Islamically inspired political Causes of jihadi violence. (Sambanis, 2004, 165; Krueger and Malecˇková, 2003; Sageman, 2004; Pape, 2005; von terrorism: beyond Hippel, 2002, 26) Empirical studies consistently demonstrate this not to be the case; that low income is not a TERRORISM paintballing and cause of terrorism. (Abbas, 2007; Rehman, 2007; Shore, 2006) social exclusion Despite this empirical data, social alienation is still being touted as the Johnathan Githens-Mazer argues popular cause of takfiri jihadism, asserting that radicalisation results from explanatory accounts of islamic terrorism interactions with unsupportive have failed to take account of the experiences ‘host-nation’ societies. (Sageman, 2004; Abbas, 2007; Shore, 2006) of radicalised Mulsims and the local and ‘Failed integration’ theses of radicalisation are at the very least historical injustices immigrant groups face. methodologically suspect, as they fail to take into account the basic fact that despite the few examples of non-integrated Muslims in Britain o date, most approaches to jihadism suggest that it is a mistake who do become radical violent Islamically inspired ‘violent to analyse these experiences in a takfiri jihadists, countless others are Textremism’ have used theology, historical vacuum. equally socially excluded, yet do not psychology or structural factors to participate in this, or any other form explain the occurrence of radical The case against existing of violence. Furthermore, individuals violent takfiri jihadism (takfiri refers explanations such Siddique Khan, appear to have to radicalised Muslims who feel that Psychological disposition, resource been well integrated into both the it is a religious and moral obligation mobilisation and religion have Muslim and wider British to wage Jihad against kafir or non- all been used to explain ‘Islamic communities. believers). The British Government radicalisation’. Islamic theology and An alternative but related has emphasised a failure in social practice have often been used to hypothesis has seen a suggestion that and cultural integration into ‘British explain takfiri jihadism, either as a peer groups cause radicalisation (the society’ as a key reason behind result of specific psychological traits ‘paintballing’ hypothesis), wherein threat of Islamic terrorism in Britain. inherent to Islam (splitting and rage radical violent takfiri jihadism Many prominent scholars assert that at bad objects, and the identification becomes a function of discretionary Islamist suicide bombers result from of God with the superego), or as the time, a minimum of countervailing individual naïveté, the ability of inspiration of millenarianism due risks, and membership in social religious elites to twist the thoughts to Islamic ‘spiritual intoxication’. networks rather than a result of of young impressionable men, and (Phillips et al., 2007: 218; Sageman, ideology. (Bloom, 2007, 36; Shore, the influence of peer pressure and 2004; Shore, 2006; Jackson, 2005: 2006, 165) I have termed it here as the apparent attraction of events such 54-55) This analysis popularly the ‘paintballing’ hypothesis, as paintballing and fi ve-a-side reverberates in popular Western because it is popularly depicted as a football. These approaches have led secular political discourse, where situation where a ‘good young scholars to identify ‘pathologies’ of Muslims are accused of simply not Muslim’ falls in with a bad crowd, or violence, so that the actions of ‘getting Western liberal freedoms and a peer group which ratchets up individuals such as Mohammed lifestyles’. (Gurr, 1970: 13; Zadise et sectarian religious tensions leading Siddique Khan, who carried out the al., 2007, 503) However, any causal to more violent and spectacular 7/7 bombings, are interpreted as link between Islam and radical actions, a process often depicted as representing both personal family violent takfiri jihadism is impossible beginning with a paintballing outing, frustrations and the inability to cope to prove, because of the prevailing and ending with a backpack full with modern British society. All of weight of counter-factual evidence. explosives on the Tube. This thesis is these approaches, though potentially There are an almost infinite amount often combined with assertions that valid, ignore the most obvious source of cases where Islam has ‘failed’ to such individuals are ‘prey for violent to understand ‘radicalisation’: the cause any form of political violence dogmas’; naïvely susceptible to radicalised themselves. Interviews (in fact, quite the opposite). manipulative and unscrupulous with those who are themselves Deprivation, whether economic, religious elites. (Habeck, 2006: 103) radicalised, or with those who have social or in terms of perceptions of While there is no denying that peer been close to those who have alienation and exclusion have also groups play a role in this process, engaged with radical violent takfiri been proposed as a cause of they cannot be understood to be

