 26.8 million in 2020, at 1.9% per annum growth between 2000 and 2020. The population projected could be supported by the projected economic and employment growth. The economic-based projection for 2020 could allow for the immigration of about 800,000 non-citizens. The highest growth was projected for Selangor, WPKL, Negeri Sembilan and Malacca, which had an average of 3% per annum between 1980 and 1991, and a 4% per annum
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between 1991 and 2000. This increase in population will increase the organic waste load to rivers and the coastal waters. The increase in population can be seen in Figure 5.2 for the years 2003 to 2007.
Figure 5.2: State Population on West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 2003-2007 (Source: Department of Statistics)
5.3 Coastal and Marine Water Quality Monitoring
Coastal and marine water quality monitoring is carried out by the DOE to determine the degree of pollution from land-based sources as well as from the sea. Stormwaters carry most of the pollution from land-based sources into rivers. The pollutants are then flushed out from the river basin to the coastal region. However, most of the pollution is diluted offshore, except for SS, E.coli and oil and grease. They contribute to significant contamination of the coastal area, as evidenced by the amount of coastal water samples which persistently exceed the ambient standards (Figure 5.3).
According to DOE (2009, 2010), total suspended solid was the main contaminant for the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, followed by E. coli and oil and grease. Compared to the previous year, there was an increase in total suspended solids, oil and grease, E.coli, mercury, arsenic and total chromium levels and a decrease in copper, cadmium and lead. All samples collected from Perlis and Kedah showed that total suspended solids remained a significant contaminant of marine water as all the samples exceeded the IMWQS. Perak recorded the highest percentage by 97% of total samples exceeding the IMWQS followed by Selangor with 80% of the samples were exceeding the IMWQS for oil and grease. Perlis with 95% of samples was highest for E.coli contamination. Lead pollution was found in Perak (73%). Perak used to be an important tin mining area. Lead (Pb) was the most
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prominent heavy metal detected in the marine waters followed by mercury and copper. Heavy metals were comparatively low in the marine waters.
Figure 5.3: Percentage of Coastal Water Samples Exceeding Ambient Standards on West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 2008 (Source: DOE, 2009)
The sources of pollution were run-off from land-based activities, such as land clearing and land reclamation for development, and agriculture activities which contributed to the contamination of total suspended solids in the marine waters. Untreated or partially treated animal, uncontrolled sewage from coastal premises such as hotels and restaurants and domestic wastes from residential areas nearby attributed to E. coli. The presence of oil and grease in the coastal waters resulted from leakages of ships, discharges by shipping vessels and disposal of engine oil by boat operators. As for heavy metals they were mainly from land-based uncontrolled industrial discharges. The DOE compiles statistics of point sources from sewage treatment plants, agro-based and manufacturing industries, and from animal farms. In 2008, for the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, water pollution point sources comprise of sewage treatment plants (54%), manufacturing industries (39%), animal farms (4%) and agro-based industries (3%) as shown in Figure 5.4. However, the point sources counted do not include those activities which are not under the purview of the DOE, such as small industries and land development activities, as mentioned previously.
The waters around 71 islands are monitored as part of the Marine Island Water Quality Monitoring Programme. The islands monitored are categorised as development islands (3 islands), resort islands (25 islands), marine park islands (38 islands) and protected islands (5 islands). A total of 344 samples were collected and analysed. The main pollutants analysed are total suspended solids, E. coli and oil and grease. Beaches are also monitored for tarballs. Tarball residues on beaches are usually caused
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by oily discharges from fishing boats as well as passing vessels. In 2007 it was found that all the 133 monitoring stations were free from tarball pollution.
