Open Agriculture. 2017; 2: 362–385

Research Article

Théodore Munyuli*, Kana Cihire, Dodo Rubabura, Kajivunira Mitima, Yajuamungu Kalimba, Nabintu Tchombe, Emmanuel Kizungu Mulangane, Ombeni Birhashwira, Manderena Umoja, Eloi Cinyabuguma, Théodore Tshilumba Mukadi, Meschac Tshibingu Ilunga, Remy Tshibingu Mukendi Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province, eastern of Democratic Republic of Congo https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2017-0040 tuberosum L.) problems in South-Kivu Province, eastern Received January 9, 2017; accepted April 11, 2017 Democratic Republic of Congo (RDCongo), there was Abstract: Based on previous complaints and reports a need to understand farmers’ knowledge of existing from farmers to researchers about potato (Solanum insect pest problems and current management practice challenges. Such information is important for designing a suitable intervention and successful integrated pest *Corresponding author: Théodore Munyuli, Laboratory of Entomology management (IPM) strategy for the Province. Hence, & Plant Health Management, Departments of Biology & Environment; using a semi-structured questionnaire, a farm household National Center for Research in Natural Sciences, CRSN-Lwiro, D.S. survey was conducted among 300 potato farmers in six Bukavu, South-Kivu Province, eastern of DRCongo, E-mail: tmunyuli@ sites belonging to 2 territories (Kabare, Kalehe) of South- gmail.com Kana Cihire, Dodo Rubabura, Kajivunira Mitima, Laboratory of Kivu Province from June to August 2015. Insect pests, Entomology & Plant Health Management, Departments of Biology diseases and price fluctuations were among the highest & Environment ; National Center for Research in Natural Sciences, ranked constraints in potato production by farmers. CRSN-Lwiro, D.S. Bukavu, South-Kivu Province, eastern of DRCongo Cutworms (Agrotis spp.), aphids (Myzus persicae Sulzer), National Institute for Agricultural Research and Eloi Cinyabuguma, and potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella Zeller) Studies, INERA-Mulungu, South-Kivu Province, eastern DRCongo Théodore Munyuli, Nabintu Tchombe, Ombeni Birhashwira, Depart- were the most severe insect pests in medium altitude ment of Food, Nutrition & Dietetics, Institute of Higher Education zones (1600-1950m). Ants (Dorylis orantalis Westwood), in Medical Techniques, ISTM-Bukavu, South-Kivu Province, eastern whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius), and leafminer DRCongo flies (Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard) were the pests of Manderena Umoja, Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agricul- high importance reported from sites of very high altitude ture, Université Libre des Grands Lacs, ULGL- Bukavu, South-Kivu (2000-2600m). Major yield losses were mostly attributed Province, eastern DRCongo Meschac Tshibingu Ilunga, Department of Crop Science, Faculty to late blight (Phytophthora infestans Mont. de Bary) and of Agriculture, University of Lubumbashi, Haut-Katanga Province, or insect pests and reached 65-90% without chemical Southern DRCongo control in most study sites. On average, farmers had Meschac Tshibingu Ilunga, National Institute for Agricultural little knowledge about pest characteristics (bio-ecology, Research and Studies, INERA-Kipopo, Haut-Katanga Province, Sou- behavior,…). Most (71.5%) farmers were not able to thern DRCongo Remy Tshibingu Mukendi, Department of Crop Science, Faculty of correctly identify insect pest species names. Sometimes, Agriculture, University of Notre Dame de la Lomami, Kabinda, Loma- two or more species had the same local name. There was mi Province, Central DRCongo a great confusion between damages (attacks) due to pests, Théodore Tshilumba Mukadi, Remy Tshibingu Mukendi, National diseases and environmental stresses (rains, soil nutrient Institute for Agricultural Research and Studies, INERA-Gandajika, deficiency) among farmers. Very few (18.5%) farmers Lomami Province, Central DRCongo interviewed knew with precision some insect pests. Most Yajuamungu Kalimba, Department of Environments and Geography, Institute of Higher Education, ISP-Nyiragongo, Goma, North-Kivu (80%) farmers did not know what natural enemies of Province, eastern DRCongo insect pests and IPM were. Seasonal pest outbreak and Emmanuel Kizungu Mulangane, Centre de Recherche Agro-alimen- emerging new pests were phenomenon related to previous taire, CRA-Lwiro, South-Kivu Province, eastern of DRCongo long lasting and repetitive civil wars (1995-2016). Farmers

Open Access. © 2017 Théodore Munyuli, et al., published by De Gruyter Open. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Public License. Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 363

(62.8%) perceived that invasion and emergence of new 2012). Important traits are easy to find in wild relatives of potato pests could be linked to the smoke of bullets, to potato, but their introduction using traditional breeding climate variability and to uncontrolled introduction of can take 15-20 years (Halterman et al. 2016). new planting materials. There was a confusion between Potato production is expanding rapidly in developing emergency and resurgence of classical pests. In some countries. Over the past decade, potato production cases, there was resurgence of classical pests due to in developing countries increased steadily, by 5% per resistance to some pesticides. Resistance to pesticide was annum, while the crop’s cultivated area rose by 3%. mainly because farmers were heavily applying pesticides Thus, potato is increasingly a developing country crop, prior to receiving advice from extension workers about with production in these countries now accounting for wise and safer application of pesticides. The level of 45% of global production (Ghislain et al. 2003). For many severity of potato pest incidence was perceived by farmers farmers, potato is not only their staple food but also their as extremely high (68.2%) as compared to the situation principal cash crop. 20 years (1995-2016) ago. Current farmers’ main response Potato has multiple benefits for low income to controlling pests in potato is to apply hazardous, high households and where land shortage is a constraint toxic insecticides that pollute the environment. The (Dersseh et al. 2016). The crop grows quickly, has a high predominant control methods were use of fungicides yield, and contains more energy and protein per unit area combined (35.7%) or not (64.4%) to insecticides. Potato when compared to a cereal crop. Therefore, it plays a vital production in eastern DRCongo is a pesticide dependent role in ensuring food security, which is a major concern for crop, according to farmers. This lack of knowledge about the country (Dersseh et al. 2016). Some inherent qualities environmentally friendly control methods of pests, called give potato a competitive edge over the leading food crops. for training of both farmers and extension workers in In fact, it can produce more protein and carbohydrates insect pest identification, collection, biology, behavior, per unit area than cereals and some leguminous crops ecology, monitoring and control approaches. Empowering like soybeans (Guchi 2015). In addition to energy and farmers with knowledge about insect pests is essential quality protein, it also provides a substantial amount of for the reduction of pesticide misuse and uptake of vitamins and minerals (Mpogole 2014, Abamecha 2013, more environmentally friendly approaches like IPM and Giordanengo et al. 2013, Murniece et al. 2013, Scott and related strategies (climate smart and Bt-varieties). Field Suarez 2011). surveys would need follow-up in order to assess the Potato is the most important crop in developing actual field infestation rates and intensities of each insect countries and its production is expanding more rapidly pest (determine economic injury threshold per species) than that of most other crops. The crop is the world’s most and develop warning/alerting methods when there are important crop, with nearly 400 million tons produced outbreaks in the potato growing zones of eastern DRCongo. worldwide every year, lending to stability in food supply There was a call for breeders to develop new varieties that and socioeconomic impact (Halterman et al. 2016, Okello are biotic- abiotic tolerant and which respond to socio- et al. 2017, Scott and Suarez 2012, Steyn et al. 2014, Pacifico economic desire of producers and consumers. and Paris 2016, Scott and Suarez 2011, Venter 2006, Lutaladio and Castaldi 2009, Steyn et al. 2014). Keywords:Potato, Indigenous knowledge, Pest Status, As a result of this, it is becoming an increasingly IPM, South-Kivu Province, eastern DRCongo important source of rural employment, income and food for growing populations (Guchi 2015, Abamecha 2013, Kumari 2012, Singh et al. 2008). Potato is largely traded locally and nationally. The crop is far less susceptible 1 Introduction to large-scale market shocks and price speculation experienced by grain crops. As such, the crop contributes Potato (Solanum tuberosum L., Solanaceae) is considered to a more stable food system and predictable source of as the fourth major crop of the world after rice, wheat and income. Potato is more profitable than many other food maize (Guchi 2015, Karanja 2013, Ortiz et al. 2006, Pacifico crops as it matures earlier, has higher yield per unit of and Paris 2016, Kumari 2012, Pandey et al. 2014, and land, and provides a larger income (Mpogole 2014, Devaux Scott and Suarez 2012, Venter 2006). In general, potato et al. 2011). This means that potato can address both food is an intensively managed crop, requiring irrigation, security as well as cash needs of the rural farmers. Indeed, fertilization, and frequent pesticide applications in order because of its potentiality, the crop is a hidden treasure for to obtain the highest yields possible (Alcón 2010, Kumari smallholder farmers. 364 T. Munyuli, et al.

