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AN ANALYSIS OF CHURCH CONFLICT: THE CASE OF EMMANUEL CHURCH
KENGELENI- MOMBASA DIOCESE (2000-2010)
JUDAH MWABONJE KAPANGA
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master
of Arts in Religious Studies of Pwani University.
JUNE, 2018
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DEDICATION
To my wife Margaret and our beloved children Kapanga, Tantike and Lauren for their unwavering love and support. Their endurance was a great inspiration.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank the Almighty God for giving me good health, strength and perseverance that has enabled me to come this far. To my Supervisors, Prof. Stephen Muoki Joshua and Dr.
Tsawe-Munga Chidongo, I will forever remain grateful for your support in terms of time, knowledge and wisdom. To my language editor Prof. James Mutiti and the entire
Pwani University fraternity, I am really grateful for the part you have played as I journey with academic discourses. Special thanks to my beloved wife Margaret, your words of encouragement helped me to be focused on my studies. You have been an important pillar in my life and may God continue to bless you. Finally to my beloved mother, Mrs.
Irine Nyamvula, my brothers and sisters for the love and support you have given through the difficult times of this project. Your support has been tremendous and you gave me a reason to complete this project. To those who made contribution in one way or another I may not mention your name but my heart is grateful. Thank you and God bless you all!
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ABSTRACT
The study set out to analyze conflict that characterized Emmanuel Church Kengeleni of
Mombasa Diocese in the Anglican Church of Kenya (ACK) between 2000 -2010.
Emmanuel Kengeleni is the second oldest church in Kenya after St. Paul’s Rabai. The two churches were established by the pioneer Church Missionary Society (CMS) missionaries in Kenya. While St Paul’s Rabai was established to serve African communities in the interior, Emmanuel Church Kengeleni was mainly established to carter for the socio-spiritual needs of freed slaves. Since its inception, the Church has faced a historical crisis of identity among the freed slaves and other African community members which has negatively affected its growth and expansion as compared to other
ACK churches in Kenya. It has experienced a perennial leadership conflict which has affected the relationship of the descendants of freed slaves and other African Christian communities in the Church. This study therefore, sought to draw on the history of
Freretown community to analyse Emmanuel Church Kengeleni perennial conflict over the years. It specifically attempted to establish the role played by the Freretown community in the growth and development of the Church; establish the factors that led to escalation of conflict between 2000 and 2010; determine the impact of the conflict and explore possible ways of conflict mitigation in the Church. The research employed
Conflict Theory as advanced by Karl Marx (1818-1883). It relied on both secondary and primary sources of data. The secondary sources of data were mainly newspapers, books, journal articles and primary data was acquired mainly through archival materials and oral interviews with 56 resource persons purposefully sampled. The interviews were supplemented by Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The findings show that the conflict was caused by an identity crisis, struggle for leadership positions, scramble for control of resources and appropriation of church funds. The study found that the conflict had vi enormous effects on the church and society both spiritually and socio-economically. As an opportunity, the conflict was a potential source for church growth, expansion and
Christian maturity whereas on the other hand it retarded development, escalated rivalry, strained relations and enhanced negative publicity. The study recommends that church leaders be trained on conflict resolution and that churches ought to provide avenues and structures of proactive conflict resolution mechanism.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ...... ii
DEDICATION ...... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iv
ABSTRACT ...... v
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xi
LIST OF TABLES ...... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ...... xiii
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS ...... xiv
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY…………………...…………………………….....1
1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1
1.2 A Chronological Synopsis of the Conflict…………………………………………...3
1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 8
1.4 Research Objectives ...... 9
1.4.1 General Objective ...... 9
1.4.2 Specific Objectives ...... 9
1.5 Research Questions ...... 9
1.6 Significance and Justification of the Study ...... 10
1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Study...... 10
1.8 Literature Review...... 11
1.8.1 Role of the Community in Church Growth and Development ...... 12
1.8.2 Causes of Conflict in the Church ...... 13
1.8.3 Effects of Conflict in the Church ...... 16
1.8.4 Conflict Mitigation in the Church ...... 17 viii
1.9 Theoretical Framework ...... 21
1.10 Research Methodology ...... 24
1.10.1 Research Design...... 24
1.10.2 Study Area ...... 25
1.10.3 Target Population ...... 25
1.10.4 Sample Size Determination, Selection and Sampling Design ...... 26
1.10.5 Methods of Data Collection ...... 26
1.10.6 Data Analysis ...... 27
1.11 Ethical Considerations ...... 27
1.12 Conclusion ...... 28
CHAPTER TWO ...... 29
THE ROLE OF THE FRERETOWN COMMUNITY IN THE GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT OF EMMANUEL CHURCH KENGELENI ...... 29
2.1 Introduction ...... 29
2.1.1 East African Slave Trade and its Abolition ...... 29
2.1.2 The Setting up of Slave Settlements in Mombasa ...... 33
2.1.3 The Freretown Bell Tower ...... 34
2.2.1 Bombay Africans and their Contributions in East Africa ...... 35
2.2.1.1 The Role of the Bombay Africans in the Spread of Christianity in East Africa .. 36
2.2.2.2The Socio-economic Legacy of the Bombay Africans in East Africa ...... 39
2.3.1 The History of Emmanuel Church Kengeleni ...... 43
2.3.2 The Church under Missionary Leadership ...... 45
2.3.3 The Church under the Local leadership ...... 46
2.3.4 The Administrative Structure of Emmanuel Church Kengeleni ...... 48
2.4. Conclusion ...... 49 ix
CHAPTER THREE ...... 51
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT AT EMMANUEL CHURCH KENGELENI ...... 51
3.1 Introduction ...... 51
3.2 Factors that Led to the Conflict in the Church ...... 52
3.2.1 Identity Crisis (2000-2006) ...... 52
3.2.2 Struggle for Leadership Positions (2002-2006) ...... 56
3.2.3 Scramble for Resources (2003-2007) ...... 62
3.2.4 Misappropriation of Church Funds (2002-2006) ...... 65
3.3 Conclusion ...... 68
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 70
THE IMPACT OF THE CONFLICT AT EMMANUEL CHURCH KENGELENI AND
POSSIBLE WAYS OF MITIGATION ...... 70
4.1 Introduction ...... 70
4.2 Spiritual Impact of the Conflict ...... 70
4.2.1 The Conflict led to the Spread of the Christian Faith ...... 71
4.2.2 Conflict Contributed to the Development of Christian Maturity ...... 73
4.3 The Socio-economic Impact of the Conflict ...... 74
4.3.1 The Conflict Hindered Development ...... 75
4.3.2 Rivalry and Strained Relations ...... 77
4.3.3 Negative Publicity by the Media...... 79
4.4 Conflict Mitigation in the Church ...... 81
4.5 Approaches to Conflict Mitigation ...... 82
4.5.1 Honest Communication ...... 83
4.5.2 Getting beneath surface issues and unseen motives ...... 84
4.5.3 Negotiation………………………………………………………………………..85 x
4.5.4 External Intervention ...... 87
4.5.5 Divine Intervention...... 89
4.6 Conclusion ...... 89
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 92
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 92
5.1 Introduction ...... 92
5.2 Summary of the findings ...... 92
5.3 Conclusion of the study ...... 98
5.4 Recommendations ...... 98
5.5 Areas for Further Research………………………………………………………….99
REFERENCES ...... 100
APPENDICES ...... 109
Appendix I: A Map of Kenya showing the Location of Mombasa County…...………109
Appendix II: Consent Form ...... 112
Appendix III: The Current View of Emmanuel Church Kengeleni……………...……113
Appendix IV: The Bell Tower at Kengeleni ...... 115
Appendix V: Photo of Cultural Day at Emmanuel Church Kengeleni ...... 116
Appendix VI: List of Respondents…………………………………………………….117
Appendix VII:Interview guide for all Categories of Respondents……….…………...119
Appendix VIII: Image of Gideon Maundu’s Article ‘Mwenye nguvu mpishe,’ in Taifa leo on 27th November 2007...... 123
Appendix IX: Photos of Some Interviews……………………………………………..124
Appendix X: The Administrative Structure of ACK Church………………………….125
Appendix XI: Photo Showing Closure of Emmanuel Church Kengeleni...... 126
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ACK - Anglican Church of Kenya
AGM - Annual General Meeting
CMS - Church Missionary Society
ECK - Emmanuel Church Kengeleni
FCA - Freretown Community Association
FGD - Focus Group Discussion
KAMA - Kenya Anglican Men Association
KAYO - Kenya Anglican Youth Organization
LCC - Local Church Council
MU - Mothers Union
PCC - Parochial Church Council
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Target Population………………………………………...... 26
Table 2 Identity Crisis as a Cause of Conflict………………………………………...... 54
Table 3 Struggle for Leadership Position as a Cause of Conflict………………………57
Table 4 Scramble for Resources as a Cause of Conflict………………………………. 64
Table 5 Misappropriation of Church Funds…………………………………………….68
Table 6 Spread of Christian Faith……………………………………………………….72
Table 7 Christian Maturity……………………………………………………………...74
Table 8 Slow Development……………………………………………………………..77
Table 9 Strained Relationships………………………………………………………….78
Table 10 Negative Publicity………………………………………………………….....81
Table 11 Honest Communication……………………………………………………….84
Table 12 Getting to the Root Cause………………………………………………….....85
Table 13 Negotiation …………………………………………………………………...87
Table 14 External Intervention………………………………………………………….88
Table 15 Divine Intervention…………………………………………………………...89
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Picture of Mzizima Hospital (now Coast General Hospital)……………….....40
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Archival study Archival research methods include a broad range of activities
applied to facilitate the investigation of documents and textual
materials produced by and about organizations. In its most classic
sense, archival methods are those that involve the study of
historical documents; that is, documents created at some point in
the relatively distant past, providing us access that we might not
otherwise have to the organizations, individuals, and events of
that earlier time.1
Born Again Being spiritually renewed and becoming a child of God by right of new birth. It means believing in Jesus Christ.
Bombay Africans Freed slaves trained in Calcutta, Bombay and repatriated back to
Africa to help the missionaries. They Include Ishmael Semler,
William Jones among others
Chancellor A practicing legal officer appointed as a legal adviser to the Diocesan Bishop and ensures that the Laws and Regulations of the Diocese are observed, and carries out within the Diocese such functions as assigned to him by the Provincial Constitution.
Charismata The special ability or supernatural power that gives an individual
influence over a large number of people.
Denomination A branch of the Christian Church which has a well established
network of hierarchy from the national level to the local church.
For Example, the Anglican Church of Kenya and the Methodist
Church in Kenya.
1 Ventresca, M. J., and Mohr, J.W. (2001). “Archival Research Methods.” Workshop Research Paper, University of California, Santa Barbara p. 2. xv
Fathers Union It is an association of Anglican men in the church. It is now
known as Kenya Anglican Men Association (KAMA).
Freretown Community Descendants of freed slaves settled at Kisimani area in
Kisauni sub-county after slave trade was abolished.
Mainstream Churches Missionary/historical or traditional churches established in the
early 20th century by different missionary groups. Examples
include the ACK, the Methodist Church, and the Presbyterean
Church of East Africa (PCEA).
Pentecostal Churches Churches that emphasize baptism of the Holy Spirit, usually
manifested through speaking in tongues (glossolalia) and other
gifts of the Holy Spirit (Charismata) such as faith, healing,
prophecy and exorcism.
Pentecostalism A religious movement within Christianity that underlines direct
personal experiences with God through the baptism of the Holy
Spirit and glossolalia, together with other gifts of the Holy
Spirit.
Vicar A duly licensed priest whose pastoral responsibility extends to
all people resident within his parish or whose name is recorded
on the membership roll of his church. 1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 Background of the Study
It is a global assertion that the church should be characterized by cohesion and peace among Christians with an aim of guiding them to live a holistic life.2 Peaceful co- existence of all Christians regardless of origins and background is a core value of the church. This calls for total peace, which is only achievable in the absence of all types of conflicts.3 Major changes and continued turbulence in the religious, social, political, technological and economic environments from local to global level, are continuously creating an uncertain and complex environment in which organizations have to operate.4
Increasing uncertainty and complexity in the operating environment of organizations provide fertile ground for the onset of conflicts in the work place. The Anglican Church has not been spared either.
African countries continue to be devoured by various types of conflicts. According to
Deng, 20% of sub-Saharan population lives in countries that are at war within themselves.5 As a result of poor leadership, Africa accounts for more war-related deaths than the rest of the world. It is evident that leadership remains a big challenge to many people from virtually all walks of life, and especially from organizations including the church. The Anglican Church is a product of conflict -based subdivisions and has also experienced complex conflicts that have led to further splits. Instructional,
2 Rubin, B. (2006). Central Asia and Central Africa: Transnational wars and ethnic conflicts. Journal of Human Development, Vol. 7 (1): 5-22. 3 Ibid 4 Tonder, C. V. (2008). Contemporary Challenges and Emerging Issues. In Organization Development: Theory and Practice. Pretoria: Van Schaik. 5 Deng, L. (2005). The Challenge of Cultural, ethnic and Religious Diversity in Peace building and Constitution- making in post -conflict Sudan. Civil Wars, Vol.7 (3). 2 administrative, and mission efforts are lost because churches are experiencing conflicts.
The frequency and severity of conflicts seem to be increasing.6 This study was undertaken at Emmanuel Church Kengeleni, the second oldest church in Kenya from the diocese of Mombasa which is the oldest Diocese in Anglican Church of Kenya. This church has had several conflicts, most of which are related to church leadership.
According to Uledi, Emmanuel Church Kengeleni was initially built to serve the spiritual needs of the freed slaves at Freretown freed slaves settlement.7These sentiments are echoed by Kalu8 and Ofundi.9 However, as time went by and with the coming of independence from the colonialist, the church was opened up for all people to worship.
The church leadership which was solely in the hands of the descendants of the freed slaves, slowly changed hands as other communities came in and outnumbered the
Freretown community. The relationship between the Freretown Community and the leadership of ECK has experienced many challenges as a result of suspicion and mistrust that has often resulted into conflict.
Historical issues such as identity crisis, church ownership, and management of church resources, struggle for leadership and control of church funds contribute to church conflicts. There were incidents where non-frère looked down to Freretownians as
“foreigners” due to the fact that most of them were settled after slave trade was abolished. There is evidence of conflict and wrangles in the church as depicted in an article in the local newspapers on 26th November 200710. There are also several letters from the Freretown community addressed to the Diocesan Bishop, ACK Diocese of
Mombasa seeking redress on the conflict at ECK. They include the letters dated 18th
6 Odhiambo, E. (2017). “The Paradigm Shift from Theocratic to Autocratic Leadership,” Journal of Global Peace and Conflict. Vol. 1 (1): 14-27. 7 Uledi, F. Oral Interview by the Researcher 9-9-2016 at Freretown. 8 Kalu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-8-2017 at Ukumbusho House. 9 Ofundi, K. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 15-5-2017 at Ukumbusho House. 10 Maundu, G. (2007, November 26th). ‘Mwenye nguvu mpishe,’ Taifa Leo. p. 1-2. 3
September 2008 and 29th March 2011.11 Arguably, the relationship between the leadership of ECK and the Freretown Community has been of co-operation, suspicion and/or accusations and even conflict.12
1.2 A Chronological Synopsis of the Conflict
The genesis of the conflict can be traced back to the controversial parochial church council election that was held in May 2000 that saw 11out of 12 members from Frere
Town community elected. Congregants from other communities felt unrepresented in this PCC. In February 16th 2002, the Fathers Union wrote a 14 agenda letter to PCC requesting general church improvements since the PCC had not shown any effort to improve the situation. In February 12th 2003 Fathers Union wrote to the Diocesan
Bishop Right Reverend Julius Kalu requesting his assistance to compel the PCC to carry our Church improvements.
Frere Town Community Association (Community Based Organization) was registered under certificate of Registration No. 21213 in April 2003. This Association was to be the custodian of all properties and investments of the community. In order to have authority and control over the church properties, the Frere Town members of PCC arranged to change church constitution to ensure that only Frere Town community members are elected as PCC members. In response to this, the Fathers Union lawyer on September
5th 2003 wrote to the Bishop asking him to allow only diocesan constitution and church
Audit regulations to be followed while carrying out elections. Bishop Kalu agreeing with Fathers Union Lawyer requested and directed Vicar of ECK to carry out instructions requested by the said lawyer.
11 Frere Town Community Association. (2008, September 18th). Correspondence from Freretown Community Association to Diocesan Bishop. Diocesan fonds Jan 2005, - Dec 2010. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 12 Kenya Law Civil Suit No. 141 of 2007, available at kenyalwa.org/caselaw/cases/view/80779, internet accessed on 22nd February 2016. 4
This resulted into tension and suspicion among the two groups. On October 13th 2003
Rev. Josphat Murutu carried out reconciliation meeting between Fathers Union and
Frere Town community members as requested by the Diocesan Bishop and memorandum of understanding was signed to audit all church accounts, church inventory to be taken within four months and carry out PCC election before March 1st
2004. On February 9th 2004, Auditor Njoya and Associates’ requested to be given audit material to start the audit work as agreed in the reconciliatory meeting.
Despite the series of meetings there was little progress and therefore on June 30th 2004
The Vicar wrote to the Bishop requesting him to dissolve the PCC for failure to implement the signed agreement dated October 13th 2003. Again on August 19th 2004
Fathers Union wrote to the Bishop asking him to dissolve the PCC for failure to carry out the signed agreement. From Aug 2004- Feb 2005, there were several fellowship meetings (reconciliatory) between Fathers Union and Frere Town Community members at Bishops office looking for possible solutions. The diocesan Chancellor was also invited. On March 18th 2005, the Diocesan Chancellor gave his final advice and constitutional guidance on the ongoing conflict.
On June 8th 2005, Fathers Union wrote to the Vicar complaining of delay by the PCC in giving out the documents required by the Auditor Njoya and Associates. Again on
September 1st 2005, Fathers Union Lawyer wrote to the Bishop complaining of delay in
Church Audit work. In response to that, the Bishop wrote to the Vicar on September 9th
2005 instructing him to carry out all the audit work as instructed before. Between
September and October there were several correspondences between Fathers Union, the
Bishop and the vicar on the issue of church audit without any success. 5
As a result of that, on November 28th 2005, the Fathers Union through their Lawyer filled a High Court civil case no. 253 of 2005 complaining on Emmanuel church Audit problems. On March 8th 2006, the Chairman of Bishop Advisory Committee Dr. J.B.
Okanga, Fathers Union Lawyer and Fathers Union officials met with the Bishop and agreed to follow this matter urgently guided by the Diocesan Chancellor. The meetings brought some hope, on March 29th 2006 Fathers Union agreed to withdraw the High
Court case in order to give the Bishop more time to resolve the issue and report back to both Fathers Union lawyer and Frere Town lawyer.
However, on May 16th 2006 Fathers Union Lawyer wrote to Bishop complaining of delay and giving 14 days ultimatum for Bishop to act on outstanding matters and failure on that the matter was to be taken back to the High Court. In response to the Fathers
Union plea, the Bishop wrote to Vicar on June 15th 2006, dissolving the PCC with immediate effect. The Vicar and the Curate (Assistant parish priest) were transferred.
Bishop ordered the appointment of Interim committee with clear terms of reference to handle the conflict and run the parish. The Commission (Interim Committee) was elected by the congregation on July 13th 2006 with instructions to carry out Audit work for 12 months and to report to the Diocesan Board of Finance.
In protest of that, the Frere Town community filled a High Court Civil Case no. 174 of
2006, on October 9th 2006, against the Bishop for dissolving the PCC. The church members were enjoined in the Civil Case 173 of 2006 on November 9th 2006. The situation did not become any better despite all the efforts done, on December 31st 2006 there were demonstration and disruption by Frere Town community during a confirmation service presided over by the Diocesan Bishop Right Revered Julius Kalu. 6
After the expiry of the tenure of the Interim Committee, the standing committee of the synod through the advice of the diocesan Chancellor ordered the election of PCC on 17th
June 2007. There was physical confrontation and throwing of rotten eggs inside the sanctuary. However, the election proceeded as planned. In protest to the elections done, there was a two weeks sit –in invasion of ACK Binns primary school by members of
Frere Town Community. On July 18th 2007, Court Orders were issued by Hon Justice
Maraga restraining Freretown Community members from collecting, demanding school fees from students, parents, head teacher, bursar or guardians of ACK Binns primary school and Nursery or from removing any accounting records, enrolment records, books material and stationeries of the said school.
A comprehensive report on the valuation of fixed and loose assets (Furniture and
Equipment) of ECK worth Kenya shillings 78,584,640/- was presented to the Annual
General meeting held on Sunday June 17th 2007. This was a major milestone and a great step towards resolving the conflict.
In spite of the achievements attained, on July 29th 2007 the church was closed following a series of continuous hooliganism, disrupting orderly worship services hence parishioners retreated to worship in the church hall. This was followed by physical attack and baring the priests from holding services in the consecrated church on August
12th 2007. Prayer services at the church were called off at the height of the controversy.
The conflict came to the attention of the Archbishop of the Anglican church of Kenya, the Most Revered Dr Benjamin Nzimbi who visited ECK and had series of meetings with the PCC on October 13th 2007 in an attempt to resolve the prolonged conflict.
