BUNDABERG FRUIT & VEGETABLE GROWERS

WATER SUSTAINABILITY FOR THE FUTURE

Mark Gahan VG09065 – 30th November 2010

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Water sustainability for the Future

HAL Project Number – VG09065

Researcher’s Contact Details

NAME: Mark GAHAN

Address: Bundaberg Fruit & Vegetable Growers Co-operative Limited 13/2 Tantitha Street P.O. Box 45 BUNDABERG QLD 4670

Telephone: (07) 4153 3007

Faxsimile: (07) 4153 1322

Email: [email protected]

Report purpose and funding

The “Water Sustainability for the Future” project is an attempt to bring a new technology tool in the form of a proactive GIS format linking various holders of existing GIS data such as Bureau of Meteorology, Department of Primary Industry Victoria, various State and Territory water authorities etc. to provide a clear, concise and realistic hands-on projection of the commercial vegetable industry within suitable for use by industry bodies, all levels of government and individual businesses in planning the future development of the industry. This project has been undertaken by the Bundaberg Fruit and Vegetable Growers Cooperative Limited (BFVG) with funding sourced from Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) through the national vegetable levy generated by AusVeg.

30th June 2010 (updated 30th November 2010) NOTE: All statistical data referenced within this report was accurate as of the 31st August 2010.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In undertaking this project Bundaberg Fruit and Vegetable Growers Co-operative Ltd (BFVG) received funding from Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) and in partnership with AUSVEG was funded by the national vegetable levy. The Australian Government provides matched funding for all HAL’s research and development activities. BFVG would also like to acknowledge Bevan Moller, Carey Young and the Staff of Catalyst Media in Bundaberg for their assistance in the design and implementation of the web page www.watersustainability.com.au and to Scott Kay and staff of XP Mapping in Hervey Bay for their assistance in providing the GIS support necessary for the successful completion this project. Assistance was also provided to this project by both Federal and State government stakeholders, especially the staff of the Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. The relevant Departments of Primary Industries, Water Corporations and Corporations within each State and Territory is also gratefully acknowledged. Some of the staff of the above Government Departments and Agencies who were particularly helpful in assisting with this project are: Dr Peter Malcolm, District Horticulturist, Department of Primary Industries, Industry & Investment, Richmond, NSW David Williams, Irrigation Advisory Officer, Department of Primary Industries, Industry & Investment, Dubbo, NSW Tony Napier, District Horticulturist, Department of Primary Industries, Industry & Investment, Richmond, NSW Megan Patterson, Eduction Officer, State Water Commission, Dubbo, NSW Ralf Koberstein, Resource Information Officer, Spatial Data & Mapping, Natural Resources Division, Department of Natural Resources Environment The Arts & Sport, N.T Denise Little, Manager - Horticulture Industry Development, Department of Primary Industries and Resources, SA Peter Willmott, Policy Officer – Industry Development & Renewal, Department of Primary Industries and Resources, SA Lee Tily, GIS Officer, GIS & Geoanalytics, Spatial Information Services, Department of Primary Industries and Resources, SA Ken Heidke, Senior Project Officer, Water Services (North) South East Region, Department of Environment and Resources Management, QLD Lee Parker, SSIO Data Supply, Client Outcomes Spatial Information, Department of Environment and Resources Management, QLD Jerry Lovatt, Principal Information Extension Horticulturist, Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, QLD Susanne Heisswolf, Senior Horticulturist, Horticulture & Forestry Service, Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, QLD Bradley Tapping, GIS Analyst, Department of Water, WA DISCLAIMER While all reasonable care has been taken in the preparation of the material in this document, the Bundaberg Fruit and Vegetable Growers Co-operative Ltd and its officers accept no responsibility for any errors or omissions it may contain, whether caused by negligence, or otherwise or for any loss, however caused, sustained by any person who relies on it.

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Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 3 DISCLAIMER...... 3 TABLES AND MAPS ...... 8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 12 INTRODUCTION...... 13 METHODOLOGY ...... 15 ACRONYMS ...... 16 COMMERCIAL VEGETABLE GROWING IN AUSTRALIA ...... 18 Australia’s Climate ...... 21 National Water Policy ...... 23 Australia’s Water Resources ...... 23 Effect of Water Trading on the Vegetable Industry in Australia ...... 24 Irrigation in Vegetable Production ...... 24 Types of Irrigation Systems Currently in Use ...... 27 Australian Soil Types ...... 28 Markets for Vegetables Grown in Australia...... 28 Introduction of horticultural precincts within Australia ...... 28 Vegetable Production in Australia Using Organic Farming Methods ...... 29 Biosecurity Issues ...... 29 KEY VEGETABLE GROWING REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA...... 32 VICTORIA ...... 32 Climate ...... 32 Water Policy...... 32 Water Supply ...... 33 Use of Irrigation ...... 34 Soil Types ...... 36 Victoria’s Vegetable Growing Regions ...... 36 Central Victoria Region ...... 36 East Gippsland Region ...... 39 North East Region ...... 42 North West Victoria Region ...... 44 Port Phillip & Western Port Region ...... 45 South West Victoria Region ...... 48 Western and Southern Gippsland Region ...... 50 SOUTH AUSTRALIA ...... 52 Climate ...... 54 Water Policy...... 54 Water Supply ...... 54 Cost of Water to the Farmgate...... 55 Water Trading / Flexibility of Price ...... 55 Salinity Impacts on Production ...... 57 Use of Irrigation in Commercial Vegetable Production in South Australia ...... 57 Soil Types ...... 58

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South Australia’s Principal Commercial Vegetable Growing Regions ...... 58 Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region ...... 59 Climate ...... 59 Water supply ...... 60 Use of Irrigation ...... 60 Groundwater...... 60 Soil types...... 61 Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region ...... 61 Limestone Coast (South East) Region ...... 62 Climate ...... 62 Water supply ...... 62 Use of Irrigation ...... 62 Groundwater...... 62 Soil types...... 63 Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region ...... 63 South Australian Murray Darling Basin Region (SA-MDB) ...... 64 Climate ...... 65 Water supply ...... 65 Use of Irrigation within the region ...... 66 Groundwater...... 66 Soil types...... 67 Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region ...... 67 TASMANIA ...... 68 Climate ...... 69 Water Policy...... 69 Water Supply ...... 69 On-farm metering and water licensing ...... 70 Water Trading / Flexibility of Price ...... 70 Salinity Impacts ...... 71 Use of Irrigation ...... 71 Soil types...... 71 Tasmania’s Vegetable Growing Regions ...... 72 North Region ...... 72 North West region ...... 73 Southern region ...... 74 WESTERN AUSTRALIA ...... 75 Climate ...... 75 Water Policy...... 75 Water Supply ...... 76 Cost of Water to the Farmgate...... 77 Use of Irrigation ...... 77 Groundwater...... 80 Soil Types ...... 80 Western Australia’s Vegetable Growing Regions ...... 80

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Kununurra (Ord River Irrigation Area / Kimberley region) ...... 81 Gascoyne Region ...... 83 Wanneroo Region (including Gingin) ...... 86 Perth Region (Metropolitan area) ...... 88 Peel - Harvey Region ...... 90 South West WA Region ...... 93 South Coast WA Region ...... 95 NORTHERN TERRITORY ...... 97 Climate ...... 97 Water Policy...... 98 Water Supply ...... 98 Use of Irrigation ...... 99 Soil Types ...... 99 Northern Territory’s Vegetable Growing Regions ...... 99 Darwin region ...... 100 Katherine region...... 101 Alice Springs region ...... 103 Climate ...... 103 Water supply ...... 103 The Commercial Value of Asian Vegetables to the Northern Territory ...... 104 ...... 106 Climate ...... 106 Water Policy...... 106 Water Supply ...... 106 Use of Irrigation ...... 108 Soil Types ...... 110 Queensland’s Vegetable Growing Regions ...... 110 Far North Qld Region ...... 112 Burdekin Region ...... 114 North Qld – (Bowen / Mackay) Region ...... 116 – Capricornia Region ...... 117 Bundaberg Region ...... 119 Mary River Region ...... 122 Lockyer & Fassifern Valleys, Eastern and Toowoomba Range region ...... 128 Scenic Rim Region ...... 129 Granite Belt Region ...... 131 NEW SOUTH WALES...... 133 Climate ...... 135 Water Policy...... 135 Water Supply ...... 136 Use of Irrigation ...... 138 Soil Types ...... 138 New South Wales Vegetable Growing Regions ...... 138 Central West & Lachlan Region ...... 139 Hunter Valley Region ...... 141

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North Coast Region ...... 143 Sydney Basin Region ...... 146 Murrumbidgee Region ...... 149 Riverina (a sub region of the Murrumbidgee) ...... 151 Murray Region ...... 159 Southern Rivers Region ...... 161 AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY ...... 163 MURRAY DARLING RIVER BASIN REGION ...... 164 Climate ...... 165 Water Policy...... 166 Water Supply ...... 166 Use of Irrigation ...... 166 Soil Types ...... 167 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 168

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TABLES AND MAPS Table Description Page No. 1 Gross Value Production (GVP) of the vegetable industry for 2003/04 19 2 Distribution of the major Asian vegetables grown by State 20 3 Total crops irrigated between 2002/03 and 2004/05 22 4 Comparison in cost of water between industries where irrigation used 25 5 Irrigation systems currently in use 27 6 Biosecurity issues concerning vegetables by State 30 7 Victoria’s total available irrigation infrastructure 34 8 Sources of irrigation water used in Victoria (average proportion per farm) 36 9 The main vegetable crops grown within the Central Victoria region compared with the State as a whole 39 10 The main vegetable crops grown within the East Gippsland region compared with the State as a whole 42 11 The main vegetable crops grown within the North East region compared with the State as a whole 44 12 The main vegetable crops grown within the North West region compared with the State as a whole 45 13 The main vegetable crops grown within the Port Phillip & Western Port region compared with the State as a whole 47 14 The main vegetable crops grown within the South West Victoria region compared with the State as a whole 50 15 The main vegetable crops grown within the Western and Southern Gippsland region compared with the State as a whole 52 16 Value of water used for irrigation in regions of SA 56 17 SA total available irrigation infrastructure 58 18 The main vegetable crops grown within the SA Murray River Basin region compared with the State as a whole 59 19 The main vegetable crops grown within the Adelaide & Mount Lofty Ranges region compared with the State as a whole 62 20 The main vegetable crops grown within the Northern Adelaide Plains region compared with the State as a whole 63 21 The main vegetable crops grown within the South East region compared with the State as a whole 67 22 Comparable rainfall statistics for both regions of Tasmania 70 23 The main vegetable crops grown within the North region compared with the State as a whole 72 24 The main vegetable crops grown within the North West region compared with the State as a whole 73 25 The main vegetable crops grown within the Southern region compared with 74

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the State as a whole 26 Seasonal rainfall throughout WA 76 27 Irrigation schemes in WA 78 28 Common method of irrigation used by district & product quality resulting 79 29 Main vegetable crops grown throughout WA by area and tonnage 80 30 The main vegetable crops grown within the Kununurra (Ord River Irrigation Area / Kimberley) region compared with the State as a whole 83 31 The main vegetable crops grown within the Gascoyne region compared with the State as a whole 86 32 The main vegetable crops grown within the Wanneroo region (including Gingin) compared with the State as a whole 88 33 The main vegetable crops grown within the Perth region (Metropolitan Area) compared with the State as a whole 90 34 The main vegetable crops grown within the Peel – Harvey region compared with the State as a whole 92 35 The main vegetable crops grown within the South West WA region compared with the State as a whole 95 36 The main vegetable crops grown within the South Coast WA region compared with the State as a whole 97 37 Main vegetable crops grown within the Territory by area and tonnage 99 38 The main vegetable crops grown within the Darwin region compared with the Territory as a whole 100 39 The main vegetable crops grown within the Katherine region compared with the Territory as a whole 101 40 The main vegetable crops grown within the Alice Springs region compared with the Territory as a whole 103 41 The total percentage by the major sectors in Queensland 107 42 The total amount of water used in Queensland by commodity 107 43 The total water used by irrigated area in Queensland 107 44 Queensland’s total available irrigation infrastructure 108 45 Gross Value Production (GVP) of irrigated production in Queensland 110 46 Vegetable sectors in Queensland and their value 111 47 Gross Value of Product (GVP) for vegetables for the period ending June 2009 111 48 The main vegetable crops grown within the Far North Qld region compared with the State as a whole 113 49 Details of the major vegetables grown on the Atherton Tablelands 113 50 Value of vegetable production within the region 114 51 The main vegetable crops grown within the Burdekin region compared with the State as a whole 115