In mountain zones of eastern DRCongo, potato is one Despite its importance, the crop is subject to the of the crops for which the commercial network within and pressure of various pests and diseases (Messiha et al. outside the country is well established. Prices at the farm 2007, Anonymous 1996, Rondon 2010, Guenthner et al. gate as compared to prices at the consumer level are well 2012, Salami and Popoola 2007, Munyaneza et al. 2009, known. The crop is grown in most agro-ecological zones Obidiegwu et al. 2014, Kakuhenzire 2009, Lehtonen 2009). of South-Kivu province, but mainly in cool and medium Insect pests account for 16% of crop losses of potato to high altitude sites. In this region, potatoes are a source worldwide, and reductions in tuber yield and quality of both food and cash income (Lutaladio and Castaldi can be between 30% and 70% for various insect pests 2009); they are a cheap but nutritionally rich staple foods (Giordanengo et al. 2013). that contributes protein, vitamin C, vitamin A, zinc, and In eastern DRCongo for example, the national average iron towards the dietary demands in towns and cities in productivity is about 2.5-4.5 tons/ha, which is far below eastern highlands of eastern DRCongo. Thus, potatoes are the productivity (10-40 tons/ha) of improved varieties contributing to the improvement of livelihoods of poor achieved in research trials. Low productivity of potato in people (Meinzen-Dick et al. 2009). Potato production the different agro-ecological zones may be due to various represent 5-16 % of the agricultural economically active constraints (Masrie 2015) including narrow genetic population in eastern DRCongo. Potato is grown by materials introduced in rural areas, limited access to high approximately 1.5 million farmers the Kivu Provinces yielding varieties, emerging new pests and disease, lack (eastern DRCongo). In this region, potato is regarded a of accessing improved varieties (Gildemacher et al. 2009), high-potential food security crop because of its ability to lack of access to certified quality seed (Okello et al. 2017), provide a high yield of high-quality product per unit input lack of availability of healthy seed tubers and poor seed with a shorter crop cycle (mostly < 120 days) than major tuber quality (Kolech et al. 2015), climate variability and crops like maize, cassava, and banana. Between 15,000 to general degradation of environment and landscapes, 69,000 hectares of arable land is under potato cultivation declining soil fertility due to erosion (Dersseh et al. 2016, in the Kivu provinces. Alcón 2010), continuous cropping and mining of nutrients The production and consumption of potato is (Masrie 2015), inappropriate use of chemicals to control increasingly becoming popular in eastern DRCongo. The fungal diseases and pests, lack of proper sanitation, increasing popularity of potato is also evidenced by the absence of crop rotation, and varietal resistance to abiotic rise of the urban demand for potato consumption. Hence, and biotic stresses, among other factors. the crop has great potential in both national, provincial, Currently, pests, seed potato health, seed potato territorial and village markets, due to growing demand, quality management (Kirub 2013), bacterial wilt and late especially in post-conflict zones in DRCongo. This growth blight control, and soil fertility management (Gildemacher in demand can be traced to many factors, including et al. 2009) are constraints that require emergent technical increasing economic activities, urbanization, changing interventions in rural areas. In addition, most farmers do lifestyles, insecurity in rural areas, forcing a big proportion not practice good crop husbandry; many of them do not of the population to settle in urban environments, all of understand the importance of using disease-free seed. which are shifting consumer food preferences towards There is also lack of awareness about pest identification easy to cook and processed foods such as chips and and bio-ecology. In addition, most varieties that were crisps. In eastern DRCongo, potato is considered as luxury introduced by researchers are becoming more and more crop in urban areas since it is the preferred food offered badly degenerated. Adoption of improved varieties is to tourists, special guests, particularly during weeding hindered by awareness of the availability and use of ceremonies. There is a traditional shift in the food improved technologies. consumption pattern: every person considering himself Recent surveys conducted in major potato growing as a rich person who wants to eat potato almost every zones of eastern DRCongo indicated that farmers were day. Given the rising demand, potato is the top cash crop equally struggling with diseases and pests; and some grown and commercialized by most farmers. In fact, year pests are considered to be more serious threats than after year, professional farmers are increasing the acreage diseases. The leading disease is late blight (Phytophthora dedicated to its production to get higher profits. Also, infestans (Mont.) de Bary) for which yield loss ranges this is done to meet the growing demand (Gildemacher from 30 to 80% and sometime 100% are recorded by et al. 2009). Hence, potato production is on the rise in the farmers (Munyuli 2016, Randriantsalama et al. 2014). highlands of eastern DRCongo. The crop is currently one Farmers have observed that high infection occurs early of the top priority economic commodities in the country. in the season when climatic conditions are favourable Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 365 for disease development (Olanya et al. 2002). Yield losses regional organization such as PRAPACE. Socio-economic due to other diseases such as bacterial wilt (Ralstonia (price, consumer preference, color, taste etc.) and solanacearum Smith) and insect pests such as the agronomic (high yield and disease tolerant varieties) potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella Zeller) or factors (traits) were mostly considered by researchers. the leafminer fly (Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard) are Pests were estimated as of minor importance. Several documented in scientific literature but not documented in CIP varieties and clones were screened by researchers eastern DRCongo in term of severity status and economic for several years before they were disseminated in rural injury levels. According to farmers, climate variability is areas. Disseminated varieties were rapidly adopted likely accelerating pest infestations in the fields because by farmers. Until recently, farmers realized that most most pest outbreaks are observed after a disturbance in potato varieties become susceptible to pests more than to the rainfall pattern occur. diseases. In some areas, farmers were complaining about In order to overcome biotic production constraints, emerging new pests. Some farmers indicated that climate farmers routinely apply broad spectrum pesticides to change was exacerbating diseases and pest pressures. control fungal diseases and insect pests. To preserve the Most farmers started complaining of high yield loss. environment, it is very important to develop integrated Agricultural inputs traders responded quickly to farmers’ pest management (IPM) for farmers because large growing demand. Hence, pesticide application in potato importation of pesticides from India and China is possibly production was massively adopted by farmers towards endangering the future of the potato farm environment in 2003-2005. No new potato varieties are being introduced eastern DRCongo. (released) by researchers in rural areas these days. The development and introduction of the IPM concept Application of broad spectrum chemical pesticides is for potato production system is more than an urgent need associated with environmental and human safety concerns in eastern DRCongo given the fact farmers are heavily worldwide. Much as chemical control may remain one of using pesticides. The starting point of developing a the strategies for eliminating crop damage by arthropod good IPM program is to have an adequate information pests, the use of pesticide should be controlled to limit about farmers’ knowledge, beliefs perceptions, and environmental pollution. Pesticides may remain the basis practices in pest management. Such information can be of pest management for the foreseeable future, but wise easily incorporated in the development and adoption of use is recommended to farmers. a successful IPM program that is locally accepted (Parsa Currently, there is a growing concern about increasing et al. 2014, Randriantsalama et al. 2014). Practically, dependency of the potato production on pesticides an IPM program may help to protect the environment, in eastern DRCongo. Negative impacts of intensive increase crop productivity, promote natural enemy application of pesticide in the agricultural sector are well population build-up, and reduce the development of documented. To ensure that future generations can grow pesticide resistance and related human health related potato in less polluted soils and landscape habitats of risks. eastern DRCongo, it is important to propose innovative Very little research has been devoted to crop pest strategies of growing potato with optimal application management in eastern DRCongo, yet currently pests, of pesticides. Integrated pest management (IPM) has diseases, climate change and lack of access to improved been proposed as one of the best strategy to achieve this and adapted varieties are among the key constraints objective. frequently raised by farmers. It is important to determine In eastern DRCongo, farmers rely heavily on the pest status for potato and other crops before pesticides to limit pest damages, rather than adopting a developing appropriate rural landscape and habitat more sustainable and economically viable alternative: management strategies to the establishment of natural Integrated Pest Management (IPM) benefits the farmer, enemies as a substitute to broad pesticide application. his community, and the environment (Travis 2015, Ortiz There is therefore a need to document farmers’ perception et al. 2004). Currently, farmers believe it is not possible and knowledge about insect pests and their management to produce potato without applying pesticides. However, practices under the current global change situation. overuse/abuse of pesticides represents a threat to human Previous research and development works, conducted health, to the environment, and a high production (from 1985-2002) on potato in South-Kivu provinces, cost for some farmers (Pellegrini 2013). It can cause the have focused on increasing the yield and productivity of development of pest resistance in crops, and it negatively the crop through introduction of high yielding varieties influences the national food sovereignty (Pellegrini 2013). in collaboration with CIP (International Potato Center) Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has already been 366 T. Munyuli, et al. proved to be a valid solution to avoid the negative impacts issues, while ignoring the capacity of the environment connected to pesticide use (Pellegrini 2013). Yet, IPM is to support continued use and paying no attention to not yet employed by potato farmers, and a call for a more increasing farmers’ incomes. Yet, IPM has the potential holistic IPM evaluation is felt necessary by many actors of increasing farmers’ income while protecting local in the potato sector (Pellegrini 2013, Ortiz et al. 2004) in environment from pollution. favor of small scale famers from eastern DRCongo. Overall, the novelty of this study is to provide baseline To be able to implement a good IPM, it is important information that can serve as a great foundation to build to document and understand current farming practices a strong IPM program addressing most current potato being implemented by farmers. It is important to production issues (availability of potato varieties that understand the level of knowledge of farmers of insect are climate engineered and that are tolerant to abiotic pests because they are the end users of research products. and biotic stresses). Originally designed to reconcile It is important to build on existing local knowledge for an insecticide applications with biological control, the effective rapid adoption of technologies and practices. concept of integrated pest management (IPM) developed This study was therefore, designed in order to cover the into the systems-based judicious and coordinated use above knowledge gaps and to improve on weakness of of multiple control techniques aimed at reducing pest previous breeding work by researchers that focused on damage to economically tolerable levels (Alyokhin et al. releasing potato varieties that were screened to respond 2015, Giordanengo et al. 2013). to market (consumer) demand and that were assumed to Farmers’ decision about crop protection strategy be disease-tolerant. Traditionally, diseases are considered to adopt may depend, among other factors, on their to be more serious threats than pests in eastern DRCongo. knowledge of and experience with pests and the damage It is important to gather useful information to handle pest inflicted to cultivated plants, as well as on their awareness issues in relationships to changing climate. of the existence of natural enemies (Segura et al. 2004). It Hence, understanding by assessing what farmers is widely accepted that pest management extension can really need and know in potato pest management is a be more robust when farmers’ perceptions and practices critical step towards the development of an appropriate are considered (Segura et al. 2004). It is therefore very IPM program in eastern DRCongo. Exploring perceptions, important to understand farmers’ perceptions and management practice (Williamson et al. 2003) can be knowledge of pest identity. critical in identifying drivers of farmers’ decision-making Despite crop protection being important, in many and adoption of potato protection strategies. Sometimes, cases, it may not be the farmers’ utmost concern, but the the elaboration of IPM technologies can be done in fertility of soil, availability of water, or other factors are isolation from producers. Similarly, the dissemination perhaps greater than that related to pests. Research has of IPM knowledge to producers cannot be done in a been increasingly abundant on farmers’ knowledge and linear fashion. It is important to collect baseline data on perceptions of pests. Still, much is lacking for potato in knowledge of farmers to provide valuable information eastern DRCongo, despite the worldwide economic, social, on which to build an appropriate strategic IPM program and environmental relevance of the crop. Research on their (Nathaniels et al. 2003) for potato in eastern DRCongo. knowledge, perceptions, and pest control practices may be Also, the current study was therefore designed to collect useful in developing integrated pest management (IPM) baseline information on famers ‘s knowledge about programs that can be quickly adopted by more farmers as various insects attacking potato as a prelude to developing alternative to broad spectrum pesticide application. integrated management strategies for those causing This study aims at reporting results of surveys that significant damage and yield losses (Tanzubil 2015). were conducted to fill the current knowledge gap (farmers This baseline information, if well collected, can facilitate ‘perception and practices) in the field of pest management the identification of specific approaches for more IPM- in eastern DRCongo. It is likely that this information may be oriented potato protection than current pesticide-based used for setting up research-development agendas as well practices as being implemented by farmers in the region. as developing/designing appropriate pest management It is important to know whether and how IPM-oriented strategies that could facilitate technology uptake and strategies, including deliberate exploitation of available developing messages for communication and training. partially pest-disease tolerant materials, may confer This information may be used to design a farmers’ field attractive economic advantages to farmers (Nathaniels school program as well designed suitable plant health et al. 2003). Scientists from eastern DRCongo focused on clinics for potato and related crops in eastern DRCongo. potato productivity (Tantowijoyo and van de Fliert 2006) The information will also help policy makers managing Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 367 plant health and phytosanitary issues, on best ways, to Kivu province (Kabare, Kalehe, Walungu, Idjwi, Mwenga, help farmers in case they are willing to do so. Shabunda, Fizi, Uvira). The current study survey was The objectives of this study were to: (i) identify and conducted in two territories (Kalehe, Kabare), between rank potato production constraints based on farmers’ June and August 2015. The geographical area of the perception and beliefs of their importance in South-Kivu province provides an exceptional diversity of biomes, Province, (ii) identify the pest problems that farmers ecosystems, and habitats. These include rainforests, open perceive as most important, (iii) describe local names of woodland forests, grassland savannah, and cloud and potato insect pests, and (iv) document farmers’ indigenous gallery forests. South Kivu is characterized by mostly lush knowledge about insect pests and management practices. equatorial vegetation and terrain stretching from high mountainous and plateau areas reaching nearly 3,500 m along the western shore of Lake Kivu, and descending 2 Materials and Methods westward down to a less densely populated lowland plateau at approximately 500m and equatorial forest area 2.1 Study area (Munyuli 2016). Practically, the climate of the region is diversified and 2.1.1 Description of South-Kivu Province is largely influenced (moderated) by wind speed regime, rainfall pattern, altitude, water (Lake Kivu) and protected South Kivu province covers 65,070km square (Figure- areas (Kahuzi Biega National park). The climate of the 0AB). Administratively, eight territories constitute South study area can be classified as tropical moderated by the