Figure 5.4: West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia Water Pollution Point Sources by Sector (Source: DOE, 2009)
The number of sewerage treatment plants has increased in the last few years as Malaysia targets to reduce sewage pollution. In 2008, the total number of STPs managed by Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd (IWK), a national sewerage company, was 9,524. The highest number was in Selangor (28.5% of total) followed by Perak (14.9% of total), Johor (11.1% of total) and Negeri Sembilan (9.9%) (Figure 5.5). Although STPs are regarded as point sources, individual Septic Tanks (IST) are regarded as non-point sources of pollution. Other important sources are industries (Figure 5.6) and these are concentrated on the West Coast.
In terms of nutrient dynamics, Bong and Lee (2008) studied the total SS, DO and dissolved inorganic nutrient concentrations (ammonium (NH4), nitrite (NO2), nitrate (NO3), phosphorus (PO4) and silicate
(SiO4) in offshore selected sites of the Strait of Malacca. Both SS and DO showed large differences between nearshore and offshore sites (Fig. 5.7) as might be expected in low current areas. SS was elevated nearshore (> 250 mgL−1) but was < 100 mgL−1 offshore. DO was at healthy levels (> 300 μM or 9.6 mgL−1) offshore but were low and sometimes exhibited hypoxia (< 125 μM or 4 mgL−1) nearshore. Dissolved inorganic nutrients were generally higher nearshore and this reflected how anthropogenic activities are affecting the coastal water quality.
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Figure 5.5: Malaysia: Distribution of Sewage Treatment Plants by State, 2008. (Source: DOE, 2009)
Figure 5.6: Distribution of Industrial Water Pollution Point Sources (Agro-based and Manufacturing Industries) by State, 2008. (Source: DOE, 2009)
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a) Average total suspended solids (SS, mg/L) b) Average ammonium (NH4, μM), nitrite (NO2, and dissolved oxygen (DO, µM) μM) and nitrate (NO3, μM)
Figure 5.7: Marine Water Quality Nearshore and Offshore. (Source: Bong and Lee, 2008.)
± Standard Deviation bars for nearshore stations are also shown.
c) Average phosphorus (PO4, μM) and silicate (SiO4, μM) concentrations
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5.4 Oil Pollution
The Strait of Malacca is most susceptible to ship-based marine pollution such as oil and grease due to the heavy volume of shipping in the Strait (Kasmin, 2010). Crude oil and chemical tankers constitute the largest number of transiting vessels in the Strait. Law and Hii (2006) reported an increasing trend in oil spill incidents between 1976 and 2000 (Figure 5.8). By nature, oil is toxic to marine life, especially the PAHs, one of the main components in crude oil that is very difficult to clean up, and could remain for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species that are constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems and are more susceptible to diseases. The number of ships passing through the Strait in 2000 was 55,957 and increased to 62,621 ships 5 years later. During the five-year period from 2000 to 2005, there were 144 cases of oil spills into the sea. From this number, 108 cases were due to illegal discharge of dirty oil by ships. Of the 144 cases, only 32 ships were charged and 14 found guilty. The fines imposed by the courts ranged from RM 10,000 to RM 25,000, except for three cases in which one ship was fined RM 100,000 and the other two ships were each fined RM 120,000.
Figure 5.8: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Seas. No data were found for 1979, 1983, 1985, 1998 and 1999.
(Source: from Law and Hii, 2006)
In 2007, a total of 70,718 ships passed through the Strait. Based on the rate of growth of reporting ship traffic of approximately 7.5% per year, it can be estimated that by 2015, a total of more than
43 Country Report on Pollution - Malaysia
125,000 ships can be expected to pass through the Strait. Thus, the number of cases of ships discharging dirty oil into the sea illegally is expected to increase. Dirty oil discharged illegally by these ships is one of the sources of marine pollution that threaten the fisheries industries in the Strait of Malacca. Kasmin (2010) concluded that the responsible agencies monitoring maritime transport in the Strait are inadequately equipped and trained to deal with the illegal discharge of dirty oil into the sea. In order to overcome these weaknesses, he proposed several new initiatives.