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52 Production estimates for the year 2005 Bowen Shire 116 53 The main vegetable crops grown within the North Qld (Bowen/Mackay) region compared with the State as a whole 117 54 The main vegetable crops grown within the Central Queensland - Capricornia region compared with the State as a whole 119 55 Source of water for urban supply 121 56 Vegetables which can be grown commercially in the Bundaberg region 122 57 Key impoundments within the Mary River region 124 58 Water allocation for the Upper Mary River Supply Scheme 125 59 Water allocated for the Lower Mary River Supply Scheme 125 60(a) Total value by zone 126 60(b) Total value of vegetable production within the Mary River Region by vegetable 127 60(c) Number and distribution of vegetable producers across the Mary River region 128 61 Vegetables which can be grown commercially in the Lockyer & Fassifern Valleys, Eastern Darling Downs and Toowoomba Range region 129 62 Value of vegetable production in the Boonah sub-region 130 62(a) Value of vegetable production in the Beaudesert sub-region 131 62(b) Number and distribution of vegetable producers across both zones as at 2000/01 131 63 Source of water used in irrigation within the Granite Belt region 133 64 The main vegetable crops grown within the Granite Belt region compared with the State as a whole 133 65 Value of vegetables grown in the State 135 66 The major water storages within the State 137 67 Comparison between high security licences and general security licences 139 68 Major vegetable crops grown in New South Wales by area (ha) 140 69 The main vegetable crops grown within the Central West & Lachlan region compared with the State as a whole 142 70 Landuse in the Hunter Valley 2003 to 2006 143 71 Main vegetable crops grown in the Hunter Valley region compared with the State 144 72 The main vegetable crops grown within the North Coast region compared with the State 146 73 The main vegetable crops grown within the Sydney Basin region compared with the State 149 74 Groundwater access licences within the Lower Murrumbidgee Deep Groundwater Source region 152 75 The main vegetable crops grown within the Murrumbidgee region 152

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compared with the State as a whole 76 Vegetables grown within the Riverina sub-region during 2009/10 153 76(a) Estimate of vegetable production at Hay for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) 156 76(b) Estimate of vegetable production at Hay for the period 2009/10 (Processed) 157 76(c) Types of Production 157 76(d) Estimate of vegetable production in Southern Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) 157 76(e) Estimate of vegetable production in Southern Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Processed) 158 76(f) Types of Production 158 76(g) Estimate of vegetable production in Central Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) 159 76(h) Estimate of vegetable production in Central Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Processed) 159 76(i) Types of Production 160 76(j) Estimate of vegetable production at Hillston for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) 160 76(k) Estimate of vegetable production at Hillston for the period 2009/10 (Processed) 160 76(l) Types of Production 161 77 The main vegetable crops grown within the Murray region compared with the State 162 78 The main vegetable crops grown within the Southern Rivers region compared with the State 163 79 Location of irrigated farming enterprises within the Murray Darling River Basin (MDB) region 166

Map Description Page No. 1 Climate viability map 22 2 location and Australian Drainage Divisions (ANCOLD) 26 3 Victoria’s 35 4 Victoria’s surface water catchments 35 5 Sydney Basin showing location of commercial vegetable farms 149

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Vegetable production is an important component of the Australian economy and this is especially true of regional Australia where it provides employment opportunities as well as revenue across the entire regional community, that in turn provides not only goods and services to the industry but are dependent upon the industry for the continued growth within the region. The Australian commercial vegetable industry can be defined as a large and diverse industry having a widespread distribution focused on supplying fresh wholesome produce to both the domestic and overseas markets. To be able to achieve this, the industry is required to employ different production systems to meet the climatic conditions imposed in the different regions of the country to produce the variety of crops needed to satisfy the demands of domestic and overseas consumers. In an age where there are increased concerns within the community regarding the perceived impact which the commercial vegetable production industry is having on climate through water use, and the environment through the use of chemicals, vegetable producers and their associations are increasingly finding that they are having to justify the quantity of water being accessed and the way in which it is used. Gone are the days when growers could justify irrigating their crops by either furrow or level basin system methods, where large volumes of water were required to produce crops on a commercial scale. Instead growers are increasingly turning to innovative methods such as low flow irrigation systems encompassing drip and trickle technology to achieve the same results. This project ‘Water sustainability for the Future’ has been undertaken by Bundaberg Fruit and Vegetable Growers Co-operative Limited (BFVG) on behalf of Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) as an attempt to identify not only the commercial vegetable production regions within Australia, but also the water resources available within each of these regions. This information has then been collated into both this report and a website (www.watersustainability.com.au ) where the data gathered has been combined to provide interactive map overlays together with data profiles for each principal region in each State and Territory. It should be noted that another prime characteristic of the industry and one of its attractions is its diverse culture, and ethnic makeup, where approximately 40% of the industry speak a language other than English as their prime language. These factors present unique challenges in any endeavour to provide access to a new technology and by presenting the data obtained in such an interactive format it is hoped that the website will be accessible to all commercial vegetable producers. Perhaps the greatest threat to the industry and its expansion is the availability of import vegetables on to the Australian market. This growing international competition has already impacted on exports from this country and has particularly affected the processed vegetable sector. This situation is currently under review by several national industry inquiries by both government and representatives of industry and it is hoped that this project can assist growers in producing crop varieties more suited to their region’s environs and at a cost competitive to that of imports.

Peter Petersen Chief Executive Officer Bundaberg Fruit and Vegetable Growers Cooperative Limited

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INTRODUCTION Commercial vegetable growing within Australia as an industry is facing a period of change with increased competition internationally from imports, as well as challenges for export markets caused by increased competition from low cost export countries. The industry is also facing threats and challenges from within Australia caused by urban encroachment, increased land prices where urban development is occurring, the overall small size of land holdings, labour costs, transportation / fuel costs, etc. but by far the gravest threat and challenge to the industry is that of climate change and in particular the reduction in water availability and changes in seasonal temperatures. The “Water Sustainability for the Future” project is an attempt to bring a new technology tool to the commercial vegetable production sector of the Horticultural industry in Australia and has been undertaken by the Bundaberg Fruit and Vegetable Growers Cooperative Limited (BFVG) with funding sourced from Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) and is an attempt to collate existing data held by various sources throughout Australia including both Australian and State Government Departments, industry associations and other private corporations into a single clear, concise source document suitable for use by industry bodies, all levels of government and individual businesses in planning the future development of the industry. The project has been undertaken in two stages – The first stage is this, a written report which profiles the commercial vegetable growing industry throughout Australia and identifies the principal vegetable growing regions within each State and Territory together with their strengths and weaknesses. The final draft of this report was completed at the end of March 2010 and updated and released as of the 30th November 2010 with revised statistics. The second stage of the project relates to the combining of the mapping data obtained during the first stage into a proactive GIS format, thus linking the various holders of existing GIS data such as Bureau of Meteorology, Department of Primary Industry Victoria, various State and Territory water authorities etc. to provide clear, concise and realistic hands-on projections of the commercial vegetable industry within Australia. It should be noted that the principal difficulty in undertaking a project of this nature has been the general lack of uniformity not only between the States and Australian government departments and agencies on how statistics relating to the industry are recorded and their format, but also within different departments of the same State as to regional boundaries, and how statistics in particular are gathered. It is quite possible that the commercial vegetable growing industry within Australia could be undervalued both in its size and its importance to the Australian economy anywhere up to 50% of the actual figure. As an example of the possible undervaluation of the industry to the economy, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) undertook a comparative analysis to determine whether the value of the industry was undervalued based upon the available data as published by the ABS. This analysis was based around production statistics and trucking data for two vegetable crops - Tomatoes and Sweet Corn, in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia centred on Carnarvon. Carnarvon was selected by the ABS because there already existed available data on both the production and transportation costs which was exclusive to the region. It was found by ABS that the value of both crops had been underestimated in the region of 65%. In relation to the actual size of the industry, that is the number of farming businesses involved in commercial vegetable growing it is quite possible that it has been overestimated both in this and previous reports. Dr Peter Malcolm and Riad Fahd in their report “Ground Truthing of the Sydney Vegetable Industry in 2008” found that the size of the Sydney vegetable industry both in the number of farming enterprises (1052) and the area under cultivation 2025ha) was considerably smaller than had previously been suggested.

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Similarly, the impact that the commercial vegetable industry has had on the environment – the alleged degradation of land, air and water through the use of chemicals and over application of water, is hard to determine with different government departments and agencies, sometime within the same State, providing conflicting information. The industry both on a state and national level has in recent years become acutely aware of its environmental footprint and has responded with such environmental management programs as Enviroveg and Horticulture Tomorrow.

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METHODOLOGY The project was initially undertaken as a desktop research project collating data sourced from external sources in particular the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) as well as Industry websites and where data on a particular aspect of the industry (for example the type of crops grown on the Atherton Tablelands of Queensland) was lacking this information has been sourced from either private individuals or businesses operating within that region supported where possible by the local grower organisation. The commercial vegetable regions of Australia as described within this report have been for conformity aligned with previous reports on the industry mostly undertaken on behalf of Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) and are a reflection of the districts referred to by various authors in their reports for the various States contained within “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry” unless otherwise stated. The statistics referred to for the various States and Territories within this report are supported by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) through its various publications, but principally the series ‘Agricultural Commodities, Australia, 2007/08, Vegetable Production, by individual State and NRM’ unless otherwise stated. For example: • The data pertaining to the New South Wales vegetable production regions has been supplemented by statistics provided for the Riverina district (encompassing part of the Murrumbidgee and Murray Regions) by Tony Napier, District Horticulturist (Vegetables) Yanco, NSW Department of Primary Industries. • The statistics for the Sydney Basin are drawn from a report co-authored by Dr Peter Malcolm and Mr Riad Fahd of the NSW Department of Primary Industries entitled “Ground Truthing of the Sydney Vegetable Industry in 2008”. The Murray Darling Basin has been included as a separate region because of the large impact it has on horticulture and agriculture production in Australia in general, and particularly in the States of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.

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ACRONYMS A$ Australian Dollars ABARE Australian Bureau of Agricultural & Resource Economics ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics ACT Australian Capital Territory AHEA Australian Horticultural Exporters Association ANRA Australian Natural Resources Atlas ASHS Australian Society of Horticultural Science ASRIS Australian Soil Resource Information Service AusVeg Australian Vegetable and Potato Growers Federation Inc. AWR Australian Water Resources BFVG Bundaberg Fruit and Vegetable Growers Cooperative Inc. BOM Bureau of Meteorology BRS Bureau of Rural Sciences COAG Council of Australian Governments CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific & Research Organisation DAFF Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Federal Government) DAFWA Department of Agriculture and Food (Western Australia) DNREA Department of Natural Resources, Environment and the Arts (Northern Territory) DPI Department of Primary Industry (Victoria) DPIW Department of Primary Industries and Water (Tasmania) GDP Gross Domestic Product GL Gigalitre GrowCom Representative Organisation for Queensland Fruit & Vegetable Producers GVP Gross Value of Production HAL Horticulture Australia Limited IWSS Integrated Water Supply System Kgs Kilograms Kms Kilometres $M $ Millions ML Megalitre NAIF Northern Australia Irrigation Futures NAP National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality NSW New South Wales NSWFA New South Wales Farmers Association NT Northern Territory

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NTHA Northern Territory Horticultural Association NWI National Water Initiative NWQMS National Water Quality management Strategy PIRSA Primary Industries and Resources of South Australia QLD Queensland QDPI&F Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries SA South Australia TAS Tasmania TFGA Tasmanian Farmers and Graziers Association VIC Victoria VGA Vegetable Growers Association, Victoria WA Western Australia