Figure-0A: A map showing the study country and South Province among the 26 Provinces of DRCongo 368 T. Munyuli, et al. altitude according to the Köppen climate classification month and in terms of frequency of semi-dry months system. The province is characterized by a bimodal during the rainy seasons. pattern of two rainy seasons, occurring from March- Soils (ferrisols, ferrasols, acrisols, and nitisols) are May and September-December, followed by two short largely of volcanic origin. Rising decline in the level dry seasons in June-August and January-February. The of fertility in these soils and intense soil erosion are annual rainfall is amounting between 800mm (Ruzizi frequently registered in slippery and hilly zones. Land plain, eastern part) and 2650mm (mountain zones, degradation is among key constraints to food productivity western part). Average monthly temperature is about in South-Kivu Province. Together with sediments from soil 21-23°C. High variability in climatic factors is evident in erosion in the hilly side, pesticide drift from agricultural recent years. In fact, the annual average temperature landscape increase the level of pollution of water bodies is currently trending towards 25-27°C. The variability is (rivers, Lake Kivu) edges and marshlands/wetlands registered in terms of date of onset of rainfall period (the (seasonally flood lands), yet these margin zones are date of rainfall start), the number of days of rainfall per very critical for the reproduction (breeding) of many fish

Figure 0B: A map of South-Kivu Province Showing the territories (Kabare, Kalehe) where study sites were selected across the different potato growing zones Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 369 species. In addition, these marshlands are found either at Currently, potato is one of the few (e.g. potato, the edge of water bodies or in the lower parts of hilly lands tomato, cabbage, onions, eggplant, water melon, pepper, (Munyuli 2016) support cash crop production. sweetpotato) cash crops believed by farmers to increase Subsistence crops, grown by farmers, include fruit significantly income. Small scale farmers from North- crops (avocado, mango, citrus, tangerine, pineapple), Kivu and South-Kivu Provinces consider these crops industrial crops (tea, cotton, coffee, palm oil etc.), as more reliable, lucrative and profitable along the legume crops (peas, beans, soybeans), cereal crops (rice, value chain despite challenging new emerging biotic sorghum, maize etc.) and vegetable crops (eggplant, stresses. Hence, potato play a key significant role in the tomato, cabbage, amaranths, cucurbits etc.) . agricultural economic sector in eastern DRCongo. In Since the start of repetitive wars, farmers have not addition, generally, crops such as beans, maize, cowpea, been receiving assistance from the government; they keep amaranths, cucurbits, are purposely grown for domestic trying whatever they can for survival. Among post-conflict consumption and not for the market. adaptation measures, some farmers have targeted to grow some crops as cash/commercial crops to increase their income and sustain their livelihood. Some vegetable crops 2.1.2 Study sites and number of respondents interviewed (tomato, cabbage, and onion) and potato were identified as lucrative or commercial crops. These days, farmers are The study was conducted in some sites (villages) of Kabare complaining about pests and diseases attacking their and Kalehe territories of South Kivu Province. The selected potato at higher rates than it used to be in the past. Some study sites are among the key potato growing zones farmers have identified the presence of invasive and that are found at different altitudes. In Kabare territory, emerging new pest species in their potato fields. the study was conducted at Mabingu (2150m), Lemera At the national level, potato is essentially grown (2550m), Mulungu-Miti (1650m) and Lwiro-Tshibati in the highlands zones of eastern Provinces (North- (1950m) sites. In Kalehe territory, the study was conducted Kivu, South-Kivu Provinces). Few gardens are found in at Luzira (1650m) and Ihusi (2130m) sites. Tanganyika, Haut-Katanga and Ituri Provinces. However, In total 300 households were interviewed in the potato is commercialized and consumed across all different study sites: 81 households from Mabingu site, 33 26 Provinces of DRCongo, mostly in urban areas. For households from Lemera site, 54 households from Luzira example, in North-Kivu Province, about 50% of the site, 63 households from Ihusi site, 47 households from production is commercialized in Kinshasa city, 15% Mulungu-Miti site and 22 households from Lwiro-Tshibati. traded in neighboring countries (Rwanda, Burundi), 25% In each site, the list of potato farmers was given by the is consumed by producers and 10% traded locally in the chief village (site) or local authorities. villages. In terms of consumption, potato is considered as a luxury food, mostly consumed by rich families in Kinshasa City. In eastern parts of the country, potato is 2.2 Farm interviews well appreciated by producers and consumers. In the past, some crops (sorghum, coffee, groundnut, Using a questionnaire, individual interviews were soybean, cassava, rice, banana etc.) were grown and the conducted in the different study sites as recommended by surplus of the harvest was commercialized to increase Munyuli (2011). In each site, local agricultural extension income of small scale farmer. However, some of these workers, community leaders, private extension workers/ crops became more and more susceptible to pests and facilitators were involved in the study to facilitate data diseases. Total yield failure is registered in some villages collection. Interviews were conducted in local languages for cassava (due to cassava streak brown virus, cassava and Kiswahili language. Within each study site, farmers mosaic virus) and for banana (banana bacterial wilt). were randomly selected for individual interviews using These challenging diseases (called by farmers in local the list of local authorities. Respondents were randomly languages “Sinaburuma”= HIV-AIDS of crops) forced selected from the lists to cover at least 30% of total farmers to abandon cultivation of banana (plantain) number of potato growers on the list of local authorities and cassava in some areas of South-Kivu Province. Now, (Munyuli 2011). The household heads were the targeted farmers are concentrating on crops for which the demand respondents, although any adult in the household who is rising and for which it is possible to access pesticides was familiar with potato production was interviewed to management pests and diseases including invading/ if the head of the household was absent. The study emerging ones. focused on farmers’ perception and knowledge of insect 370 T. Munyuli, et al. pests although other important information (e.g. potato 2.3 Data analysis diseases, production constraints, pesticide uses, risks for health’s, value chain, market network) were collected but Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics not presented in this paper. (frequencies, percentages, and means) to generate When interested at documenting (assessing) farmers’ summaries and tables at site level using MINITAB English knowledge of insect pests, farmers were asked to mention version 17. Chi-square and one-way analysis of variance the pest features they knew (e.g. local name, characteristic, (ANOVA) were conducted to assess any differences showing symptoms of attacks in the field). This was then between study sites. The means were separated by Tukey- rated based on a four-point scale (Table 1) as recommended Kramer test. The significance level was set at P≤ 0.05. (Okonya 2014). Four scales are recommended to reduce confusion during interpretation (Okanya 2014). In addition, farmers were asked to state the main 3 Results and Discussion constraints in potato production. After all constraints had been recorded, farmers were asked to rate the importance 3.1 Constraints of potato production and of each constraint based on a six-point scale, whereby 5 = marketing from the farmers’ perspectives most important, 4 = important, 3 = moderately important, 2 = little importance, 1 = very little importance, and 0 = not Characteristics of respondents are presented in Table 2a. a problem. Six-point scales are classically recommended Most potato growers interviewed were males (55-86%) to reduce on overlapping confusion during interpretation with no formal education (49-70%). Most respondents of attitudinal responses (Okonya 2014, Munyuli 2011, were aged between 29 and 43 years (Table 2a). In some Tanzubil 2015). sites, insects were felt to be serious problems and in other Finally, to assess farmers’ perception of the severity sites diseases were highlighted. In some cases, attacks due of insect pest damage, color pictures of all possible to pests were confused with those due to diseases; and potato insect pests were shown to farmers. They were this led to the impressions that diseases were more serious asked to score for the level of damage caused by each threats than pests. Overall, among constraints to potato pest identified. Existing published guides were used for production and marketing, farmers ranked diseases as the that. A five-point scale (5 = very severe damage, 4 = severe most important, followed by insect pests (Table 2b). These damage, 3 = moderate damage, 2 = little damage, and 1 = were also ranked top problems in terms of severity of very little damage) was used for rating the damage level attacks to potato crop. In fact, diseases scored on average perceived to be caused by each insect. 4.2 while insect pests scored 3.9 as most severe production Overall, different types of scoring were used constraints (Table 3). based on previous experiences (Munyuli 2011) and on The importance of constraints varied between recommendations by previous workers (Okonya 2014, sites (territories). Lack of access to market information, Tanzubil 2015). The aim was to select scores, which were seasonal low market prices, lack of access to processing likely to be closer to the field situation; and that are and post-harvest technologies for value addition and easily distinguishable by both farmers and researchers. price fluctuation were ranked among most important Also, respondents had some kind of field interpretation constraints (Table 2). However, the level of constraints of pest damage symptoms. It was therefore necessary to varied from one study site to another. For example, 97.1% integrate farmers’ knowledge during scoring exercise. of farmers from Mabingu indicated that pests were serious More complex rating scales are not easy to be captured or problems whereas only 59.4% of farmers from Mulungu- interpreted by farmers. Miti study site indicated pests as a big issue (Table 4).