A marine traffic simulation study by SimPlus Pte Ltd, Singapore, (http://www.news.gov.sg/public/sgpc/en/media_releases/agencies/mpa/press_release/P-20091028- 2.html), projecting future increase in marine trafffic in the southern portion of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, where the TSS applies, concluded that there would be minimal impact from a doubling of traffic in the Strait of Malacca. The study concluded that the Strait could efficiently and safely sustain traffic up to five times the 2007 level of 126,000 transits, arrivals and departures. The model assumed that non-ferry cross-traffic between Malaysia and Indonesia is negligible. Nevertheless, this computer simulation result may not be in concordance with the views of ships’ captains who physically experience navigation in the Straits in all types of weather conditions and in the dark at night using radar, with a myriad of smaller vessels traversing under the ship’s bow. Only the navigation risk of ship to ship collision was evaluated in the study. Based on present records of between 2000 to 2005, it can be conjectured that a doubling of traffic may result in a doubling of oil spill incidents, from about 2.4 per month to perhaps more than 4 spills a month, or 1 a week, and similarly, that a quintupling of traffic may result in 12 spills per month.
The threat of oil spills as a result of accidents has been recognized over the years. Law and Ravinthar (1989), in early studies of hydrocarbon pollution off the coast of Negeri Sembilan, located about midway along the Strait of Malacca, concluded that the source of hydrocarbon pollution was likely to be ship-based rather than land-based. Therefore, we can deduce that there will an increasing number of oil spill incidents in the Straits. The impacts of oil spills on marine habitats in the Strait, such as the mangroves, coral reefs, and sea grass beds, are of major concerns (Zakaria and Takada, 2007). Coral reefs in the straits have been largely affected by years of spills, and recovery has been slow. There were several major oil spill incidents involving oil tankers in the straits from 1975 to 1997 (Table 5.1). More recent spills (Law and Hii, 2006) are MV Able Ensign (330 L) at Langkawai (1998), unidentified vessels at Kedah Peir (4 mt) (1998), and Sun Vista (2100 mt) (1999). Although Malaysia has a relatively short history of industrialization and modernization as compared to the more established and developed countries, several factors may contribute to petroleum pollution (Zakaria and Takada, 2007). First, the Malacca Strait is a major international tanker route transporting crude oil from the Middle East to northeast Asia. Oil spills and tanker accidents are frequent in the straits. Second, Malaysia itself is an oil producing country and exports crude oil to other countries. Third, Malaysia is undergoing rapid industrialization, and petroleum is a most important source of energy. The demand for petroleum has increased very rapidly in the past few decades with increasing
44 Country Report on Pollution - Malaysia
population and urbanization. Motor-vehicle ownership has also quadrupled in recent years. Furthermore, dumping of used oil products, especially from small industries and diffuse non-point sources can lead to serious oil pollution problems in Malaysia. Industrial activities may also be important sources but it is the small petrol stations, motor vehicle workshops, as well backyard operators, who are other important land-based contributors. Contribution from boat operators, ports, harbours, marinas, and tanker accidents, are also becoming more important in Malaysian coastal environments.