There were Court cases pending hearing and determination by the High Court. However, the Judge, Hon Justice Sergon, of Mombasa High Court on October 23rd 2007, asked the 7 two conflicting parties to choose either to agree outside the court or to continue with the court proceedings, both parties agreed to proceed with court determination once and for all.
The Archbishop Nzimbi continued with his efforts in resolving the conflict by holding an all members Christian baraza in the church hall on October 27th 2007. He thereafter conducted a cleansing service on October 28th 2007 at the Church.
Another major breakthrough was on December 31st 2007 when the church Balance sheet and Final accounts from the Audit Njoya and Associates were presented to the church.
This was followed by the posting of new priests on January 1st 2008.
Concerning the court cases, on July 15th 2009, the plaintiff’s amended plaint was struck out and dismissed. This was followed by the ruling on January 12th 2010, by Hon Justice
J.B. Ojwang at Mombasa High Court, on civil case No. 173 of 2006. Where the case between Fredrick Shungu Karisa and 3 others v Rev Geoffrey Guyo Dida was struck out and dismissed on the grounds that it was scandalous, frivolous, vexatious, bad in law and an abuse of court process. The plaintiffs had not exhausted the prescribed avenues of conflict resolution before moving to the High Court. The plaintiffs were charged the costs of the application.
This was a land mark ruling and in great favour to the members of the congregation.
Since them the other remaining court cases have been left pending.
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1.3 Statement of the Problem
The relationship between the leadership of ECK and the Freretown Community has changed a lot over the years. There has been conflict in the church between the
Freretown community (whose majority are Christians and members of the Anglican
Church) and the leadership of the church. This contestation has been manifested in both internal leadership wrangles13 as well as in the public media.14 From the year 2000 to
2010, the leadership of ECK experienced a very hostile relationship with the Freretown community. Why has there been conflict between the indigenous Freretown community15 and the leadership of ECK? The study set out to analyse the conflict between the Freretown community and the leadership of the church between the year
2000 to 2010, with the aim of coming up with recommendation for possible solutions to these challenges.
13 Kenya Law Civil Suit No. 141 of 2007, available at kenyalwa.org/caselaw/cases/view/80779, internet accessed on 22nd February 2016. 14 Frere Town Community Association. (2010, March 29th). Correspondence from Freretown Community Association to Diocesan Bishop. Diocesan fonds Jan 2005, - Dec 2010. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 15 This refers to the four groups of Bombay Africans settled at Freretown when slave trade was abolished in the Indian Ocean slave trade. It refers to the freed slaves returning from India-also known as the ‘Bombay Africans,’ a phrase coined in India. The Bombay Africans were: Abdullah Susi, James Chuma, Wikitani, Matthew Wellington and Jacob Wainright- who all through their knowledge of languages, landscape and diplomacy were invaluable members of 19th and early 20th century British expeditions into East Africa. The four groups of Bombay Africans which formed the indigenous Freretown community included: a. The Sidi Group: Sidi Mubarak Bombay b. The Livingstone Group: Abdullah Susi and Amoda c. The Nasik Group: Mathew Wellington and Jacob Wainright d. The Frere Town and Rabai Group: Cephas and Mark Wellington The definition of “Freretown community” should in the 21st century include all people living within the Freretown locality. However, in this study, the term has been used to refer to the four groups of Bombay Africans and their descendants, who reside within that area and are Christians and members of Emmanuel Church. 9
1.4 Research Objectives
1.4.1 General Objective
The overall objective of this study was to analyse the conflict between the Freretown community and the leadership of ECK, with a view of proposing amicable solutions to these perennial conflicts in the church.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
The study was guided by the following objectives:
1. To establish the role played by the Freretown community in the growth and
development of ECK.
2. To establish the factors that led to conflict in ECK between 2000 -2010.
3. To assess the impact of conflict in ECK.
4. To explore possible ways of conflict mitigation at ECK with a view of solving
the conflicts in the church.
1.5 Research Questions
The study sought to answer the following research questions:
1. What was the role played by the Freretown community in the growth and
development of ECK?
2. What factors led to conflict in ECK between 2000 -2010?
3. What is the impact of the conflict at ECK?
4. What are the possible solutions that can be adopted to mitigate the conflicts
between the Leadership of ECK and the Freretown Community? 10
1.6 Significance and Justification of the study
The study was geared towards achieving several outcomes. It generated information and knowledge regarding the dynamics of conflicts to several stakeholders in the church.
This is envisaged to help the church understand how to address conflicts. This is because conflicts have led to retrogression and breakdown of many established institutions. In fact, the frequent church conflicts witnessed, both locally and nationally, motivated the study. Indeed, evidence of conflict in the ACK Church and other churches are frequently reported in both print and electronic media.
The study findings may make a significant contribution in academic circles as far as conflict resolution and management are concerned. The information generated on the causes and remedies of church conflict will add knowledge to the existing literature.
Finally, the study forms a platform on which future theological researchers may obtain a reference which will substantiate their future research.
Further, this research was undertaken because other studies done previously have not sufficiently dealt with the subject in inquest. There has been limited deep critical analysis of the conflict issue in the church as most previous studies focused on the general growth and development of Christianity. The study gives a detailed analysis on the causes and effects of conflict and the possible mitigation measures. It therefore, informs the reader about the conflict at ECK between the Freretown community and the leadership of the church within the period of 2000 and 2010.
1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Study
The study focussed on the causes of conflict, effects of the conflict and explored possible mitigations towards the conflict at ECK. The study was conducted at Freretown and Kengeleni areas which are situated in Mombasa mainland North, Mombasa County. 11
The study focussed between the year 2000 when the Parochial Church Council (PCC) elections become contentious and led to protest by the Fathers Union in 2002 and eventually the council was disbanded in 2006 and was replaced with an interim committee. It also looked into the events that followed up to 2010 when some of the major court cases in the Kenyan High court were determined. The period was long enough to give relevant and precise information on the topic. The study therefore, mainly concentrated on current and former members of the church who reside at
Freretown.
The study had a limited scope as it did not include the general population in Kisauni who might have been affected by the conflict in the church. Furthermore, it excluded other Christian Churches like the Pentecostal churches which are proximate to ECK.
Due to the reduced scope, the generalization drawn from the study may not be applicable to other Churches and regions. It should be noted that ECK belongs to the mainstream churches which are much more established, widespread and have a long history from the missionary era.
1.8 Literature Review
This section reviews and evaluates what other researchers have to say about the subject and how it informs the study. It begins by highlighting the roles communities play in the growth and development of the church. The possible causes of church conflict as reported by other studies and documentation of some effects of church conflict as highlighted in these documents. Finally, possible ways of mitigating church conflict in these studies are revisited and analyzed for relevance in the current times.
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1.8.1 Role of the Community in Church Growth and Development
According to Worancha, one of the purposes of the church is to proclaim the gospel of salvation to all mankind.16 This is based on the great commission of Jesus Christ which was not directed to one group of people, but to all who come to salvation. It is on this basis that church growth is a call on all church members and community of believers to be actively involved in spreading the Good News of Jesus Christ.
The spread of Christianity into Africa could not have been possible without the involvement of local communities in mission work. In his study, Ampofo noted that during the early mission in the colonial era Ghana (1828-1920) as Christianity was being grounded in Africa, African men took on roles as catechists or as teachers in first and second cycle schools, and later as ministers of religion. Women were generally relegated to the periphery, playing the roles of house wives and taking care of the home as their husbands served in the above capacity.17
The pre-independence period in Ghana, (1917-1956) saw an increase in the involvement of local people in church growth as more men served in church governance and performed more clerical activities. The Church started allowing women freedom to exercise their leadership skills by serving in women ministries. The post-independence period (1957-1970) saw an increase in women contribution to church growth as teachers, leaders of women fellowship groups, in addition to maintaining Christian homes and nurturing children. During this period men begun to take more active roles as church leaders and clergy.18
16 Worancha, G. (2010). “Factors affecting church growth in East Central Africa region: the Adventist concern,” Asia- Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry AAMM, Vol. 5: 19. 17 Ampofo, R. (1998). “The contribution of women to church growth and development in Africa: The case of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana,” International Review of Mission, Vol. 87 (345): 233-239. 18 Ibid. 13
One element of church growth that Bolu has reported on is church planting. Bolu notes that church planting is the establishing of an organized body of believers in a new location. The process of church planting involves evangelism, discipleship, training of church leaders and organization of the church. Bolu highlights some of these processes in the ministry of Paul who spent considerable time in each city to establish a local church and train leaders. He would later revisit the areas to strengthen their faith, and as the churches established grew in faith, they would begin to send out missionaries themselves.19
Ampofo and Bolu highlighted some of the contributions of the local communities to the growth of the early church in Ghana. However, there are no studies that examine the contribution of the local communities in the spread of Christianity in East Africa and especially the role played by the Freretown Community. This study narrowed down its focus to the specific role played by the Freretown community in church growth in
Kenya. The study further sought to find out whether these contributions had a bearing on the conflict that characterized Emmanuel Church between 2000 and 2010.
1.8.2 Causes of Conflict in the Church
Christian leaders have had to deal with contention within their congregations since the birth of the church on the day of Pentecost. The New Testament provides examples that demonstrate that the early church experienced conflict. In the book of Acts, we read about a dispute developing over inequitable care for widows in the congregation. James asks, "What causes quarrels and fights among you?20" clearly highlighting that there were situations of conflict in the church. Christians may live under a false expectation
19 Bolu, C.A. (2012). “The Church in the Contemporary World: Information and Communication Technology in Church Communication for Growth: A Case Study,” Journal of Media and Communication Studies, Vol. 4 (4): 80-94. 20 The Holy Bible (1978). New International Version, International Bible Society, New York: Zondervan, James 4:1a. 14 that the church will be different from secular organizations. They may expect that it will be a place with no evidence of division, no opposition to ideas and no challenges to leadership; a place of peace and harmony because Jesus taught his followers to "...be at peace with each other.”21 The reality is that the church will always face conflicts that have to be properly dealt with.
Kazimoto has advanced some of the causes of conflict at the workplace. One of the causes is differing values. People have differing perspectives of the world, with some having strong beliefs which they may not be willing to compromise. This could be a source of conflict. The second cause of conflict is opposing interests. When people choose to pursue their own goals as opposed to the common goals of the group or organization, the result would be conflict.22
The third cause of conflict according to Kazimoto maybe personality differences. We all differ in personality characteristics. Some people may be more reserved while others are outgoing. These differences may result into conflict if not well handled. The fourth cause of conflict is poor communication. When communication is mishandled, the result may be misunderstandings and strive among people. The fifth cause of conflict could be personal problems; these may be matters outside the group or organization such as marital challenges or parental issues that are carried into the group.23
Overton and Lawry have outlined other factors that can lead to conflict. These include lack of clarity on goals and expectations, conflicts of interest, change, lack of clear jurisdictions, stress, heavy workload, lack of openness, honesty and poor leadership.24
21The Holy Bible (1978). New International Version, International Bible Society, New York: Zondervan, Mark 9:50. 22Kazimoto, P. (2013). “Analysis of Conflict Management and Leadership for Organizational Change,” International Journal of Research in Social Sciences. Vol. 3 (1). 23 Ibid. 24 Overton, A. R. and Lowry, A.C. (2013). “Conflict management: Difficult conversations with difficult people,” Clinics in Colon and Rectal surgery. Vol. 26 (4): 259–264. 15
Culture is another factor that can trigger conflicts between people. According to
Kunovich, “Cultural differences provide a basis for group polarization and lead to the development and maintenance of ethnic boundaries.”25
Peters noted that, every society, organization, group and family develops a unique culture as their identity, which can either promote or deter conflicts. Church congregation with primary emphasis on worship, religious education and rituals are regarded as house of worship. Congregations that focus on close-knit and supportive relationships are classified as the family model. Placing emphasis on interpreting and applying shared values on social issues belong to the community model. Congregations aiming to express values from the official tenets of their denomination or religious tradition are labelled as the leader model. Community congregations have twice the number of conflicts as family congregations. Family congregations are more likely to fight over church buildings, while community and leader congregations tend to disagree on contemporary social issues.26
The aforementioned researchers outlined a number of factors that can trigger conflicts in a given organization, group of people or family. Some of the factors highlighted in their studies to some extent informed the findings of this study. However, none of the researchers specifically focused on the causes of conflict at ECK. This study presented an opportunity to keenly examine the conflict at ECK and to highlight the contributing factors.
25 Kunovich, R. M. and Hodson, R. (1999). “Conflict, Religious Identity and Ethnic Intolerance in Croatia,” Social Forces, Vol. 78 (2): 643-668. 26 Peters, K. L. (2010). “Conflict management in the Christian church,” Unpublished MA Thesis, Alfred Adler University. 16
1.8.3 Effects of Conflict in the Church
Conflicts can have adverse effects on any group or organization. Hanif et al reported that task related conflicts can result in reduced commitment by group members, leading to poor performance.27 Team members become distracted by conflicts within their team and as such cannot execute their tasks effectively.28 According to Bendersky and Hays, conflict between groups of people produces tension and animosity which distracts the team from the task at hand, thus hindering team performance.29
Just like in an organizational setup, conflicts can have adverse effect on a church if not addressed in a timely manner. In his study, Treve reported that conflict had several effects on the religious life of the church. First, conflict hampered the work of evangelism as non-Christians lost confidence in the Christian message, thus soul winning took backstage. Second, conflicts hindered the progress of the church as a result of breakups and defection of members, leading to loss of revenue. Third, conflict resulted in violent confrontations, characterized by physical fights and destruction of property. Finally, conflict interfered with the social life of the church members as it created enmity between people who had lived peacefully together. The result was also public shame as they fought each other openly.30
Barthel and Edling reported that conflict in the church slandered the name of Christ and split the church, hindering the witness of Christ among non-believers.31 Ansre noted that
27 Hanif, K. et al (2016). “Impact of Intra-group Conflict on Group Performance-moderating Role of Cultural Diversity,” Universal Journal of Management, Vol. 4 (2): 72-78. 28 Janss, R. et al (2012). “What is happening under the surface? Power, conflict and the performance of medical teams,” Medical Education, Vol. 46 (9): 838-849. 29 Bendersky, C. and Hays, N. A. (2012). “Status Conflict in Groups,” Organization Science, Vol. 23 (2): 323–340. 30 Treve, W. K. (2013). “Religious conflict and its impacts on society: A case study of global Evangelical and Evangelical Presbyterian Churches in Anyako,” Unpublished MA Thesis, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. 31 Barthel, T. K., and Edling, D. V. (2012). Redeeming Church Conflicts. Michigan: Baker Books Publishing Group. 17 conflict in the church caused personal animosity that led to family divisions.32 In his study of the conflict at Christian Church International, Kiria-ini, Gathuki noted that conflict had led to strained relationships and rivalry between the warring groups.33 It is worth noting that conflict can also have a positive effect on a church. According to
Treve34 and Gathuki,35 conflict led to geographical expansion of the church as the splinter groups established churches in areas that the church had not reached. It also created healthy competitions between the emerging churches, which promoted excellence in their operations.
The above authors have skilfully analysed the effects of conflicts both in church and outside church. Their reports were based on the various contexts in which the studies were conducted. Their findings were beneficial to this study in that they provided a basis of reference. However, the study at hand was majorly concerned with leadership conflict at Emmanuel Church and its effect to the church and the local community.
1.8.4 Conflict Mitigation in the Church
Kiiru, in his work, “The Role of Church in Conflict Management: A Case study of the
Anglican Church of Kenya,” gives a detailed growth and development of the ACK. He further explains the role of the church in conflict management in the country.36 He argues that the church has the mandate to be involved in the management of conflict in the country at different levels. This is depicted in his study on the role that ACK played
32 Ansre, G. (1997). The Evangelical Presbyterian Church 150 Year of Evangelization and Development 1847 - 1997. Ho: E.P. Church Press. 33 Gathuki, D. (2006). “Conflict in Pentecostal Churches: The Case of Christian Church International, Kiria-ini Town, Murang’a County, Kenya,” Unpublished MA Thesis, Kenyatta University. 34 Treve, W. K. (2013). “Religious conflict and its impacts on society: A case study of global Evangelical and Evangelical Presbyterian Churches in Anyako,” Unpublished MA Thesis, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. 35 Gathuki, D. (2006). “Conflict in Pentecostal Churches: The case of Christian Church International, Kiria-ini Town, Murang’a County, Kenya,” Unpublished MA Thesis, Kenyatta University. 36Kiiru, D. (2011). “The Role of the Church in Conflict Management: A Case Study of Anglican Church of Kenya,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Nairobi. 18 in the management of conflict in the country especially the two case studies at Timboroa in Eldoret Town and Mai Mahiu in Longonot Division.37
It is evident that the ACK church has been involved in conflict which has made her to be proactive in dealing with conflict. However, Kiiru is addressing the community based conflict which is political and resource based. He is addressing the multiparty conflicts, the post election violence, the tribal clashes and the church intervention towards addressing the same. However, this study addressed intra-church conflict. The context was narrowed to a parish and a single congregation. It sought to address why Christians of the same church and congregation have been at war with each other.
According to Adeyemo, conflict itself is less important than how we resolve it. It arises wherever some incompatibility between opinions and principles results in serious disagreement or argument. At its worst, it escalates into a prolonged armed struggle.38 A
Conflict brings to fore problems that require attention. It may also force clarification of issues and challenge leaders to question the status quo and search for better solutions.39
Good handling of the conflict between the Hellenized Jews and the Hebrew Jews in
Jerusalem resulted in the exponential growth of the early church. However, when conflicts are not well handled, they can seriously damage a relationship, divide a nation, destroy an organization and demoralize the people involved. Improper handling of the conflict between Barnabas and Paul in regard to John Mark led to the division of their missionary team.
Hanif at el noted that, “Effective conflict management provides opportunities for the members of a group to understand each other in a better way and enhance their
37 Kiiru, D. (2011). “The Role of the Church in Conflict Management: A Case Study of Anglican Church of Kenya,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Nairobi. 38 Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). Africa Bible Commentary, Nairobi: Word Alive Publishers, p. 551. 39 Ibid, 2006. 19 group performance, interpersonal skills and building rapport.”40 According to Bowman, conflicts can be utilized to bring about positive transformation in the faith community if
Christians are equipped with necessary skills to rightly channel the energy generated through conflicts. The equipping process must begin at the leadership level and it involves more than the effort of the pastor or a church board; it requires team leadership.41
Adeyemo emphasizes that the key principle for conflict mitigation is to prayerfully follow the Lords prescription for resolving conflicts as written in Matthew 18:15-17.42
Jesus Christ exhorted his disciples to settle matters with their adversaries amicably. He proposed a three-step process in conflict resolution in the church. The first step is to go privately and settle the matter with your adversary. The second step if the first failed is to take with you one or two others so that every word is confirmed by the witnesses. The final step if the first two fail, is to tell it to the Christian fellowship. If the offender fails to listen even to the church, then they should be treated as non-believers.
Forgiveness is central in conflict mitigation in the church setup. Clark notes that forgiveness is an integral part of the Christian life that every believer should experience, as well as demonstrate to other.43 If all believers embraced the concept of forgiveness, the idea of church conflicts escalating into violent fights would be a thing of the past.
Shawchuck has proposed five essential elements for conflict resolution that are worth noting. First, to resolve conflicts, you must learn to recognize and address a conflict in its early stages. Deal with the notion that the dispute will just rest. Postponing conflicts
40 Hanif, K. at el. (2016). “Impact of Intra-group Conflict on Group Performance-moderating Role of Cultural Diversity,” Universal Journal of Management, Vol. 4 (2): 72-78. 41 Bowman, W. (2008). “Leadership in Church Conflict: Transforming Congregations through Adaptive Work,” Unpublished MA Thesis, McMaster Divinity College. 42 Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). Africa Bible Commentary, Nairobi: Word Alive Publishers, p. 552. 43 Clark, P. (2006). “Managing Conflict in the Church,” Unpublished Seminar Paper, Focus: Leadership topics, Church Planting and Evangelism. 20 just propels them into the future. Second, keep everyone focused on the conflict issue.
We have to clearly define the issues that each party to a conflict is concerned about.