Table 1: Some criteria followed for scoring farmers’ knowledge of insect pests

Score Knowledge level Criteria description

0 No Farmers could not mention a potato pest by name, its description or the type of damage 1 Low Farmers named one pest, one feature, and one type of damage caused by the pest 2 Medium Farmers named two pests, and described at least one feature of each pest and at least one type of damage caused by each of the two 3 High Farmers named three or more pests, described one or more features of each, and described at least one type of damage caused by each of the three pests Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 371

Table 2a: Household characteristics of interviewed farmers in the six sites of South-Kivu Province, eastern DRCongo (2016 surveys, N=300 respondents)

Study site names

Household characteristics Mabingu Lemera Luzira Ihusi Mulungu- Lwiro- Miti Tshibati 2150m 2550m 1650m 2130m 1650m 1950m Number of respondents 81 33 54 63 47 22 Gender Male 54.5 68.7 59.6 77.9 86.5 80.9 Female 45 32.1 40.3 22.1 13.5 18.5 Education No formal education 70.67 69.6 68.7 63.2 49.7 62.1 Primary school 25.45 23.6 21.8 29.7 47.6 29.9 Secondary school 3.43 6.5 7.7 5.9 2.2 7.2 Age (Nbr years) Age 43.4 29.9 45.8 35.7 39.9 32.7 Household size Nbr persons 9.2 6.7 7.4 9.5 7.4 8.3 Experience as farmer Years growing potato 26.2 16.2 29.5 20.2 20.5 17.8 (months) Land size (total land holding) Mean ha (X±SD) 0.15 ± 0.9 2.15 ± 18.8 0.29 ± 1.3 0.18 ± 0.8 0.21 ± 0.6 0.19 ± 1.7 Arable land devoted to potato % of the total land owned 9.3 29.9 3.6 12.3 18.1 11.3 Total land cropped (%) % of land for crop pro- 79.8 2.8 69.6 72.5 80.5 58.3 duction Total land for tree production (%) % of land for sylviculture 6.6 0.78 23.5 4.4 0.32 11.5 ( trees) Total land for animal rearing / % of land devoted to 1.1 65.5 2.8 9.8 0.98 18.7 grazing (%) animal grazing Physical location of sites Gentle Hilly lands Marshlands Flat zones Flat zones Sloppy slopes zones Cultivation intensity High Low High Medium High Medium % cover semi-natural habitats in 20.3 ± 12.7 45.3 ±12.5 17.8 ± 23.5 10.5 ± 8.7 7.5 ± 5.6 19.4 ± 8.2 the landscape

Table 2b: Mean (X±SE) scores of constraints reported by potato farmers in six study sites of Kabare and Kelehe territories, South-Kivu Pro- vinces, eastern DRCongo (2016 survey; N = 300)

Territory Kabare Kalehe Kelehe Kelehe Kabare Kabare

Study sites Mabingu Lemera Luzira Ihusi Mulungu Lwiro Nbr Constraints Overall Diseases 4.41 ± 0.13 3.8 ± 0.34 4.7 ± 0.51 4.7 ± 0.54 3.3 ± 0.78 3.4 ± 3.67 4.2 Insect pests 3.81 ± 0.19 3.6 ± 0.24 2.7 ± 0.33 3.1 ± 0.22 1.9 ± 0.43 3.0 ± 0.11 3.9 Climate variability (unpredictable weather ) 3.4 ± 0.31 3.1 ± 0.41 2.2 ± 0.15 1.1 ± 0.14 3.1 ± 0.45 2.8 ± 0.31 2.9 High cost of fungicides 3.6 ± 0.28 3.1 ±.0.28 4.1 ± 0.78 2.1 ± 0.02 1.1 ± 0.23 0.4 ± 0.05 2.5 Seed (poor quality & high cost) 2.5 ± 0.27 3.11± 0.51 4.0 ± 0.41 2.3 ± 0.32 1.5 ±0.16 1.1 ± 0.02 2.6 Low market prices 2.01 ± 0.29 2.4 ±.0.21 3.5 ± 0.71 3.4 ± 0.34 1.8 ± 0.12 2.41 ± 0.3 2.7 Price fluctuations 2.9 ± 0.30 3.3 ± 0.41 3.4 ± 0.44 1.9 ± 0.11 2.1 ± 0.22 2.2 ± 0.11 2.3 Declining soil fertility & soil erosion 2.2 ± 0.31 2.6 ±.019 3.9 ± 0.22 3.5 ± 0.41 0.91 ± 0.04 0.7 ± 0.03 2.1 High cost of insecticides 3.3 ± 0.28 2.81±1.76 3.6 ± 0.41 1.4 ± 0.26 0.7 ± 0.02 0.3 ± 0.01 1.9 Poor roads 1.3 ± 0.25 1.91±.0.32 2.7 ± 0.25 2.6 ± 0.41 0.9 ± 0.03 1.7 ± 1.56 1.8 High cost of transport 1.6 ± 0.28 1.81± 0.98 3.5 ±0.66 1.6 ± 0.22 0.7 ± 0.05 1.4 ± 0.05 1.7 Exploitation by brokers 1.21 ± 0.33 1.43 ±0.22 3.5 ± 0.21 1.7 ± 0.11 1.1 ± 0.06 1.5 ± 0.06 1.4 Long distance to market 1.22 ± 0.27 1.41± 0.27 2.7 ± 0.44 1.2 ± 0.09 0.7 ± 0.05 0.8 ± 0.02 1.3 Floods 2.41 ± 0.36 1.92 ± 0.2 2.8 ± 0.12 1.2 ± 0.14 1.1 ± 0.09 0.4 ± 0.02 1.8 Other (Millipedes, high perishability, late matu- 1.51 ± 0.22 1.4 ±0.11 1.2 ± 0.02 1.6 ± 0.31 0.7 ± 0.02 1.8 ± 0.91 1.8 rity & vermin)

Scores: 5 = most important, 4 = important, 3 = moderately important, 2 = little importance, 1 = very little importance, 0 = not a problem 372 T. Munyuli, et al.