Table 5.1: Oil Spill Incidents in Malaysian Waters, 1975–1997 (Source: http://www.marine.gov.my/service/kp_oil.html )
Year Name of Ship Location Cause Type and Quantity of Oil Spill 1975 Showa Maru The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 4000 tons 1975 Tola Sea The Strait of Singapore Collision Fuel oil 60 tons 1976 Diego Silang The Strait of Malacca Collision Crude oil 5500 tons 1976 Mysella The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 2000 tons 1976 Citta Di Savonna The Straitof Singapore Collision Crude oil 1000 tons 1977 Asian The Strait of Malacca Collision Fuel oil 60 tons 1980 Lima The Strait of Singapore Collision Crude oil 700 tons 1981 MT Ocean The Strait of Malacca Human Error Fuel oil 1050 tons Treasure 1986 Bright Duke/ MV The Strait of Malacca Collision - Pantas 1987 Mv Stolt Adv The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 2000 tons 1987 Elhani Platform The Strait of Singapore Grounding Crude oil 2329 tons
1988 Golar Lie The Strait of Singapore Grounding - 1992 Nagasaki Spirit Near Medan Collision Crude oil 13000 tons 1997 Evoikos / Oradin The Strait of Singapore Collision Fuel oil 25000 tons Global 1997 An Tai The Strait of Malacca Material Fatigue Fuel oil 237 tons
The levels of sedimentary PAHs in Malaysia are low to moderate when compared with other industrialized countries. Nonetheless, there is some concern about the effects of PAHs accumulation on the aquatic and benthic ecosystems because Malaysian sediments are impacted by petrogenic PAHs (Zakaria et al., 2002). It has been suggested that petrogenic PAHs are more available for biological uptake. In addition, the likely source, used crankcase oil, poses a wide range of potential hazards to aquatic organisms because it contains heavy metals and other toxic chemicals in addition to PAHs.
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5.5 Heavy Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Yap et al. (2002) has reported the concentrations of copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) in the offshore and intertidal sediments of the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Table 5.2). For the off-shore sediments, the higher metal levels at the islands of Pulau Langkawi and Pulau Pangkor, in the northern part of the Strait, indicated that the offshore area had started to receive impacts from sea- based activities. For the intertidal sediment, some elevations of heavy metal levels were found especially in Bukit Tambun, K. Juru and Kg. Pasir Puteh. The elevated levels of metals could be due to land-based activities in general. By using mussels (Perna viridis) as a biomonitoring agent, the contamination of cadmium (Cd), Cu, Pb and zinc (Zn) in the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia was found not to be serious (Yap et al., 2004). Since P. viridis accumulates heavy metals in the soft tissues and constitutes one of the important food-chains in the coastal environment, this information is therefore useful for predicting any metal contamination in the coastal communities. The heavy metal concentrations in the mussels from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia could be attributed to natural or anthropogenic metal sources affecting their habitats. The ranges of Cu and Pb were low in comparison to regional data. Some intertidal areas were identified as receiving anthropogenic Cu and Pb. Although the contamination due to Cu and Pb in the west coast, especially in the offshore areas, were not serious, regular biomonitoring studies were recommended.
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Table 5.2: Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in Sediments and Perna viridis
Heavy metal concentration (µg/g)
Parameters Cd Cu Pb Zn
Location of Sediments1 Offshore area, West coast, Peninsular Malaysia 0.25– 13.82 3.59– 25.36 Intertidal area, West coast, Peninsular Malaysia 0.40– 314.80 0.96– 69.80
Malaysian Food Regulation 1985 1.00 30.0 2.00 100
Location of Perna viridis2
Pulau Aman, Penang 0.60–1.42 8.88–13.3 2.50–5.99 61.7–173
Kuala Dinding, Perak 0.74–1.80 4.96–25.1 6.22–0.53 65.2–119
Bagan Lalang, Selangor 0.71–2.14 6.46–10.7 0.68–8.96 75.4–139
Pasir Panjang, Negeri Sembilan 0.63–1.61 8.85–13 4.82–11.2 74.13–135
Kuala Linggi, Negeri Sembilan 0.77–2.11 4.31–12.8 4.95–9.74 66.8–145
Sebatu, Malacca 0.61–1.65 8.89–14.8 4.77–12.3 63.1–89.7
Muar Estuary, Malacca 0.26–1.73 4.74–11.9 1.45–12.4 53.3–97.0 1 - Yap et al., 2002 2 - Yap et al., 2004
Mokhtar et al. (2009) determined and compared the concentration levels of heavy metals Pb, Cd, nickle (Ni), Cu, iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn) and Zn in samples of tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) and tilapia fish (Oreochromis spp.) obtained from aquaculture ponds in Bandar and Jugra. Both areas are near the Langat estuary in the state of Selangor. Concentrations of Cd, Cu and Zn were found to be higher in tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) in Bandar; whilst only Fe, Mn and Ni in tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) was found to be higher in Jugra. Concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cr, Fe, Mn and Ni were found to be higher in Jugra whereas those of Pb and Cd were higher in Bandar for tilapia fish (Oreochromis spp.). Concentrations of heavy metals studied were found to be lower (Table 5.3) than the recommended maximum levels allowed in food. However, though the concentrations of heavy metals were below the permissible limits, these locations should be given greater attention since the concentration of heavy metal is highly likely to increase in the future. Continuous monitoring, of these areas in particular, was recommended. The present data on metals in the coastal waters are important as baseline information that can be used in monitoring any future changes of these levels.