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rCJM No 73.indd Sec1:26 07/08/2008 08:24:33: causal, as there are many peer understood in a transnational with current politics and personal groups and few terrorists. context; experiences of repression experiences. This helps to explain and violence interpreted in a how radical violent takfiri Jihadism is Listening to takfiri jihadists personally and culturally defined being mobilised through perceptions and the wider islamist past. For recruiters trying to attract of ‘injustice’ and grievance. Hamsa community individuals to participate in radical managed to link events in Palestine, If these popular accounts don’t violent takfiri jihadism, this creates a Bosnia, Chechnya, the French TERRORISM have causal traction in explaining meaningful basis to capitalise on a Massacre of Algerians during the participation in radical violent pervasive sense amongst Muslims in 8 May 1945 Massacre, and the takfiri jihadism, what explains Europe and beyond that the West is apparent insensitivity of official its occurrence? Specific cases of enjoined on a ‘crusade’ to oppress British Governmental interaction radicalisation render some complex the Muslim world, its culture and with the Umma in terms of both but useful insights into the causes beliefs. They are able to do this by domestic and foreign policies. of takfiri jihadism. For all radical citing events such as the Danish Radical takfiri Jihadist recruiters tap violent takfiri jihadists, the Umma is cartoon depictions of Mohammed, into both personally and socially under siege from the West, though US support for Israel, and the defined repertoires of resonant how this is expressed or conceived, invasion of Iraq. This ‘prism’ effect myths, memories and symbols of in the context of local conditions underpins processes of radicalisation, identity and experience, and any and drivers, varies greatly from by helping to explain how subsequent attraction to takfiri case to case. (Ranstorp, 2005: individuals recognise and identify Jihadist violence lies in its coupling 3; Shore, 2006: 160; Githens- injustices and grievances in a of the resonance of legacies of past Mazer, 2008) Radical violent takfiri collective context, and helps to colonial oppression and violence jihadists operating closely to a determine what are subsequently and more recent blocked political ‘Franchise’ model of operations considered rational reactions to such liberalisation and democratisation in in their institutional relationships events. Current events are being various ‘home states’, with difficult with al-Qaeda foment insurgency understood not only in the global social, political and economic by ideologically pitting Islam Umma, but through life on street circumstances for Muslim immigrant vs. the West/Christianity, while corners and offices in Bradford, groups in the United Kingdom. simultaneously seeking to recruit London and Leeds. Yet, while those disaffected by local issues. injustice is often cited as a Johnathan Githens-Mazer is Lecturer in the Global perceptions of local injustice mobilising factor in the social Department of Politics, Exeter University. This article reflects research being conducted on are foci for propaganda by Al-Qaeda movement literature, it is equally Economic and Social Research Council grant and other takfiri Jihadist recruiters often absent as a causal factor in RES-181-25-0017 and the support of the ESRC seeking new members amongst discussions of Islamic ‘radicalisation’ is gratefully acknowledged. immigrants in mosque environments, and/or vulnerability. Where injustice directly referring to ‘Muslims is discussed, it is only referred to in under siege’ in key fl ashpoints like relation to currently limited References Chechnya, Kashmir, Iraq, and most economic, social and political significantly Palestine. (Gerges, 2007: opportunities, (the social exclusion Abbas, T. (2007), ‘Introduction: Islamic political radicalism in Western Europe’, 286-9) In this context, vulnerability and paintballing hypotheses) rather in Islamic Political Radicalism, ed. T. and religious ideology begin to make than with reference to historical Abbas. Edinburgh: University of sense: individuals who are ‘pre- injustices of the past, especially Edinburgh Press. disposed’ to becoming radical may colonial history. Bloom, M. (2007), ‘Dying to kill: be recruited through interaction with motivations for suicide terrorism’, In Root existing radicals and subsequently Conclusions Causes of Suicide Terrorism: The become ‘operationalised’. Shared An overemphasis of social exclusion Globalization of Martyrdom, ed. A. perceptions of a universal conflict and/or individual psychology fails to Pedahzur. Abingdon, Oxon.: Routledge. between radical Islam and the West grasp the cultural ‘canvas’ on which Gerges, F. A. (2007), Journey of the both rely on, and reinforce, linkages subsequent events and actions are Jihadist: Inside Muslim Militancy, which exist not only between painted and understood. This is to Orlando, FL: Harcourt Books. committed takfiri jihadists, but also say, the sermons of fi rebrands such Githens-Mazer, J. (2008), ‘Variations on a amongst immigrant communities at as Abu Hamsa during the late 90’s theme: radical violent Islamism and regional, national and international and early 21st century resonated European North African radicalisation’, levels, propagating a belief that with North Africans living in the PS: Political Science and Politics 41 (1). where immigrant experiences are basement of the Finsbury Park Gurr, T. (1970), Why Men Rebel, difficult, the Umma will provide Mosque in the late 1990’s early Princeton: Princeton University Press. stability and help. 2000’s by citing historical and Habeck, M. (2006), Knowing the Enemy: In practice, this means that contemporary examples of violence Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, radical violent takfiri jihadists are and repression against the Umma in New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. being recruited on the basis of the a seamless fashion, thereby linking Jackson, R. (2005), Writing the War on interpretation of local drivers histories, identities and narratives Terrorism: Language, Politics and

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rCJM No 73.indd Sec1:27 07/08/2008 08:24:33: Counter-Terrorism, Manchester: Ranstorp, M. (2005), ‘The London Shore, Z. (2006), Breeding Bin Ladens: University of Manchester Press. bombings and the broader strategic America, Islam and Future of Europe, Krueger, A. B., and Malecˇková, J. (2003), context’, Madrid: Real Instituto Elcano. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University ‘Education, poverty and terrorism: is Rehman, J. (2007), ‘Islam, “war on terror” Press. there a causal connection?’, Journal of and the future of Muslim minorities in von Hippel, K. (2002), ‘The roots of Economic Perspectives, 17 (4), pp. 119- the United Kingdom: dilemmas of terrorism: probing the myths’, In 44. multiculturalism in the aftermath of the Superterrorism: Policy Responses, ed. L. TERRORISM Pape, R. A. (2005), Dying to Win: the London bombings’, Human Rights Freedman. Oxford: Blackwell. Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism, New Quarterly, 29, pp. 831-78. Zadise, E., Canetti-Nisim, D., and York: Random House. Sageman, M. (2004), Understanding Pedahzur, A. (2007), ‘Politics of God or Phillips, D., Davis, C., and Ratcliffe, Terror Networks, Philadelphia: University politics of man? the role of religion and R. (2007), ‘British Asian narratives of of Pennsylvania Press. deprivation in predicting support for urban space’, Transactions of the Sambanis, N. (2004), ‘Poverty and the political violence in Israel’, Political Institute of British Geographers, 32, pp. organization of political violence’, Studies 55 (3), pp. 499-521. 217-34. Brookings Trade Forum, pp. 165-211.

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