Table 3: Mean (x± SE) scores of severity of different constraints reported by potato farmers in the six study sites, South Kivu Province, eastern DRCongo (2016 survey, n= 300 farmers interviewed)

Study site names

Territory Kabare Kalehe Kelehe Kelehe Kabare Kabare Study sites Mabingu Lemera Luzira Ihusi Mulungu Lwiro- Tshibati No Constraints Overall Diseases 4.41 ± 0.13 3.8 ± 0.34 4.7 ± 0.51 4.7 ± 0.54 3.3 ± 0.78 3.4 ± 3.67 4.2 Insect pests 3.8 ± 0.19 3.6 ± 0.24 2.7 ± 0.33 3.1 ± 0.22 1.9 ± 0.43 3.0 ± 0.11 3.9 Climate variability (unpredictable weather ) 3.4 ± 0.31 3.1 ± 0.41 2.2 ± 0.15 1.1 ± 0.14 3.1 ± 0.45 2.8 ± 0.31 2.9 High cost of fungicides 3.6 ± 0.28 3.1 ± 0.28 4.1 ± 0.78 2.1 ± 0.02 1.1 ± 0.23 0.4 ± 0.05 2.5 Seed (poor quality & high cost) 2.5 ± 0.27 3.11± 0.51 4.0 ± 0.41 2.3 ± 0.32 1.5 ±0.16 1.1 ± 0.02 2.6 Low market prices 2.01 ± 0.29 2.4 ±.0.21 3.5 ± 0.71 3.4 ± 0.34 1.8 ± 0.12 2.41 ± 0.3 2.7 Price fluctuations 2.9 ± 0.30 3.3 ± 0.41 3.4 ± 0.44 1.9 ± 0.11 2.1 ± 0.22 2.2 ± 0.11 2.3 Declining soil fertility & soil erosion 2.2 ± 0.31 2.6 ±.019 3.9 ± 0.22 3.5 ± 0.41 0.9 ± 0.04 0.7 ± 0.03 2.1 High cost of insecticides 3.3 ± 0.28 2.81±1.76 3.6 ± 0.41 1.4 ± 0.26 0.7 ± 0.02 0.3 ± 0.01 1.9 Poor roads 1.3 ± 0.25 1.91±.0.32 2.7 ± 0.25 2.6 ± 0.41 0.9 ± 0.03 1.7 ± 1.56 1.8 High cost of transport 1.6 ± 0.28 1.81± 0.98 3.5 ±0.66 1.6 ± 0.22 0.7 ± 0.05 1.4 ± 0.05 1.7 Exploitation by brokers 1.21 ± 0.33 1.43 ±0.22 3.5 ± 0.21 1.7 ± 0.11 1.1 ± 0.06 1.5 ± 0.06 1.4 Long distance to market 1.22 ± 0.27 1.41± 0.27 2.7 ± 0.44 1.2 ± 0.09 0.7 ± 0.05 0.8 ± 0.02 1.3 Floods 2.41 ± 0.36 1.92 ± 0.2 2.8 ± 0.12 1.2 ± 0.14 1.1 ± 0.09 0.4 ± 0.02 1.8 Other (Millipedes, high perishability, late 1.51 ± 0.22 1.4 ±0.11 1.2 ± 0.02 1.6 ± 0.31 0.7 ± 0.02 1.8 ± 0.91 1.8 maturity & vermin)

Table 4: Percentage (%) of potato farmers reporting each constraint in the six study sites of Kalehe and Kabare Territories, South-Kivu Pro- vince, eastern DRCongo (2016 survey; n = 300 respondents)

Study site names

Territory Kabare Kalehe Kelehe Kelehe Kabare Kabare Study sites Mabingu Lemera Luzira Ihusi Mulungu- Lwiro- Statistics Miti Tshibati Nbr constraints Overall χ 2 (df=5) P-Value Diseases 99.2 91.4 99.4 99.8 95.9 96.7 97.1 0.5 0.99 Insect pests 97.1 91.5 85.8 88.1 59.4 85.4 84.6 10.0912 0.073 Climate variability (unpredictable rainfall) 82.5 79.7 77.6 50.6 82.5 75.5 74.7 9.85549 0.079 High cost of fungicides& insecticides 82.4 79.8 77.4 50.5 59.8 67.2 69.5 11.4403 0.043 Seeds (degeneration, poor quality, high cost, 82.8 91.6 91.4 68.6 53.3 71.7 76.6 14.5199 0.013 not accessible, susceptible to pests/diseases) Low market prices 79.8 91.8 88.4 74.4 53.5 72.8 76.8 12.1538 0.033 Price fluctuations 68.9 71.8 99.5 99.5 38.8 75.4 75.7 33.7874 <0.0001 Declining soil fertility, soil erosion 91.4 82.3 97.2 59.5 44.5 70.6 74.3 26.9572 <0.0001 Labor shortage 85.9 82.6 91.6 56.9 34.6 63.7 69.2 33.7911 <0.0001 Poor roads, taxes, insecurity 56.9 65.6 71.9 85.3 38.7 61.9 63.4 19.1105 0.002 Other (millipedes, high perishability, late 56.4 65.8 71.5 85.6 29.6 56.8 61.0 28.9285 <0.0001 maturity, vermin) High costs of transport 56.8 65.7 79.8 62.7 79.5 90.3 72.5 11.1485 0.049 Exploitation by brokers & intermediates 91.8 97.6 70.8 88.6 76.5 45.2 78.4 23.1564 <0.0001 Long distance to market 56.7 45.9 34.5 57.7 78.3 37.4 51.8 25.1694 <0.0001 Natural calamities (drought, floods, landslides, 45 45.3 35.7 57.8 22.12 15.4 36.9 34.0263 <0.0001 earthquake) Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 373

Across the different study sites, farmers ranked (47.5%). The difference in average percentage yield loss diseases and pests as top constraints to potato production was statistically different (P<0.05) across the different and marketing in eastern DRCongo. Insect pests (potato study sites. The highest yield losses were reported from tuber moth, aphids, and leafminer flies) and diseases the Luzira site (90.5% of respondents) and the lowest (viral, bacterial wilt, and late blight) are some of the yield loss was recorded at the Mulungu-Miti site (39.9% most important constraints to potato production in of respondents) (Figure 1). Farmers indicated that yield various sub-Sahara countries (Sileshi and Teriesa 2001, loss increased with variability in the weather factors and Were 2013, Okonya et al. 2014, Anonymous 1996). Apart with variability in the local agro-ecological conditions. from potato, tomato, cassava, banana, for which farmers Farmers indicated that it was not possible to grown rank diseases as key constraints, insect pests followed potato without applying pesticides. High yield losses by climate variability are ranked top constraints to the were reported by farmers when potato was grown rest of crops grown in eastern DRCongo (Munyuli 2016). without pesticides. Some farmers mentioned that losses, depended on the amount and distribution of rainfall for late blight, which could cause up to 56%-100% loss 3.2 Impact of pests and diseases on potato during the rainy season. Farmers also indicated that late (economic loss estimates) coming of the rainfall (prolonged drought) induced high insect pest attacks and high yield loss due to insects, Farmers reported that yield losses were recorded in could be observed (Munyuli 2016). the absence of pesticide application across all study Losses due to insects were reported to be low in sites (Figure 1). Most farmers interviewed indicated sites characterized with warm climate and with medium that without pesticide, it is impossible to grow potato. elevations (1500–1900m) than in cold and high elevation Perceived average potato yield loss (%) due to pests and (2000-2600m) sites. This situation may be because the diseases, reported by farmers, varied from one site to the bio-ecology of some key pests being not favored in other: Mabingu (78.8%), Lemera (81.9%), Luzira (90.5%), high elevations as compared to medium elevation sites. Ihusi (60.6%), Mulungu-Miti (39.9%) and Lwiro-Tshibati Most sites surveyed are sites with a tradition of potato

Figure 1: Perceived average potato yield loss due to pests and diseases as reported by farmers interviewed in six irish potato-growing zones, if pesticides are not applied (2016 survey), South-Kivu Province, eastern DRCongo 374 T. Munyuli, et al. production and therefore, it is likely the pests are already 3.3 Farmers’ knowledge of insect pests of well established in the study sites but climatic contrast potato does not enable or favor rapid multiplication of different pest species in high and cold environments. In highlands, Overall, several insect pests known to attack potato minimum/maximum temperatures are in the range of were mentioned by farmers in local languages. These 6.7°C and 17.9°C. Under such temperatures conditions, included: potato tuber moth (P. operculella)=”Mivunyu only some species (such as aphids) may be favored. The gwe cirayi ”(local name), Leafminer fly (L. huidobrensis number of generations per month (per annum), for some )=”Nsusi zebirayi”, Green peach aphids (Myzus persicae pest species, generally increases with an increase in the )=”Kabasa nsimba”, cutworms (Agrotis spp)=”Muga, temperature. Hence, in cold and high zones, some pest Bisholero”, reddish brown ant (Dorylis orantalis)=”Mbasi species may not multiply quickly as it may be the case in ziduku”, whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)=”Buhuka bweru”, low and medium altitude sites. leafhopper (Empoasca spp.)=”Binjerere”, white The direct impact of pests and diseases on potato grub (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)=”Hombogolo”, is the yield reduction. Yield reduction is associated termite (Macrotermitinae)=”Mushwa”, flower thrip with significant economic losses to farmers. In some (Ceratothripoides brunneus Bagnall)=”Buhuka Bwiragula”, sites (Lemera), farmers grow potato associated with and mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)=”Sinaburuma peas and or maize. Such farmers are not engaged in any webirayi”. Other pests that are not insects that were other kind of crop husbandry. The livelihood of such mentioned by farmers included nematodes (Meloïdogyne farmers is fully dependent on potato production. High spp), vermins, livestock, birds, underground rodents, and pressure and damages by pests and diseases may lead human thieves. to high economic losses. In Lemera site, a farmer may Farmers from the Mulungu-Miti site (2.8 scores) had own about 10ha of land devoted to potato cultivation the highest level of knowledge of insect pests whereas and obtain on average of 3 tons/ha. The price of potato farmers from the Lemera site (0.8 score) had the lowest at the farmer’s gate is about 0.3$/Kg. By selling its level of knowledge of insect pests (Figure 2). Cutworms total production (3000Kg), the farmer is likely getting (score: 3.4), aphids (score: 3.3), ants (score: 3.2), and a gross margin of about 900$/ha (9000$/10ha) each potato tuber moth (score: 3.1) were perceived as the most cropping season. With an estimated yield loss due to severe pest species (Table 5). pests of about 30-100%, the total income of the farmer The level of knowledge of these pest species vary from may oscillate between 0 and 270$/10ha (0-27$ha). The one study site to another. In addition, the level of damage total number of household farmers owning about 10ha to potato crops varies from one site to another. Each time of land devoted to potato production is about 17500. In farmers realize that a given pest species in causing serious other words, pests may cause economic losses of about damages and yield loss, appropriate local management 15,277,500 $ (900-27$ha x17500) in South-Kivu Province was developed using local natural resources. each cropping season. It is likely that attacks by pests Population density of aphid pests tended to increase may lead to economic losses estimated to about US$15 with altitude. Lower populations were reported as being million (per cropping season) or US$30 million (two registered to low and medium altitude (1500-1900m) sites cropping seasons) per annum in South-Kivu province. and high numbers were reported in high altitude (2000- Economic losses attributable to pest damages are likely 2600m) sites. Leaf miners and whiteflies were reported to to be high in several potato production zones in the follow a reverse trend: they were reported to occur in high province. This amount is too much money lost for the numbers in low altitude sites, according to farmers. provincial agricultural economy. In other words, pests During interviews and field visits, leaf miners and and diseases are likely causing economic losses of above whiteflies were observed as being most abundant by US$ 30 million each year. This is enough indication the researcher in farmers’ gardens. When a question to justify why the struggle against pests and diseases was asked to farmers to name the most abundant pest should be very critical in the local potato economy. species, whiteflies and leaf miners did not come first in Defining appropriate control measures against pests and the mind of farmers. There were some reasons: farmers diseases may help the Province to avoid loss of about assumed that whiteflies are not pests, they are just US$ 30 million each year by considering only the potato visitors and very harmless. Leaf miners did not rank top commodity. because farmers assumed that galls, forming on leaves, were due to harshness of rainfall and not leaf miner gall forming. Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 375