Third, provide the three “Ps” of conflict management: permission (permission to parties to disagree without feeling guilty); potency (enable each one to state his position with strength and clarity); and protection (keep each one from being needlessly hurt and from needlessly hurting others). Fourth, enable the parties to see a way out of the conflict situation by suggesting options to their present policies and/or behavior. Finally, work to turn every conflict into a problem to be solved, and involve all parties in searching for solutions to the problem.44
Omisore and Abiodun have proposed some conflict resolution values that should govern the conflict resolution process. The first is respect for all. Conflicts must be resolved by taking into account the needs of the people affected by the conflict. The second is participation and empowerment. Everyone party to a conflict has a right and obligation to participate in decisions that affect their lives. The third is respect for diversity in views and perspective. The parties in the conflict need to respect and understand each other’s needs and perspectives. The fourth is justice. The solutions to a conflict have to be just and fair. The fifth is non-violence. Conflict resolution has to promote the use of non-violence techniques as much as possible. The final is transformation of individuals and their communities. Changing the way we deal with conflict helps us live a more rewarding and responsible life. Changing oneself is also an essential part of creating community change, as one is providing a positive role models for others and taking responsibility of the role one plays as part of one’s own community.45
44 Shawchuck, N. (1996). How to Manage Conflict in the Church: Dysfunctional Congregations, Leith, ND: Spiritual Growth Resources. 45 Omisore, B., and Abiodun, A. (2014). “Organizational Conflicts: Causes, Effects and Remedies,” International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences.Vol.3 (6). 21
Proper communication is a key ingredient to conflict mitigation. According to Clark,
“Whoever desires to improve conflict management skills must also work diligently to improve his or her communication skills.”46
The above mechanisms of conflict resolution formed a foundation upon which this study could use as it attempted to propose the best possible ways of resolving the conflict at
ECK. Some of the mechanisms of conflict mitigation provided were applied with little modification. However, the study did not limit itself to the above propositions in suggesting possible solutions to the conflict.
1.9 Theoretical Framework
The study adopted the conflict theory advanced by Karl Marx (1818-1883). Conflict theory states that society or an organization functions so that each individual participant and its groups struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social change such as political changes and revolutions. The theory is mostly applied to explain conflict between social classes, proletariat versus bourgeoisie; and in ideologies, such as capitalism versus socialism. The theory claims that society is in a state of perpetual conflict due to competition for limited resources. Conflict theory holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than consensus and conformity.47
According to conflict theory, those with wealth and power try to hold on to it by any means possible, chiefly by suppressing the poor and powerless. Conflict theory also ascribes most of the fundamental developments in human history, such as democracy and civil rights, to capitalistic attempts to control the masses rather than to a desire for
46 Clark, P. (2006). “Managing Conflict in the Church”. Unpublished Seminar paper, 47 Omer, S., and Jabeen, S. (2016). “Exploring Karl Marx conflict theory in education: Are Pakistani private schools maintaining status quo?” Bulletin of Education and Research, Vol. 38 (2): 195-202. 22 social order.48 Marx points out that tensions and conflicts arise when resources, status, and power are unevenly distributed between groups in society, and that these conflicts become the engine for social change. In this context, power can be understood as control of material resources and accumulated wealth, control of politics and the institutions that make up society, and one's social status relative to others (determined not just by class but by race, gender, sexuality, culture, and religion, among other things).49
Marx focused on the causes and consequences of class conflict between the bourgeoisie
(the owners of the means of production and the capitalists) and the proletariat (the working class and the poor). Focusing on the economic, social, and political implications of the rise of capitalism in Europe, Marx theorized that this system, premised on the existence of a powerful minority class (the bourgeoisie) and an oppressed majority class (the proletariat), created class conflict because the interests of the two were at odds, and resources were unjustly distributed among them.
Within this system an unequal social order was maintained through ideological coercion which created consensus and acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the bourgeoisie. Marx theorized that the work of producing consensus was done in the "superstructure" of society, which is composed of social institutions, political structures and culture, and what it produced consensus for was the base, the economic relations of production.
Marx reasoned that as the socio-economic conditions worsened for the proletariat, they would develop a class consciousness that revealed their exploitation at the hands of the wealthy capitalist class of bourgeoisie, and then they would revolt, demanding changes to smooth the conflict. According to Marx, if the changes made to appease conflict
48 Omer, S., and Jabeen, S. (2016). “Exploring Karl Marx conflict theory in education: Are Pakistani private schools maintaining status quo?” Bulletin of Education and Research, Vol. 38 (2): 195-202. 49 Rummel, R. (1977). Understanding conflict and war: Conflict in perspective. Vol. 3, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. 23 maintained a capitalist system, then the cycle of conflict would repeat. However, if the changes made created a new system, like socialism, then peace and stability would be achieved.50
Conflict theory has been used to explain a wide range of social phenomena, including wars and revolutions, wealth and poverty, discrimination and domestic violence. Many communities experience social negligence or dissatisfaction as a result of either ethnicity or class distinction as well as on religious basis. Therefore, this theory will help the researcher in the process of analyzing the Conflict between the two groups who are both
Christians and members of the same church but with different backgrounds and/ or origins.
In addition to the conflict theory, the study utilized the Spiritual Model of Conflict
Management (SMCM), which holds that when an individual experiences discomfort associated with conflict, the individual may seek to resolve the conflict through self regulation. The level of concern for spirituality determines how much concern an individual expresses for the temporal concerns of self and others. If the individual demonstrates a high level of concern for spirituality, then the concerns for self and others decrease. This assertion does not mean a person, who has a high concern for spirituality, does not care for personal wellbeing or the wellbeing of others; rather, any concerns for self and others align with the commands and will of a supreme being i.e.
God.51 According to Adeyemo, the principles of conflict mitigation can be applied prayerfully following the Lords prescription for resolving conflicts among believers as written in the scriptures (Matthew 18:15-17).52
50 Crossman, A. (2016). “Conflict Theory,” (database-online), available at http://sociology.about.com/od/Disciplines/a/Sociology-Of-Social-Inequality.htm, internet accessed on 1st August 2016 51 Rittle, D. C., and Beach, V. (2008). “Managing the Conflict from within: A Spiritual Model,” Virginia Beach VA, Regent global publications pp.1-13. 52Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). African Bible Commentary, Nairobi: Word Alive Publishers, pp. 551-552. 24
1.10 Research Methodology
This section discusses the research design, research area, target population, sampling techniques, data collection and data analysis adopted for the study. Kombo and Tromp define research methodology as the process and description used in carrying out a study.53 It considers the logic behind the methods used in the context of the study and explains why a particular method is preferred to the others. Kothari describes research methodology as a systematic way of solving a research problem.54 According to
Mugenda and Mugenda, the methodology component of a proposal mainly includes the proposed research design, population and sample, data collection procedures, data analysis procedures and sometimes measurements of variables.55 These sub-components and the strategy used by the researcher are described in detail next.
1.10.1 Research Design
This study adopted the qualitative research design which aims at gathering an in-depth understanding of human behavior and reasons that govern such behavior.56 This approach helped to study conflict at ECK in details as it sought to find out the root cause of the problem and possible ways of mitigating the same. By so doing it gave deeper insights and better understanding of conflict and the effects it has in the mainstream church and the church at large. In order to generate sufficient and reliable data for analysis, the researcher employed both library research and field work. Primary data was collected using in-depth interviews conducted by the researcher within the study area. In addition, Focus Group Discussions (FGD’s) and archival resources were used.
53Kombo, D., and Tromp, T. (2006). Proposal and Thesis Writings: An Introduction. Nairobi: Pauline’s Publications Africa. 54 Kothari, R. (2005). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. India: New Age publishers 55Mugenda, O., and Mugenda, A. (2003). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Nairobi: African Centre for Technology Studies. 56Yates, J., and Leggett, T. (2016). “Qualitative Research: An Introduction, Radiologic Technology,” Vol. 88 (2): 225- 231. 25
Secondary data was obtained from various libraries (physical and virtual) and from the internet.
1.10.2 Study Area
The study area was Freretown and Kengeleni, situated in Mombasa mainland North within Mombasa County in Kenya (see appendix I). The choice of this area of study was influenced by the rich history that goes with it. ECK is the second oldest Church in
Kenya after ACK St Paul’s Rabai that was started by Rev Dr Krapf. The church was almost 130 years old during the time of study. Secondly, the media publicity in both print and electronic in the years of study captured the attention of many wanting to know the root cause of the controversy in one of the oldest churches in Kenya. Since most of the members reside within that locality, this then became an appropriate site of choice to achieve the study objectives.
1.10.3 Target population
According to Borg and Gall, target population refers to all the members of a real or hypothetical set of people, events or objects to which the researcher wish to generalize the results.57 According to the church register, it was observed that the church had at least 850 registered members before the conflict erupted.58 Those who formed part of this study as respondents came from across the divide and included business persons, civil servants, teachers and pastors. The church leadership then and now were also included as well as the leadership of Freretown Community. The study involved 56 respondents, who included both former and present church leaders.
57 Borg, R.W., and Gall, M. D. (1976). Educational Research. An Introduction. New York: Longman Publishers 58 ACK Kengeleni (2003). Register of Services. Church Register Fonds Jan 2000- Dec 2005. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 26
1.10.4 Sample size determination, selection and sampling design
The study involved a total of 56 respondents drawn from both former and present leadership of the church. Of the 56 respondents, 40 took part in the interview, while 16 took part in the FGDs. The study applied purposive and snow balling techniques to select the respondent. These techniques helped the researcher to select a sample that had vast knowledge on the research topic and reduced the chances of bias. This study conducted two FGDs of at least eight people each. FGDs were composed of four members from the Freretown community and non-Freretown communities respectively.
In each group there were six adults (male and female) and two youth of both genders.
Table 1.1 is a summary of the target population and percentage interviewed.
Table 1. Configuration of Sample Size Categories of Target size Sampled Size Percentage Respondents Clergy 12 7 58.3% KAMA 14 13 92.8% Mothers Union 11 10 90.9% KAYO 9 9 100% Church Elders 20 17 85.0% Total 66 56 84.8%
Source: Field Research 2017
1.10.5 Methods of Data Collection
The researcher utilized interview guides in collecting data through oral interviews and
FGDs. In addition, library sources, archival sources and the internet were utilized in gathering relevant data. 27
1.10.6 Data analysis
The study utilized contextual thematic analysis of data to identify common themes in the data. Data generated from archives, libraries, interviews and FGDs were presented in descriptive form. It involved a critical assessment of each response and examining it using thematic interpretations in accordance with the objectives of the study in order to present the findings in narrative excerpts within the report. The narrative and interpretive reports as well as citations were written down to depict the situation as it were on the ground. The data gathered in this study was then summarized so as to establish the fundamental results. Data analysis was done through differentiating themes, scrutinizing, comparing, contrasting and finally interpreting them on the basis of emergent meaningful patterns that were observed from the data. The evidence from the research findings was used to draw conclusions and make generalizations guided by the study objectives.
1.11 Ethical Considerations
Kombo and Tromp state that researchers should give attention to ethical issues associated with their research.59 In light of this, Mugenda and Mugenda recommend that the researcher has to be careful to avoid causing physical or psychological harm to respondents by asking embarrassing and irrelevant questions, using threatening language, or making the respondents nervous.60 The researcher therefore sought permission from the relevant authorities in order to carry out the study. The researcher explained the purpose of the study to the respondents and assured them of
59Kombo, D., and Tromp, D. (2006). Proposal and Thesis Writings: An Introduction. Nairobi: Pauline’s Publications Africa. 60Mugenda, O., and Mugenda, A. (2003). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Nairobi: African Centre for Technology Studies. 28 confidentiality of their responses and identities. The information and data collected was handled with due diligence so as to maintain confidentiality (Appendix II, page 107).
1.12 Conclusion
This chapter gave the general introduction to the study in which it looked at the subject of church conflict from global to local perspectives. It reviewed the literatures to find out what other studies have deliberated on the subject. It also explains the research methodology used in the study; this includes the research design utilized, how both primary and secondary data was collected, synthesized and analyzed. The site of study was identified and justification made. Furthermore, methods of data collection were discussed, which included interviews, FGDs, Archival, library, and internet. Finally, method of data analysis and presentation were discussed. Having discussed that chapter two will look into the role of the Freretown community in the growth and development of ECK.
29
CHAPTER TWO
THE ROLE OF THE FRERETOWN COMMUNITY IN THE GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT OF EMMANUEL CHURCH KENGELENI
2.1 Introduction
This chapter traces the history of Freretown community and their contribution towards the growth and development of ECK. It begins by presenting a brief history of slave trade in East Africa and its abolition. The role of Sir Bartle Frere in the abolition of slave trade and the propagation of the work of Church Missionary Society (CMS) in Mombasa is discussed. It further looks at the history of the Bombay Africans and their role in the coming and spread of Christianity in Mombasa and Kenya as a whole. The researcher then gives a brief overview of the development of the church from the missionary era and thereafter. The input of this section is to trace the contribution of the Freretown community in the growth of the church, with a view of understanding the genesis of the conflict at ECK between 2000 and 2010.
2.1.1 East African Slave Trade and its Abolition
The history of slave trade in East Africa dates back beyond the coming of western
Christian missionaries. The arrival of Christianity in East Africa started with the arrival of Vasco da Gama in 1498.61 With the evolution of wealthy Muslim civilization during the eighth century A.D., Arab traders began sending steady streams of slaves from East
Africa ports to the markets of Turkey, Arabia, India and Persia. Krapf was shocked at the slavery he witnessed in Zanzibar. Like other European witnesses to the practice in
61Smith, W., and Ofundi K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 2. 30
East Africa, Krapf found slavery incompatible with the preaching of Christian doctrine.62
In the 19th century, the island of Zanzibar and the port of Kilwa on the mainland slightly to the south became the largest African shipping points for the trade. Arab slave traders began to penetrate further and further inland, as far as Uganda and the Congo, in search of slaves.63 The Indian Ocean that stretches between the East Coast of Africa and the
West Coast of India, was once part of the route for a slave trade known as the Oriental or Eastern slave trade.64 This Eastern slave trade was different from the slave trade across the Atlantic Ocean (the transatlantic slave trade) from Africa to the Americas and the Caribbean. In the Transatlantic slave trade the demand was for laborers to work on plantations and in mines, and mostly men were captured to supply the demand.65 In the
Eastern slave trade, the demand was for domestic servants, and mostly women were captured to supply the trade. The women slaves were also often married to their masters, or had children by them and the children were often freed by their fathers. Over time, the enslaved Africans tended to become part of the local population.66
Although slavery was a very important part of the world trade, some people began to feel that it was wrong. The British always considered the abolition as a necessary part of the Christian mission work which they intended to do in Africa.67 In the early part of the eighteen century there had been a great Christian revival in England which spread to
62 Smith, W., and Ofundi K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p.18. 63 Bertocchi, G. (2016). “The legacies of slavery in and out of Africa,” IZA Journal of Migration, Vol. 5 (24). 64 Nunn, N. (2008). “The long-term Effects of Africa’s Slave Trades,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 115 (1). 65 Bravo, K.E., (2011). “The Role of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in Contemporary Anti-Human Trafficking Discourse,” Seattle Journal for Social Justice, Vol. 9 (2). 66 Nunn, N. (2008). “The long-term Effects of Africa’s Slave Trades, “The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 115 (1). 67 Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 36. 31
North America. This revival brought great change to the lives of many Englishmen and
Americans who resolved to end slavery.68
In addition, the 18th century Age of Enlightenment saw European economic interests shift slowly from agriculture to industry. Slaves who initially worked on plantations in
Europe were no longer needed. A movement to abolish the slave trade and the practice of slavery came into being in the Western world. In 1807 the slave trade was outlawed in Britain and the United States. Britain outlawed the practice of slavery in all British territory in 1833; France did the same in its colonies in 1848. In 1865, following the
American Civil War, the U.S. government adopted the 13th Amendment to the
Constitution, ending slavery in the United States. The Atlantic slave trade continued, however, until 1888, when Brazil abolished slavery (the last New World country to do so).69
While the Atlantic slave trade was dying down around 1850, the trans-Saharan and East
African slave trades were at their peak. In the 1850s the Ottoman Empire nominally outlawed slavery in much of the Islamic world, but this had only a minor effect on the slave trade. One of the main justifications European powers gave for colonizing nearly the entire African continent during the 1880s and 1890s was the desire to end slave trading and slavery in Africa. By the dawn of the 20th century, European forces had defeated most African slave trading states, and the trans-Saharan and East African slave trades came to an end.70
In 1822, the British signed the first of a series of treaties with Sultan Said to curb the slave trade, but the Sultan, was able to find ways to word the treaties so that they would
68 Hildebrandt, J. (1996). History of the Church in Africa: A Survey, Achimota: African Christian Press, p. 77. 69 Muhammad, P. M. (2003). “The Trans-Atlantic slave trade: a forgotten crime against humanity as defined by international law,” American University International Law Review, Vol. 19 (4). 70 Church Missionary Society (1869). “The Slave Trade of East Africa,” London: CMS. 32 not interfere with his export business.71 Although colonial authorities began outlawing slavery in some African territories as early as the 1830s, the complete legal abolition of slavery in Africa did not take place until the first quarter of the 20th century. By that time, however, slavery was deeply ingrained in most African societies, and thus the practice continued illegally. Slaves who became liberated often did so by escaping and going to the colonial authorities or by simply leaving the areas in which they had been held to take up residence elsewhere. In some places, enslaved persons held that status throughout their lives, despite the legal prohibition. It was not until the 1930s that slavery in Africa was almost totally eliminated.
The end of the Eastern slave trade began when the British ended slavery in India in
1843. Throughout much of the area, though, slavery remained legal until a country came under European rule (for example Egypt in 1882) or until the country tried to join the
League of Nations after the 1st World War (for example, Saudi Arabia). British pressure forced Zanzibar's ruler, in 1873, to close his slave markets and forbid the export of slaves from his dominions.72
One of the key contributors to the abolition of East African Slave trade was Sir Battle
Frere, the governor of Bombay. Sir Battle Frere, an evangelical Anglican, believed that
Christianity was utterly opposed to slavery. He argued that,
The Spread of Christianity is practically the same thing as the extinction of both slave trade and slavery. In the book of Acts, the Christians were not just taught a new doctrine, but they joined a completely new organized community. Christians must give people modern skills.73
71Smith, W., and Ofundi, F. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 36. 72 Church Missionary Society (1869). “The Slave Trade of East Africa,” London: CMS. 73Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 45. 33
In 1872 the British government was really influenced by reports of Frere and Livingston that it pressurized the sultan to end slave trade. In 1873 Frere was sent by Lord Granville to negotiate with Seyyid Barghash, the Sultan of Zanzibar, to close the slave market at
Zanzibar.74 The Sultan signed a treaty with the British government on June 5, 1873, which led to the closure of the slave market in Zanzibar. However, slavery went on and many slaves ran away from their masters and fled to East Africa having been freed as a result of the British naval ships patrolling in the seas. These freed slaves were taken to
Bombay in India thus called Bombay Africans.75
Upon arrival at Bombay in India, the freed slaves were handed over to the Church
Missionary Society’s (CMS) Industrial training Centre at Nasik to be trained in various skills. Sir Battle Frere gave grants for freed African slaves to be trained and supported the mission work at Nasik.76 About 200 of them passed through that school and in 1864 some of them were sent to go and help in the mission work at Rabai (Mombasa). The three were William Jones, a black smith, Ishmael Semler, a carpenter and George
David.77
2.1.2 The Setting up of Slave Settlements in Mombasa
Sir Bartle Frere was instrumental in the setting up of settlements for freed slaves in East
Africa. When the sultan of Zanzibar agreed to close the trade in 1872, Sir Frere (who had a vision of eight freed slave colonies along the East African coast) convinced the
CMS to take active part in rehabilitating freed slaves in Mombasa.78 He helped the CMS
74 Frere, H. B. E. (2016). Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th (ed). p. 1. 75 Nwulia, M. (1975). “The Role of Missionaries in the Emancipation of Slaves in Zanzibar,” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 60 (2): 268-287. 76Anderson, W. (1977). The Church in East Africa 1840-1974. Dodoma: Central Tanganyika Press, p. 9. 77Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 43. 78 Ibid. 34 in starting a settlement for the freed slaves.79 In the early 1870s, an area on the north mainland, now Freretown, was given to the Church Missionary Society by the Princes of
Malindi. Freretown settlement was set up in 1874 by the CMS. In effect the freed slave settlement practically became a British enclave under the CMS in a Muslim-ruled Arab
Sultanate.80
At this settlement, the freed slaves received education, were equipped with various job skills which enabled them to earn a living and became Christians. The earliest map of
Freretown in 1881, shows that the area was divided into farm plots which were cultivated for food. There were also dormitories for men and women, schools, workshops, a prison facility, cemetery and cricket pitch. In addition, the settlement had a church and houses for the missionaries.81 The settlement covered over 1000 acres and initially had a population of 400 people, which later increased to 900. The first administrator of this settlement was Reverend Price who came from Nasik near
Bombay. However, the settlement was closed in 1920s as slavery died out along the coast. The divinity school was moved to Limuru, as most of the land was sold, with the remaining few families of freed slaves who were still living there being given 50 acres of land for settlement which is now all that is left of Freretown.82
2.1.3 The Freretown Bell Tower
The name “Kengeleni” from which ECK derives its name is associated with the bell tower which is thought to have been put up in 1878 (see appendix IV). Arab dhows that were anchored at Mombasa harbor would occasionally make sorties to recover some of
79 Barret, D. ed. (1973). Kenya Churches Handbook: The Development of Kenya Christianity 1498-1973. p. 31. 80Paas, S. (2011). Johannes Rebmann: A Servant of God in Africa before the Rise of Western Colonialism. Wuremberg: UTR/Hamburg, p. 131. 81 Strayer, R. W. (1978). The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya, 1875–1935. London: Heinemann - State University of New York Press, p. 15. 82Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 83 35 the slaves and were to some extent aided and alerted by the residents of Mombasa who disapproved of losing their slaves to the CMS. One of the first measures adopted to give alarm to discourage raiding parties was the erection of the bell tower in 1875. According to Uledi, the bell was rung hourly day and night so that any intending raider would know that someone was awake at the camp.83 In addition to such warning, the bell was also rung for more peaceful purposes to call the inhabitants to prayer, meals and work.