Table 5.3: Concentration of Heavy Metals in Cultured Fishes, Langat River Estuary
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Metal Tiger Prawn Tilapia fish WHO FAO max. FAO max Penaeus monodon Oreochromis spp. (1989) limits for limits for (µg/g) (µg/g) fisha prawnb Bandar Jugra Bandar Jugra (µg/g) Pb nd* nd* 0.418 0.395 2 0.5 - 6.0 - ± 0.090 ± 0.024 Cd 0.254 0.254 0.015 0.006 1 0.05 - 5.50 0.2 ± 0.070 ± 0.125 ± 0.002 ± 0.002 Ni 0.026 0.122 0.053 0.113 0.5 - 1.0 - - ± 0.000 ± 0.000 ± 0.015 ± 0.021 Cu 3.567 2.213 0.313 0.323 30 10 -100 10 ± 0.208 ± 0.103 ± 0.0408 ± 0.022 Fe 5.170 7.210 2.880 5.075 100 - - ± 0.297 ± 0.297 ± 0.085 ± 0.167 Cr nd* nd* 0.712 0.813 50 1 - ± 0.083 ± 0.071 Mn 0.177 0.193 0.108 0.203 1 - - ± 0.001 ± 0.008 ± 0.010 ± 0.040 Zn 13.030 11.270 1.915 2.364 100 3 -100 1000 ± 0.608 ± 0.099 ± 0.061 ± 0.074 nd*= Not Detected, a – Nauen,1998 , b - Pourang et al., 2005
Source: Mokhtar et al., 2009
The concentration of several toxic substances or POPs in marine matrices and shellfish has been detected and their quantities evaluated by several scientists (Law and Ravinthar (1989); Wood et al. (1999); Moradi et al.(1999); Zakaria et al., (2002); Law and Yeong (1989)) and reviewed by Somchit et al. (2009). The compounds include PAHs, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxine and furan. The results are summarized in Table 5.4 adapted from Somchit et al. (2009). This shows that the main hydrocarbons detected in Malaysia waters are mainly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results show there is higher concentration of PAHs in the urbanization and industrialization locations indicating land-based oil pollution sources. For marine-based sources, Law (1994) stated that the single largest contributor of oil spill from transportation activities has been identified to be from tanker operation associated with ballasting the tanks for the return voyage from ports of discharge.
Studies by Zakaria et al., (2002) on the distribution of PAHs in sediments from rivers and estuaries in in the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia and the Strait of Malacca found concentration of PAHs (3-7 rings) ranging between 4 to 924 ng/g. The study also identified two major routes of petrogenic PAH pollution input into the aquatic environment. The first is through spillage and dumping of waste crankcase oil and secondly through leakage of crankcase oils from vehicles onto road surface which are subsequently washed out by street runoff. They concluded that petrogenic input (from used crankcase oil and input from street dust and traffic sources) was a major control on the PAHs contamination and that the Malaysian aquatic environments have been more heavily impacted by petrogenic input than have those of the industrialized countries. The concentrations of hydrocarbons
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are wide ranging from urban rivers to open ocean. The concentrations of hydrocarbons in environmental samples (sediment, water and mussel) collected near major townships were generally higher than those from rural samples. One may conclude that the hydrocarbon concentration - mainly PAHs - in Malaysian waters is still low to moderate compared with other developed countries (Zakaria et al., 2002).