Figure 2: Farmers’ knowledge about insect pests of potato in six study sites of South-Kivu province (eastern DRCongo; 2016 surveys) Scores: 0 = no knowledge, 1 = low knowledge, 2 = medium knowledge, 3 = high knowledge. Bars with the same letter are not statistically different at P ≤ 0.05

Table 5: Perceived mean (x ± se) severity scores for the six major insect pests of potato in six sites, South-Kivu Province, eastern DRCongo (2016 surveys) Study sites

Pest species Mabingu Lemera Luzira Ihusi Mulungu-Miti Lwiro-TshibatiOverall Cutworm ( Agrostis spp.) 3.9 ± 0.17 3.9 ± 0.18 3.5 ± 0.13 3.8 ± 0.19 2.0 ± 0.39 1.9 ± 0.28 3.4 ± 0.11 Aphid (Myzus persicae) 4.2 ± 0.12 4.0 ± 0.15 4.2 ± 0.14 3.2 ± 0.37 2.0 ± 0.21 1.7 ± 0.24 3.3 ± 0.12 Reddish brown ant (Dorylis orantalis) 1.5 ± 0.51 5.1 ± 0.12 2.1 ± 0.27 3.4 ± 0.28 2.8 ± 0.45 2.3 ± 0.31 3.2 ± 0.11 Potato tuber moth 3.6 ± 0.14 3.6 ± 0.23 2.6 ± 0.17 1.8 ± 0.24 2.4 ± 0.24 1.8 ± 0.16 3.1 ± 0.12 (Phthorimaeae operculella) Leafminer fly (Liriomyza huidobrensis) 3.1 ± 0.63 3.5 ± 0.25 2.3 ± 0.52 1.7 ± 0.41 1.3 ± 0.21 1.0 ± 0.01 2.6 ± 0.20 Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) 2.2 ± 0.17 2.5 ± 0.38 3.5 ± 0.13 1.8 ± 0.41 1.1 ± 0.11 2.1 ± 0.57 2.2 ± 0.16

Scores: 5 = very severe damage, 4 = severe damage, 3 = moderate damage, 2 = little damage, and 1 = very little damage

Farmers described a pest mostly by its features, a When asked to tell what a pest was, most farmers particular symptom, or by the plant part under attack. associated the concept of pest to a disease (54.7%), Sometimes all larvae of all species had the same local damage (39.7%), or a harmful animal (7.2%). Several names for 68.7% of farmers. Sometime insects were phytophagous organisms, including insects, mites were described depending on actions and damages they cause acknowledged by respondents as being a problem within to crops or to plant parts they attack. For example, at their fields. Some farmers perceived that pests were in Katana farmers called larvae of Noctuidae by the name aggregate, the major biotic threats, while other considered of “Tobola”, meaning the larvae is perforating the stems diseases as the most serious threats. The experience of potato and make the crop to fall down. At Mabingu, (number of year cropping potato) and the altitude or local farmers called larvae of unknown insect species (a new environmental characteristics were possibly influencing emerging one) “Kunjakunja” meaning that the larvae farmers’ considerations of some pests as being more are scrolling potato leaves together like a ball, thereby serious than others on their smallholdings. There was no inhibiting photosynthetic activities at the leaves’ level. clear distinction in small farmers’ perceptions about the 376 T. Munyuli, et al. status (importance) of different pest species in terms of farmers had good knowledge of insect pests of potato. yield losses that could be attributed to each pest species. The low knowledge of insects may be due to erosion of Crop damage and yields were perceived as the resultant traditional knowledge. There is little transmission of effects of all pests. agricultural information from generations to generations The most common argument given by farmers for these days. Also, several NGOs and development actors massive application of pesticides was that pesticides were or humanitarians operating in the region are causing reliable control methods for pests. Farmers indicated that erosion of indigenous knowledge of farmers because they were experimenting different pesticide effects in their they always send extension agents in the fields who are gardens because they lacked technical advice (extension not knowledgeable of local language and cultures and service) in their villages. therefore try to teach insect names to farmers in French or Farmers indicate that cutworms, aphids, ants, and English. Farmers tend to adopt new names in French and potato tuber moth were the species causing high yield loss, drop local names of pest species. Yet local names are linked especially when no pesticide is applied. The confusion of to local culture and to indigenous ecological knowledge. insect pest names by farmers, or the damage caused, is This means that each name had an explanation in the reported elsewhere in Africa (Sinzogan et al. 2004). A list of local culture and that is easy to be understood by anyone local names of different crop pest species can be found in belonging to that culture. Most farmers are self-learners. the literature for the region (Munyuli 2016, Munyuli 2002). Other farmers indicated that they made little efforts to The description of local names of insect pests is expected know the names of these insects because their pictures to help entomologists, extension workers, and others who are already on labels of pesticide boxes they were using. work with rural communities to better understand pest This is a problem because various authors have indicated occurrence and appreciate local knowledge (Midega et al. that the development of a good IPM program must rely 2012). of indigenous knowledge for easy and swift adoption of On average, farmers had little to moderate (4.5-39.5%) new technologies when they are deployed in rural areas. knowledge of insect pests. That is, farmers named one Wars and insecurity have also contributed to indigenous or two insect pests, and described at least one feature knowledge erosion because people are always migrating of each pest and at least one type of damage caused on and learning new things in the new areas where they potato by each of the two insect pests (Figure 3). Very few are settled after abandoning their gardens in their

Figure 3: Farmers’ knowledge about insect pests of potato in six study sites of South-Kivu province (eastern DRCongo; 2016 surveys) Scores: 0 = no knowledge, 1 = low knowledge, 2 = medium knowledge, 3 = high knowledge. Bars with the same letter are not statistically different at P ≤ 0.05

Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 377 home-village because of wars. The low knowledge of the who were frequently using pesticides had higher feelings insect may also be linked to characteristics (household that pests were more serious threats than diseases. The size, gender, farming experience, education) of farmers other reasons for variation in farmers’ knowledge of insect interviewed (Sinzogan et al. 2004, Nyirenda et al. 2011, pests may be linked to farming practices adopted. Some Midega et al. 2012). farmers were growing potato on the same plots for several Practically, in the current study, a great variation in consecutive years without rotation whereas others were the farmers’ knowledge about insect pests of potato was rotating potato with other crops such as onions. Hence, observed. This variability was linked to the number of farmers who rotated potato with onions experienced less years a farmer has spent farming potato (experience) and insect pressure and damage. to altitude and bio-ecological characteristics of different Aphids, leafminers, cutworms, potato tuber moth study sites surveyed. The variation in farmers’ knowledge were the important pests mentioned by farmers across may be linked to the environment and landscape habitat all study sites (Table 3a). These species were ranked as characteristics. Potato fields that were in intensively dominant pests probably because they are well established cultivated landscapes (landscape with few semi-natural in the potato growing areas. Unfortunately, most (98.2%) habitats) were subjected to high pest pressure as opposed farmers were unable to recognize or identify natural to potato fields that were in mosaic landscapes. Landscape enemies. In fact, most (96.7%) farmers were not aware of with dispersed types of semi-natural habitats and what where natural enemies. Knowledge about natural vegetation, potentially offered nesting sites for various enemies, unless learned from extension courses, is usually natural enemy species and functional groups. Also, low among farmers, as was observed elsewhere (Sinzogan some pest species were observed to be more abundant in et al. 2004). By observing the landscape surrounding some sites and less abundant in other sites. This contrast potato fields, it was clear that habitats and floral resources influenced the degree of curiosity of farmers. to maintain natural enemies were almost absent. There is There are many reasons for variations in pest a diversity of groups of natural enemies of different potato knowledge by farmers: currently, most local methods pests, including predators (ladybeetles, ground beetles, of pest management have been taught to farmers by rove beetles, syrphids, spiders, praying mantids, earwigs, agricultural advisors deployed in the field by NGOs red ants ,spiders, ladybeetles Cheilomenes spp, ground (since the official extension service system does not exist beetles, Nabis and Geocoris true bugs) and parasitoids anymore) rather than being adopted from the parents, (Chelonus spp., Orgilus spp., Copidosoma spp., Diadegma mostly because previous generations were not facing the spp, Opius spp., Hemiptarsenus spp.,…).. Occasional field same pest problems as the present one (Unger 2014). At observations have been conducted for micro-organisms the same time, the knowledge transfer to farmers from (fungi, bacteria, viruses) activities on potato pests. There extension workers and NGOs is limited due to a lack of are ongoing laboratory investigations to confirm microbial financial support from the government. In most case, NGOs effects on key pests. It is believed that native natural always send inexperienced (un-professional) personnel enemies may be as important for strong pest suppression, in the field to teach farmers. These extension workers especially in lowland zones where a large number of do not know local languages. Hence, they keep teaching natural enemy species have been recorded (Munyuli farmers English and French names of insect species. 2016, unpublished data). In the future, biological control Consequently, there is both a paucity of knowledge about programs may think of introducing natural enemies in the pest identity, behavior and alternatives to pesticides and region for best control of the pests. the appropriate use of chemical methods. Also, there is a distinct lack of exchange between scientists and farmers (Unger 2014). Since several years ago, there has 3.4 Farmers’ pest management practices been rupture of the linkages (exchange, collaboration) between extension services, policy makers, academics Across all study sites, farmers mentioned insecticides from universities and researchers. Because farmers are (62%) and fungicides (71.8%) as the most effective abandoned, they take care of themselves and keeping methods of managing insect pests and diseases (Table 6). experimenting with their own dosages for pesticides. The Most (65.2%) farmers indicated that it was not possible name of pest species known by farmers are those indicated to grow potato without applying pesticides. Overall, on labels of pesticide boxes they are using. The other chemical control was more generalized in many villages. reason may be linked to the pest management system/ Only some IPM components were applied by 15.2% of practice adopted and implemented by the farmer. Famers farmers (use resistant/tolerant varieties, monitoring and 378 T. Munyuli, et al.