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COMMERCIAL VEGETABLE GROWING IN AUSTRALIA The commercial vegetable growing sector currently has a significant presence in all Australian States but comprises only a small number of farms in the Northern Territory and none in the Australian Capital Territory. Australian vegetable growers as with all agricultural enterprises in Australia are susceptible to many risks, and challenges both in the domestic and in the global marketplaces, which requires them to struggle on a daily basis to maintain a sustainable and profitable business. High on the list of challenges is water security and the ever changing seasonal growing conditions. Vegetable production is one of the most important horticultural industries in Australia, with an annual production of 3.4 million tonnes valued in 2009 at Aus. $2.2 Billion dollars and the majority of the vegetables grown in Australia are grown for the fresh food market (60%) and are sold on the domestic market.1. Australia has a diversity of regional soil and climate conditions that enable production of a wide variety of vegetable crops across Australia. Parts of Australia, such as Tasmania, provide an ideally long growing window comparable with successful vegetable growing areas overseas. The distribution of Australia’s vegetable growers by State in 2003/04 reveals Queensland (1,247) having the most growers followed by Victoria (920), New South Wales (761), Tasmania (509), Western Australia (445) and South Australia (406).2 ABARE in its economic survey of vegetable growing farms in the period 2007/08 estimated that there were approximately 3,781 commercial vegetable farming enterprises operating in Australia with the majority of vegetable produce originating from Victoria and Queensland. This was a decrease from the 4,222 previously cited by ABARE in its report for the period 2006/07. As a result of the broad variations in climate, soil types and available resources across Australia a variety of vegetables can be commercially grown year round. The most important of these in monetary terms to the economy of Australia and therefore to the producer are:-3 Potatoes The total area planted to potatoes in 2007-08 rose by 12% to 38,000ha with the largest increases being in the states of Victoria (up 32%) and South Australia (up 29%). Production of potatoes rose by 16% to 1.4m tonnes driven mainly by the increases in Victoria and South Australia. There are three distinct categories of production: • Fresh potatoes for the fresh market and food service sector • Potatoes suitable for processing (crisps & frozen fries) • Seed potato production Tomatoes Despite a overall national decrease in the area of tomatoes planted, tomato yields increased in all growing states with production increasing by 29% to 382,000 tonnes in 2007-08 with large increases in Victoria (up 41%) as the major producer mainly for the processing sector and New South Wales (up 30%). Queensland is the major producer of tomatoes for the fresh market producing approximately 65% of the total tonnage grown. Tomatoes are produced for: • Fresh food consumption, predominately greenhouse, cherry and gourmet types • Processing as paste, sun dried, juiced and canned Carrots In the period 2003/04 Australia exported approximately 66,000 tonnes of carrots worth to the Australian economy A$39M. The area planted to carrots in 2007-08 fell

1 ABARE, Australian vegetable growing farms an economy survey 2007/08, Executive summary 2 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Financial data 2003/04 3 Aust. Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Agricultural Commodities Australia 2007-08 (71210 DO 005_200708)

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by 14% over the previous years with large falls in New South Wales and South Australia. Mushrooms Production of mushrooms in 2007/08 rose by 10% to 47,000 tonnes driven by the increase production in New South Wales and South Australia. Most of the mushrooms produced in Australia are the common white mushrooms (agaricus bisporus) although there is a growing demand for specialty mushrooms (e.g. shiitake, pleurotus, straw etc) and a niche market will continue to develop for these products over the next few years. Virtually all local production is consumed in the domestic market. Around 90% of domestic production is consumed as fresh mushrooms with only small quantities going to processing. Onions Production of onions in 2007/08 was 254,000 tonnes driven largely by increased production in Tasmania (up 25%) and Western Australia (up 57%). The total area under cultivation has remained relatively stable at 5,500ha with production by about 500 growers although as onions are grown in rotation with other crops there are no specialized onion growers. Lettuce Total production of lettuce in Australia has grown annually since the early 1990’s at the rate on average of 2.1% and it is currently Australia’s sixth largest vegetable crop valued at A$173M in the period 2005/06. Lettuce is predominately grown along the eastern coast of Australia particularly in Victoria and Queensland. Table 1. - Gross Value Production of the vegetable industry for 2003/044 Vegetable Value of Production Farm Gate value A$M Potatoes 480.9 412.7 Tomatoes 280.4 218.3 Carrots 219.3 194.1 Mushrooms 153.1 134.9 Onions 149.7 111.5 Lettuce 115.1 79.6 Asparagus 46.5 44.1 Beans 62.1 58.0 Beetroot Broccoli 81.4 68.8 Cabbages Capsicum / Chillies / Peppers 115.9 92.0 Cauliflower 57.3 39.9 Celery Cucumbers Green peas 14.1 13.9 Marrow / Squash / Zucchini Melons 143.6 104.6 Parsnips

4 Kiri Ganai Research 2005 in The Australian Vegetable Industry: Taking Stock and Setting Directions

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Pumpkins 57.2 35.8 Sweet Corn 70.6 53.7 Other 308.3 266.4 Total (Aggregate of ABS Class 2,355.5 1,661.9 data)5

It should be noted that Australia has a competitive advantage of being relatively close to the populous and developing markets of Asia in addition to being a counter seasonal supplier for northern hemisphere markets. Major export vegetables are asparagus, carrots and cauliflower although only in small quantities. One section of the vegetable industry which has not been mentioned up to this point and should be due to its continuing growth and potential commercial value to the Australian economy is the Asian vegetable sector which has been influenced greatly by our growing connection with Asia in recent years driven by the significant increase of people immigrating to Australia from the Asia region and in particular from Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia and Hong Kong. The Asian vegetable sector in 2000/01 was valued at around A$135.8M6 with an estimated 1,675 growers and has the potential to expand further especially in the northern half of the continent. Table 2. - Distribution of the major Asian vegetables grown by State7 Asian vegetable (English Asian term VIC SA TAS WA NT QLD NSW term) Chinese Cabbage Wong Bok X X X X X X X White Cabbage Pak Choi X X X X X X X Baak Choi Shanghai baak Choi Tat Choi Chinese Flowering Cabbage Een Sum X X X X X X X Chinese Broccoli Kai Laan X X X X X X Chinese Spinach Bor Choi X X X X X X Garland Chrysanthemum Tong Ho X X X X X Chinese Green Mustard Kaai Choi X X X X X Cabbage Japanese Mustard Mizuna X X X X X X Mibuna Spinach Mustard Komatsuna X X Snake Bean Dol Gok X X X Asparagus Bean Yardlong Bean

5 ABS, Australian Agricultural Commodities, 7121.0, 2003/04 6 Hassel &Assoc. 2003, cited by Kiri Ganai Research 2005 in “The Australian Vegetable Industry: Taking Stock and Setting Directions” 7 Hassel & Assoc. , Report for the Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, “Asian Vegetable Industry – A Situation Assessment”, page 80 - 82

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Yam Bean Jicama X X Green Soybean Edamame X X X X Lady Fingers Okra X X X X X Angled Loofah Sze Kwa X X X Smooth Loofa Shui Kwa X X X Wax Gourd Doong Kwa X X X Winter Melon Jointed Chic Kwa X X X Hairy Gourd Bottle Gourd Calabash X X X Bitter Melon Foo Kwa X X X Bitter Gourd Japanese Pumpkin Kabocha X X X X X Squash Melon Water Spinach Ong Choi Tung Tsoi X X X X X Kang Kong Watercress Say Yan Choi X X X X X Water Chestnut Ma Tai X X X Lotus Root Ling Ngul X X X Chinese Chives Gullo Choi X X X Japanese Honewort Mitsuba X X Perilla Leaves Shisho X X Lemon Grass Heung maau tso X X X X X X Coriander Yim Sai X X X X X X X Japanese Bunching Spring Onions Choong Tol X X X X X X Shiitake Mushrooms Doong Koo X X Oyster Mushrooms Bao Yue Koo X X Chinese Radish Loh Baak X X X X Bamboo Shoot Jook Sung X X Taro Wu Tau X X X Japanese Horse Radish Wasabi X X X Japanese Ginger X X X Chinese Yam X X Burdock Gobo X X X X X X X

Australia’s Climate Australia’s size and latitudinal range provide climatic diversity throughout the year thereby enabling an extensive range of vegetables to be grown, from tropical species in Far , Northern Territory and northern Western Australia to more temperate species in southern Victoria, Tasmania and south west of Western Australia. Australia is a dry continent and as shown in the map below the overwhelming feature in recent years has been the marked variability of both seasonal and annual rainfall totals across the country with the most recent trend being towards extended periods of drought. Irrigation has therefore become an essential part of most vegetable production.

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The changing climate of Australia has had a substantial impact on water use and the volumes of water available for the horticultural industry, the use of which may rise directly due to higher temperatures and lower rainfall, but the major impact of the continuing climatic conditions will come from the decline in water yield accessible by vegetable growers from rivers and streams8. Map 1. - Climate viability map

In recent years the horticultural industry and in particular the vegetable growing sector has been faced with increased demands for water preservation due to lower than expected rainfalls across Australia and the mounting pressure being placed as a result upon Australia’s main river basins (such as the Murray – Darling Basin). As a result of restrictions in rainfall and access to surface water sources experienced in recent years in different parts of Australia vegetable growers are becoming increasingly dependent upon other sources for their water primarily through accessing groundwater or recycled water but also in improved methods of irrigation (as is reflected in the table below). Table 3. - Total crops irrigated between 2002/3 and 2004/59 Vic S.A TAS W.A N.T QLD N.S.W Aust. Total Business No 1034 530 827 539 16 1591 971 5,508 Area under crop 30 17 18 8 35 19 127 ‘000ha Area under 25 17 17 7 31 17 114 irrigation ‘000ha Volume applied 78,746 79,905 51,782 51,610 1226 102,833 68,290 434,392 (ML) Application rate 5.1 8.1 6.3 9.5 3.7 7.8 9.2 7.1 (avg.) (ML/ha*)

8 Stern. H, “Objective Classification of Australian Climates”, Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne 9 ABS, “Water use on Aust. Farms – 4618.0 2004/5”, page 4 to 11

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National Water Policy The implications of living in the driest inhibited continent and the need to have a co-ordinated approach to water management has been recognised at least since the second world war with the first national review of water resources occurring in 1965. This review and all subsequent reviews have stressed the connectivity between surface water and groundwater. Over the last decade the significance of this connectivity has been strengthened as drought and other climatic influences have affected not only vegetable production but all rural activity. In February 1994 there was an endorsement by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) as a direct result of the recognition of the inefficient and in some cases the total inappropriate use of water for the formation of an agreement to achieve an efficient, economically viable and environmentally sustainable urban and rural water industry. This agreement became known as the ‘COAG Water Reform Framework”. Following on from the 1994 agreement in August 2003 COAG agreed that there was a need to strengthen and consolidate the agreement to increase the productivity and efficiency of water use to sustain urban and rural communities as well as ensure the health of the surface and groundwater resources of the country. This resulted in the establishment of the National Water Commission (NWC) which was charged with developing and implementing a National Water Initiative (NWI) a stipulation of which was that all States and Territories would by 2008 have identified situations where close inaction between surface flows and groundwater aquifers existed and have implemented systems to integrate the accounting of their use. An important component of any water reform measures is the management and improvement of the quality of the water. The introduction of a National Water Quality Management Strategy (NWQMS) 1992 was an attempt by COAG to achieve sustainable use of the nation’s water resources by protecting and enhancing their quality while maintaining economic and social development. NWQMS comprises policies, a process and 21 national guidelines for water quality management. Following the successful introduction of the NWQMS, in October 2000 the National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality (NAPS) was also introduced to address national resource issues in particular the salinity and water quality within some of Australia’s worst affected areas. The NAP is designed to improve both land and water management in 21 priority regions.

Australia’s Water Resources As a result of the severe drought conditions experienced Australia wide in recent years and the introduction of water restrictions by the various State governments on the broader community, as a consequence, the use of water by the vegetable growing industry has come into focus with calls for increased restrictions on the industry and for the industry to justify its use of large amounts of water. The National Water Commission undertook the Australian Water Resources 2005 in an attempt to obtain a baseline assessment of Australia’s water resources to determine what water resources are available for use by not only industry but the rural and urban communities in general. The AWR 2005 estimated that during the period 2004/5 the total inflow of water nationally was 291,953 gigalitres (GL) made up of: Total surface runoff 242,779 GL Ground water recharge 49,174 GL Volume stored (large ) 44,164 GL

There by giving an estimated total available water resource to Australia of 336,117 GL10, (as the available data does not include on-farm storage and small to medium size storage basins). The total available resource figure of 336,117 GL for the period 2004/5 amounts to just under 81% of the water resource available in the period 2000/01 of 415,096 GL.

10 ABS, “Water Account Australia 2004/05”

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It is in this climate of restrictions that vegetable growers have come under increased pressure together with other resource based industries to demonstrate to the broader community their performance in reducing water wastage and making more profitable use of such a limited resource. In New South Wales for example the vegetable industry has in the last ten years to 2005 been able to improve water efficient to a level where for every 1,000 megalitres (ML) used the industry now contributes A$7.7M of total regional output 11and this is repeated in the other States to varying degrees.

Effect of Water Trading on the Vegetable Industry in Australia Water trading is being introduced by governments throughout Australia as part of a national competition policy to achieve more dollars per ML used. Under water trading successful businesses using irrigation or those earning more per ML could be expected to expand more easily by purchasing water from lower valued users. Under the National Water Initiative recently introduced the States and Territories would be required to develop water plans to govern their management of this resource together with an allocation policy. In April 2005 the ABS published a report on national accounts for water use for the period 2002/03 it found that nationally 11,640 businesses or 27% of businesses irrigating reported irrigating without a water entitlement of some form, and further that across Australia a total of 5,429 businesses purchased 991GL of extra water on a temporary basis costing A$124M at an average of A$125 per ML. The majority (57%) of water purchased was in New South Wales and that of the 991GL sold nationally more than two-thirds was sold by businesses in Victoria.