Douglas, a member of the Mothers Union and a descendant of the freed slaves whose father was a clergy at ECK, observes that the actual bell disappeared and some think that the bell at ECK (see appendix III) is the old Kisauni bell, but the dates do not tally. The bell at the church is dated 1896.84 According to Mbotela, the original bell is used at
ECK and the Bell tower is a national monument with the inscription: ‘This Bell Tower was constructed in the early days of the Church Missionary Society for freed slaves at
Kisauni’85. This bell was probably near the original church building as in an article in the nation Mbotela wrote86.
2.2.1 Bombay Africans and their Contributions in East Africa
The rise in Christian missionary activities in East Africa was paralleled by 1853 emergence of Christian missionary orphanages in the Bombay presidency of India.
Nasik hosted the first orphanage of this kind to offer shelter and education specifically for the liberated Africans. Roman Catholic Missions at Bandora and Poona were also involved in providing homes. Many Africans learnt English, Hindi and technical skills.
83 Uledi, F. Oral Interview with the Researcher on 9th September 2016 at Freretown. 84 Douglas, I. Oral Interview with the Researcher on 9th September 2016 at Maweni. 85 The Hundred Year Old Church that is itself a Miracle (1989). Unpublished. General fonds. Jan 1990-Dec 2000. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 86 Mbotela, J. (1990). Daily Nation May 22. Periodicals fonds Jan 1990-Dec 2000. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 36
This was to be useful especially when they returned to Africa on European expeditions.
87
The origin of the liberated African slave community at Freretown can be traced back to
1864 when Reverend Price, then superintendent of the CMS Africa Asylum at Nasik, sent two of his students, William H. Jones and Ishmael Semler to join Rebmann in missionary work at Rabai.88 Jones and Semler had converted to Christianity at Nasik, where they were trained as blacksmith and carpenter respectively. In 1864 the four of them arrived in Rabai and were later joined by another colleague from Nasik, George
David. In 1874, Matthew Wellington joined the group. These four African men – Jones,
Semler, David and Wellington – became the real pioneers in the establishment of
Freretown and Rabai as communities for Africans liberated from the slave trade and slavery. In particular, William H. Jones played the major role in recruitment in India, which he visited for that purpose in 1871, 1878 – 81, and again in 1893.89 Jones and
Semler served as missionaries at Rabai and also as itinerant ministers along the coast.
Jones in particular carried out missionary work in Kisulitini in 1865, at the Universities
Mission in Zanzibar in 1867, as well as Rabai. Willie and James (sons of Jones) played very important roles in Kenya with Willie pioneering education at the coast while James running the first printing press.90
2.2.1.1 The Role of the Bombay Africans in the Spread of Christianity in East
Africa
For every European who ventured inland into Africa there was a team of often over a hundred people variously composed of gun-bearers, porters, servants, guides,
87 Nwulia, M. (1975). “The Role of Missionaries in the Emancipation of Slaves in Zanzibar,” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 60 (2): 268-287. 88 Joseph E. Harris (1971). The African Presence in Asia. Northwestern University Press. 89 Anderson, W. (1977). The Church in East Africa 1840-1974. Dodoma: Central Tanganyika Press, p. 9. 90 Bengo, L. (1973). Oral Testimonies Freretown. Periodicals fonds Jan 1990-Dec 2000. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 37 interpreters, soldiers, cooks and their women. Amongst them were the Bombay
Africans. It was Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of the Bombay presidency and president of the Royal Geographical Society 1873-74 who suggested that British explorers seeking to recruit staff for African explorations do so from men from or associated to the Indian orphanages.91 Over the 60 years of African Exploration from around 1850, hundreds of
Bombay Africans returned to Africa either independently or with the aid of missionary societies. The ethnic origins of most of the Bombay Africans that participated in expeditions can be traced to areas in modern day Southern Ethiopia, Tanzania, Malawi,
Zambia, and Mozambique. The Bombay Africans were involved in expeditions after
1881 and spent much of their life in East Africa rather than India. Rabai in Kenya served as the base for their earliest expeditions by German explorers Rebmann and Krapf. The
Church Missionary Society later used Freretown and Rabai as settlements for Africans returning from India.92
Besides the humanitarian aim, these freed slave colonies had two other important aims.
According to Anderson, it was to create a Christian Community and also to train future
African ‘missionaries.’93 The Bombay Africans helped in the creation of a Christian community. In Rabai for example, slaves who were running away from their Arab masters settled in the mission under the leadership of Rev. Jones.94 Among these runaway slaves were practicing Muslims who then converted to Christianity. They were then encouraged to cultivate and settle on land in the unoccupied fertile plain stretching
West and Northwest from the Rabai mission at Kisulutini.
91 Lowri, J. M. (2008). “Bombay Africans 1850–1910, Royal Geographical Society,” History Workshop Journal, Vol. 65(1): 271–274. 92 Ibid. 93 Anderson, W. (1977). The Church in East Africa 1840-1974. Dodoma: Central Tanganyika Press, p. 10. 94 Ibid, p. 16. 38
The Bombay Africans were very instrumental in the spread of Christianity at the coast and even beyond. They were the first converts to Christianity and had the passion, commitment and zeal of ministry. They could easily identify themselves to the local community and adapt to the environment since they were part of the local community.
Because of their faithfulness, unlike most of European missionaries who were brutal, the
Bombay Africans helped to attract more people into Christianity. As a result, their work was acknowledged by the parent committee of the CMS; this committee advised that several of them be ordained. Following this when James Hannington arrived in 1885, as the first bishop, he ordained William Jones and Ishmael Semler.95
The Bombay Africans served the Europeans who ventured into the interior mainland as explorers and missionaries. They served in various capacities as interpreters, porters, gun bearers, guides, servants, and cooks among others.96 The coming of Bishop
Hannington to the ecclesiastical scene brought order into the East African Mission; for shortly after taking over, he ordained Semler and Jones into diaconate.97 This helped propel the missionary work at the coast of Kenya and other areas as they got actively involved in missionary activities. The Bombay Africans assisted the missionaries with mission work as catechists, evangelists, pastors and teachers.98
An important legacy of the Bombay Africans is their role in the anti-slavery campaign.
Despite British treaties with the Sultan of Zanzibar and the presence of the Royal Navy, slavery continued. The local tribes and traders involved in trafficking often resented the presence of the Bombay Africans. The Freretown and Rabai settlements provided refuge for locally enslaved Africans. Occasionally, the settlements themselves were threatened
95Gathogo, J. (2011). The Pangs of Birth in African Christianity. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic Publishing, p. 32. 96Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, pp. 39-42. 97Gathogo, J. (2011). The Pangs of Birth in African Christianity. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic Publishing, p. 30. 98Anderson, W. (1977). The Church in East Africa 1840-1974. Dodoma: Central Tanganyika Press, p. 15. 39 by raids and a bell was sounded as a warning. Bombay Africans known for their antislavery activities include Reverend William Jones, who helped free hundreds of
Africans.99
2.2.2.2The Socio-economic legacy of the Bombay Africans in East Africa
Apart from preaching the word, the Bombay Africans were also involved in social- economic aspects. They left a considerable legacy as a result of the education and skills acquired in India, their active role in the Christian missions, and their part in the exploration of Africa. Their interactions with local people ensured that the education received while at Indian missions was passed onto other Africans. Because of their experience, not only in missionary work, but also in practical skills, they were able to complement their teaching with industrial training for other Africans. In this way they played a role in supporting Sir Battle Frere's campaign of Christianity and
Civilization.100
In addition, the Bombay Africans were instrumental in the construction of churches.
ECK which has a sitting capacity of about 350 people was constructed entirely by people who once had been slaves, without being coerced, although at that time forced labor was generally considered a necessity in East Africa to accomplish a project.101
Both Rabai and Freretown Church were constructed by them and still stand to date.
Apart from building churches, they also built schools and hospitals, which were established alongside Christian churches in mission stations.
99 Nkonge, D. K. (2004). “The Church Missionary Society's Burden: Theological Education for a Self-Supporting, Self-Governing, and Self-Propagating African Anglican Church in Kenya 1844-1930,” Anglican and Episcopal History, Vol. 83 (1). 100 Anderson, W. (1977). The Church in East Africa 1840-1974. Dodoma: Central Tanganyika Press, p. 10. 101 Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 71. 40
Church Missionary Society (CMS) Hospital in Mzizima was built sometime before 1893 in the same area as that currently occupied by Coast General Hospital.102 The mission
Hospital was under the direction of Edwards, and it included two large hospitals, a doctor’s house and other buildings. Providing medical care had been one of the earliest concerns in Freretown.103
Figure 1 below shows where the first hospital was situated.
This is where Mzizima Hospital was situated now Coast General Hospital- courtesy of https://www.electives.net/photos/hospitals/1801/main.jpg
The Bombay Africans had a significant contribution in the education sector in East
Africa. In 1889 a divinity school was built at Freretown. It trained evangelists as well as teachers for the CMS workers in Eastern Africa. The Bombay Africans such as William
Jones, George David, Matthew Wellington (Chingwimbe) helped a great deal in training others. Many of those who qualified were posted out in Giriama, Taita, Taveta, Duruma, and Ukambani. A good example is Mzee James Mbotela and Davis Sambo, men who
102 Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p 78. 103 Ibid, 78. 41 spent almost all their lifetime in Ukambani teaching and preaching the Gospel of
Christ.104
They also played a key role in the provision of education to Africans. Rabai saw the first mission school in Kenya in 1846. Until then education in Kenya had been restricted to the Muslim “Madrasa” school attached to mosques. The Rabai School and another at
Frere Town provided Africans in the area with their first access to formal western education. Freretown and Rabai attracted a large number of Africans seeking mission education in order to secure employment, avoid vagrancy laws, and to acquire the amenities associated with the evolving cash-oriented society.
The African catechists were the best evangelists and pastors’ in-charge of three stations; they were commissioned to build up an East African Native Diocese as in Nigeria. Their would-be “Bishop Crowther of East Africa” was George David. However, by 1888, it was clear to the people of Freretown that George David who was an outstanding
Bombay African at Freretown could not be the future Bishop of East Africa. This was due to a new generation of colonial-minded missionaries who brought in an English
Bishop (Hannington 1884) and were satisfied to have two catechists ordained deacons
(1885).105
There was concern also that the good work done by the Freretown people, especially the
Bombay Africans, received no recognition from some of the white missionaries. There were also inequalities in salaries for same work done by the white and black missionaries. The better educated freed slaves who worked for the mission were often
104 Jones, L.M. (2008). Bombay Africans 1850–1910, Royal Geographical Society,” History Workshop Journal, Vol. 65 (1): 271–274. 105 Baur, J. (1998). 2000 Years of Christianity in Africa: An African Church History, Nairobi: Paulines Publication Africa, p. 232. 42 dissatisfied with their meager salaries.106 In 1887, James Deimler, a teacher, was denied a raise in salary, he complained that, “Europeans are thieves and stole the black people’s money” and stated that he was not willing to ‘lick the feet’ of the white men.107 The arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company, 1888 which was willing to pay far higher salaries for clerical help than CMS added the tension. In 1889-1900, William
Jones, Ishmael Semler and James Deimler all resigned from CMS.108 It is possible that the Freretown community was discouraged from undertaking ordained ministry and opted to pursue other careers. Currently there is only one ordained priest from the
Freretown community.109
Some missionaries were frustrated not only with the financial aspirations but also the cultural aspirations of the Africans and loathed the idea of the Africans dressing as
“black Europeans.” Bishop Tucker 1893 declared that:
All missionaries must discourage indulgence in either food or dress among the mission adherents. All Africans in the settlement should be forbidden from wearing shoes, while all teachers are expected to wear Kanzu. Lay readers appointed in the mission should be forbade from wearing European clothing, building their own houses and cultivating land.110
This led to the Freretown community forming the African missionary workers Union in
1901. This union not only championed their rights in the above areas, but also brought in more requests such as title deeds for their plots. However, little was achieved and the
CMS ended by appearing to be racially biased.111 This then is a very clear indication of the history of leadership conflict at Freretown since the missionary era. The Freretown
106Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 86. 107Strayer, R. (1978). The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya, 1875–1935, London: Heinemann - State University of New York Press, p. 19. 108Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 86. 109 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 110 Ibid, p 86. 111Reed, C. (1997). Pastors, Partners and Paternalists: African Church Leaders and Western Missionaries in the Anglican Church in Kenya, (1850-1900). Leiden, pp. 139-140. 43 settlement also provided support for the establishment of the British sphere of influence that eventually became the state of Kenya. Bombay Africans and their descendants were important in the formation of African political associations in the 1950s.112
In 1887 a printing press was established in Freretown by James Jones, the son of the
Bombay African, Rev. William Jones. He was the first printer in Kenya. Bombay
Africans from Freretown and Rabai provided editors for the first English and Kiswahili publications such as The “Coast Express” and “Mwalimu”. James Mbotela who grew up at Freretown became the author of the famous book “Uhuru wa Watumwa” (Freedom for Slaves).113 It is evident therefore, that the Bombay Africans had a significant impact and contribution in various areas of development.
2.3.1 The History of Emmanuel Church Kengeleni
The Anglican Church is numerically the second largest Church in Kenya after the
Catholic Church. Historically, it is the first denomination to be planted in Kenya.114
ECK bore the efforts of spreading the gospel of Christ in the coast and in the interior of
Kenya. It is here that formal and informal western education started and spread to other parts of Kenya. It is here where these freed slaves took the leading role in politics, which was an example and stepping stone for the politics of Kenya.
The church building at ECK that exists today was built in 1889, replacing the old church which was built of wood. The first church building on the site was a coconut thatched building, large and lofty.115 The church makes an impressing sight besides the Nyali
Bridge on the mainland opposite Mombasa Island. The church construction was under
112Jones, L. (2008). Bombay Africans 1850–1910, Royal Geographical Society,” History Workshop Journal, Vol. 65(1): 271–274. 113Anderson, W. (1977). The Church in East Africa 1840-1974. Dodoma: Central Tanganyika Press, p. 10. 114Nkonge, D. (2011).“ Equipping Church Leaders for Mission in the Anglican Church of Kenya,” Journal of Anglican Studies. Vol. 9 (2): 154-174. 115Stovold, K.E., (1946). The CMS in Kenya: The Coast, 1844-1944. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, p. 18. 44 the supervision of Benjamin Ward and then completed by J. Hesslewood. These two men also supervised the industrial work done by freed slaves in the community.
Benjamin Ward died before the completion of the task. He drew the plan of this modern church as indicated on the placard behind the preacher’s chair. The skilled Bombay
Africans did the actual construction of the church. 116 Ishmael Mochira in particular, whose descendants still live within Freretown and worship at ECK, did the craftsmanship of the furniture and he had a great deal of skills in wood work.
Some of the material used in this construction came from far across the seas; for pumice, stone gathered from the beach was used for filling the space between the iron girders of the flat roof. It had floated across the Indian Ocean from Java, where the great volcano at Krakatoa Island had thrown up large quantities of lava. Women used to take their baskets to Nyali Beach, pick it up and carry it to the building.117 James Mbotela, a well renowned journalist in Kenya, in a newspaper article told how the lava was an answer to prayer; as he recalled what his father told him. 118 Writing in 1897, J. Hesslewood described the church as it was at first:
The church is now in daily use; it is fairly large, seating about 350 people. Its structure is plain, but the structure is stable and less likely to need repairing than most suburban churches at home. Being a large building, it is interesting as having been constructed almost entirely by people who once were slaves, and entirely without force, making it off in strong contrast to nearly all other labor in East Africa, where one or both of conditions are all but deemed necessities.119
Other buildings built later close to the church were the Freretown Divinity School, the
Library, the Bishop’s House and the Lady Missionaries house. This area was the principle headquarters of the CMS until 1930 when it was moved to Limuru, now St.
Paul’s University.
116 Smith, W., and Ofundi, K. (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p .71. 117 Stovold, K. E. (1946). The CMS in Kenya: The Coast, 1844-1944. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, p. 21. 118 Daily Nation Newspaper (1990, May 2). Daily Nation Newspaper. Periodicals fonds, Jan 1990-Dec 2000. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 119 The Church Missionary Gleaner, Feb. 1897, p 28. 45
The birth of Christianity in Africa of the 19th and 20th CE came after a painful labor. It is through the hands of European missionaries and a few Africans that made it possible for the African Christianity to be born. According to Gathogo, the phrase “Christianity in
Africa” does not necessarily mean “African Christianity,” it is critical to appreciate that the history of Christianity has undergone various stages to date.120 The Gospel that was brought by the missionaries in the Nineteenth and Twentieth century had been clothed in western culture. Gathogo observes that the missionaries exercised exclusive authority on matters of faith. They alone had the full access to the word of God and their interpretation was final.121 The interpretation of the Bible into various indigenous languages changed the stage since the Africans could access it, read it and interpret according to the African context. As mentioned earlier in this study, besides the humanitarian aim of helping the weak, these Christian colonies had two other important aims. One was to create a Christian Community and the second was to train future
African Missionaries.122
2.3.2 The Church under Missionary Leadership
Freretown settlement was founded in 1875 and named after Sir Bartle Frere, who negotiated the treaty of abolition with Zanzibar.123 Rev William Salter Price was appointed by CMS to oversee the establishment of Freretown and became the first superintendent. In September 1875, the first freed slaves were handed over to the mission and within a few years, Freretown was a community of over 450 residents.124
Between 1875 and 1890, 921 freed slaves were received and most of them were settled
120Gathogo, J. (2011). The Pangs of Birth in African Christianity. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic Publishing, p. 26. 121 Ibid, 2011. 122 Anderson, W. (1977). The Church in East Africa 1840-1974. Dodoma: Central Tanganyika Press, p. 10. 123Strayer, R.W. (1978). The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in colonial Kenya, 1875-1935. Heinemann p. 14. 124 Ibid p. 15. 46 at the mission. The settlement was directed by William Price (1874-6) and his successor
William Lamb (1876-8). Both were older men, veteran missionaries from India and
Yorubaland respectively, who had formed their ideas and values in an earlier and more liberal missionary tradition.125 It is after a new crop of leadership emerged, which included young and inexperienced missionaries such as John Streeter and John Handford that conflict between mission authorities and the better educated Africans commenced.126 With the poor administration, tensions began to develop and by 1881 incipient rebellion of the better educated and more highly placed Bombay Africans was well under way. In order to address their plight, the CMS employees drew together under the leadership of James Deimler in an organization called African Workers
Council. This was to unite all African agents of the mission and defend its members against authoritarian and individualistic mode of mission administration.127
2.3.3 The Church under the Local leadership
The ordination of the first Black African, Ishmael Semler (a Carpenter) and William
Jones (a blacksmith), who were ex-slaves, in 1885, gave impetus to the missionary work at the coast. The spread of Anglican Christianity across Kenya can be seen in the fact that from 1844 to 1930, the missionaries had managed to reach the remotest parts of
Kenya, thereby establishing stations. When in 1927, Northern Tanganyika was spilt from the Diocese of Mombasa, and a separate Diocese of Central Tanganyika formed,
Mombasa Diocese became part and parcel of Kenya Colony and protectorate.128 The missionary movement in Kenya changed radically after the beginning of the colonial
125 Reed, C. (1997). Pastors, Partners and Paternalists: African Church Leaders and Western Missionaries in the Anglican Church in Kenya, (1850-1900). Leiden, p. 65. 126Strayer, R.W. (1978). The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in colonial Kenya, 1875-1935. Heinemann, p. 16. 127 Ibid p. 20. 128 Keith, C. (1959). Kenya Hanging in the Middle Way. London: The Highway Press, p. 120. 47 era, particularly when the new rail line had extended inland to Lake Victoria. Western education turned out to be the most popular missionary method, especially when combined with medicine and evangelism.129
The Freed slaves were all under the umbrella of the CMS which took care of them with financial assistance from the British Government. There were some misunderstanding, disagreements and differences on matters of land ownership, wages and salaries, social status and education, corporal punishment among others between 1924 and 1928. As a result of the conflict, the freed slaves were moved in 1930 from the original Freretown area situated near the New Nyali Bridge popularly known as “Kengeleni” to a place known as “Ziwa la Ng’ombe”.130 The freed slaves were then settled to a subdivided fifty acres piece of land at the new Frere Town settlement where they started life afresh with their families without any kind of assistance from the CMS. A 2.5 acre plot was also set aside as a cemetery for the freed slaves and their descendants.131 According to
Mwambila, the then CMS withdrew both its personnel and financial aid from the church in 1933.132 The CMS left the small congregation of ECK to run their church. It was then that the local church council took over everything and ensured the smooth running of the church.133
It was not until 1970 that the Church of Province of Kenya (now Anglican Church of
Kenya), had its first African Archbishop, the Most Rev Festo Olang’.134 This was a turning point to the church. The Right Reverend Peter Mwang’ombe became the first
129Barret, D. ed. (1973). Kenya Churches Handbook: The Development of Kenya Christianity 1498-1973. Kisumu: Evangel publishing House, p. 33. 130 Uledi, F. (2006). A Brief History of Frere Town Settlement: The centre of the Christian Community of the Anglican Church of England. General fonds Jan 2005 –Dec 2007. ACK Archives Kengeleni. 131 Ibid 132 This was after the CMS Divinity School and CMS headquarters were transferred from Freretown to Limuru in 1930, in what is St Paul’s University today. 133 Mwambila, D. (1998, September 23). Correspondence from Mwambila to Christians. PCC fonds Jan 1990-Dec 2000. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 134 ACK (2017). Church Diary and Lectionary, Nairobi: Uzima publishers. 48
African Bishop of the diocese of Mombasa consecrated at ECK in 1970. Responsibilities in leadership were relinquished to the African natives. According to Uledi, the leadership of the church was also entirely in the hands of the local Africans from the
Freretown community.135 Kitao, a descendant of the freed slaves and a former church elder and secretary of the church council, observes that, the church had undergone a process of transformation and leadership had been bestowed upon the very native priests and laity as well.136 This historical church served as the Archdeaconry headquarters and as a result many more ACK Churches were started from this church. According to the church attendance register, there were at least 850 registered members in 2000.137 In addition to that, it has a nursery and primary school, residential houses for the clergy, several parcels of land and property worth millions of shillings. This was a clear indication of the growth of the church despite having many other charismatic churches in the neighborhood.