Table 6: Insect pests and disease control methods as practiced by farmers interviewed (Data are % responses; n = 300 respondents) in South-Kivu Province, eastern DRCongo

Study site names Statistics

Control methods Mabingu Lemera Luzira Ihusi Mulungu- Lwiro- Overall χ 2 (df=5) P-Value Miti Tshibati

Fungicides 99.4 99.4 99.9 98.7 27.8 5.4 71.8 130.725 <0.0001 Insecticides 99.5 99.6 94.3 53.8 16.8 7.8 62.0 143.807 <0.0001 Botanicals, wood ash& others natural 14.7 3.8 15.8 9.6 0.04 29.6 12.3 44.6399 <0.0001 pesticides Mechanical control (Field monitoring & 5.2 0.03 0.06 7.6 0.02 0.08 2.2 26.1838 <0.0001 hand picking) Uprooting infected plants 49.7 75.4 79.5 46.5 47.4 56.1 59.1 18.1871 0.003 Use selected & clean seeds (improved & 56.2 53.1 79.1 49.3 13.7 7.9 43.2 85.8319 <0.0001 abiotic-biotic tolerant verities) Intercropping (maize, sorghum) 51.5 87.5 18.6 7.2 71.7 79.4 52.7 104.832 <0.0001 Early planting & respect of agricultural 38.2 24.7 72.6 41.6 31.7 34.6 40.6 34.4809 <0.0001 calendar None 0.01 0.02 0.09 0.07 11.5 13.2 4.1 48.9959 <0.0002 manual removal of attacked plants in the fields). Other to manage pests. It is believed that effective control and important components of IPM (dispose of residues in the increase in the resilience of potato to pest outbreaks are field, disinfecting seed with pesticides, seasonal crop likely to be sustainable and safe management of pests that rotations, early harvest, selective pesticides,…) were not can be easily adopted by farmers. known/used by farmers. On average, farmers had little The lack of knowledge of pest identification knowledge about pest characteristics. Farmers were not (description) called for training of both farmers and able to describe or to identify (even in local language) a extension workers in insect pest identification, bioecology, single potato pest correctly. In most (93.5%) cases, pest behavior and control. Empowering farmers with knowledge attacks were confused with disease symptoms (or with about insect pests is essential for the reduction of pesticide soil nutrient deficiencies) and therefore, fungicide were misuse and uptake of more environmentally friendly sometimes applied to control insect pests and foliar approaches like IPM. Field surveys would need follow-up in fertilizers to control diseases. order to assess and monitor the actual field infestation rates Farmers’ main response to controlling pests in potato and intensities of each insect pest species and compare the is to apply hazardous, highly toxic insecticides that have results with the responses received from farmers. great potential to pollute the environment. Intensive In the current study, farmers perceived that using application of pesticides is likely leading to biodiversity pesticides (insecticide mixed with fungicide) was the best erosion including disappearance of natural enemies. Yet, method for managing potato insect pests and diseases. natural enemies are important to conserve since they Farmers believed that crops from the Solanaceae family have the potential of regulating pests in the field; thus, are highly dependent on pesticide for better yield in the reducing dependency on pesticide application. Given the field. For farmers, “no pesticide application, no potato”. negative impacts of application of broad pesticides, it is Also, farmers used wood ash and home-made botanicals important to develop alternative approaches of controlling (various species) among other pest management pests. Integrated Pest management has been suggested as strategies. Farmers had already developed some local a reliable and more sustainable alternative approach. In technologies for pest control. Some (5.5%-13.4%) farmers line with protection of rural environments for the benefit may prepare natural pesticides by mixing various forest of future generation, there is therefore a need to design/ plant species, manure, and wood ash, to be used as both develop an appropriate IPM program with emphasis foliar fertilizer as well as pesticide- fungicide (Munyuli on biocontrol of pests by natural enemies (parasitoids, 2016). Other (12.3%) farmers apply locally available wild predators) and related biopesticides, in order to support herbs in combination with cow dung/urine. Hand-picking farmers towards the development of adequate strategies of pests, is also practiced by a few (2.2%) farmers. Early Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 379 planting and intercropping were reported to be practiced efficiency as producers. In areas with all year, intensive by a good number of famers (40.6-52.7%) in this study. potato production, farmers routinely handle all classes of Although such cultural practices may significantly highly toxic pesticides with minimal care and no protective reduce pest and disease damage (Munyuli 2016), most equipment, resulting in chronic dermatitis, reduced (47.8-61.8%) farmers did not use them for various reasons vibration sensations and significant neuropsychological (see Munyuli 2016 for details). Early planting was used disorders. Because of illness, production costs rose, work to capture high market prices at the start of the cropping capacity decreased, and decision-making ability eroded season (September, March). Uprooting of infected plants over time of exposure, throughout the life of the individual was mainly used to manage bacterial wilt and new (Ghislain et al. 2003). emerging insect pests. Very few (4.1%) farmers used no However, pesticides are still indispensable in potato control measures, meaning that most farmers used a kind production. Biological pesticides, thought to be a safe of control measure perceived as effective depending on alternative, have yet to be developed and deployed on a the local situation. Physical and hormone traps, resistant commercial scale for the major potato pests in tropical varieties, or IPM strategies were not mentioned as ways to regions. The use of pesticides may be unavoidable in areas manage potato insect pests and diseases because farmers where there is a lack of materials (varieties) with genetic were convinced that pesticides are the best method to resistance to pests and diseases. The tradeoff between control pests. The concept of IPM was almost (95.3%) not improving human health and reducing potato production understood by respondents. In this study, the majority because of reducing pesticide use can be avoided in the (86.5%) of the farmers used pesticides. Overall, farmers long term by replacing the varieties currently grown with believe in intensive pesticide application for other crops new ones that have enhanced genetic protection from such cotton, cabbage, tomato, eggplants in eastern to pests and diseases (Ghislain et al. 2003). Reliance on DRCongo (Munyuli 2016). chemical pesticides may be reduced and/or replaced by Potato productivity varies markedly among developing other alternative strategies including IPM and Bt-varieties. countries, from 2 t/ha in Swaziland to 41 t/ha in Kuwait. In fact, reductions (with IPM and Bt-varieties) in insecticide Both yield-limiting (water, temperature, and nutrients) use would provide significant economic, health and and yield-reducing (pest and disease) factors explain this environmental benefits (Ghislain et al. 2003) especially wide variation. Insect pests rank third after late blight in the current global warming time. Thus, the need to and viruses in importance as yield reducers, with about develop climate- smart IPM technologies integrated to 20% of the affected areas found in developing countries Bt-varieties for multiple benefits in eastern DRCongo. (Ghislain et al. 2003). Thus, diseases and insect pests are economically important in the production because they can cause heavy economic damages. Potato insect pests 4 Conclusions and have a substantial negative impact on the livelihood of recommendations farmers. Pest losses in the field and in storage can easily reach up to 50% of total yield (Ghislain et al. 2003). In the current study, it was observed that farmers Depending of the varieties, pests and diseases may cause frequently used pesticides as preferred control method of up to 80-100% yield losses (Randriantsalama et al. 2014) pests. Intensive use of pesticides was a good indication in the tropics. that insect pests were causing economic damage to potato The use of chemical pesticides is increasing rapidly, production in the region. Whether this is the definitive particularly where farmers are intensifying production reason would need further research to confirm why in order to sell to urban markets and where the crop is pesticides have been adopted by farmers as the best pest expanding into agro-ecological regions and planting control strategy in eastern DRCongo. Farmers perceived seasons outside its traditional range. The negative impact the occurrence of any pest as being damaging to potato. of pesticides on human health is well documented Aphids, for instance, are hardly known to cause direct (Munyuli 2016). Indiscriminate use of pesticides, often damage to potato yet they were mentioned by farmers with a total disregard for the instructions given on the during interviews. Frequently, farmers confused damages label, not only leads to poor pest control but also exposes caused by rains with damages caused by pests or diseases both farmers and consumers to unnecessary health risks, or due to soil nutrient deficiency. In some other cases, and damages the environment (Ghislain et al. 2003). farmers were found using insecticides to control diseases Pesticide use has been held responsible for causing a or fungicide to control pests or applying foliar fertilizers to range of adverse effects on farm workers, diminishing their control potato diseases. 380 T. Munyuli, et al.