Table 5.4: Hydrocarbons in Malaysian waters
Matrix Source in Location Hydrocarbon Concentration (unit) Somchit et al., 2009 Strait of Malacca coastal 10 - 120 Phang et al., 1980 waters, off Penang Water Strait of Malacca, near shore 2.52 - 73.34 Law and Veelu, 1989 (mg/L) off Port Dickson Strait of Malacca nearshore 14.69 - 150.28 Law and Yeong, 1989 waters off Port Dickson Rivers leading to the Strait 20 - 924 (PAHs) of Malacca Klang River estuary 19 - 431 (PAHs) Zakaria et al., 2002 Klang coast (inshore) 9 - 39 (PAHs) Strait of Malacca (offshore) 4 - 73 (PAHs) 150.61 (oil and grease) 0.81 (total aliphatic Estuarine zone for the whole hydrocarbons) Sediments Strait of Malacca (mg/kg) 3.14 (PAHs) 2.5 (PCB) Wood et al., 1999 73.92 (oil and grease) 0.44 (total aliphatic Island zone for the whole hydrocarbons) Strait of Malacca 1.84 (PAHs) 0.83 (PCB) Strait of Malacca nearshore 2.1 -70.4 (dry wt.) Law and Veelu, 1989 waters, off Port Dickson Strait of Malacca, coastal 21.73- 77.06 dry wt. Law and Yeong, 1989 waters, off Port Dickson Fish cages, Langkawi 8.46 (PAHs) Kuala Perlis 48.08 (PAHs) Tanjung Dawai, Kedah 5.43 (PAHs) Mussel Penang 17.74 (PAHs) Moradi et al., 1999 (mg/kg) Bagan Lalang, Selangor 8.94 (PAHs) Lukut, Negeri Sembilan 8.36 (PAHs) Pasir Panjang 8.36 (PAHs)
Adapted from Somchit et al., 2009
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Table 5.5: Pesticides in West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 1999
Pesticide Source Matrix Site HCH / Hepta- Aldrin DDT Dieldrin Endosulfan Endrin Lindane chlor Blood Cockles 0.02 - 0.04 – 0.01 – nd – 0.74 – 0.27 - (Anadara CO 0.10 – 3.25 2.5 1.24 0.7 3.25 10.23 3.54 granosa) Green Mussel 0.02 – nd – nd – 0.32 – 0.1- CO nd – 0.9 nd – 2.6 (Perna viridis) 15.7 7.8 9.1 11.28 14.6 Shrimp Hossain, 0.2- 0 (sic) nd – 3.3 – 3.5 – (Metapenaeus CO nd – 0.6 nd – 0.6 2001 in 26.5 – 4.1 2.7 35.8 36.1 monoceros) Sangara- lingam, 2005 Cat fish 0.2 – 0.1 – 0.02 – 0.1- 0.3 – CO 0.3 – 0.8 0.9 – 5.9 (Arius sp.) 2.5 3.2 0.5 5.4 8.2 Mullet nd – 0.01 – 0.02 - nd – 0.1 – (Valamugil CO 0.5 – 1.8 0.3 – 8.3 2.2 4.9 0.8 13.0 5.2 sp.) Seabass 0.0 0.5 – nd – 0.7 – (Lates CO (sic) – nd – 1.0 0.01 – 3.4 1.7 – 5.1 8.0 9.1 21.7 calcarifer) 0.5 Wood et al., EZ 0.87 2.2 0.66 1.38 0.53 0.39 1.26 1999, in Sediment Somchit et IZ 0.48 0.45 - <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.7 al., 2009
nd: not detected
From Sangaralingam, 2005, and Somchit et al., 2009
Studies from the late 1990s showed that various concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and their metabolites have been found in various marine environmental and biological samples (Somchit, 2009). Sangaralingam (2005) also reviewed the status of POPs in Malaysia and referred to Hossain’s 2001 thesis research on POPs in marine biota in the Strait of Malacca (Table 5.4). Hossain (2001) collected samples in offshore or coastal areas in the Strait of Malacca. Most of the results are comparable with other studies in this region as well as other parts of the world. Total DDT was relatively low relatively low (0 to 2.2 ng/g) and was expected to be decreasing as DDT use was restricted since 1997. Concentrations of heptachlor were relatively low in comparison to overseas data ranging from <0.7 to 1.26 ng/g (Wood et al., 1999). Cockles and mussels contained higher levels of aldrin, lindane and heptachlor, probably because of agricides runoff into rivers and inland waters. The differences in pesticides levels in some environmental samples collected from several locations along coastal waters of Malaysia suggest that agricultural chemicals (Somchit et al., 2009) In spite of restrictions on selected POPs from the mid 1990s (Sangaralingam, 2005), they are still evident in the environment suggesting some continued usage illegally or unknowingly. In addition the persistent