2.3.4 The Administrative Structure of Emmanuel Church Kengeleni
The polity of the ACK is Episcopal Church governance, which is adapted by all
Anglican churches. The Anglican Church is headed by bishops. The term ‘bishop’ is from the Greek word, "episcopos," which means overseer or superintendent. The church maintains a system of geographical parishes organized into dioceses.138 There are 33 dioceses in Kenya, each headed by a bishop. Each diocese is divided into archdeaconries, each headed by an archdeacon, who is a priest. The archdeaconries are further subdivided into parishes, headed by a vicar. Parishes are subdivided into
135 Uledi, F. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 9-9-2016 at Freretown. 136Kitao, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-9-2016 at Freretown. 137 ACK Kengeleni (2003). Register of Services. Church Register fonds Jan 2000- Dec 2005. A CK Archives, Kengeleni. 138 Podmore, C. (2009). The Governance of the Church of England and the Anglican Communion. London: Church House Publishing. 49 local churches, headed by lay readers.139 The Anglican Church of Kenya, like all
Anglican Communions, embraces the three traditional Orders of ministry: deacon, priest and bishop (see church administrative structure in appendix X). A local variant of the “Book of Common Prayer” is used.
According to the ACK diocese of Mombasa administrative structure, ECK has always hosted the Vicar General who is the senior most clergy and second in command from the
Bishop. He is the principal adviser to the Diocesan Bishop. In addition to that it has been the Archdeaconry head office where the whole of Kisauni parishes report to. The church has various departments and committees. These include; Kenya Anglican Men
Association (KAMA) formerly known as Fathers Union, Mothers Union (MU), Kenya
Anglican Youth Organization (KAYO), Girls Friendly Society (GFS), Boys Brigade,
Mission and Evangelism, Church Choir and Sunday school.140 Each department has its own committee to oversee her programs. However, there are some main committees which have general oversight responsibilities with representatives from all departments.
The Parochial Church Council (PCC), chaired by the Vicar (Parish Priest), is the highest decision making organ in the parish. The function of the PCC include; to prepare the
Annual Budget, appoint Finance committee, arrange for the auditing of church accounts, implement decisions made by the synod and or its standing committee on all matters pertaining to the administration of the parish, among other responsibilities.
2.4 Conclusion
It is worth noting that ECK has undergone a very long process of transformation from its inception in the hands of the missionaries to where it is now. This chapter has attempted to demonstrate not only the role of missionaries in the growth of ECK but also has
139 ACK Diocese of Mombasa (2017). Diocesan Constitution. Nairobi. Uzima Publishers, p. 54. 140 ACK Diocese of Mombasa (2017). Diocesan Constitution. Nairobi. Uzima Publishers, p. 66. 50 recognized and appreciated the contribution made by the founders and especially the
Freretown community (descendants of freed slaves). Their input and labor towards the sustainability of the church will remain valuable in the history of Christianity. The challenges encountered and the leadership conflict with the missionaries discouraged most of them from continuing with ministry but rather ended up taking government employment. There is sufficient evidence of a history of leadership conflict as depicted in the above discussion. However, it is evident that time has changed and the community no longer has the monopoly of leadership that it had earlier. The role played by the
Bombay Africans in shaping up mission work is commendable. The above discussion thus shows the crucial role played by the Bombay Africans and the descendants of the freed slaves in shaping up the history of Christianity in East Africa. The next chapter will discuss the causes of conflict at ECK.
51
CHAPTER THREE
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT AT EMMANUEL CHURCH KENGELENI
3.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the second objective of the study which is to establish the factors that led to conflict at ECK. There are four aspects that were identified as responsible for the conflict at the church during the period 2000-2007. These conflicts were interrelated and cross-cut throughout the period under discussion. According to
Karl Marx, tensions and conflicts arise when resources, status and power are unevenly distributed between groups in society.141 In this context, power can be understood as control of material resources and accumulated wealth, control of politics and the institutions that make up society, and one's social status relative to others.
Conflicts in African churches have been caused by a variety of factors, such as ethnicity, race, tribe, resources and leadership. Leadership conflict is a type of identity based conflict that arises as a result of differences in identity. Therefore Stewart142 and Seul143 agree that a conflict can be classified as religious conflict if the main mobilizing or organizing identity is religion, irrespective of whether there are other real or underlying motives and objectives. This chapter discusses identity crisis, struggle for leadership positions, scramble for resources and misappropriation of church funds as some of the causes of the conflict at ECK.
141Crossman, A. (2017). “Learn about the Sociology of Social Inequality,” (Database-online), available at http://sociology.about.com/od/Disciplines/a/Sociology-Of-Social-Inequality.htm, internet accessed on 1st August 2017. 142Stewart, F. (2009). Religion versus Ethnicity as a Source of Mobilization: Are there Differences? Microcon Research Working Paper 18 p.5. 143Seul, J.R. (1999). “Ours is the Way of God: Religion, Identity and Intergroup Conflict,” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 36 (5): 553-569. 52
3.2 Factors that led to the Conflict in the Church
According to Kitao, from the year 2000 troubles started when the new comers (non-
Freretownians who joined the church) started to wage war against the descendants of the freed slaves (the Freretownians).144 Conflict at ECK was due to Identity crisis, struggle for leadership positions, scramble for resources and misappropriation of church funds.
These issues are discussed next:
3.2.1 Identity Crisis (2000-2006)
Group identity plays an important role in the conflict at ECK. According to Brown, the willingness of people to become martyrs for the sake of their religion is evidence that some people will go to great lengths to fight for their identity group.145 Everyone need to be recognized as an individual with a personal identity and to feel safe. If these needs are not met, people protest, possibly leading to rebellion and violence. Many people find their identity and security in their cultural group and its particular point of view.146
The identity crisis at Freretown is historical and traces its origin from the very onset of the freed slave settlement as noted by Smith:
There were, however, problems from the start in the sudden jumbling together of colonists from such diverse backgrounds. Although the village was envisioned as a bridge between Africa and Christianity, for many it proved to be a bridge which led nowhere. In the absences of shared traditions and customs, and in the absence of a common language, the villagers were sometimes hard to manage. Moreover, not all villagers were Christians, but others still needed care. There were also complete freedom to come and go which meant that there many varieties of language and religion and the community was always changing, and
144 Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11). General fonds Jan 2005-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 145Brown, S. (1977). Seeking an Open Society: Interfaith Relations and Dialogue in Sudan Today. Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa. 146 Ibid, 1977. 53
detracted from the possibility of imposing any strict set of rules which could be uniformly enforced.147
According to the study identity crisis was a possible cause of conflict at ECK within the years 2000 and 2006.The Freretown community members strongly identified themselves with the church since they were the majority in the leadership of the church and had control over all church activities and programs. The identity problem started when new members who were non-frere became aggressive and wanted to be involved in each and every church activity claiming that they were equally bona-fide members of ECK. They identified themselves as full members and not visiting members as thought of by the
Freretown community. Various people and groups interviewed had different opinions because of their background and affiliation.
The clergy and men (KAMA) interviewed affirmed 100% that the conflicts were as a result of the Freretown community laying claim on the church as their legitimate heritage. The same was echoed by 83% of the Mothers Union (MU) and 60% of the youth (KAYO) participants (see table 2 below). However, only 46% of the elders interviewed felt that identity crisis was a cause of conflict at the church. A discussion with FGD 1 noted that identity was not a major cause of conflict on the other hand FGD
2 was of the view that identity crisis was a major factor towards the conflict.
147 Smith, W., and Ofundi, K (2016). A Colony of Heaven: Bishop Hannington and Freretown. USA: Outskirts Press, p. 62. 54
Table 2 Identity Crisis as a cause of conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who Viewed Identity Percentage Interviewed as a Cause
Clergy 7 7 100%
KAMA 9 9 100%
MU 6 5 83%
KAYO 5 3 60%
Elders 13 6 46%
Ngumbao Kithi, in his article in the Standard newspaper 10th March 2010 titled,
“Freretown: A town without a tribe,” argues that Freretown community is a tribeless community. People in Freretown have no tribe; they are all called Freretowners, the descendants of freed slaves.148 The Freretown community is in “identity limbo” as a result of the Mijikenda people not fully accepting them as Mijikenda, although quite a number identify themselves with the Rabai and the Giriama communities. According to
Uledi, Freretownians wanted to identify themselves with the local Mijikenda community in order to secure national identity cards, and also to avoid the stigma directed to them as a tribeless community.149 The government of Kenya has not gazetted the Freretown community as among the Kenyan tribes.
According to Heroe (a retired school teacher and former mothers’ union leader from
Freretown), the problem is that people do not want to accept that Freretownians are existing. “We do not have our common language for reasons beyond our control but
148Kithi, N. (2010, March 25). “Freretown: A town without a tribe”. Periodicals Jan 2008-Dec 2010. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 149Uledi, F. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 9-9-2016 at Freretown. 55 here at ECK we are the natives.”150 These sentiments were echoed by Uledi who said,
“We want the world to know that we are the descendants of freed slaves and hold important history about this country.”151 People's ethnicity gives them a sense of identity and belonging. Any threat to this sense of identity can cause violent responses, just as individuals may lash out with angry words or gestures when they feel threatened.152
According to Uledi, the Freretown community does not have a language of her own since they are a collection of people from different ethnic backgrounds and countries but shared the same challenge and were settled together by the missionaries on abolition of slavery.153 He added, “The community has no common language rather than the national language Kiswahili. In addition, it does not have customary laws but was rather influenced by the surrounding Islamic community.”154 These sentiments were also echoed by Murutu (former Archdeacon and Vicar of ECK), who stated that, “The
Freretown community is seeking recognition as a peculiar people in the church, since it is only the church that they can identify themselves with.”155
However, Kalama, a church elder and secretary to the PCC, was of a different opinion.
According to him, identity was not the real problem, but the Freretown community was seeking sympathy from history in order to pursue their personal agendas.156 According to Mahihu, a former diocesan chancellor, “The demands by the Freretown community to be given preferential treatment and recognition in the church on the basis of their historical background and heritage is unacceptable in light of the provisions of the
150Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11).General fonds Jan 2005 –Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 151 Nation Correspondent, (2007, August 23rd). Daily Nation. 152 Liu, J.H. (2012). “A cultural perspective on intergroup relations and social identity,” Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Vol. 5 (3). 153 Uledi, F. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 9-9-2016 at Freretown. 154 Uledi, F. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 9-9-2016 at Freretown. 155 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 156 Kalama, C. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 17-9-2016 at Kisimani. 56
Constitutions of both the Province and the Diocese.”157 This fueled tension in the community which seeks her identity in the church. The identity issue slowly went down as many members of Freretown moved away and others accepted to embrace the change which was inevitable especially after the PCC was disbanded in 2006 and an interim committee was put in place that brought on board members from different background tribes and communities. Therefore, identity does not only cause tension and conflict between communities but also between Christians who are members of the same church.
3.2.2 Struggle for Leadership Positions (2002-2006)
Conflicts arise when the people who are being governed are unhappy with how they are governed. The most common conflicts occur when a particular group wants to be independent from the leadership of the day or when their viewpoint is not represented.158
When those in leadership oppress them and do not respect or meet their expectations this becomes a recipe for conflict. Thakore notes that power struggle pits persons and groups against one another to achieve their own selfish objectives.159
Karl Marx, in his Social Conflict Theory asserts that, in a democratic set up, no one group should dominate another. The power of all groups is limited by law, by social contract and by tradition or custom. Various interested groups and institutions therefore, have to compete, negotiate, compromise and work out changes. The process sometimes generates social conflict. These observations are reflected in the leadership struggle at
ECK. A large percentage of the participants in this study reported that struggle for leadership position was a major contributor to the conflicts that have been bedeviling the
157 Mahihu, S. (2005, March 18). Correspondence from Sally Mahihu to Diocesan Bishop. Diocesan fonds Jan 2005- Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 158Thakore, D. (2013). “Conflict and conflict management,” IOSR Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 8 (6): 7-16. 159 Thakore, D. (2013). “Conflict and conflict management,” IOSR Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 8 (6): 7-16 57 church. All clergy, youth (KAYO) and the elders respectively affirmed that struggle for leadership position was a major cause of conflict. The same view was expressed by 89% and 67% of men (KAMA) and Mothers Union participants respectively (see table 3 below). Both FGD 1 and 2 confirmed that struggle for leadership positions was a major cause of conflict in the church.
Table 3 Struggle for leadership positions as a cause of conflict at ECK.
Category Number Respondents who viewed leadership Percentage Interviewed as a cause
Clergy 7 7 100%
KAMA 9 8 89%
MU 6 4 67%
KAYO 5 5 100%
Elders 13 13 100%
Wrangles at ECK can be traced back to 2000 after the controversial PCC election that was won by the majority from the descendants of the freed slaves against the expectations of the majority church members. It escalated and became public in 2002 when the Fathers Union wrote a 14 agenda letter to the PCC demanding general church improvement since the PCC had shown no effort to improve the situation. However, three years later, the Fathers Union took the PCC (whose majority were Freretown community members) to court for trying to take over the church leadership. According to Murutu, the church was in wrangles with the descendants of the freed slaves who drafted their own constitution besides the ACK constitution.160 The draft constitution was in favor of the Freretown community which brought a lot of contention and
160 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 58 ultimately was not approved by the diocesan synod. The contentious issues in the draft constitution included:
Article 3.0 On Trustees which stated… The descendants of the freed slaves shall
appoint three TRUSTEES of the church from Freretownians…
Article 4.0 On Church Council which stated that ...The Church Council shall
consist of:-
I) Twelve (12) representatives/elders elected by the church congregation, all of
them to be indigenous Freretownians.
II) Up to four (4) non- indigenous representatives nominated by the elected
church elders upon receipt of application for the posts from interested church
members.161
According to Mahihu, the members of the Freretown Community Association wanted to have a separate constitution for ECK within which their interests and traditions could be safeguarded on the basis of their history. They also wanted the legal ownership of the church property to be vested in the trustees appointed from amongst them. In addition, they demanded twelve (12) seats on the church council to be reserved for the community.162 Mahihu (the then Diocesan Chancellor), argued that all matters pertaining to ECK must be governed by the ACK laws and regulations under the ACK
Constitution, irrespective of who gave money to build the church or for whom it was built.163 According to her, “It is dangerous to allow the Freretownians to have elected posts in the council purely on the basis that they are Freretownians, because such posts give them undue legal rights. Further, the idea of people getting seats by virtue of race,
161 ACK Emmanuel Church Freretown Kisauni (2003). Draft Constitution. General fonds Jan 2000-Dec 2005. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 162 Mahihu, S. (2005, January 26). Correspondence from Sally Mahihu to Diocesan Bishop. Diocesan fonds Jan 2005- Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni 163 Mahihu, S. (2005, January 26). Correspondence from Sally Mahihu to Diocesan Bishop. Diocesan fonds Jan 2005- Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni 59 culture, color or tribe is dangerous because it promotes ethnic interests which are definitely not to be encouraged.”164
According to Ngwatu, the then chairman of Fathers Union (Now Kenya Anglican Men
Association)165 and church elder, the PCC had failed, refused and neglected to comply with the requisite provisions of the Societies Act Cap 108, which required them to file annual returns. They had neither filed annual returns for the past five years nor conducted an AGM and election, thus making their being in office improper, unprocedural and illegal.166 The Rural Dean, Reverend Murutu, was tasked by the
Diocesan Bishop to carry out reconciliatory meetings between the Fathers Union and the
PCC which had the majority membership from the Freretown community. An agreement was signed to audit church accounts and carry out PCC election before 1st March 2004, but this agreement was not implemented and the conflict escalated.167
During the confirmation service on 28th May 2006, Bishop Kalu (the then Diocesan
Bishop) asked all the warring parties to come into agreement, and issued a two weeks ultimatum or else he dissolves the church council. On 18th June 2006, the PCC was dissolved and all the clergy transferred. Other instructions were to nominate members from the floor (among the congregations). This also failed and therefore an interim committee was instituted to run the church for 12 months with special terms of
164 Ibid, 2005. 165 The Kenya Anglican Men Association (KAMA), addresses the men’s role in the church leadership, community leadership, political leadership and men in development work. It also brings on board men and economic empowerment, and family life. The department organizes breakfast planning meetings where thematic areas such as men and their role in mentorship are discussed. Other contemporary issues that affect men and the church are discussed under this department. Matters of youth, HIV &AIDS, environmental degradation and remedies are formulated. The first meeting of KAMA in the ACK was convened on Wednesday 14th June, 2000. KAMA received the recognition and blessing of the Provincial Synod in July 2001. 166 Ngwatu, S. (2005). Supporting Affidavit, Republic of Kenya in the High Court of Kenya at Mombasa: Civil Suit No. 253 of 2005. Legal fonds Jan 2003- Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 167 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 60 reference.168 The descendants of freed slaves took Bishop Kalu to court to challenge his authority for dissolving the council and appointing a caretaker committee.169 An organization registered in 2003, “The Freretown Community Association”, was one of the parties in the dispute.170 As the conflict intensified, two pastors at the church were suspended from conducting service. On 19th August 2006 Bishop Kalu took to the pulpit and conducted the service in an attempt to find a middle ground between the rival groups. This was after a service was called off on 12th August 2006. Bishop Kalu said the decision to close the church was not acceptable. “This is a place of worship and you cannot bar worshippers from praying,”171 said Bishop Kalu. However, the rival group led by Price Uledi, Fredrick Karisa Shungu and Baron Katana had insisted that the church remain closed until their demands are met.
According to Eric, a descendant of freed slave and son of former priest of ECK, the bone of contention was the issue of Freretownians and non Freretownians as far as the composition of PCC was concerned.172 The Freretown Community suggested that special seats be earmarked and slotted for the Freretown community. It was agreed among themselves that six seats be reserved for the Freretown community and the other seats to be contested freely by anybody. According to Manasseh, an influential elder, descendant of freed slaves and former senior government officer, who said that,
“Kengeleni Church is unique and does not fall under the Metropolitan ones. It is with
168 Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11). General fonds Jan 2005-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 169 Republic of Kenya in the High Court of Kenya at Mombasa Civil Suit No. 173 of 2006. Legal fonds Jan 2003-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 170 Nation Correspondent, Daily Nation (2007, August 23). Periodicals fonds Jan 2006- Dec 2008. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 171 Ibid, 2007. 172 Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11). General fonds Jan 2005-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 61 these sentiments that the descendants of the freed slaves of Freretown are requesting for their special slot in the Local Church Council and Parochial Church Council.”173
According to the Diocesan constitution, Canon XII on Parish Constitution, it gives a clear guidance on the creation of parishes, the conduct of the AGM, the business of the
AGM, voting and composition of the PCC. The bishop has been vested with powers to create new parishes, modify the boundaries or combine parishes. Article 7 (v) states that the Bishop may in consultation with the Diocesan Pastoral Care Committee dissolve the
PCC if he is convinced that the council has acted irresponsibly.174 It was within this mandate that the PCC was dissolved in 2006.
It should be noted however, that the entire ACK hierarchy was involved in trying to resolve the conflict. The Diocesan Bishop Right Reverend Julius Kalu was involved so much in working out a solution to the conflict. When the issue was brought to his attention he wrote special letters to the then Vicar guiding him on how to address the issue. He went ahead and brought on board the Diocesan Chancellor for legal advice on the same. While the Bishop was away on sabbatical leave for three months in 2005, he left the issue to the then Assistant Bishop, The Right Reverend Lawrence Dena.175 The
Diocesan Bishop had several visits and meetings with both parties in an attempt to resolve the conflict. According to Ringa, the then Archbishop of the ACK The Most
Reverend Dr. Benjamin Nzimbi (2002-2009) visited the church in order to reconcile the warring parties and had a baraza with all members of the congregation before conducting a cleansing service for the church which had been defiled because of the
173 Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11). General fonds Jan 2005-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 174 ACK Diocese of Mombasa (2002). Diocesan Constitution. Nairobi: Uzima Publishers. 175 Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11). General fonds Jan 2005-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni.