Irrigation in Vegetable Production According to the ABS in the period 2004/05 a total of 35,000 farms irrigated 2.4 million hectares to supplement natural rainfall and by doing so applied approximately 65% of all water used within the country. The result of using this amount of water was product valued at A$9.1Billion or 23% of the total value of agricultural production for the period.12 The Commonwealth Scientific & Research Organisation (CSIRO) undertook research using precision weighing systems to measure the amount of water used by various crops and their yields. The following approximate figures were the result of this research, to produce one kilogram of: • oven dry wheat grain – 715 to 750 litres of water • maize – 540 to 630 litres • soybeans – 1,650 to 2,200 litres • paddy rice – 1,550 litres • beef – 50,000 to 100,000 litres • clean wool – 170,000 litres

NOTE: The above figures may vary depending on the environment, methods of water delivery & harvesting used. As is shown on the next page in Table 4, whilst vegetable production requires a large volume of water to achieve optimum growth and therefore involves a high level of capital investment per megalitre of water used and per hectare of land area by the grower, due to efficiencies within the industry (as compared to many other irrigated industries) through the use of modern irrigation technology and advanced management practices vegetable production actually provides the biggest returns to the grower.

11 N.S.W DPI, media release “Aussie Veggies not water wasters”, dated 1st December 2006 12 ABS, Yearbook Chapter 2008 – “Irrigation on Australian farms”, 1301.0

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Table 4. - Comparison in cost of water between industries where irrigation is used Water used by Value to Irrigators Return per megalitre irrigators(ML) (A$M ‘000) used (A$) Livestock, pasture, grains and others 8,795 2,450,000 300

Cotton 1,841 1,128,000 600 Rice 1,543 310,000 200 Sugar 1,236 517,000 400 Fruit 704 1,027,000 1,500 Grapes 649 613,000 900 Vegetables 635 1,119,000 1,800

As a result of the increased pressure being placed on Australia’s main river basins to satisfy a growing number of competing economic, social and environmental needs for water especially to maintain flow levels, irrigation through the use of new technologies is becoming the main tool for the vegetable grower. Currently there are three main sources of water available for irrigation purposes, these are: • on-farm dams Traditionally, on-farm dams have played an important role in Australian agriculture intercepting runoff that would otherwise feed into creeks, streams and then into rivers for use by the farmer during the summer dry period. In many regions of Australia small farm dams in particular those designed for stock or domestic purposes are unregulated and do not require a licence, for example in Victoria for the period 2004/05 there were 34,000 licensed dams with a capacity of 112 GL as against 321,000 unlicensed dams with a capacity of 756 GL13 • surface water storage (water sourced from lakes, rivers and streams) In the period 2004/05 total surface runoff in Australia was estimated at 242,800 GL, of which 60% occurred in Australia’s three northern drainage divisions, Gulf of Carpentaria – 62,060 GL, Timor Sea – 50,240 GL and North-east Coast 40,210 GL.14. Total surface water storage capacity within Australia’s large dams during the same period has been calculated at 83,853 GL but in fact as at 1st July 2004 water held in storage Australia wide was 44,164 GL which was reduced to 39,959 GL by the 30th June 200515 The Australian National Committee on Large Dams (ANCOLD) a voluntary association established in 1937 of organisations and individual professionals with an interest in dams in Australia and Australia’s national representative on the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) maintains a register of large dams in Australia (see map below) which was last updated in 2001 (see above) ANCOLD defines large dams as dams with a crest or wall height of >fifteen metres or a height >ten metres but meeting further size criteria of; 1. having a crest >500 metres in length, 2. creating a capacity >1,000 ML 3. having the ability to deal with a flood discharge of 2,000 cubic metres or > per second 4. being of unusual design

13 Victorian Government, Department of Sustainability & Environment, Melbourne June 2006, “State Water Report 2004/05” 14 ABS, Water Availability Theme – National Perspective, Page 2 15 IBID, Page 3

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Map 2. - Dam Location and Australian Drainage Divisions (ANCOLD)

• ground water storage (water source from aquifers and springs) Groundwater is defined as water that exists beneath the earth's surface in underground streams and aquifers. It has been in past and to this day of fundamental importance to the development and growth of Australia being extensively used for agriculture, irrigation, industry, mining and urban water supply and accounting for over 30% of the country’s total water consumption It should be noted at this point that in many situations groundwater and surface water are interconnected resources which until recently had not been well documented and are still generally managed separately There are three types of systems, those that are not highly connected to surface water systems, those highly connected and those containing non-renewable groundwater. It has been estimated that approximately 51% of groundwater extracted is used for irrigation with a further 17% being used for stock watering and other rural uses. The remaining 32% is used to supply cities, towns and industries. Presently it is believed that approximately 4 million Australians are dependent upon groundwater for their domestic water supply Total groundwater used by the agricultural sector in Australia during 2004/05 has been estimated at 2,800GL with the highest use in New South Wales (1,030GL), Queensland (670GL) and South Australia (470GL) 16 In an attempt to protect the aquifers and surface waters systems and prolong their life, Governments around Australia have recognised the necessity of introducing water resource caps as an accepted method of managing the overexploitation of these systems however there is still ongoing inconsistencies in terms of what water resource caps should cover with each State jurisdiction having a different approach. 17

16 ABS, Australian Commodities, Vol 14 no 1 March Quarter 2007 17 Aust Government, National Water Commission, Australian Water Resources 2005

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Types of Irrigation Systems Currently in Use The type of irrigation system selected for use on a particular farm is dependent upon soil type, available power source, topography of the land, sources of water, the size of area to be irrigated and probably the most important considerations; initial cost, and ongoing cost to maintain. The table below lists the most common irrigation systems in use to-day together with a brief description of their function. Table 5. – systems currently in use Irrigation system Description Furrow system System comprises a series of small shallow channels used to guide water down a slope across a paddock. Farrows are generally straight, but may curve to follow the contour of the land especially on steep slopes. Crops are generally grown on the ridge or bed between the furrows with one metre spacing. Level basin system This system is used to irrigate land which is level and enclosed. Water is applied in high volume achieving an even, rapid ponding to the desired application depth within the basin. Flood or border These systems are used where the paddock has been divided into bays separated by check system parallel ridges or border checks. The water flows down the slope of the paddock in the form of a sheet guided by the ridges. On steep slopes ridges may be closer spaced and may curve to follow the contour of the land. These types of systems are especially suited to orchard, vineyard, pasture, and grain crops. Centre pivot A centre pivot sprinkler is a self-propelled system in which a single pipeline supported sprinkler systems by a row of mobile towers is suspended 2 to 4 metres above ground. Water is pumped into the central pipe and as the towers rotate slowly around the pivot point a large circular area is irrigated. Nozzles mounted on or suspended from the pipeline distribute water under pressure as the pipeline rotates. The nozzles are graduated small to large so that the faster moving outer circle receives the same amount of water as the slower moving inside. Hand move Hand move sprinkler systems are a series of lightweight pipeline sections that are sprinkler systems moved manually for successive irrigations. Lateral pipelines are connected to a mainline which may be portable or buried. Hand move systems are often used for small irregular areas however they are not suitable to tall growing field crops due to the difficulty in repositioning laterals. Labour requirements are also higher than other sprinkler operations. Solid set / fixed Solid set or fixed sprinkler systems refer to a stationary sprinkler operation. Water sprinkler systems supply pipelines are generally fixed usually below ground and the sprinkler nozzles are elevated above the surface. Solid set systems are commonly used in orchards and vineyards for frost protection and crop cooling, also widely used on turf and in landscaping. Travelling gun Travelling gun sprinkler systems use a large sprinkler mounted on a wheel or trailer fed sprinkler systems by a flexible rubber hose. The sprinkler is self-propelled while applying water, travelling in a lane guided by a cable. The system requires high pressures to operate with 100 psi be not uncommon. Side roll wheel Side roll wheel move systems have a large diameter wheels mounted on a pipeline move systems enabling the line to be rolled as a unit to successive positions across a field. Crop type is an important consideration for this system since the pipeline is roughly one metre above ground. Linear or lateral Linear or lateral move systems are similar to centre pivot systems except that the lateral move systems line and towers move in a continuous straight path across a rectangular field. Water may be supplied by a flexible hose or pressurised from a concrete line ditch along the field’s edge. Low flow Low flow irrigation systems (including drip and trickle) use small diameter tubes placed irrigation systems above or below ground level. Frequent slow applications of water are applied to the

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(including drip and soil through small holes or emitters. The emitters are supplied by a network of main, trickle) sub-main and lateral lines. Water is dispensed directly to the root zone thus avoiding runoff or deep percolation and minimising evaporation. This systems is generally used in orchard, vineyard and high value vegetable crops

Australian Soil Types Australian soils with few exceptions have developed from much weathered and highly leached parent material and as a consequence the soils are inherently deficient in some major and minor nutrients as well as organic matter required for plant growth. Surface soils are often poor in structure causing difficulties with seed establishment, water filtration and stability against erosion. For further information on soil types / profiles in Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au. This site provides online access to the most current soil and land resource information in a consistent format across the country. ASRIS uses a hierarchy of mapping units with seven levels, the upper three provide description across the continent with the lower levels providing more detailed information. Data will also be available for approximately 10,000 representative profiles.

Markets for Vegetables Grown in Australia The majority of vegetable grown in Australia are for either the fresh or processing outlets within Australia although exports of vegetables in recent years has been steadily growing to the point where they now accounted for just over 7% of the total value of production. Fresh vegetables exports totalled A$145M for the period 2006/07 although total Australian vegetable exports fell for the fifth successive year to A$246M. As a result current balance of trade figures in vegetables has turned from a positive into a strong negative, a A$190M turn around in four years. A very wide selection of vegetables can be grown in Australia from asparagus to zucchini. The range of climatic conditions and growing regions allow for many vegetables to be available fresh year round, an example being fresh market potatoes which can be harvested successionally from the Atherton Tablelands in to the major production areas in southern Victoria. Some regions such as the Riverina in New South Wales can grow two crops per year in exceptional years but only with assistance of irrigation.

Introduction of horticultural precincts within Australia Currently all main land States in Australia are facing increasing threats to horticulture production, in particular the traditional market gardens which are often located close to the major population centres, (such as Werribee in Melbourne Victoria, Adelaide Plains near Adelaide South Australia and the Sydney Basin to the west of Sydney NSW) primarily from the increasing urban expansion which makes existing rural land close to major cities attractive for residential development. A solution to this problem is seen by many, both in the horticultural industry and government to be the establishment of dedicated horticultural precincts and numerous studies and development proposals have been made over the years. For example, Science Matters & Economic Consulting Services undertook a study on behalf of the WA Department of Agriculture & Food in November 2008 entitled “The feasibility of a new horticultural precinct on the Gnangara Mound” which examined the advantages and disadvantages of reserving an area at Carabooda to the north of Perth for horticulture production and achieved this by analysing three development options available to government. The development options were; • dedicated horticultural precinct on land currently occupied by an existing pine plantation • to continue production on the existing farm land but face increasing urban fringe development • develop a ‘greenfield’ site by allocating significant areas of suitable land and associated water resources to relocate horticulture production away from the pressure of urban expansion

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Carabooda was identified by the study due to its close proximity to the existing horticultural region of Wanneroo where the industry is currently under increasing pressure due to urban expansion into the region and available water resources are being restricted as wetlands are impacted upon by a declining water table.

The main principals for the establishment of a dedicated horticultural precinct should be that the land set aside for development (normally this would be Crown Land) is held by government cheap enough that it which would allow existing farming enterprises to relocate at minimal expense, that there are sufficient water resources either natural or recycled for irrigation purposes, and that the precinct is positioned to take advantage of existing transportation and other existing infrastructure within the region.

A carefully planned precinct can also encourage the establishment of secondary industries within the region such as local processing facilities, transportation logistics etc. thereby enhancing any employment opportunities which may exist within a region.

Vegetable Production in Australia Using Organic Farming Methods Organic farming is viewed by many as a niche industry operated by predominately hobby farmers on small allotments whose products are sold through local rural markets and supported by small dedicated group of consumers with a demand for a perceived safer food source free from chemical contamination achieved through certification of the grower. In fact the organic industry is a holistic approach to agriculture and combines farmers, processors, retailers, input providers, certifying agencies and a range of other individuals and associations. There are currently (as at June 2009) approximately 1545 certified organic farms in Australia not including those undergoing pre-certification, in-conversion or deferred farms, of which approximately 32% are vegetable producers.18 Approximately three quarters of certified organic farms are estimated to be in New South Wales (28%), Queensland (26%) and Victoria (20%).