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organochlorine pesticide, DDT, although restricted in 1997, is still remaining in the aquatic environment.
The DOE introduced a voluntary Enironmentally Hazardous Substances Notification and Registration Scheme in January 2009. The DOE is moving toward a Malaysian Chemicals Register and making the scheme mandatory. The voluntary period for registration is an opportunity for industry to prepare itself for the mandatory reporting. However, so far only 320 out of a total of 1134 identified potential companies have registered for the scheme, indicating lack of industry awareness or preparedness.
PCBs can enter into the marine environment through waste disposal. PCB is listed as a scheduled material and its disposal is controlled unter the EQA 1974. Sangaralingam (2005) had reviewed the sources of PCBs and reported that the hazardous waste treatment operator, Kualiti Alam, had received and incinerated a total of 40.21 mt of PCB wastes from 15 waste generators, between 1998 and 2003. Prior to this PCB wastes had been exported for treatment. However, PCBs could also enter into the environment through equipment and material disposal to dumpsites. Based on analysis of the typical solid waste composition in dumpsites, it was estimated that between 20% and 40% could be potentially PCB-containing equipment and materials. Countrywide there are more than 170 closed and open dumpsites that could pose potential PCB contamination sources.
There is no complete inventory of dioxins or sources and environmental levels of dioxins and furans in Malaysia although some estimates and measurements have been made. Sangaralingam (2005) noted that despite some of the reservations on the application of the UNEP Dioxin Toolkit for Malaysia, it was used by Dr. Md. Sani Ibrahim, Universiti Sains Malaysia, to estimated the total amount of dioxins and furans released in Malaysia in 2001. For waste incineration processes the amount of dioxins and furans released was estimated to be 15.14 g TEQ, while the release estimated for seven major cement production activities was 2.11 g TEQ/year. The amount released by transport was estimated at 19.20 g TEQ/year.
In 2002, the Japanese Offspring Fund, in collaboration with the Consumers Association of Penang (CAP), detected dioxin-related compunds from all soil samples collected from municipal wastes dumping sites of (Sangaralingam, 2005). High levels of coplanar PCBs were found in more urban areas such as Kuala Lumpur and Penang. Relatively high TEQs (2,3,7,8-TCDD toxic equivalents), exceeding the Japanese standard, were found in soils from a dumping site in Selangor with levels at 3,100 pg/g and 50 pg/g on a dry weight basis. TEQs in soils from Kedah were 7.8 – 48 pg/g (dry weight); Penang were 10-16 pg/g; with the lowest TEQs being found in soils from a controlled dumping site in Kuala Lumpur. The mass formation of dioxin-related compounds was related to waste co