62 wrangles.176 This then is a clear indication that all church mechanism and hierarchy were involved in order to find an amicable solution to the conflict at ECK.
3.2.3 Scramble for Resources (2003-2007)
Conflicts arise when people are competing for the same resources such as territory, jobs, housing, among others, especially when they are not fairly distributed or they are limited.177 In 1933 the then CMS withdrew both its personnel and financial aid from the church. The CMS left the small congregation at ECK to run their own church. Since then the church council took over everything including the day to day care of the church and its old building.178 Therefore, the Freretown community maintained the church and are still strongly attached to the church. According to Manasseh, “There cannot be any comparison for efforts or resources put by the descendants of the freed slaves to what have been contributed by those who joined the church in the last 15 years or so and now are assuming a lot as developments are concerned.”179
The Social conflict Theory of Karl Marx states that when two opposing forces compete for limited resources, conflict arises. According to this theory, human society is a collection of competing interest and expectations. Agreement tends to appear among those who share similar privileges. The groupings bring divisions and generate hostility and opposition. As long as these groups exist, there will always be conflict. The struggle for resources at ECK can be likened to groups competing for the control of limited resources owned by the church. Each of the two groups claimed to have the legality to control the church resources. This finally resulted to a protracted battle in the church.
176 Ringa, M. (2007, November 27). Taifa Leo. Periodicals fonds Jan 2006- Dec 2007. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 177 Crossman, A. (2016). “Conflict Theory.” Database-online. Available at http://sociology.about.com/od/Disciplines/a/Sociology-Of-Social-Inequality.ht. Internet accessed on 1st August 2016. 178 Mwambila, D. (1998, September 23). Correspondence from Mwambila to Christians. PCC fonds Jan 1990-Dec 2000. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 179 Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11). General fonds Jan 2005-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni.
63
Ngwatu in his affidavit argues that, “The Freetown Community has been operating, managing, appropriating and transferring church assets into their community association known as Freretown Community Association.”180 This started in the year 2003 after the formation of the association with the aim of controlling the church property which they claimed to their property. This was propelled by the fear in the increase of non- frere in the church and leadership in various groups and departments. Assets at the center of controversy include several Church Bank Accounts, Binns Primary and Nursery School
Bank Accounts, Plot No. 915/9502 area 2.106 acres, Binns Primary school attempted sub-division plot no. 1895, Church Hall and Nursery school, New Vicarage, Binns
Primary School offices, Old Vicarage, Kisimani water project, standing kiosk at
Freretown, mwembelegeza plot No. 168 area 2.0 acres, Kisauni Cemetery among other assets. Dida suggested that there was a need for an inventory of the church property because the members of the disbanded PCC were busy trying to fraudulently transfer assets of the church including the entire ACK Binns primary and Nursery school to themselves with a view to ultimately take the entire school.181
According to the findings of this study, scramble for resources was another contributor to the conflict facing the church. All clergy and youth (KAYO) participants reported scramble for resources as being the cause, while 89% and 92% of the men (KAMA) and
Elders respectively had the same view. However, only 33% of the women (M.U) participants viewed scramble for resources as being the cause of the conflict at the church (see table 4 below). It was noted from the discussion with FGD 1 and 2 that scramble for resources were at the centre of the conflict.
180 Ngwatu, S. (2005). Supporting Affidavit, Republic of Kenya in the High Court of Kenya at Mombasa: Civil Suit No. 253 of 2005. Legal fonds Jan 2003- Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 181 Dida, G. Oral Interview by the Researcher 23-8-2017 at Kanamai. 64
Table 4 Scramble for resources as a cause of conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Resources Percentage Interviewed as a cause
Clergy 7 7 100%
KAMA 9 8 89%
MU 6 2 33%
KAYO 5 5 100%
Elders 13 12 92%
According to the Nation Correspondent, the descendants of freed slaves had been seeking to take control of the church built in 1889. They had also been claiming the nearby Binns Primary School.182 In order to take control of their assets, they formed an organization called Freretown Community Association that was registered in 2003. “It is true that we registered an association for all descendants of freed slaves. Its aim is to take control of our property,”183 said Mr. Uledi. The tussle over the assets of ECK came to a limelight after its leaders and the descendents of the freed slaves failed to find a middle ground. The controversy led to its temporary closure on August 12, 2007 before the ACK Diocese of Mombasa Bishop Kalu intervened (see photo in appendix XI).
After the Freretown community and the church leaders failed to have an agreement, the matter was eventually taken to court for arbitration. According to the descendants, the church was built exclusively for freed slaves who were rescued from the slave ships.
182 Daily Nation, (2007, August 23). Periodicals fonds Jan 2006- Dec 2007. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 183 Ibid. 65
According to Mahihu, the issues that appear to be the root cause of the existing acrimony include the ownership of the church property and assets.184 There is need therefore to have all the ECK assets in good records and to have a full inventory for ease of reference. In addition, all the assets of the church should be under the custody of the supreme governing council, PCC, but not individuals or Associations. The court orders issued on July 18th 2007 by Hon Justice Maraga restraining Freretown Community members from collecting or demanding school fees from students, parents, head teacher, bursar or guardians of ACK Binns primary school and Nursery or from removing any accounting records, enrolment records, books, materials and stationeries of the said school was the final blow to them. This court order made the Freretown Community
Association to withdraw from the claim of church assets.
3.2.4 Misappropriation of Church Funds (2002-2006)
According to Odhiambo, financial conflicts are the most common conflict in the church.
This could be attributed to the fact that finance is the most critical determinant of all life activities inclusive of all what are practiced in churches when compared to ideological, human resources, spiritual and material issues in society.185 Financial conflicts are very sensitive because a higher proportion of the congregations feel the weight of financial conflict than even the church leaders. This is occasioned by the fact that the funds are being collected from the congregation and the leaders are entrusted to manage them on behalf of the congregation. Church financial system should be managed professionally and transparently. Such input could help in addressing the frequent wrangles witnessed
184 Mahihu, S. (2005, January 26). Correspondence from Sally Mahihu to Diocesan Bishop. Diocesan fonds Jan 2005- Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni 185 Odhiambo, E. (2016). “Church Resilient in Conflict,” Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 4 (1): 4-7 66 in churches. It is therefore prudent to understand that finances cause conflict if not properly managed.186
According to the ACK Diocesan Constitution, Canon XIII Article 8 and 9 clearly stipulates the procedure to be used in operating church bank account and Auditing accounts and budgets. In summary it states that, audited annual accounts with a budget of the ensuing year shall be laid by the Church treasurer before each AGM of the congregation of the church.187 Therefore, the PCC under the chairmanship of the Vicar have the authority to oversee the financial management of the parish and give an audited annual report to the congregation. Failure to follow this procedure may lead to suspicion and mistrust.
Misappropriation of church funds became evident when the PCC could not give an annual audited financial report as it was expected of them. In February 16th 2002, the
Fathers Union wrote a 14 agenda letter to the PCC requesting general church improvements but nothing came forth. This made the Fathers Union to seek the intervention of the Diocesan Bishop on 12th February 2003. Ngwatu argues that there is an apprehension that the PCC are misappropriating funds and mismanaging church projects; which in the absence of a public audit of accounts, the members hold to be the truth.188 Failure by the PCC to carry out a comprehensive audit of church accounts for five consecutive years was recipe for chaos. Dida affirmed that the accounts of the parish needed to be investigated and audited because members of the disbanded PCC had been pocketing all the funds collected from the church and the church’s income generating projects including all school fees paid to ACK Binns Primary school.189
186 Ibid, 2016. 187 ACK Diocese of Mombasa (2002). Diocesan Constitution. Nairobi: Uzima Publishers. 188Ngwatu, S. (2005). Supporting Affidavit, Republic of Kenya in the High Court of Kenya at Mombasa: Civil Suit No. 253 of 2005. Legal fond Jan 2003- Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 189 Dida, G. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 23-08-2017 at Kanamai. 67
In addition, the disbanded PCC did not have accounts or any bona-fide audited accounts for the income they collected since 2000, contrary to the regulations of the Diocese.190
These sentiments were echoed by Kalama, Ndubi and Mbui, who were all in agreement that there was indeed misappropriation and even theft of church funds.191 Marenge in
FGD1 indicated that mismanagement of church funds by the PCC was a major contributor to the conflict at ECK.192 The call for auditing of the church accounts was in order and long overdue. According to the Diocesan Constitution, Cannon XIII Article 9 and Article XIII (1), mandates the Diocesan Board of Finance to receive and scrutinize the audited accounts from each parish, to audit parochial church accounts and report financial irregularities to the Diocesan Bishop.193
Following the freezing of the bank accounts and lack of cooperation from the disbanded
PCC the audit of the church accounts proved to be very difficult. M/S Njoya and
Associates, who had been tasked with the audit, could not do any meaningful work because no financial records were available for the audit work. This could strongly suggest that indeed there might have been misappropriation of church funds. According to Bishop Kalu, in his letter to M/S Njoya and Associates said, “You have been unable to complete the audit work due to management problems at ECK. I am aware of these problems and the Banks reluctance to release the details of the accounts, which we issued instructions to be frozen in order to block the old signatories from accessing the accounts.”194 A comprehensive report on the valuation of fixed and loose assets of ECK worth 78,584,640/- was presented to the AGM on Sunday June 17th 2007. This was a major milestone and a great step towards resolving the conflict. However, it is evident
190 Ibid. 191 Kalama, C., Ndubi, B., and Mbui, D. Oral Interview by the Researcher in 2017 at Kengeleni. 192 Marenge, V. FGD (I) conducted by the Researcher on 18-8-2017 at Maweni. 193 ACK Diocese of Mombasa (2002). Diocesan Constitution. Nairobi: Uzima Publishers. 194 Kalu, J.R.K. (2007, November 9). Correspondence from Julius Kalu to Njoya and Associates. Diocesan fonds Jan 2006- Dec 2007. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 68 therefore, that misappropriation of church funds was one of the causes of conflict at
ECK.
Most of the participants in this study reported that misappropriation of church funds was a contributor to the conflicts facing the church. All men (KAMA) respondents reported that misuse of funds was a cause of the conflicts while 86% of the clergy, 80% of youth
(KAYO), 62% of the elders and 50% of the women (MU) interviewed were of the same opinion (see table 5 below). From the discussion with members of FGD 1 and 2 it was evident that misappropriation of church funds was one of the causes of conflict.
Table 5 Misappropriation of church funds as a cause of conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Percentage Interviewed Misappropriation of Funds as a cause
Clergy 7 6 86%
KAMA 9 9 100%
MU 6 3 50%
KAYO 5 4 80%
Elders 13 8 62%
3.3 Conclusion
The chapter examined the causes of conflict at ECK which was progressive from 2000-
2007. It is reported that the conflict was caused by; first, identity crisis among the descendants of the freed slaves. The descendants of the freed slaves find their identity in the church, since they lack a common language and culture because of their diverse 69 background. It was therefore the church that was a symbol of identity among the
Freretown people and for decades it had been in their custody as a meeting point and social place. Taking away ECK is putting their identity in limbo. Second, is the struggle for leadership positions, whereby the Freetown community wanted to have a separate and independent constitution for ECK within which their interests and traditions could be safeguarded on the basis of their history. In addition to that there was the demand for legal ownership of the church as well as special seats reserved for the Freetown community in the parochial church council. This was against the traditional Anglican constitution and was unacceptable.
Thirdly, was the scramble for resources and misappropriation of church funds. The church resources at the centre of controversy included plots (developed and undeveloped), nursery and primary school (within the church compound), multipurpose hall and offering from the faithful. The descendants of the freed slaves sought to control the church and its resources against the church constitution and the will of the majority.
In addition to that, there was misappropriation of church funds by those who were leaders then, the majority being from the Freretown community. The slow pace of intervention and finding lasting solution made the situation worse and went out of control and led to several court cases. With the media publicity the situation was blown out of proportion and hostility emerged in the church. Having discussed that, the next chapter will focus on the effects of the conflict and suggest possible mitigation approaches.
70
CHAPTER FOUR
THE IMPACT OF THE CONFLICT AT EMMANUEL CHURCH KENGELENI
AND POSSIBLE WAYS OF MITIGATION
4.1 Introduction
The previous chapter analyzed various factors responsible for the rise of conflict at
ECK. This chapter is based on the third and fourth objectives of the study. It is an assessment of the impact of conflict and explores possible ways of conflict mitigation.
Odhiambo noted that there is a general perception that the church is peaceful and therefore many churches and church leaders are not prepared to proactively deal with conflicts.195 Bowman observes that, Christians may live under a false expectation that the church will be different from secular organizations. They expect it to be a place with no evidence of division, no opposition to ideas, and no challenges to leadership; a place of peace and harmony.196 The findings of this study indicated that the conflict at
Kengeleni had spiritual and socio-economic impact. These impacts are discussed next:
4.2 Spiritual Impact of the Conflict (2003-2007)
According to Bishop Kalu, the church at Kengeleni continued to grow and flourish despite the conflict.197 Bowman observes that, more recently, the positive elements of conflict are being recognized by leaders who are seeing the benefits of utilizing conflict to bring about positive change.198 Conflict can be utilized to bring about positive transformation in faith communities. In order for this transformation to take place,
195 Odhiambo, E. (2016). “Church Resilient in Conflict,” Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 4 (1). 196Bowman, W. (2008). Leadership in Church Conflict: Transforming Congregations through Adaptive Work. Unpublished MA Thesis, McMaster Divinity College. 197 Kalu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-8-2017 at Ukumbusho House. 198 Bowman, W. (2008), Leadership in Church Conflict: Transforming Congregations through Adaptive Work. Unpublished MA Thesis, McMaster Divinity College. 71
Christians need to be equipped properly so that they can channel the energy of conflict arising from changes to mature the body of Christ.199
4.2.1 The Conflict led to the Spread of the Christian Faith
According to Ombiri in FGD (1), the Christian Community from ECK who moved out from the year 2005 to 2007 due to the conflict carried with them the gospel and established churches wherever they went.200 Tertullian, an early church Father, asserted that, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.”201 This meant that the martyrdom of the early Christians led to a great desire, passion and zeal for evangelism, and therefore, had a great impact in the spread of Christianity in the early church.
Although the situation was not to the extent of blood shade but the conflict turned violent and even led to physical injuries as well as death threats.202 When the conflict was at its pick, the church was closed temporarily before being re-opened by Bishop
Kalu on 12th August 2007.203 According to Murutu, the church conflict became a catalyst for church growth.204 Some Christians moved to the nearby churches especially
ACK St James Mishomoroni, ACK Mtopanga and ACK St Joseph of Arimathea. These then were daughter churches but they grew in numbers as a result of the conflict in the mother church at Kengeleni. Those who left became active in evangelism and church leadership. Same sentiments are shared by Kalama205, Ofundi206 and Mwambila.207 It is
199 Bowman, W. (2008). Leadership in Church Conflict: Transforming Congregations through Adaptive Work. Unpublished MA Thesis, McMaster Divinity College 200 Ombiri, M. FGD (1) by the Researcher on 12-8-2016 at Kengeleni. 201 Kendal, E. (2016). The Blood of the Martyrs, available at http://www.elizabethkendal.com/wp- content/uploads/the-blood-of-the-martyrs.pdf, internet accessed on 2nd August 2017. 202 Kalama, C. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 17-9-2016 at Kisimani. 203 Nation Correspondent, (2007, August 23) Daily Nation. Periodicals Jan 2006 -Dec 2007 ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 204 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14 -9-2016 at Mikindani. 205 Kalama, C. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 17-9-2016 at Kisimani. 206 Ofundi, K. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 15-5-2017 at Ukumbusho House. 207 Mwambila, M. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 15-8-2017 at Kengeleni. 72 paramount to understand then, that conflict is one of the key vehicles of spreading the
Christian faith.
Some of the participants in the study felt that the conflict at ECK contributed to the spread of the Christian faith. All of the clergy participants agreed that the conflict led to the spread of the Christian faith. However, only 33% of the men (KAMA), 23% of the elders, 20% of the youth (KAYO) and 17% of the women (MU) were of this opinion
(see table 6 below). A discussion with FGD 1 and 2 indicate that the conflict contributed to the spread of Christian faith through establishment of daughter churches.
Table 6 Spread of Christian faith as an impact of conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Spread Percentage Interviewed of Christian Faith as an Impact
Clergy 7 7 100%
KAMA 9 3 33%
MU 6 1 17%
KAYO 5 1 20%
Elders 13 3 23%
Emmanuel Church Kengeleni did not split during the conflict but rather a number of its congregation opted to join the neighboring ACK churches. Dida observes that there was growth in the daughter churches which became full parishes with their own Vicars and
PCC.208 Otieno argues that, when church conflict is taken positive, those involved can utilize the same to develop new opportunities for ministry which can be of great value to the church.209 It is therefore important to see the good even in the worst scenario.
208 Dida, G. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 23-8-2017 at Kanamai. 209 Otieno, R. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-9-2016 at Buxton. 73
4.2.2 Conflict Contributed to the Development of Christian Maturity
According to Bishop Kalu, conflict provides Christians with an opportunity to develop virtues that lead to maturity.210 These include patience, humility, forgiveness, tolerance, love, gentleness, self control among others. It is in such a situation that they develop spiritual characteristics and it deepens their faith, trust and dependence on God. They become more prayerful, as they seek divine intervention. It is within this period in time that there were physical confrontation, demonstration and closure of the church.
Sometimes Christians were forced to worship in the church hall instead of the sanctuary
(Appendix VIII pg 124 and XI pg 127). Baya observes that when a church is involved in a conflict, its congregants get an opportunity to reflect on their relationship with God and their fellow human beings.211
According to Ofundi, church conflict brings maturity and self realization to the church leaders. This results in more experience in handling disputes and becoming good managers in conflict resolution.212 Murutu observed that the conflict at ECK was a lifetime lesson to both the leaders and the members of the congregation.213 Ndumbi observed that, despite the fact that conflict creates tension among Christians; it also strengthens and cautions them in the face of similar situations. Such experiences help leaders to acquire discipline which gives space for sound reasoning during conflict in the church.214
According to the study findings, 71% of the clergy, 56% of men (KAMA) and 50% of women (MU) participants reported that the conflict contributed to Christian maturity.
However, only 15% of the elders were of this view, with none of the youth (KAYO)
210 Kalu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-8-2017 at Ukumbusho House. 211 Mwaro, B. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-8-2017 at Bishop Hannington Institute. 212 Ofundi, K. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 15-8-2017 at Ukumbusho House. 213 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 214 Ndumbi, B. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 11-8-2017 at Maweni. 74 participants reporting the same (see table 7 below). A discussion with FGDs 1 and 2 are of the opinion that no Christian maturity was attained as a result of the conflict.
Table 7 Christian maturity as an impact of conflicts at ECK
Category Number Respondents who Viewed Christian Percentage Interviewed Maturity as an Impact
Clergy 7 5 71%
KAMA 9 5 56%
MU 6 3 50%
KAYO 5 0 0%
Elders 13 2 15%
It is therefore evident from the above discussion that conflicts in the church can also be of great value if perceived positively. The conflict at ECK resulted to the spread of the
Christian faith and daughter churches became parishes; it as well as strengthened
Christian virtues and growth of the members into Christian maturity.
4.3 The Socio-economic Impact of the Conflict (2003-2007)
In addition to the spiritual aspects discussed above, the conflict had a great socio- economic impact to the church at Kengeleni, ACK Diocese of Mombasa and the
Christian faith at large. According to Adeyemo, when conflicts are not well handled, they can seriously damage a relationship, divide a nation (as is the case in many African nations), destroy an organization and demoralize the people involved. Improper handling of the conflict between Barnabas and Paul in regard to John Mark led to the division of 75 their missionary team (Acts 15:36-41).215 There are several negative effects of the conflict at ECK. The conflict hindered development, led to rivalry and strained relations between the Freretown community and the non-Freretownians, as well as negative publicity by the media as discussed below.
4.3.1 The Conflict Hindered Development
The conflict hampered the growth and development of ECK. Emmanuel Church
Kengeleni being a historical church and strategically positioned with good road access and within a densely populated locality of Kisauni, it enjoyed a very large following.
According to Dida, at the time of taking over, the Interim Committee had a rough time in addressing the staff salary issues as the accounts were already frozen. Both the outgoing and incoming staff felt the pinch and the Interim committee had to appeal to the congregation to assist in offsetting the outstanding staff salaries and the diocesan quota which had remained unpaid for three months.216 In addition to that, the
Freretownians sued the Bishop in the High Court of Mombasa civil suit No. 173 of
2006, challenging his authority in disbanding the PCC. The Diocesan chancellor took up the matter in court in Bishops defense and Rev Dida, who was then the Vicar of ECK, swore an affidavit to appear in court on behalf of the Bishop and as the Vicar-in- charge and the incumbent of ECK. Ndumbi noted that, the Court cases were cumbersome, expensive and demanding. This left no time for pastoral duties and evangelism; as a result there was no congregational growth.217
According to Kalama, “Much time was spent in meetings, court cases and war of words.