The principal difficulty in establishing the size and growth of the organic sector is that the majority of data collected on the production and economic value of the agriculture sector is by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) or by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE). For various reasons the data collected by both organisations does not distinguish between organic and conventional agricultural methods of production and therefore it is not possible to reliably compile a view of the importance of organic agriculture in Australia’s agriculture industry. For this reason no further research into organic agriculture has been undertaken for this project, it is enough to know that it is present in the industry and that its influence within the industry is expanding.

Biosecurity Issues In the past Australia’s geographic isolation and a lack of shared land borders has provide a degree of protection against exotic threats to the vegetable industry however since the second world war the rapid growth in overseas tourism, imports and exports, mail and changing transportation procedures especially the advent of containerisation of produce in the 1960’s and improved refrigeration has removed many of the pre-existing barriers. The biosecurity threats the Australian vegetable industry face from overseas sources are too numerous to list for the more than sixty vegetable crops currently grown in Australia, however there are quarantine issues within Australia which can be highlighted, for example the importation of potatoes from the eastern states of Australia into Western Australia is prohibited by that State and similarly a

18 Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, The Australian Organic Industry – A Summary (2004) , Page 7

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whole range of leafy vegetables including lettuce cannot be exported from parts of Western Australia to New South Wales or Victoria unless an appropriate permit or certificate has been obtained. The Table below lists vegetables which are either banned outright or require either a permit or certification to cross state borders. Table 6. – Biosecurity issues concerning vegetables by State State Vegetable Permit Total Prohibited from required Ban VIC Fresh herbs Yes WA Vegetables (Leafy) –Lettuce Cabbage etc. Yes WA Vegetable seedlings Yes QLD &WA SA Asparagus Yes WA Onions, Garlic, Leeks, Spring onions, Chives, etc Yes All states Tomato plants Yes QLD Potatoes Yes All states Vegetables (Cucurbit) – cucumber, squash etc. Yes All states Vegetables (Fruiting) – capsicum, chilli, eggplant etc Yes All states Vegetable (Leafy) - Lettuce Cabbage etc Yes WA Vegetables (root) unless free from soil and tops removed Yes All states Herbs (Fresh) Yes WA TAS Vegetables (Fresh) Yes All states Vegetables (plants & seedlings) Yes All states Herbs (Fresh) Yes All states Onions, Garlic, Leeks, Spring onions, Chives, etc Yes All states Peas (Fresh & Dried, including seeds for sowing) Yes All states Potatoes (Fresh & Seed) Yes All states Vegetables (Summer salad) Yes All states WA Vegetables (Fresh) Yes All states Potatoes (Unpeeled) Yes All states Onion (Unpeeled) Yes All states NT Vegetables (Cucurbit) – cucumber, squash etc. Yes NSW & QLD Tomato Yes NSW & QLD Pumpkin Yes NSW & QLD Melons Yes NSW & QLD Herbs (Fresh) Yes All states except TAS Vegetables (Non-Leafy – Commercial) Yes WA Vegetables (Leafy) – Lettuce Cabbage etc Yes WA QLD Vegetables (Fresh) Yes WA Vegetables (Plants & seedlings) Yes All states

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Potatoes Yes VIC & WA NSW Vegetables (Fresh) Yes All states except & TAS ACT Herbs (Fresh) Yes WA Potato (planting material) Yes All states

Ensuring that the Australian vegetable industry has a viable biosecurity plan is essential for industry, government and other relevant stakeholders to actively determine pests, analyse their risk and put into place procedures to reduce not only the chance of pests entering this country but of their spreading from one State to the next through such methods as exclusion, eradication and control. Some of the pests which could have devastating effects upon the vegetable industry in Australia are: • tomato leaf miner – affects cabbages, cucumbers, lettuces and tomatoes • vegetable leaf miner - affects eggplant, capsicum, celery, cucumbers, peas and tomatoes • melon fly – affects cucumber

Potato Spindle Tuber Viroid (PSTVd) is a disease that could also threaten the industry. A number of other species are hosts of the disease including eggplant. PSTVd is a highly contagious virus like organism that poses a significant threat to Australia's potato and tomato industries. It has been reported in Australia on a couple of occasions but thankfully it has been successfully eradicated each time.

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KEY VEGETABLE GROWING REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA.

VICTORIA 19 The vegetable industry is the second largest horticultural industry in Victorian behind fruit and in the period 2007/08 was worth to the State’s economy A$762.9M.20 The industry is predominately located within areas having an abundant water supply for irrigation and is made up of small to medium scale farms supported by a strong post-harvest infrastructure. Victoria is the largest producer of asparagus, broccoli and tomatoes in Australia although potatoes have the highest market value with major markets in seed and fresh potatoes.

Climate Victoria’s climate is influenced by seasonal weather patterns as well as topographic features. The State differs from other mainland states being the furthest south and having its major mountain range (Great Divide) running west - east and not north – south as in other eastern coast States. The climate of Victoria is generally favourable to plant growth having an adequate combination of rainfall and warmth over most of the State. The State’s weather is primarily influenced by weather patterns having their origin in the Southern Ocean. During the period April to November (including the Winter period June to August) there is a general west to east movement of high pressure systems across or to the north of Victoria interspersed with low pressure systems or cold fronts bringing moist airstreams or rain to most of the State. When these systems combine with tropical moisture from the north rainfall can be significant even extending to the dry northern plains. The State’s weather becomes more mobile during Spring resulting in more variable weather patterns during September to November period compared to the Winter months. The Summer months from December to March bring high pressure systems from the Southern Ocean further south associated with cooler south-westerly changes and isolated showers to the southern half of the State. Thunderstorms or the influence of tropical systems to the north of the mountain range can cause significant rainfall in certain circumstances Crop wise the winter months bring restricted plant growth due to lower temperatures whilst during the extended Summer months rainfall may be insufficient to promote adequate plant growth however if irrigation is available during the Summer the productivity of pasture, crops orchards etc. can be vastly improved as the plants benefit from the long days of sunshine and warm temperatures.

Water Policy The Victorian Water Act (1989) has been designed to enable integrated management of both surface and groundwater assets and to assist in eliminating inconsistencies in the treatment of surface water and groundwater resources and waterways through the development of water management plans and licensing provisions. Water management plans are intended to ensure that the water resources of any particular water supply area are protected and managed in an equitable manner to ensure the long term sustainability of those resources. In Victoria licences are required for both irrigation and commercial use of water taken from waterways, springs, soaks or dams and groundwater. In considering any application the relevant licensing authority is required to take into account such things as: • water availability • quality

19 DPI Victoria, VegCheque – Victorian Vegetable Growing Regions 20 IBID, 7503.0, Value of Agricultural Commodities Produced – Australia 2007/08,

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• adverse impacts on other people, waterways and aquifers • needs of the environment

Conditions may be set on any licensing agreement to management potential adverse impacts in addition to limiting the total annual volume which may be extracted whether from surface water, groundwater, or both.

In terms of water trading there have been numerous transfers of surface water licences particularly in the north of the State which is subject to the Murray Darling Basin Cap. In comparison, there have been less than twenty groundwater transfers as of 2008 although it is believed that this will increase in capped groundwater systems as the water market develops.

NOTE: For further information on this issue the Victorian Government has prepared a White Paper entitled “Our Water Our Future” in which connectivity issues such as surface water / groundwater caps and surface water / groundwater transfers are discussed in detail.

Water Supply In Victoria, water is managed by Melbourne Water which supplies wholesale water to three retail water businesses (City West Water, South East Water and Yarra Water), thirteen regional water authorities and four rural water supply businesses (Goulburn Murray Water, Southern Rural Water, Grampians-Wimmera & Mallee Water, and Lower Murray Water An additional entity, the Northern Victoria Irrigation Renewal Project (NVIRP) has been created to deliver A$2 billion irrigation upgrade to the Goulburn Murray irrigation system. Irrigation modernisation will improve water delivery management and irrigation services and recover much of the water now being lost. In addition to these businesses, there are 10 Catchment Management Authorities (CMAs) established under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 (Vic). CMAs (together with Melbourne Water) effectively undertake the role of ‘caretaker of river health’ for their region. They have responsibility for a range of functions that focus on the maintenance and improvement of river health and the minimisation of flood risks and costs whilst preserving natural features of the floodplain. CMAs are provided with regional waterway, floodplain, drainage and environmental water reserve management powers under the Water Act 1989 (Vic.). The Great Dividing Range which runs west to north-east through the middle of the state effectively divides the State in two, with water systems originating on the inland side running into the Murray River which is flowing in turn through increasingly arid country. Whilst to the coastal side the water systems made up of many individual river systems flow directly to the sea. Just 16% of the total rainfall the State each year or approximately 23,000 GL on average, flows into the State’s water courses. A further 1% or 1,500 GL filters through to recharge the State’s groundwater aquifers. One third of the stream flow received or 6,600 GL together with half of the groundwater or 850 GL is then extracted for use by the community, either for irrigation, domestic use, industrial and for other urban purposes.21 The location of many of Victoria’s regional townships have been determined by the availability of a water supply for use by agriculture which accounts for over 50% of all available water both surface and groundwater in the State.

21 Victorian Government, Department of Sustainability and Environment, Securing our water future togther, Chapter 2, Page 17

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Use of Irrigation The use of irrigation methods within the State not only underpins the regional economy of many rural communities and produces A$2.7B worth of agricultural product,22but also allows many of these regions to prosper which otherwise would be financially unviable. The irrigation reticulation system within Victoria consists of constructed open channels (either lined or unlined), natural streams, pipelines (either gravity or pressurised) and accounts for over 75% of water consumed in the State23or 2,500 GL per year on average (see table below). Table 7.- Victoria’s total available irrigation infrastructure Region Natural Length of Length of Area serviced Area serviced waterways used supply channel supply pipeline by surface by sub- as carriers drains surface drains (Kms) (Kms) (ha) (ha) Bacchus 0 15 28 0 0 Marsh Central 0 1,396 27 83,800 22,643 Goulburn Irrigation Area 1st Mildura 0 40 230 0 6,273 Irrigation Trust Macalister 0 640 32 0 0 Irrigation District Murray River 140 979 1 44,675 44,500 irrigation Area Pyramid Boort 252 1,322 2 37,296 500 Irrigation Area Rochester / 0 703 42 46,760 4,344 Campaspe Irrigation Area Shepparton 0 686 14 34,063 2,649 Irrigation Area Sunraysia 0 30 302 0 10,672 Rural Water Authority Swan Hill 0 43 138 0 2,121 Pumped Districts Torrumbarry 252 1,322 1 61,446 1,300 Irrigation Area Werribee 0 52 12 3,000 0 Irrigation Area Wimmera 0 100 0 0 0 Mallee Water

22 ABS, Australian Agricultural Commodities, 7121.0, 2003/04 23 Victorian Government, Department of Sustainability and Environment, Brochure – Our Water Our Future

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Victoria 644 7,328 829 314,040 95,002

Over the proceeding 30 years the irrigation sector has made significant inroads in addressing water wastage through for example covering open irrigation channels and using improved delivery systems such as drip or trickle feeders. During the period 2006/07 as noted in a survey undertaken by ABARE 92% of Victoria’s farmers who responded used irrigation in one form or another24allowing an average yield of 35 tonne per ha, a substantially higher figure than for farms where irrigation was not used. These farms yielded 21 tonne to the ha. The same survey revealed that the average water usage for farms using irrigation was approximately 4 megalitres per ha of vegetable crops. Map 3. – Victoria’s aquifers

Map 4. – Victoria’s surface water catchments

24 ABARE, Australian Vegetable Growing Farms, Chapter 4 page 21

35 Water sustainability for the Future

Table 8 – Sources of irrigation water used in Victoria25 (average proportion per farm) Irrigation Scheme 39 Groundwater bore 43 Diversion from river or 10 stream Town water supply 0 On-farm storage dam 4 Treated or recycled 3 water Other 1 total 100

Soil Types Victoria has a wide variety of soil types that reflect the differences in the formation of the soils which are dictated by factors such as geology, landform, stream activity, vegetation, climate and age (that is the degree of weathering). Soils underpin the productive potential of agriculture and forestry and the majority of soils in Victoria are generally highly productive under good management practices. The Victorian Government has released through the Department of Primary Industries, Victorian Resources Online which presents a wide range of soil information which will be continually expanded throughout the course of the project. A number of broadscale soil maps of Victoria are available and more detailed soil maps and accompanying information will be progressively developed. For further information on Victorian Resources Online project or to view the information currently available - www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro Further information can also be obtained on the soil types / profiles in Victoria by referring to the Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

Victoria’s Vegetable Growing Regions Approximately 70% of Victoria’s vegetables are grown on the urban fringe of Melbourne where the availability of suitable horticultural land and water is diminishing as the demand for residential land close to the capital city of Melbourne increases. As a result one of the major challenges facing the horticultural industry is to develop sustainable practice in relation to the use of water whilst maximising the land use potential. The seven growing regions as recognised by the Victorian Government Department of Primary Industry are:

Central Victoria Region This region including the major centres of Shepparton, Echuca, Tatura and Cobram is renowned for its tomato production and is the home of SPC Ardmona one of the largest processing companies in Australia, as well as a number of other processors such as Unifoods, Cedenco, and Campbell’s Soups. Together these companies have influenced the development of the vegetable production industry within the region. Since 1998 the fresh tomato industry has moved to new gourmet trellised varieties with the harvesting being undertaken through a combination of hand and machine picking between late December and mid-May.