Some control measures, currently being used by pesticides should be avoided as much as possible farmers, present an opportunity to develop an organized, (Munyuli et al. 2008a, Munyuli et al. 2008b, Munyuli et al. sustainable, and environmentally friendly IPM package 2009). There are already too many pesticides being used (Munyuli et al. 2006, Munyuli et al. 2007). This may in rural landscapes in eastern DRCongo; and it is not good include the use and better promotion of best cultural to continue encouraging farmers to use pesticides. It is practices to reduce pest infestation (e.g., crop rotation, important to think about the quality of the environment intercropping, early planting, hand picking) or the use of where potato is being grown for the benefits of future botanicals (including forest species) as already practiced generations. by some farmers. Currently, most (65%) farmers in the In the past diseases were perceived as most serious region have a good knowledge of botanicals as efficient threats to potato production. Currently, in some agro- for storage insect pests (Munyuli 2009). Some (5.5-8.9%) ecological zones of eastern DRCongo, some farmers farmers are aware of forest plant species that can control consider insect pests to be the most important constraint better diseases and insects. It is important to develop IPM to efficient production of potato. Few (2-5 species) classical and capitalize on indigenous knowledge for botanicals. species have been mentioned as most important species More specialized studies in the usage of the plant-based in terms of damages. There are also some new emerging pesticides to ensure safety and effectiveness that will (unknown) pest species. With climate change (variability), enhance food security and environment protection more new pests may emerge. The resurgence of some pest (Mugisha-Kamatenesi et al. 2008) . Although there still species is also expected due to resistance to pesticides many challenges with botanical pesticides, it may be as farmers are not educated on safer (judicious) use of possible to industrialize botanical based pesticides for pesticides in most potato growing sites. It is therefore farmers by capitalizing on existing local knowledge important to develop a well-designed program for during the manufacturing process. monitoring, warning and managing pest issues in eastern Additional control methods of potentially vital DRCongo in relationship to current global challenges. importance for the development of IPM approaches In the current studies, it was observed that across in eastern DRCongo, may include the use of classical the different study sites, farmers were mostly concerned biological control for the potato tuber moth and the with issues related with accessing high yielding varieties leafminer fly. Both pests are invasive, having been that are tolerant to pests and diseases, adaptable to low introduced unintentionally from South America into soil fertility, early maturing and suitable for multiple Africa. The introduction of exotic parasitoid species may harvesting and usages. Farmers were willing to adopt any help after an inventory is made about the local fauna. technology that could enable them to reduce reliance over It is possible that biological control could help reduce pesticide use, including accessing improved varieties that pest abundance and related yield losses in the eastern meet requirements of consumers at local and national DRCongo. Other approaches to be promoted are the use market level. of landscape habitat management (manipulation) to favor Losses in potato production due to pest and disease natural pest control (increase native fauna population of attacks were ranked highest by respondents. Due to this natural enemies), use of biopesticides and biorationals unfavorable factor, farmers tended to overuse pesticides. (Kroschel and Koch 1994). They were applying any kind of pesticide to reduce losses It is important to identify, promote, evaluate and while targeting optimal yield, and this is likely leading disseminate best farming practices and landscape habitat to large misuse and risks for health and environmental management practices that are environmental-friendly hazards (Emana et al. 2017). Farmers perceived that, during and that are likely to enhance the delivery of multiple the last few years, there has been an overall simplification ecosystem services in rural landscapes where potato is of farming practices and an increased attack of new pests grown (Munyuli 2009). This must be very selective in terms and diseases, combined with a progressive loss of local of choice of pesticides to use under the IPM program to be farming knowledge. developed. Moderately to slightly hazardous pesticides These days, farmers are feeling increasing pest/ may be used when necessary (when pest incidence has disease gravity. They apply many different chemical reached the point of causing economic damage). Using inputs that ranges from slightly toxic to very toxic selective pesticides is very strategic. The identification ones. They acquire information about pest/disease of selective (with less or no impacts on natural enemy management using informal networks, and they value species) can be done through farmers’ field schools more positively information coming from other farmers, and demonstrations plots. Otherwise, broad spectrum than from NGO technicians. Many respondents knew only Farmers’ perceptions, believes, knowledge and management practices of potato pests in South-Kivu Province 381 few IPM methods, they however showed a big interest in is necessary to choose a product that is efficient on pests testing new technologies that could eventually lower the and selective to natural enemies. So, it is indispensable amount of pesticides they spray (Paredes 2010). Farmers to correctly identify the groups and species of natural were willing to reduce pesticide usage since they were enemies, since insecticides have an impact on their made aware of health hazards related to pesticide use survival, growth, development, reproduction (sexual (Paredes 2010) during the field survey. Other farmers ratio, fecundity, longevity and fertility), and behavior were willing to adopt IPM technologies if this could (motility, orientation, feeding, oviposition and learning) help in reducing high cost of pesticides they incur. In of insects (Fernandes et al. 2010, Romero 2016). The the discussion with farmers, most of them did not find mechanisms of toxicity and selectivity of insecticides the relevance of protecting the natural resources base are related to the properties of higher or lower solubility and landscape habitats as reservoirs (refugia) of natural and molecular weight. Besides, characteristics of the enemies of potato pests. Thus, the promotion of IPM in cuticular composition of the integument of natural eastern DRCongo appear to be very important since it enemies (Kehinde et al. 2014) are extremely important in has a potential of being rapidly adopted. This study was the selectivity of a product or the tolerance of a certain conducted to capitalize on valuable local knowledge of predator or parasitoid to pesticide molecules. Launching farmers with the end aim of formulating strategic IPM farmers’ fields schools and demonstration plots to educate programs for eastern DRCongo. and increase knowledge of farmers about pests, natural IPM techniques are recommended to lower enemies and safer use of insecticides is very needed in production costs, reduce exposure to pesticides, and eastern DRCongo . improve the long-term sustainability of the agriculture The likely that motivations of growers for adopting system (Mauceri 2004). The development and diffusion innovative technologies such as IPM include getting of integrated pest (and disease) management (IPM) access to market when prices are the highest, achieving knowledge and technologies is needed in order help to better crop growth and lower crop losses due to pests and reduce the damage caused by pests and diseases, while diseases. Thus, the need to design an IPM integrating high also reducing dependency on hazardous pesticides yielding, fast-growing, abiotic-biotic resistant/tolerant, (Kromann et al. 2011) and promoting environment health climate engineered, tasteful and mark-demanded varieties protection. Thus, technologies such as the use of potato (Devaux et al. 2011, Mala et al. 2012) for quick adoption cultivars with resistance to pests and diseases, biological by potato farmers is evident. Consequently, it is believed control, and alternative management practices are being that research-knowledge investments in IPM technology advocated for to reduce the overall need for insecticides development considering these various socio-economic and the complete avoidance of highly toxic insecticides and agronomic criteria, may be rapidly adopted by potato currently applied to control of potato pests (Kromann farmers in eastern DRCongo. et al. 2011, Mala et al. 2012, Paredes 2010). It is important to document in detail knowledge In the current study, respondents indicated that it was of local names of crop pests. Scientists may play such not possible to grow potato without applying pesticides. important roles in the future. The training of farmers They also mentioned observing emerging new pests and and extension workers is more than an emergent issue in diseases. Intensive use of insecticides can be associated eastern DRCongo because of the low level of knowledge of with negative impacts such as erosion/loss of natural pests by farmers. Such training would do better by focusing enemies. Reduction in beneficial insects can cause on insect pest identification, collection, biology, ecology, eruption of pests and resurgence becomes more and more behavior, and control in the local agroecosystems. A more common (Fernandes et al.2010). Thus, landscape and environmentally friendly strategy such as IPM (Abate habitat conservation for arthropod habitat is extremely et al. 2000, Mancini 2006, Pellegrini 2013) needs to be important in the natural biological control of pests, so that implemented in eastern DRCongo and this is more than an these enemies may perform well (Romero 2016, Kehinde urgent issue. If successfully implemented, an IPM program et al. 2014). may help in reducing reliance on chemical pesticides as Because of the negative impacts caused by the primary method of pest management and adapt to insecticides on agriculture and their harmful effects on increasing pest constraints under a changing climate. The natural enemies, it is important to think of the selectivity proper use and adoption of an IPM package will require of several groups of insecticides to natural enemies practical training of farmers through development of (Fernandes et al.2010, Romero 2016). Therefore, farmers farmers’ field schools and deployment of plant health should be made aware that before spraying insecticides, it clinics closed to rural communities. It is also important 382 T. Munyuli, et al. to continue investigations on the interacting effects of Acknowledgement: We are very grateful to potato farmers’ anthropogenic, climatic, environmental, pedological, federation for accepting the facilitation during meetings landscape habitat, land-use, socio-economic factors, on with farmers. We are grateful to laboratory technicians population dynamics of different pests and the resultant from CRSN-Lwiro for helping in data collection. We are yield loss in the field. It is also important to isolate and also very grateful to anonymous reviewers for helping in identify the amount of contribution for each factor of the the improvement of this manuscript. outbreak and damages caused by pests. 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