There were threats issued to the Interim committee and even attempts to harm them and
215 Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). African Bible Commentary, Nairobi: Word Alive, pp. 551-552. 216 Dida, G. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 23-8-2017 at Kanamai. 217 Ndumbi, B. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 11-8-2017 at Maweni. 76 these created an environment that no development could be undertaken.”218 Mwambila observed that the church enjoyed a strong evangelism team, beautiful church choir and strong church departments like Fathers Union, Mothers Union and Youth. All these departments had wonderful development programs which had been severely affected by the conflict. The energy of church members was diverted from evangelism to conflict resolution and almost every program was on halt.219
Church attendance dropped as well as the finances. In addition, the church’s main accounts were frozen through a court order due to the conflict and the court cases that were ongoing. Without the finances most of the church programs were not operational and this was a big blow to the church. No church project could be undertaken during that period. The Interim Committee had been given limited powers according to their terms of reference since they were to pave way for an AGM and election of a full Parochial
Church Council (PCC).
A large number of participants in the study reported that the conflict hindered development in the church. All (100%) of the Mothers Union , 92% of the elders, 80% of youth (KAYO), 78% of men (KAMA) and 57% of the clergy were of this opinion
(see table 8 below). Both FGD 1 and 2 strongly agree that there was slow or retarded development during the conflict.
218 Kalama, C. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 17-9-2016 at Kisimani. 219 Mwambila, M. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 15-8-2017 at Kengeleni. 77
Table 8 Slowed development as an impact of conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents Who Viewed Slowed Percentage Interviewed Development As An Impact
Clergy 7 4 57%
KAMA 9 7 78%
MU 6 6 100%
KAYO 5 4 80%
Elders 13 12 92%
According to Ofundi, conflict breaks the unity of the church and consequently divides the congregation into two groups of “us” and “them.” Such situations prevent members of the congregation from inviting other people to attend church event and service, thus limiting growth.220 This could be the reason behind slow growth at ECK during that period in time.
4.3.2 Rivalry and Strained Relations
Rivalry groups were formed as a result of the conflict at ECK. The rivalry was characterized by ill-talk, defamation and counter accusation and even demonstration.
According to Dida, the Freretown community staged a demonstration on the 31st
December 2006, inside ECK during Bishop Kalu’s visit and confirmation service (see photo in appendix XII). Thereafter, there was disruption after the service, in total
220 Ofundi, K. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 15-8-2017 at Ukumbusho House. 78 disregard of the civil court case No. 253 of 2005 and 173 of 2006 which were still pending in the High court of Mombasa for hearing and determination. These acts caught the church members unawares and caused a lot of commotion, fear and anxiety. Otieno observed that, “The conflict took a different twist when it became issue between the
Freretown community against the non-Freretown members.221
A considerable number of participants in this study reported that the conflict at ECK had led to rivalry and strained relationship among the leaders and congregants. Of the sample, 89% of men (KAMA), 77% of the elders, 71% of the clergy, 60% of the youth
(KAYO) and 50% of the women(MU) were of this opinion (see table 9 below). From the discussion with FGD 1 and 2 the conflict resulted into strained relationships among church members.
Table 9 Strained relationships as an impact of conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Strained Percentage Interviewed Relationship as an Impact
Clergy 7 5 71%
KAMA 9 8 89%
MU 6 3 50%
KAYO 5 3 60%
Elders 13 10 77%
Murutu observes that these strained relationships affected not only the church but individuals in their marriages and families.222 Owino in FGD (2) noted that some families that used to come together to church opted to go to different churches or
221 Otieno, R. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-9-2016 at Buxton. 222 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani.
79 attended different services because they were in support of either of the rivalry groups.223 One group was out to frustrate any program and or projects initiated by the rivalry group. This made the ground hostile and the congregation became victims of the circumstances. Bitterness and un-forgiveness ensued. This made the church lose its relevance and purpose for its existence as the salt and the light of the world.
4.3.3 Negative Publicity by the Media
The conflict in the church took a different twist when it attracted the attention of both print and electronic media, observed Mbui.224 According to Bishop Kalu, he did not expect that the matter would advance to the level it had reached until the advertisement in the Newspapers and as a result he received several phone calls.225 In the Daily Nation on Thursday August 23rd 2007, a whole page was dedicated to the conflict at ECK. The article by the Nation Correspondent was entitled ‘Spirit of Controversy: Property
Dispute mars rich history of the second oldest church in Kenya.’ This article discussed in details the genesis of the controversy at the church and even carried photos of the
Freretown elders in argument with the then church priests.226 As if this was not enough more articles continued to cover every happening at ECK.
An article by Mathias Ringa published in the Taifa Leo November 27th 2007 carried the title ‘Mizozo: Kasisi ahamishwa-Kanisa lake limekuwa likikumbwa na migogoro’
(Controversy in church, the priest whose church was in controversy has been transferred). Another article which had a photo of the security guards hired by the church in action trying to prevent one elder from Freretown to access the Public address system was published by Taifa Leo. The article “Mwenye Nguvu Mpishe”, (Give way to
223 Owino, D. FGD (2), conducted by the Researcher on 12-8-2017 at Kengeleni. 224 Mbui, D. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 9-92016 at Maweni. 225 Minutes of the meeting between Bishop Kalu of the Mombasa Diocese and the Descendants of the Ex-Freed slaves of Frere Town. (2006, November 11). General fonds Jan 2005-Dec 2006. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 226 Daily Nation, (2007, August 23). Periodicals fonds Jan 2006- Dec 2007. ACK Archives, Kengeleni. 80 the strong ones) which appeared on Taifa Leo November 26th 2007 and many others in both radio and local Television and the persistent protests and closure of the church painted a very negative image of the church.
In addition, there were several law suits which include; High Court Civil case 141 of
2007, Fredrick Karisa Shungu and 3 others (Plaintiffs/Respondents), suing on their own behalf and on the behalf of the other members of the ECK versus Rev. Geoffrey Dida,
(Defendant/Applicant) Vicar-in-Charge ECK.227 The other court cases were Civil Suit
No. 253 of 2005 and Civil Suit No. 173 of 2006. As at the time of this research it is only
Civil Suit No. 141 of 2007 that the ruling was delivered on 12th January 2010 by Hon
Justice J. B. Ojwang and the case was struck out and dismissed. The other two are still pending in court.
According to Dida, several church bank accounts were frozen and rendered inaccessible.
This sent a strong message to the church’s business partners and other service providers who used to do business and offer various services.228 Kalama noted that for quite some time the church could not afford to meet its expenses in paying salaries to the staff and
Diocesan Quota.229
Most of the participants in the study reported that conflict at the church put the church in bad light due to negative publicity in the media. This position was supported by all
(100%) of women (MU), 71% of the clergy, 69% of elders, 67% of men (KAMA) and
60% of youth (KAYO) members interviewed (see table 10 below). The discussion with
FGD 1 and 2 revealed that there was indeed negative publicity by the media.
227 Kenya Law Civil Suit No. 141 of 2007. 228 Dida, G. Oral interview by the Researcher on 23-8-2017 at Kanamai. 229 Kalama, C. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 17-9-2016 at Kisimani. 81
Table 10 Negative publicity as an impact of conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Negative Percentage Interviewed Publicity as an Impact
Clergy 7 5 71%
KAMA 9 6 67%
MU 6 6 100%
KAYO 5 3 60%
Elders 13 9 69%
This painted a negative image of the church and some service providers lost the trust they earlier had with the church. The conflict dented the image of the Church as the body of Christ.
4.4 Conflict Mitigation in the Church (2003-2010)
Conflict mitigation is an approach applied to a range of strategies and activities undertaken in a situation of crisis, be it an immediate emergency or protracted crisis, to address causes of conflict and change the way those involved act and perceive the issues.230 According to Odhiambo, conflicts are not the problem but should be managed to form part of the solution. Therefore churches should be orderly places in which conflicts are encouraged and managed constructively.231
Conflict can provide energy for leaders’ to inspire the transformation of their churches.
However, not all conflict is productive and not all conflict can be utilized to bring about positive change.232 Hence, conflict theory, especially in organizations like the church,
230Oberg, J. (1996). “Conflict Mitigation in Reconstruction and Development,” Peace and Conflict Studies: Vol.3 (2) 231 Odhiambo, E., Kassily J., and Onkware, K. (2013).The Paradigm Shift from Theocratic to Autocratic Leadership: Journal of Global Peace and Conflict Vol. 1(1): 14-27. 232 Peters, K. (2010).“Conflict Management in the Christian Church.” Unpublished MA Thesis, Alfred Addler University. 82 must be understood by leaders before it can be used toward positive ends. According to
Adeyemo, conflict management is an art that can be learned and a skill that can be acquired. When we manage a conflict, we simply organize, regulate and take charge of it in order to make it serve a good cause, whether that is in a business, a household, a team, an institution or in ones career.233 While this may not be easy to do, the results are worthwhile.
4.5 Approaches to Conflict Mitigation
Cloke and Goldsmith argue that since conflict can be destructive in nature, every organization, from corporations to nonprofits, from schools to churches, can be transformed by learning to embrace conflict and to develop innovative strategies for organizational transformation. Transformation is not minor, linear or transitory. It means allowing what is stuck in the past to die in order that the present and future might live.234
There are innumerable techniques, methods, approaches and processes that can lead to transformation. The method or approach will be determined by the context and severity of the conflict. In this context and set up Biblical conflict resolution approach has been employed as discussed by Adeyemo.235 The study is dealing with a congregational conflict which is defined as a difference in opinion or purpose that frustrates someone’s desires or goals.236 As believers, it is prudent therefore to use the biblical approach which is convenient and easily understood by both parties considering their Christian faith and values. Adeyemo argues that in resolving conflicts, there are two key questions to ask:, what are we agreeing or disagreeing about? And how can we get past this and
233Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). African Bible Commentary. Nairobi: Word Alive, pp. 551-552. 234 Cloke, K., and Goldsmith J. (2005). Resolving Conflicts at Work, San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. 235 Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006), African Bible Commentary. Nairobi: Word Alive, pp. 551-552. 236 Sande, K. (2004). The Peace Maker, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group. 83 move forward?237 In answering these questions, we need to keep the following principles in mind; honest communication, understanding pertinent issues and motives, negotiation, interventions from outside and also divine intervention.
4.5.1 Honest Communication
According to Murutu, dialogue should be given the priority. People must talk and listen to one another in an open and honest manner.238 Silence and isolation only deepens misunderstanding which fuels conflict. If there is limited positive dialogue and communication within and between communities then any aspect that raises suspicion quickly provokes tension, particularly where poor communication carries negative overtones that affect perceptions and dialogue between communities.239 Cloke and
Goldsmith suggest that honest communication involves listening actively, emphatically, and responsively and acknowledging and integrating emotions to solve the problems.240
A sizeable number of participants in this study were of the opinion that honest communication would lead to a permanent solution to the perennial conflicts at the church. This was reported by 33% of men (KAMA) and women (MU) respectively, 29% of clergy, 20% of youth (KAYO) and 15% of elders (see table 11 below). FGD 1 does not see honest communication as a way of conflict mitigation; however, FGD 2 supports it.
237 Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). African Bible Commentary. Nairobi: Word Alive, pp. 551-552. 238 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 239 Ndiku, K. (2016). “Conflict in Kenya,” The Global Coalition for Conflict Transformation. 240Cloke, K., and Goldsmith, J. (2005). Resolving Conflicts at Work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. 84
Table 11 Honest communication as a way of mitigating conflicts at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Honest Percentage Interviewed Communication as a way of Mitigating
Clergy 7 2 29%
KAMA 9 3 33%
MU 6 2 33%
KAYO 5 1 20%
Elders 13 2 15%
4.5.2 Getting beneath surface issues and unseen motives
Often the apparent cause of a conflict is not the real issue. Instead the conflict is rooted in peoples underlying motives and beliefs which they may not have clearly identified.241
Cloke and Goldsmith are in agreement that search beneath the surface for hidden meaning is very crucial in conflict transformation.242 Kitao points out that it is important for the leadership of the church to accept the historical truth about ECK thus accept the facts and involve the Freretown community.243 It is very clear that ECK and the Freretown community are inseparable and attached together historically. In order to address this issue amicable history must come into play. Lack of effective models for conflict sensitivity and analysis, and for addressing the underlying drivers of conflict has been observed at the national level. Law enforcement agencies, government and the political classes lack the necessary skills to address the types of conflict evident in
Kenya.244
241Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). African Bible Commentary. Nairobi: Word Alive, pp. 551-552. 242Cloke, K., and Goldsmith, J. (2005). Resolving conflicts at work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. 243 Kitao, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher 12-9-2016. 244Ndiku, K. (2016). “Conflict in Kenya,” The Global Coalition for Conflict Transformation. 85
In this study, 89% of men (KAMA), 69% of elders, and 67% of women (MU) were of the opinion that getting to the surface issues and unseen motives would help mitigate the conflicts at the church. Only 43% of the clergy and 20% of the youth (KAYO) were of this view (see table 12 below). From the discussion FGD 1 is in support but FGD 2 does not affirm it.
Table 12 Getting to the root cause a way of mitigating conflicts at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Getting to Percentage Interviewed the root Cause as a way of mitigating
Clergy 7 3 43%
KAMA 9 8 89%
MU 6 4 67%
KAYO 5 1 20%
Elders 13 9 69%
4.5.3 Negotiation
In conflict, it is important to openly negotiate for both quantities and qualities. If one cares about the people on the other side of your conflict you cannot afford to negotiate only for quantities.245 In negotiating quantities and qualities, there are two fundamentally differing negotiation styles. Aggressive negotiators will move against their opponents in a competitive struggle for power while collaborative negotiators will adopt a learning orientation to problem solution and move towards their opponent in an effort to improvement and win-win outcomes.246 Adeyemo argues that the best way to find peace is through a process of give and take, in which neither party to the conflict
245 Cloke, K., and Goldsmith, J. (2005). Resolving conflicts at work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. 246 Cloke, K., and Goldsmith, J. (2005). Resolving conflicts at work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. 86 insists on being the winner.247 In October 2003, Rev Murutu was tasked by the Diocesan
Bishop Julius Kalu to carry out reconciliation among the warring parties in order to bring sanity in the church. However, little was achieved from these negotiations. From
August 2004- February 20005, there were several fellowship meetings (reconciliatory) between Fathers Union and the Frere Town Community in an attempt to solve the conflict. Murutu emphasizes the importance of dialogue as an approach towards finding lasting solution to the perennial leadership problems ECK. 248 The Freretown community should open up and embrace change and be ready to go with time, he added.249
According to Cloke and Goldsmith, the following reasons justify negotiating conflict:
First, your goals are moderately important but can be satisfied by less than total agreement. Second, your opponents have equal power, and you are strongly committed to mutually exclusive goals. Third, you need to achieve a temporary settlement of complex issues. Fourth, you need a quick solution, and the exact content does not matter as much as the speed with which it is reached. And lastly, your efforts at either competition or collaboration have failed and you need a backup.250
Most of the participants in this study viewed negotiation as the best way out of the conflicts bedeviling the church. All (100%) of the clergy and men (KAMA) respectively reported negotiation as being the best solution to the conflicts. 83% of women (MU),
80% of youth (KAYO) and 77% of the elders were of this view (see table 13 below).
Both FGD 1 and 2 affirm the same.
247 Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). African Bible Commentary. Nairobi: Word Alive, pp. 551-552. 248 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 249 Ibid. 250 Kenneth Cloke and Joan Goldsmith (2005). Resolving Conflicts at Work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass. 87
Table 13 Negotiation as a way of mitigating conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Negotiation Percentage Interviewed as a way of Mitigating
Clergy 7 7 100%
KAMA 9 9 100%
MU 6 5 83%
KAYO 5 4 80%
Elders 13 10 77%
4.5.4 External Intervention
The parties involved in a conflict may be so caught up in it that they have difficulty talking to one another and reaching any agreement. In such a case the assistance of a neutral person may be sought. However, it should be noted that there is an ill-conceived perception of the role of outsiders in conflict situations. Whenever a conflict has occurred, and the internal mechanism has failed to address the conflict, then outsiders are called upon to respond.251 Murutu observes that some of the leaders who, by and large, are expected to help solve the conflict bring their own biases. In this case, it could either be a bias about the role of the church or about community identities or even personal interests.252 However, Uledi has a different opinion and he strongly believes that, “the problem of the Freretown can only be solved by the Freretown people themselves. They have to come back to the church and join hands with the rest to be voted in leadership position”.253 These sentiments are also echoed by Kitao who asserts that, “Freretown community has its own internal problems. There is no internal unity
251 Ndiku, K. (2016). “Conflict in Kenya”, The Global Coalition for Conflict Transformation. 252 Murutu, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 14-9-2016 at Mikindani. 253 Uledi, F. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 9-9-2016 at Freretown. 88 people are divided according to their ancestral background”.254 He therefore urges that, the descendants of the freed slaves should go back to church, register as members and seek their identity while in the church.255
External intervention comes out as a possible solution to the perennial conflicts at the church. The then Archbishop of the Anglican Church of Kenya the Most Reverend
Benjamin Nzimbi visited the church on October 13th 2007 and had a series of meetings with both parties and the PCC before conducting a cleansing service in October 23rd
2007. In addition to that, the court intervened in a very special way by giving directives according to the law and even to the land mark ruling on January 12th 2010. All (100%) of youth (KAYO), 85% of the elders, 67% of men (KAMA) and 50% of women (MU) reported that external intervention was necessary to help solve the conflict. However, only 43% of the clergy were of this opinion (see table 14 below). From the discussion with FGDs 1and 2, it is evident that external intervention is not the preferred approach to mitigation.
Table 14 External intervention as a way of mitigating conflicts at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed External Percentage Interviewed Intervention as a way of Mitigating
Clergy 7 3 43%
KAMA 9 6 67%
MU 6 3 50%
KAYO 5 5 100%
Elders 13 11 85%
254 Kitao, J. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 12-9-2016 at Freretown. 255 Ibid. 89
4.5.5 Divine Intervention.
According to Mbui, the solution to the prevailing conflict at ECK is following the
Biblical teachings and embracing the Christian faith. Christ is the solution to the problem through prayer.256 According to the study, all (100%) of youth (KAYO), 92% of the elders, 89% of men (KAMA), 57% of clergy and 50% of women (MU) felt that seeking God’s help and guidance would be necessary in solving the conflicts at the church (see table 15 below). FGD 1 support divine intervention while FGD 2 was of the contrary opinion.
Table 15 Divine intervention as a way of mitigating conflict at ECK
Category Number Respondents who viewed Divine Percentage Interviewed Intervention as a way of Mitigation
Clergy 7 4 57%
KAMA 9 8 89%
MU 6 3 50%
KAYO 5 5 100%
Elders 13 12 92%
The majority of conflicts among believers involve an unseen malevolent spiritual influence. Thus in resolving them we need to involve God by seeking his mind in His word and praying for His assistance.257
4.6 Conclusion
The chapter has examined the impact of the conflict on its members and the church at large. It went further into looking for possible ways of mitigating conflict in the church.
256 Mbui, D. Oral Interview by the Researcher on 9-9-2016 at Maweni. 257 Adeyemo, T. ed. (2006). African Bible Commentary. Nairobi: Word Alive, p 551-552. 90
According to the study there were spiritual and socio-economic impacts on the congregation and the church as a whole as summarized below.
The conflict had spiritual impact which included the spread of the Christian Faith. When the conflict escalated some members could not withstand the situation and therefore left the church. As people left for other churches, they carried the Christian faith with them and even others became founders of churches where none existed before. They became more passionate and zealous for Christ. Among those churches that started at this point in time include St James Mishomoroni, St Joseph of Arimathea Maweni, St John’s
Mtopanga and ACK M’bungoni. Secondly, those who overcame the conflict grew into
Christian maturity with Christian virtues that stood the test of time. The conflict was moreover like the refiners fire, and at the end of it all it produced mature Christians who were committed and strong to stand and defend their faith even in difficult moments.
There were also socio-economic effects such as retarded growth, rivalry and strained relations as well as negative publicity which painted the church of Christ very badly to the outside world. The study has shown that conflicts in an organization and society can have diverse effects. Whatever happens in the church has a direct impact to the society within its environs. The church has a responsibility of creating and incorporating positive conflict resolution mechanism.
Finally, the study dealt with conflict mitigation using biblical approach by putting into consideration the nature of conflict and its context. Conflict is not bad in and of itself.
Though it may be considered painful and frightening at times, it can also be the fire in which a healthy organization is tempered. However, this does not imply that all conflict is growth-producing. Those persons or groups which live for conflict are just as 91 unhealthy as those which spend their energy avoiding it. There are many factors that contribute to the “why” of conflict as there are strategies in which to deal with it. In summary, a mark of a healthy church organization is one that can deal effectively with conflict when it arises. Having discussed that, the next chapter will give a summary, conclusion and make recommendations as reported by the study
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
The study sought to undertake a historical analysis of conflict at Emmanuel Church
Kengeleni, Mombasa Diocese in the Anglican Church of Kenya (2000-2010). The study was carried out at ECK situated in the mainland north of Mombasa in Mombasa County.