25 IBID, Australian Vegetable Growing Farms, Chapter 4 page 22

36 Water sustainability for the Future

The region has the benefit of cool winters and warm summers combined with access to an extensive irrigation infrastructure and high solar radiation. Industry trend is toward a few large farming enterprises as against many small enterprises. There are a number of organic, glasshouse and hydroponic enterprises as well as field grown crops in the region. Climate The region benefits from cool winters and warm summers and the use of an extensive irrigation infrastructure based around the Goulburn – Murray river systems as the average rainfall for the region is less than 500mm per annum and high solar radiation. Approximately 90% of the tomato crop is irrigated with drip irrigation. Water supply Goulburn-Murray Water is responsible for all Victorian waterways and bodies within its region north of the Great Dividing Range covering approximately 68,000 square kilometres. The surface water managed includes an extensive network of streams, creeks, rivers, lakes, weirs and as well as irrigation channels. Irrigation use Irrigation water within the region is managed and delivered by Goulburn-Murray Water, which is Australia’s largest rural water authority. Infrastructure is currently being upgraded to create world’s best practice irrigation system incorporating automated technology and repairs to outdated channels designed to dramatically improve water delivery and efficiency. To achieve modernisation, a combination of methods are being used to replace and upgrade the irrigation infrastructure that delivers water to farmers including: • automating the main irrigation channels using radio-controlled, solar-powered technology to open and close the channel gates and monitor flows constantly, 24 hours a day; • lining channels with clay or plastic to stop water lost through seepage and leakage; • remediating channel banks to stop leaking and seepage; • removing redundant or obsolete infrastructure and restructuring supply systems; and • replacing inaccurate on-farm water meters with modern meters.

Modern channel automation technology is sensitive enough to detect discrepancies in water delivery and to identify where maintenance is required. Critical water level and flow monitoring via automated gates ensures precise amounts of water are delivered when and where they are needed, shortening ordering times and providing more consistent and reliable delivery of water to irrigators.

Groundwater Groundwater is the reserve of water that is located beneath the earth’s surface in pores and crevices of rocks and soils known as aquifers. Victoria’s usable groundwater resource is relatively small and equals about 10% of the surface water resources. Aquifers do not align with surface water catchments and some aquifers are interconnected to surface water resources across several basins. One in ten people in Victoria rely upon groundwater from private bores, springs and public water supplies for their daily water supply. The Goulburn-Murray Water is responsible for managing groundwater resources and licensing, both the use of groundwater and the construction of bores, central and northern Victoria. There are currently 488 GL of groundwater licence entitlements within the area controlled by Goulburn-Murray Water with 177 GL metered and estimated usage in 2008/09. These figures do not include the volume of groundwater used for stock or domestic purposes. Soil types Rising from the plains are the Central Victorian Highlands, which are gently undulating hills with the Brisbane Ranges acting as a boundary to the east. To the east lies the Wombat Forest and to its north the catchment areas for the Loddon and Campaspe rivers.

37 Water sustainability for the Future

There are five main Soil Categories in the Goulburn Broken Region and these are listed below. Each of these Soil Categories contain one or more Soil Orders.

• Texture Contrast Soils are those that display strong texture contrast between the surface (A horizons) and the subsoil (B horizons) e.g. sand or loam over clay. In the Goulburn Broken Region, there is a range of soils with strong texture contrast, previously referred to as Duplex soils using the Northcote Factual Key. Using the Australian Soil Classification there are three Soil Orders represented, based on subsoil chemistry (specifically pH): Kurosols have clay subsoils which are strongly acid (i.e. pH <5.5 in water). Their surface texture ranges from loam to fine sandy loam over a clay subsoil. They are the most common of the texture contrast soils in the region and occur generally in the higher rainfall areas on a range of landform and rock types. Chromosols have clay subsoils which are not strongly acid (i.e. pH >5.5 in water) and are non-sodic. Their surface texture ranges from loam to fine sandy loam over a over a clay subsoil. They are common throughout the region. Sodosols have subsoils which are not strongly acid (i.e. pH >5.5 in water) but are sodic. Their surface texture ranges from sandy loam to clay loam over medium to heavy clay. Sodosols are widespread throughout the lower rainfall areas of the region and are commonly found throughout the Riverine Plains and in the low hills and rises to the east of Heathcote. • Soils Lacking Strong Texture Contrast - There are a number of soils in the Goulburn Broken region which lack strong texture contrast between the surface and subsoil horizons. These soils have previously been referred to as Gradational soils using the Northcote Factual Key. Using the Australian Soil Classification they are classified as: Dermosols are non-texture contrast soils, which have moderately deep and well-structured subsoils. These tend to occur in the higher rainfall areas in the south east of the region and are usually strongly acid. They generally occur in hilly to mountainous areas and are usually well drained.

Kandosols differ from Dermosols in that they have minimal structural development in the subsoil. They are mostly well drained and are often referred to as 'earthy' soils. They generally occur to the east and south of Seymour and often in association with Kurosols and Chromosols.

Ferrosols are deep, well-structured and friable soils that have formed on basalt. They are high in free iron oxide and clay, and are generally strongly acidic. • Cracking Clay Soils - These soils are referred to as Vertosols using the Australian Soil Classification. These are clay soils that shrink and swell and crack as the soil dries. They are most common in the northern plains area situated within the northern sector of the region. • Shallow Soils - There are two shallow soils in the Goulburn Broken Region as classified by the Australian Soil Classification: Rudosols are young shallow soils which show little development. They are limited to a few small areas. Tenosols are shallow, weakly developed soils that show more profile development than Rudosols. They generally have low water holding capacity and fertility. In the Goulburn- Broken region they are most commonly found in the south, associated with sedimentary and granite hills.

38 Water sustainability for the Future

• Wet Soils - These soils are referred to as Hydrosols and are saturated for many months of the year. They occur in only small areas on the Riverine Plains, particularly in the Lake Cooper and Lake Mokoan areas and other smaller swamps. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 9. - Main vegetable crops grown within the Central Victoria Region compared with the State as a whole Victoria Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans -French & Runner 3,284.3 816.7 15.75 4.00 Broccoli 19,410.6 2,769.3 22.62 18.90 Cabbages 26,866.7 673.0 2,675.00 137.00 Capsicum 6,574.3 246.2 160.43 11.40 Carrots 53,622.5 1,193.0 3,629.90 77.30 Cauliflower 19,384.9 965.3 238.80 15.30 Chilli 240.0 18.0 109.76 8.60 Cucumbers 267.8 17.1 13.21 0.40 Eggplant 210.6 20.8 199.91 18.80 Garlic 29.6 9.0 1.71 0.60 Leeks 4,475.8 220.8 218.90 26.80 Lettuce 53,611.8 2,846.3 1,784.10 107.40 Mushrooms 15,426.3 69.5 858.98 4.40 Onions - White & Brown 12,974.3 285.6 3,036.10 61.60 Onions - Red 1,034.4 25.5 947.50 23.20 Parsnips 10,298.8 434.1 812.90 82.80 Peas 172.8 55.9 13.39 5.40 Peas - Snow & Sugar snap 2,698.4 1,623.2 13.50 16.90 Potatoes 322,446.4 10,720.2 77,081.90 1,821.50 Pumpkins - Butter 6,775.3 368.5 2,808.30 111.80 Silver beet / Spinach 2,698.4 343.9 1,000.05 50.20 Spring onions - Shallots 1,355.0 125.0 11.79 0.80 Swedes & Turnips 521.4 38.0 56.30 3.20 Tomatoes 174,379.0 2,995.6 168,720.30 2,939.00 Zucchini & button squash 3,566.5 173.7 3,180.42 133.20 Total Area Sown 27,054.20 5,680.50 Total Production (Tonnes) 742,325.90 267,611.52

East Gippsland Region Vegetables are grown in two main areas of the region being concentrated on the Mitchell River flats near Bairnsdale and also around the Orbost, Maffra and Sale areas. Total production area covered is 2,600 ha with a gross value of A$36.5 M amounting to almost 10% of the State’s vegetable production excluding potatoes.

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The region is able to produce year round production of a range of vegetable crops with the opportunity to expand production areas are the main strengths of this region combined with high water quality in both rivers and groundwater together with good soil aided by moderate coastal climate, mild winter and high summer rainfall Climate The East Gippsland region is unique due to its coastal influences and the effects of the mountain ranges on the prevailing weather patterns resulting in a mild climate and high rainfall, these conditions lends themselves to the year round production of a range of vegetable products. Bairnsdale has a mean maximum temperature in January of 24.6°C and 13.8°C in July with an average rainfall annually of 700mm.26 Water supply The East Gippsland Basin covers a total area of 604 000 ha, of which 150 000 ha (25%) is in New South Wales. The average annual streamflow of the basin totals 770 000 ML (3.5% of Victoria's total discharge). The main rivers in the basin are the Bemm, Cann, Thurra, Wingan and Genoa, all of which flow south or south-east into coastal inlets or lagoons, before entering the sea. Drainage Basins in the East Gippsland Region: 27

• Snowy River Basin – covers a total area of 1,580,000 ha ,41% lies within Victoria with the remainder in NSW. The area which occurs in NSW generates the greatest proportion of the Basin’s total annual streamflow which is 3,490,000 ML and of this amount 1,130,000 ML or 32% is diverted into the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme.

Whilst the Snowy River is the major river within the Basin there are a number of other tributaries including the Suggan Buggan, Little and Buchan Rivers to the west and the Deddick, Rodger and Brodribb Rivers to the east.

Average annual water use within the Victorian part of the Basin is only 2,230 ML, three quarters of which is used for irrigation.

• Tambo River basin includes the Tambo and Nicholson Rivers and has a total area of 425,000 ha. Its average annual discharge is 325,000 ML of which 100,000 ML are divertible and 5,000 ML have been developed. The Timbarra River is a major tributary of the Tambo and forms part of the western boundary of the East Gippsland Region.

• Mitchell River Basin extends 120kms from Lake Victoria in the south to the eastern highlands in the north and is typically 40 kms wide. It is the westernmost catchment within the East Gippsland Region and has a total area of 544,844ha or 2.5% of Victoria. The Basin is well endowed with surface water resources with a mean annual flow of 960,000 ML or 4.3% of statewide discharge. The divertible surface resource is 640,000 ML per year and of this volume about 18,000 ML has been developed.

Use of irrigation Water for irrigation is obtained principally from the Mitchell, Tambo and Snowy Rivers which have substantial alluvial floodplains in their lower reaches which are sites of the region’s highly productive irrigation areas including the Lindenow Flats on the Mitchell River, Bruthen Flats on the Tambo River and the Snowy River Flats. These flats are used extensively for horticulture, dairying and cattle production. Water is also sourced from the Nicholson, Genoa and Buchan Rivers.