ECK is the second oldest church in Kenya and it has a long history stretching back to the coming of missionaries and end of slave trade. The church was marred with controversies that hit the headlines in the print and electronic media between the years
2000 and 2010.
The study sought to accomplish four objectives: to establish the role played by the
Freretown community in the growth and development of ECK; to establish the factors that led to conflict at ECK; to assess the impact of the conflict at ECK; and finally to propose possible ways of conflict mitigation in the Church with a view of solving the perennial conflicts at ECK. This chapter provides a summary of the findings of the study, conclusion and the recommendations.
5.2 Summary of the findings i) The role played by descendants of the freed slaves in the growth and development of ECK
The study established that ECK, the second oldest church in Kenya, was established by the missionaries in the early 19th Century to cater for the spiritual needs of the freed slaves and their descendants after the slave trade was abolished by the British 93 government. The freed slaves rescued by the British naval ships under Sir Bartle Frere were settled in Kisauni a place named Freretown after Sir Bartle Frere. The need to have a church to cater for their socio-spiritual needs led to the construction of ECK building which was completed in 1889. The church was the center of civilization, as well as, the beacon of hope and identity for the descendants of the freed slaves.
The Freretown community was very instrumental in the establishment and development of the church at Kengeleni and beyond. As indicated earlier, the community was involved in the building of the church. The construction work was done by the Bombay
Africans who were the freed slaves trained in Calcutta Bombay who included the likes of Ishmael Mochira. They collected the materials from the beach and offered labour. It was among them that the first evangelist and deacons were commissioned and ordained.
In 1933, the church was left by the CMS in the hands of the LCC which entirely comprised of the descendants of the freed slaves. They successful managed and maintained the huge church all over the years. ii) Factors that led to conflict at ECK
Conflicts at ECK were caused by four main factors. The first factor was identity crisis.
The Freretown community finds her identity with the church and for them to be displaced is losing her identity. The influx of new congregants had threatened the position of the community as the indigenous members and their voice could no longer be heard. They are fighting back for their identity and recognition. Biblically the Church belongs to Jesus Christ and no one individual can claim ownership of the church.
The second factor was scramble for leadership positions at the church which resulted into conflict. The PCC elections of the year 2000 that saw majority of the Freretown members elected was contested by the Fathers Union, sparking the bone of contention. 94
The issue brought a special demand from the Freretown community for special seats reserved for them in the PCC. The issue was taken to the Diocesan Bishop and even the
Diocesan Synod without success. Power struggle almost tore the old historical church apart.
The third factor that led to conflict was the scramble for church resources. Resources were at the center of the controversy. These included the parcels of land owned by the church, the Binns Primary School, the old vicarage (church house), income from billboards erected within the church compound and Sunday collection in form of offering and tithes. The Freretown community registered an association to manage these resources on their behalf in 2003, named Freretown Community Association. As a result of the struggle for resources and finances, all the church accounts were frozen and remained so even during the time of this research. Before the year 2000, the majority leadership was in the hands of the Freretown community and therefore they had the privilege of enjoying the benefits that came from the resources owned by the church.
The increase of non-Freretown members in the church as well as in the leadership of the church posed a threat to the benefits and privilege enjoyed; hence resulting into conflicts.
The fourth factor was misappropriation of church funds. It is reported that, the PCC was not transparent and accountable in the management of church finances. It was in office for over five years without any audited financial report as was required. In addition to that, there were no AGM to give reports and have the budget approved. Furthermore, there lacked proper records and professionalism in financial management. This led to suspicion and mistrust and contributed to the unrest and eventual dissolution of the PCC.
95 iii) Assessment of the Impact of the Conflict at ECK
The conflict at ECK had spiritual and socio-economic impact. On the spiritual aspect, it aided the spread of Christianity. Those who could not contend with the situation moved to other churches and took up leadership positions in ministry. It is reported that the
ACK daughter churches within Kisauni sub-county grew drastically and became full parishes. They included St James Mishomoroni, St Joseph of Arimathea Maweni, and St
John’s Mtopanga among others. On the surface church growth seems to have occurred though the depth of socio-spiritual injury is difficult to ascertain. In addition, it is said that those who remained behind became more mature in Christian values and virtues.
The endurance and perseverance participants say made them strong in the Lord and have resilience in their character. Furthermore, they became strong in faith and dedicated to
God having gone through the refiner’s fire. Thus, the experience gained may have helped them to be more effective and cautious in handling conflict.
The conflict was also reported to have had socio-economic effects to ECK. As a result of the conflict and temporary closure of the church, church attendance was reported to have decreased. There was also low income in terms of Sunday offertories. In addition, the church bank accounts were frozen, making it impossible for the church to access her money for development. The PCC was dissolved and the interim committee appointed had special terms of reference and limited time. Being a caretaker committee, it could not initiate any development project. The environment was very hostile and the congregation so much divided; this made development practically impossible.
According to participants, no development project was undertaken during this period in time.
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The conflict resulted in rivalry and strained relations among the leadership as well as the members of the congregation. It was reported that, there was a lot of hostility among them which resulted into demonstrations and physical fighting. It took the intervention of the then Archbishop Most Rev Dr. Benjamin Nzimbi to hold a special baraza in order to bring the two parties together and also to perform the cleansing of the church. The conflict had a negative publicity on the ACK church in both print and electronic media.
The chaos, protests, court cases and physical confrontations were in the headlines in the media. This was a very unfortunate situation for ECK and the church of Christ at large.
It portrayed moral decay and the church lost its prophetic and moral power to challenge the society in such related issues. Finally, it was reported that the church lost its moral authority as the salt and the light of the world.
iv) Ways of Conflict Mitigation at ECK
Conflict management styles vary when dealing with issues that arise. Because conflict can be destructive in nature; every organization, from corporations to non profits, from schools to churches, can be transformed by learning to embrace conflict and to develop innovative strategies for organizational transformation. There are innumerable techniques, methods, approaches and processes that can be employed. The method or approach will be determined by the context and severity of the conflict.
In this context and set up, Biblical Conflict Resolution Approach was employed. The study is dealing with congregational conflict which is defined as difference in opinion or purpose that frustrates someone’s desires or goals. The approach was convenient and easily understood by both parties considering their Christian faith and values. This approach embraces the following components: First, is honest communication which 97 involves listening actively, emphatically, and responsively and acknowledging and integrating emotions to solve the problem. It was reported that the church should embrace open and honest discussion in order to address congregational conflict.
Secondly, in order to deal with a conflict effectively, participants suggested that it is important to get to the root cause of it that is getting beneath surface issues and unseen motives. Getting the surface for hidden meaning is very crucial in conflict transformation. Thirdly, negotiation which is a process of give and take, in which neither party to the conflict insists on being the winner. This approach helps to bring harmony and co-existence among the warring parties. Fourth, it was reported that, seeking external intervention especially where parties involved may be so caught up that they have difficulty talking to one another and reaching any agreement. The assistance of a neutral person or third party plays a crucial role as mediator. This is what was reported when the then Archbishop the Most Reverend Benjamin Nzimbi, came to assist
Emmanuel church. His intervention played an important role in bringing the two parties on a round table.
And lastly is the divine intervention where believers resolved to involve God by fasting and praying for His assistance. It was reported that the Interim committee undertook special prayers every Friday of the week as an approach to seek divine intervention in resolving the conflict. Likewise the congregation was reported to have been involved in periodic fasting and praying over the same challenge. This is a common approach to conflict resolution among believers. 98
5.3 Conclusion of the study
This study draws its conclusion based on the findings as analyzed using the Conflict
Theory advanced by Karl Marx. Accordingly, it was observed that tension and conflict arose when resources, status, and power were unevenly distributed between groups in society, and that these conflicts become the engine for social change. In this context, power can be understood as control of material resources and accumulated wealth, control of politics and the institutions that make up society, and one's social status relative to others (determined not just by class but by race, gender, sexuality, culture, and religion, among other things). The outcome of social negligence or dissatisfaction was that affected individuals and communities were prevented from participating fully in the economic, social and political life of the society in which they live. This finally created tension which led to conflict.
According to the study therefore, the conflict at ECK was due to differences in leadership which were based on identity crisis, struggle for positions, scramble for resources and misappropriation of church funds. According to the theory insufficient access to social rights, material deprivation, limited social participation and lack of normative integration will lead to disagreements and even conflict. Using the Conflict
Theory, the study established that the differences between the leadership of the church and the Freretown community formed the base for the conflict that occurred.
5.4 Recommendations
Based on the findings, the study makes the following recommendations:
I) Church founders, pioneers and local communities should be recognized and appreciated for their role and input in building and establishing the church. The church should embrace all members regardless of their background, tribe, social status or 99 political affiliation. This will help address the identity issues that came out strongly in the study.
II) Following the disputed PCC election that sparked protests by Fathers Union the church should adhere to the constitution in the process of elections and forming any committees, while those elected should conform to the constitution.
III) Considering that the conflict took at least 10 years (some cases still pending in court) Church conflicts should be handled proactively and not reactively. Any issue that could result into a conflict should be dealt with on the very onset and well managed before it blows out into a crisis. Proper mechanism (structures of handling conflict) should be developed and enshrined in the constitution that will enable efficient and effective modalities of conflict resolution. Priests and church leaders must be trained and equipped well in matters of conflict management and resolution.
5.5 Areas for Further Research
Taking into consideration the limitation of the study, the following suggestions were made for further research. A study be done in another ACK Church with the same challenges but different locality to establish the trend of conflict in the Church. It should also be noted that, the extent to which a given factor contributes to conflict in one church varies with the context and set up. It is from such studies that key factors causing conflict in the ACK churches can be established. Study should also be carried out to find out the structures and mechanism that other ACK Churches have put in place for handling conflicts. With the increase in the rate of conflicts in the church, it can help the ACK Churches to put in place the right mechanism for conflict mitigation.
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Oral Interviews and FGDs Baya, Mwaro (2017). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 12th August 2017 at Bishop Hannington Institute. Dida, Geoffrey (2017). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 23rd August 2017 at Kanamai. Douglas, Ivy (2016). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 9th September 2016 at Maweni. FGD-1 conducted by the Researcher on 12-8-2017 at Kengeleni. FGD-2 conducted by the Researcher on 18-8-2017 at Maweni. Kalama, Caesar (2016). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 17th September 2016 at Kisimani. Kalama, Ceaser, Ndubi, Beatrice and Mbui, Douglas (2017). Oral Interview by the Researcher in 2017 at Kengeleni. Kalu, Julius (2017). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 12th August 2017 in his Office at Ukumbusho House.
Kitao, Jimmy (2016). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 12th September 2016 at Freretown. Mbui, Douglas (2016). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 9th September 2016 at Maweni. Murutu, Josphat (2016). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 14th September 2016 at his office in Mikindani. Mwambila, Matano (2017). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 15th August 2017 at Kengeleni. Ndumbi, Beatrice (2017). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 11th September 2017 at Maweni. Ofundi, Kennedy (2017). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 15th August 2017 at Ukumbusho House. Otieno, Richard (2016). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 12th September 2016 at Buxton. Uledi, Fredrick (2016). An Oral Interview with the Researcher on 9th September 2016 at Freretown.
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APPENDICES
Appendix I: Maps of the Study Area
A Map of Kenya showing the Location of Mombasa County
Map courtesy of World Easy Guides, available at http://www.worldeasyguides.com/africa/kenya/mombasa/
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A Map of Mombasa County showing the location of Kisauni Sub-County
Map courtesy of World Easy Guides, available at http://www.worldeasyguides.com/africa/kenya/mombasa/
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A Map of Mombasa showing Frere Town Location
Map courtesy of World Easy Guides, available at http://www.worldeasyguides.com/africa/kenya/mombasa/
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Appendix 11 Consent Form
I am Judah Mwabonje Kapanga, a Master’s student in the Department of Philosophy and
Religious Studies of Pwani University. I am undertaking this research as a fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree. My research is on “Analysis of Church
Conflict: The case of Emmanuel Church Kengeleni - Mombasa Diocese (2000-2010). I am Kindly requesting you to voluntarily participate in this research. The information you give will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will only be used for research purposes. Thank you in advance for accepting to take part in this study.
I______(interviewee) hereby authorize Judah M. Kapanga
(interviewer) from Pwani University, to gather information from me for the purpose of research. I fully agree to be interviewed and I will voluntarily give information that will be necessary for the research. For any further enquiries arising from the research you can contact Ethics and Review Committee at Pwani University or my lead supervisor;
Professor Stephen Muoki Joshua [email: s.muoki @pu.ac.ke ]
Interviewee
Signature ______date:______
Interviewer
Signature______date:______113
Appendix III: The Current View of Emmanuel Church
Emmanuel Church Kengeleni
Side view of the Church with Bell
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Main Entrance View of the Church
115
Appendix IV: The Bell Tower at Kengeleni
This bell was used to warn the Freetown community of slaving ships.
The Bell Tower with the Name Kengeleni Affixed 116
Appendix V: Photo of Cultural Day at Emmanuel Church
Members of Emmanuel Church Celebrating Cultural Sunday. Photo courtesy of Ndegwa Gathungu.
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Appendix VI: List of Respondents
Table 1.2: List of Respondents NO. NAME CATEGORY AGE 1. Rt. Rev Julius R. K. Kalu Clergy 55 and above 2. Rt. Rev. Lawrence Dena Clergy 55 and above 3. Ven. Canon Habel Chambia Clergy 55 and above 4. Ven. Edwin Demla Clergy 55 and above 5. Ven. Joseph Kashuru Clergy 45 and 54 6. Rev. Kennedy Ofundi Clergy 45 and 54 7. Rev Josphat Murutu Clergy 45 and 54 8. Rev. Geoffrey Dida Clergy 45 and 54 9. Rev. Alphonce Baya Clergy 35 and 44 10. Rev Richard Otieno Clergy 35 and 44 11. Rev. Margaret Ndisha Clergy 35 and 44 12. Rev. Isaac Mwambila Clergy 45 and 54 13. Cesar Kalama Elder 55 and above 14. Elizabeth Righa Elder 45 and 54 15. Solomon Ngwatu Elder 55 and above 16. Moses Ombiri KAYO 35 and 44 17. Benson Kahura Elder 55 and above 18. Festus Mwakio KAYO 35 and 44 19. James Hiro Elder 45 and 54 20. Sammy Mburu Elder 45 and 54 21. Feligona Olweny Elder 45 and 54 22. Jonai Kirigha Elder 45 and 54 23. Humphrey Irungu Elder 55 and 54 24. Vincent Marenge KAYO 45 and 54 25. Michael Ngure Elder 35 and 44 26. Edgar Manasseh Elder 55 and above 27. Fredrick Uledi Elder 55 and above 28. Erick Levi Elder 55 and above 29. Cyphus Farrar Elder 55 and above 30. Jimmy Kitao Elder 55 and above 31. Caroline Heroe MU 55 and above 32. Hellen Dzimba MU 55 and above 33. Charity Kitao MU 55 and above 34. Ivy Douglas MU 55 and above 35. Betty Ndubi MU 55 and above 36. Henry Farrar Elder 55 and above 37. Connie Mcharo MU 45 and 54 38. Matano Mwambila KAMA 45 and 54 39. Kenneth Mwambila KAMA 45 and 54 40. Douglas Mbui KAMA 55 and above 41. John Mcharo Elder 45 and 54 42. Miriam Kazungu M U 55 and above 43. Leonard Msalame KAMA 45 and 54 118
44. Julius Maghanga KAMA 55 and above 45. James Maraiara Elder 55 and above 46. David Owino Elder 45 and 54
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Appendix VII: Interview Guide for all Categories of Respondents
Dear respondent, I take this opportunity to thank you in advance for taking your time to fill this questionnaire. I am a Master of Arts student at Pwani University. As part of academic requirements of the M.A, I am conducting a research on, “A Historical
Analysis of Conflict at Emmanuel Church Kengeleni- Mombasa Diocese in the
Anglican Church of Kenya (2000-2010)”.
The information will be used for academic purpose only and will be treated with due respect and confidentiality. Judah M. Kapanga Email: [email protected]
+254 724 559 920
SECTION A
Background Information (for all categories of respondents)
1. Personal Details
– 25 [ ] 26 – 35 [ ] 36 – 45 [ ] 46 – 55 [ ] 56 and above [ ]
2. Highest Level of Education
Post Secondary [ ] University [ ]
3. Occupation
fy) ……………………..
4. Position in Church.
[ ] Pastor [ ] Church Leader [ ] Member [ ] Others (Specify) ………………. 120
SECTION B: Interview guide for Church Leaders 1. a) Which position do you hold in the Church? [ ] Bishop [ ] PCC Member [ ] other (specify)…………………
b) Why was the ACK Emmanuel church established?
c) What was the rate of church growth between 2000 -2010? Slow growth [ ] Normal growth [ ] Fast growth [ ]
d) Explain your answer in ‘c’ above. ……………………………………………………………………………………. e) What were the major causes of conflict at Emmanuel church? ………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. a) When conflict arose at Emmanuel Church, did the National Leadership get involved in any way? Yes [ ] No [ ] b) If Yes, what efforts were put in place in order to address the conflict? ……………………………………………………………………….………………… c) In your opinion, were those efforts successful? Yes [ ] No [ ] ………………………………………………………………….………………………. 3. a) From your experience as a leader do you encounter similar challenges in your church or in other ACK Churches? Yes [ ] No [ ] b) If Yes, do they end up in similar manner? Explain. …………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. What were the consequences of the conflicts at Emmanuel Church?
……………………………………………………………...…………………………….. 5. In your opinion, what are the possible strategies that can be put in place to help overcome such conflicts in the church in future? ……………………………………………………………………………………………
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SECTION C: An Interview Guide for Former Leaders of Emmanuel church
(FGDs)
Interview guided by the researcher
1. a) When was Emmanuel Church established?
b.) Why was it established?
2. a) What leadership position did you hold at Emmanuel church?
Church council Yes [ ] No [ ]
Department leader Yes [ ] No [ ]
Pastor Yes [ ] No [ ]
b. How long did you serve in the above stated capacity?
c) How did you become a leader Emmanuel Church?
3. a) What were the causes of conflict in Emmanuel Church?
b) What did the leaders do to deal with conflict?
c) Why did they fail to establish unity?
4. a) Were the following ACK leadership levels involved when the conflict erupted?
Archdeaconry office Yes [ ] No [ ]
Diocesan office Yes [ ] No [ ]
Provincial office Yes [ ] No [ ] b. If Yes, what role did each of the above offices play in an attempt to end the conflict? c) What was the result of the efforts at dealing with conflicts?
5. What were the effects of the conflicts at Emmanuel Church?
6. Suggest possible strategies of how the ACK Churches can handle their disputes peacefully.
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SECTION D
An Interview Guide for Former Members of Emmanuel Church (FGDs)
Interview guided by the researcher
1. When did you join Emmanuel Church?
2. Why did you move away from Emmanuel Church?
3. What is your opinion on the rate of growth of this church between 2000 -2010?
Fast growth Yes [ ] No [ ]
Moderate growth Yes [ ] No [ ]
Slow growth Yes [ ] No [ ]
4. (a) Did you witness the conflict at Emmanuel Church?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes, give reasons in your opinion of what caused these conflicts.
5. (a) Do you think the causes of the conflicts would have been managed?
(b) If Yes, state what you think should have been done.
6. What were the consequences of the conflicts at Emmanuel Church?
7. Suggest possible ways on how ACK Christians can live in peace and harmony?
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Appendix VIII: Image of Gideon Maundu’s Article ‘Mwenye nguvu mpishe,’ in Taifa leo on 27th November 2007.
The conflict turned into physical violence as portrayed by the picture above. 124
Appendix IX: Photos of Some Interview Sessions
125
Appendix X: The Administrative Structure of ACK Church
ACK DIOCESE OF MOMBASA
CHURCH STRUCTURE ORGANIZATION CHART
ANGLICAN CHURCH OF KENYA DIOCESAN SYNOD CHURCH STRUCTURE DIOCESE OF MOMBASA CHAIRMAN - BISHOP ORGANISATION CHART
STANDING COMMITTEE OF SYNOD CHAIRMAN - BISHOP
BISHOP ASSISTANT BISHOP
VICAR DIOCESAN ADMINSTRATOR DIOCESAN GENERAL OFFICERS& DEPARTMENTS BOARD
DIOCESAN INSTITUTIONS ARCHIDIACONAL COUNCIL COMMITTEES OF THE AND PROPERTIES CHAIRMAN - ARCHDEACON BOARDS
ARCHDEACON PROVOST CATHEDRAL CHAPTERS
RURIDECANAL COUNCIL CHAIRMAN – RURAL DEAN
PARISH CHURCH WORKERS PAROCHIAL CHURCH COUNCIL COMMITTEES OF CHAIRMAN - VICAR THE PCC
LOCAL CHURCH WORKERS LOCAL CHURCH COMMITTEE COMMITTEES OF CHAIRMAN – VICAR (OR HIS WARDEN) THE LCC
LOCAL CHURCHES/ CONGRGATION
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Appendix XI: Photo Showing Closure of Emmanuel Church