26 Bureau of Meteorology, Commonwealth of Australia 2000 27 Victorian Government, Department of primary Industries, Victorian Resources Online, www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro

40 Water sustainability for the Future

Irrigation from groundwater supplies has increased in the past decade particularly from the Boisdale aquifer on the Red Gum Plains in the south west of the region and from the Curlip Gravel aquifer of the Orbost Groundwater Management Area. Groundwater Part of the East Gippsland region lies within the Highlands and Gippsland groundwater provinces. The Highlands province is made up of sedimentary basement rock of Palaeozoic age with igneous intrusions, while the Gippsland province is distinguished by younger unconsolidated Cainozoic sediments which extend offshore under Bass Strait. Groundwater quality is generally good in the eastern half of Victoria, which covers the East Gippsland region, and large volumes of groundwater exist in the region. Considerable reserves of groundwater underlie the southern part of the region, much of it of good quality although current groundwater allocations are low throughout the region. In the last decade there has been an increase in the amount of groundwater used for irrigation particularly in the lower Mitchell River and on the Red Gum Plains in the west of the region. The major groundwater aquifers within the region and which occur mainly in unconfined fractured rock or sedimentary deposits, in the region include:

• the out-cropping Quaternary alluvium and ‘Haunted Hill’ gravel aquifer which covers most of the Gippsland province including the Mitchell River valley, and surrounding the Gippsland Lakes; • the Gippsland Limestone aquifer which is restricted to the south west of the East Gippsland region, occurring at a depth of 150 to 250 m. The aquifer thickness varies between 100 m and 500 m; • the Boisdale formation of sands and clays with some ligneous and coaly seams occurring at a depth of five to 75 m; • Palaeozoic and Mesozoic fractured rock aquifers in the Eastern Victorian Uplands, consisting of igneous rock or consolidated sediments 28

The Boisdale Formation occurs throughout the Gippsland basin to the east of Traralgon and underlies much of the East Gippsland plains and Lakes. Its best aquifer sequence is the highly permeable sands that usually occur at a depth of 20 to 80 m. Aquifers in alluvial sediments, such as those along the Mitchell River between Glenaladale and Bairnsdale, are used extensively for irrigation and stock water supplies. Although not widely used as a source of water, the fractured rock aquifers occurring in the highlands are important as they provide a large proportion of the summer flow of the region’s major rivers. This groundwater is generally of excellent quality (salinity < 200 mg/L) and is reflected in the good quality of summer stream flow.

Soil types The soils of the region are predominately rich alluvial river soils which are self draining and well structured with strong nutrient rich structures.and lack strong texture contrast. These soils are referred to as Dermosols in the new Australian Soil Classification. Black and Red Dermosols in the Gippsland region (Maffra, Stratford, Bairnsdale) are also associated with floodplains and younger terraces respectively. When irrigated these soils are used mainly for dairy production but are also used for fodder cropping and vegetable cropping. The risk of flooding can be a concern in some areas.

28 Victorian Government, Department of primary Industries, Victorian Resources Online, www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro

41 Water sustainability for the Future

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 10. - The main vegetable crops grown within the East Gippsland Region compared with the State as a whole Victoria Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Asparagus 9,515.0 1,496.0 54.20 11.00 Beans - Butter 116.9 64.4 116.44 60.30 Beans -French & Runner 3,284.3 816.7 2,118.50 506.20 Broccoli 19,410.6 2,769.3 2,753.79 507.00 Cabbages 26,866.7 673.0 8,793.10 132.50 Capsicum 6,574.3 246.2 139.97 9.90 Carrots 53,622.5 1,193.0 4,336.00 113.50 Cauliflower 19,384.9 965.3 422.10 22.40 Chilli 240.0 18.0 127.67 9.30 Leeks 4,475.8 220.8 28.84 2.30 Lettuce 53,611.8 2,846.3 2,820.50 112.80 Onions - White & Brown 12,974.3 285.6 200.00 16.40 Peas 172.8 55.9 143.43 40.50 Peas - Snow & Sugar snap 2,698.4 1,623.2 124.12 50.80 Potatoes 322,446.4 10,720.2 3.50 0.60 Pumpkins - Butter 6,775.3 368.5 586.90 16.80 Sweet corn 10,327.0 533.0 6,151.40 309.40 Tomatoes 174,379.0 2,995.6 63.50 0.30 Total Area Sown 27,891.0 1,924.50 Total Production (Tonnes) 726,876.0 28,983.96

North East Region The North East region of Victoria comprises 1,980,000 hectares and is home to a population of 94,400, located predominantly in Wodonga and Wangaratta. The region is an area rich in natural assets and its industries include agriculture (dairy, beef, lamb, wool, cropping and horticulture), forest industries and value-added processing industries. More than 55 % of the region consists of public land, encompassing more than 200 reserves, including national parks, wilderness parks and historic reserves. Agriculture is the major commercial activity (covering 41% of the region), of which sheep and beef grazing account for 65% of land area and dairy 23%. The most valuable outputs are vegetables, fruit and dairy products on irrigated lands, beef and sheep on drier country, and forestry in areas receiving over 900 mm annual average rainfall. The Hume Freeway roughly demarcates the western limit to non-irrigated intensive agriculture and forestry. Traditional tobacco growing areas in the rich valleys east of the freeway have been replaced by crops of wine grapes, hops for the brewing industry, nut and fruit trees, and private forestry.

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Climate The Great Dividing Range is the dominant geographic feature in North east Victoria producing wide variations in climate. Rainfall can vary within the region from 500mm on the plains, up to 2,000mm in the alpine areas, much of which falls as snow. Climate variability is one of the most important risk factors to horticulture in this region. The length of the growing season is strongly influenced by the availability of soil moisture and suitable temperatures. Water supply The region is serviced by North East Water which provides water to 39 towns, villages and cities in North East Victoria. The actual management of the region’s water storage delivery and drainage systems is undertaken by Goulburn-Murray Water (GMW), which manages water storage, delivery and drainage systems involving 70% of Victoria's stored water. North East Water serves an estimated population of 100,000 people in an area of approximately 20,000 square kilometres. The region extends from Corryong in the east, along the Murray River to Yarrawonga, then south to Benalla and the alpine towns of Bright, Mt. Beauty and Dartmouth. Use of irrigation Water through irrigation is a key factor in horticulture within the region whilst the north east catchment is predominately farmed using dry land practices irrigation does play a significant part in the economy of the region. The North East catchment contains both regulated and unregulated water ways and encompasses three major river basins, the Upper Murray, Kiewa and Ovens with the majority of irrigation occurring within these basins. Regulated waterways are those in which the flow can be controlled using some form of water storage, typically a lake or reservoir. Water is collected and held in storage during high flow periods and then released during periods of low flow or as required. The total volume of water licensed for irrigation is 133 GL and nearly half of this is regulated. Groundwater In a number of valleys within the region groundwater is available for extraction and used for irrigation. Soil types The region has a great diversity of soil types and landform units which reflects differences in parent material, geology, topography, climate, organic activity and age or degree of weathering. In the higher rainfall areas of the region Kurosols and Acidic Dermosols are the most prevalent soils. The region’s soils can be classified under the Australian Soil Classification into ten different soil orders which in turn can be grouped into four main soil categories, these being texture contrast soils, soils lacking strong texture contrast, cracking clay soils and shallow soils. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 11. - The main vegetable crops grown within the North East Region compared with the State as a whole Victoria Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Capsicum 6,574.3 246.2 4762.29 164.20 Lettuce 53,611.8 2,846.3 87.90 6.20 Potatoes 322,446.4 10,720.2 205.00 14.20 Tomatoes 174,379.0 2,995.6 93.40 0.40 Total Area Sown 16,808.30 185.20 Total Production (Tonnes) 557,011.50 5,149.09

43 Water sustainability for the Future

North West Victoria Region The region combines the areas known as the Mallee and Wimmera and borders on the Murray River in north-west Victoria. The region is home to a wide range of crops but is almost entirely dependent on the waters of the Murray River for irrigation and as a result production occurs along a narrow strip of land up to about 20km from the river. Asparagus is harvested between August and October and December and March, melons harvested between November and April, carrots are grown between March and December to avoid quality problems resulting from high heat. Cucumbers, tomatoes, capsicum, and zucchini are grown both in a glasshouse environment and in the field and are harvested between late September and June. Potato can be planted twice a year with a harvest in early summer but the main season is during autumn through winter. Lettuce and broccoli are grown for harvesting between April and October whilst pumpkin is available during the first six months of the year. The region’s warmer climate compared with the rest of the State provides an excellent balance to the seasonal supply received from the southern regions of the State which allows crops to be grown counter seasonal i.e. lettuce and baby-leaf crops or to extend the season by staring earlier and finishing later i.e. potatoes and asparagus. Growers are able to take advantage of the region’s prolonged sunshine by planting a number of crops (mainly cucurbits) that are grown solely in the region and not elsewhere within the State or in significant quantities. There is also a small glasshouse industry. A major advantage of the region however is the relatively cheap cost of land over that of more densely populated areas of the State which has allowed for the development of large scale production particularly for crops with a high degree of mechanisation i.e. carrots and potatoes. The region is also located centrally to three Australian capital cities and their wholesale markets, these are: • Melbourne - 6 hrs • Adelaide - 4 hrs • Sydney - 10 hrs

Climate The region’s climate is warm to semi arid similar to that experienced in the Mediterranean with hot summer days (averaging 28° Celsius) and warm nights coupled with mild winter days (averaging 15.7° Celsius) and cold nights with some frosts. Rainfall within the region is low (345mm per annum) and spread evenly throughout the year and is not sufficient to grow crops without irrigation which is sourced from the Murray River and to a small degree the Darling and Murrumbidgee Rivers on the New South Wales side of the region. Water supply The Lower Murray Water supplies water sourced from the Murray River to the region which is entirely dependent upon the river through the use of irrigation for its survival. Soil types The North West landscape is characterised by flat to undulating plains and rolling hills. The Grampians National Park (part of the Great Dividing Range) represents a unique geological outcrop in the regions south and continues in an east-west direction along the southernmost border of the region. The northern section of this region is enclosed within the Victorian Riverina and adjoins the Murray River, while the land is generally flat or mostly undulating. There is a diversity of soils in the region due to the variation in geology, parent material and climate. While some areas have deep, fertile and robust soils, the majority of the region’s soils have poor fertility, are fragile, prone to degradation and are relatively shallow (NCCALPB, 1997). The general soil types throughout the north central include: • Uniform textured: including fine sands, coarse sandy loams, stony loams and calcareous

44 Water sustainability for the Future

clays. • Gradational: sandy red, stony red and silt. • Duplex: red duplex, yellow duplex, Red Sodosols and Yellow Sodosols.

For further information see www.dpi.vic.gov.au

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 12. - The main vegetable crops grown within the North West Region compared with the State as a whole Victoria Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Asparagus 9,515.0 1,496.0 460.50 216.70 Beans -French & Runner 3,284.3 816.7 19.33 7.20 Beetroot 1,965.9 78.3 4.60 0.90 Broccoli 19,410.6 2,769.3 64.04 84.80 Cabbages 26,866.7 673.0 38.30 1.00 Capsicum 6,574.3 246.2 782.10 13.50 Carrots 53,622.5 1,193.0 35,347.20 597.20 Cauliflower 19,384.9 965.3 10.00 0.50 Eggplant 210.6 20.8 8.40 1.40 Lettuce 53,611.8 2,846.3 5,988.50 290.60 Mushrooms 15,426.3 69.5 1,644.50 6.20 Onions - White & Brown 12,974.3 285.6 2,782.60 36.60 Peas 172.8 55.9 5.89 5.00 Peas - Snow & Sugar snap 2,698.4 1,623.2 1.71 25.50 Potatoes 322,446.4 10,720.2 14,034.70 707.40 Pumpkins - Butter 6,775.3 368.5 404.60 45.00 Radish 710.2 68.9 5.18 0.50 Silver beet / Spinach 2,698.4 343.9 6.67 1.00 Spring onions - Shallots 1,355.0 125.0 2.32 0.60 Sweet corn 10,327.0 533.0 25.50 1.40 Tomatoes 174,379.0 2,995.6 8.00 0.40 Zucchini & button squash 3,566.5 173.7 231.40 19.10 Total Area Sown 28,467.90 2,062.50 Total Production (Tonnes) 747,976.50 61,876.04

Port Phillip & Western Port Region The production areas of this region include: • the western side of Port Phillip Bay Werribee South which is situated 32 km south-west of Melbourne and covers an area of 3,000 ha, of which approximately 70% is ideal for vegetable growing and is served by 150 farms

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• Keilor located 15km to the north-west of Melbourne on a fertile flood plain of the Maribyrnong River • Bacchus Marsh located 30km north-west of Melbourne on the fertile flood plain of the Werribee River with 300 ha of irrigated vegetable production. This region has the ability to produce quality vegetables year round, the soils are very fertile and can sustain extended cultivation over many years • the eastern side of Port Phillip Bay the areas of Cranbourne, Mornington Peninsula and Koo Wee Rup with significant vegetable growing areas spanning over 6,000 ha and being used by approximately 200 farming enterprises.

The regional strengths of the western side of Port Phillip Bay (Werribee Sth, Keilor and Bacchus Marsh) are that growers are located within close proximity to both markets and transport. Werribee Sth has the ability to produce quality vegetables year round due to its fertile soils (red brown clay loam over a heavy red to calcareous clay).

Similarly growers located on the eastern side between Western Port Bay and Port Phillip Bay (Cranbourne, Mornington Peninsula and Koo Wee Rup) are located in close proximity to transport and markets (Melbourne / Dandenong) and are able to grow vegetables year round. Climate The average rainfall within the region is below 600mm, in the case of farms located at Werribee South water is channelled from the Werribee River or pumped from bores tapped into an aquifer. The main aquifer used is called the “Werribee Delta”. Werribee South has a mean daily temperature range of between 8.7°C and 19.5°C. The eastern side of Port Phillip Bay experiences a temperate climate with mainly winter rainfall, the annual rainfall is 750mm combined with a mean maximum temperature of 19°C and minimum of 10°C together with warm summers and soil type makes the eastern sector of the region a significant vegetable production area. Water supply The Port Phillip and Western Port region is the smallest of the ten catchment management areas across the State and covers 5.6% of the State’s total area. Approximately 45% of the region is rural farmland accommodating approximately 4,500 enterprises whilst approximately 80% of the State’s total population resides within this region. The five main catchment areas of the region consist of some 8,000 kms of rivers and streams. Use of irrigation This region is a small but important horticultural area of Victoria with a great diversity of product with irrigation playing a critical role in their development although irrigators within this region are relatively low users of water compared to the rest of the State. The Werribee Irrigation District (WID) is one of Victoria’s vegetable gardens located on the outskirts of Melbourne in the estuarine flood plain of the Werribee River and has been an important agricultural centre since the early 19th century. Initially, water was sourced from the Werribee River and used for both the WID and the irrigation system upstream at Bacchus Marsh. The WID now receives its irrigation supply from the combination of three storages at Pykes Creek, Merrimu Reservoir and Melton Reservoir. Although a great deal of pipelining has been carried out as a result of urban encroachment and the replacement of channels, much of the district remains open channel, including significant lengths of the main channel from the Werribee River. The Bacchus Marsh Irrigation District (BMID) is located 30 kms north west of Melbourne on a flood plain of the Werribee River. The BMID is centred on the Parwan Creek with water being sourced from the Werribee River just east of Ballan where a channel diverts water from a weir via a tunnel and Myers Creek to the Pykes Creek Reservoir.

46 Water sustainability for the Future

Like Werribee, Bacchus Marsh is a gravity irrigation district and relies on upstream pressure to move water through the channels and pipes to the farmer. There is insufficient available data to determine the level of irrigation used on the Mornington Peninsula and Western Port Bay region but most water used comes from multiple sources such as rivers, streams, groundwater bores, on-farm dams and recycled water from wastewater treatment plants. Groundwater The major source of groundwater in the Werribee area is the Werribee Delta, this aquifer has a common salinity level of 500 to 600 mg/l total dissolved salts. Licences currently exist for the extraction of more than 42,000 ML of groundwater annually. Groundwater in the Western Port area is sourced from the Koo Wee Rup aquifer. Soil types There are four principal soil types within the region, these are: • hard mottled yellow duplex soils • red soils of volcanic origin • brown duplex soils • friable well drained clay

For further details see www.dpi.vic.gov.au

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 13. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Port Phillip and Western Port Region compared with the State as a whole Victoria Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 281.8 48.9 250.00 43.60 Asparagus 9,515.0 1,496.0 8,855.80 1187.40 Beans -French & Runner 3,284.3 816.7 22.71 8.10 Beetroot 1,965.9 78.3 1,921.50 72.80 Broccoli 19,410.6 2,769.3 13,326.83 1521.80 Brussel sprouts 1,752.5 85.8 1,752.49 85.80 Cabbages 26,866.7 673.0 14,322.00 362.50 Capsicum 6,574.3 246.2 729.49 47.20 Carrots 53,622.5 1,193.0 5,130.90 217.10 Cauliflower 19,384.9 965.3 16,226.70 802.20 Chilli 240.0 18.0 2.59 0.10 Celery 40,348.9 637.3 40,338.17 631.30 Cucumbers 267.8 17.1 213.96 16.50 Eggplant 210.6 20.8 2.24 0.50 Fennel 2,080.0 153.3 2,072.82 151.70 Leeks 4,475.8 220.8 4,108.61 185.80 Lettuce 53,611.8 2,846.3 39,535.80 1,832.90 Mushrooms 15,426.3 69.5 12,909.50 58.90

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Onions - White & Brown 12,974.3 285.6 1,280.20 36.40 Onions - Red 1,034.4 25.5 62.90 1.00 Parsnips 10,298.8 434.1 9,211.30 338.10 Peas - Snow & Sugar snap 2,698.4 1,623.2 355.38 513.80 Potatoes 322,446.4 10,720.2 57,801.20 2,061.90 Pumpkins - Butter 6,775.3 368.5 2,559.90 174.00 Radish 710.2 68.9 705.03 68.40 Silver beet / Spinach 2,698.4 343.9 2,534.05 265.30 Spring onions - Shallots 1,355.0 125.0 1,340.90 123.60 Swedes & Turnips 521.4 38.0 300.00 18.70 Sweet corn 10,327.0 533.0 580.60 40.80 Tomatoes 174,379.0 2,995.6 520.50 12.30 Zucchini & button squash 3,566.5 173.7 140.66 20.50 Total Area Sown 30,090.80 10,901.50 Total Production (Tonnes) 809,104.80 239,115.15

South West Victoria Region The region stretches from the southern coastline of Geelong through to Portland and includes the major regional centres of Colac and Warrnambool, west to the South Australian border, north to Hamilton and Ararat, and east to Ballarat and is serviced by approximately 181 farms.29 The region produces two main vegetable crops namely potato and tomato with small production of other crops such as lettuce and broccoli. Most commercial potato growers are located in the Ballarat district which supplies the McCains factory whilst seed potato growers are scattered between Ballarat, Colac and Portland. Potatoes are generally sown in late November and are harvested between March and May producing 127,800 tonnes30 annually. Tomatoes are grown year round through the use of polyhouses producing 1,400 tonnes annually. The major strength of the region concerns potato growers who are able to have access to significant resources including machinery and land combined with the close proximity of a major processing plant (McCanns in Ballarat) which provides a key demand for vegetables from the surrounding region especially from commercial potato growers. In addition growers have the advantage of plant protection districts around Colac and Portland which allows growers a competitive advantage due to their product being more likely to be diseased free due to the restrictions in movement of produce and equipment in those areas. Climate The south-west region of Victoria has a predominately moderate climate even though temperatures can range between -6°C and 42.6°C throughout the year with an average rainfall between 699mm and 836mm, and within the region the soils are mainly comprised of loam, sand, grey clays and yellow duplex although the area known as the Western District comprises rich, fertile, volcanic soil which provides excellent growing medium for vegetables and other crops.

29 ABARE, Commodity outlook and financial performance of key agricultural industries in the South West region of Victoria, page 2 30 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Agricultural State Profile, Victoria, 2006-07

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Water supply The region is serviced by two suppliers Wannon Water and Western Water with Southern Rural Water having responsibility for the management of the harvesting and storage of water within the Western Water’s region. The Otway Ranges are the principal source of water for south west Victoria with nine catchments situated within its boundaries. Wannon Water’s primary function is the collection, storage, treatment and delivery of water to its customers in the area bounded by the townships of Port Campbell on the coast, Balmoral in the north, the South Australian border in the west and Lismore in the east. Wannon Water operates five catchments, these are: • The Otway Supply System which harvests water from two water supply catchments situated on the Gellibrand River. North Otway pipeline sources water from three diversion weirs located at Arkins Creek. Water is then transferred via a 131.5km pipeline to service the townships of Warrnambool, Camperdown, Cobden, Mortlake, Simpson and Terang. The South Otway pipeline is a major transfer pipe 68.5km in length and sources water from the lower Gellibrand River providing approximately 80% of the water to Warrnambool, Allansford and Koroit. • Wannon Water extracts water from two separate systems located within the Grampians National Park. The Rocklands Reservoir supplies Balmoral and the Hamilton areas with water stored in the Hayes, Cruckoor and Hartwichs reservoirs together having a capacity of 2,570ML

Western Water receives its water via Southern Rural Water’s storages, Rosslynne Reservoir and Lake Merrimu with Southern Rural managing the reservoirs and Western water treating the water supplied before delivery to its customers. These reservoirs supply the water needs for the townships of Melton, Bacchus Marsh, Macedon Ranges and Sunbury.

Use of irrigation Insufficient region data available. Groundwater In the south west region groundwater resources availability tends to vary from very good to marginal quality. The major source is the Dilwyn aquifer which is quite deep and stretches from Portland to Port Campbell and supplies water to the townships of Dartmoor, Heywood, Peterbrough, Portland, Port Campbell, Port Fairy and Timboon. Bores within the above towns have been bored more than 1.5kms into the earth’s crust to access the aquifer. Water from the aquifer is very hot, commonly reaching 60° Celsius requiring it to be pumped into cooling towers before being released at 26° Celsius. Soil types The soils within this region can be divided into four main descriptive units: • The Otway Ranges – soil types range from gradational soils to duplex soils with generally a clay loam texture • Volcanic Plains – soils have been mainly formed from basalt and range from medium textured loams through clay loams to heavy loams. The plains consist of lava flows, tuffs and scoria • Stony Rises – situated near Pomborneit, Lake Corangamite, Terang, Mortlake, Mount Eccles and Penshurst are composed of more recent basalt with limited soil development • Coastal Plains – consisting of sedimentary soils the Coastal Plains form the majority of the cropping areas and are generally lighter and less fertile than those soils found on the volcanic plains

See also Victorian Resources Online www.dpi.vic.gov.au

49 Water sustainability for the Future

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 14. - The main vegetable crops grown within the South West Victoria Region compared with the State as a whole Victoria Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 281.8 48.9 31.78 5.30 Beetroot 1,965.9 78.3 39.70 4.60 Broccoli 19,410.6 2,769.3 268.37 67.90 Cabbages 26,866.7 673.0 436.20 13.20 Carrots 53,622.5 1,193.0 1,899.10 54.60 Cauliflower 19,384.9 965.3 251.30 15.80 Celery 40,348.9 637.3 10.76 6.00 Cucumbers 267.8 17.1 40.58 0.30 Fennel 2,080.0 153.3 7.13 1.60 Garlic 29.6 9.0 27.52 7.70 Leeks 4,475.8 220.8 119.45 6.00 Lettuce 53,611.8 2,846.3 269.00 9.00 Onions - White & Brown 12,974.3 285.6 1,087.20 31.80 Onions - Red 1,034.4 25.5 20.00 1.00 Parsnips 10,298.8 434.1 274.50 13.20 Peas 172.8 55.9 143.43 0.00 Peas - Snow & Sugar snap 2,698.4 1,623.2 2.53 2.80 Potatoes 322,446.4 10,720.2 83,698.60 2,870.80 Pumpkins - Butter 6,775.3 368.5 415.60 21.00 Silver beet / Spinach 2,698.4 343.9 32.38 18.50 Swedes & Turnips 521.4 38.0 165.00 13.80 Tomatoes 174,379.0 2,995.6 4,113.30 39.40 Total Area Sown 26,502.10 3,204.30 Total Production (Tonnes) 585,012.70 93,353.43

Western and Southern Gippsland Region This region due to its higher rainfall areas is suitable for temperate horticulture and extends from west of Warragul to the Gippsland lakes and from the Great Dividing Range south to Wilson’s Promontory and Bass Strait. The horticultural industries contribute A$50M to the State’s economy annually with the main crop being potato which is grown between November and June with a yield of 37 tonnes per ha. Other vegetable crops grown in the region are snow pea, onion, carrot, and tomato grown hydroponically. The region has reliable water supplies centred on several rivers as well as groundwater sources although there are seasons where rainfall is sufficient and minimal irrigation is required. Proximity to major markets such as Melbourne and Dandenong combined with road infrastructure served by

50 Water sustainability for the Future

several major highways (Princes, South Gippsland, Strzelecki, Hyland & Bass Highways) and an increased population in the eastern growth corridor has given horticultural production an advantage over other areas. Climate This region receives higher than average rainfalls in the range of 900mm to 1100mm per annum and has also reliable water supplies centred on several rivers and ground water resources which lessen the dependence on irrigation. Temperatures in the main horticultural areas are generally ideal with long hot summer days combined with cool nights favouring potatoes for higher production. West Gippsland has mild to warm summers with an average mean temperature of around 21°C near the coast and elevated areas to 25°C inland in January and 12°C to 14°C in July. Water supply Southern Rural Water is responsible for managing rural water resources across southern Victoria. Their main business centre in Gippsland is located in Maffra. (http://www.srw.com.au) Gippsland Water provides reticulated water and wastewater services to a geographic region from Drouin in the west, to Stratford in the east, and from Mirboo North in the south, to Rawson and Briagalong in the north. (www.gippswater.com.au) Use of irrigation Intensive irrigated dairy farming in the Macalister Irrigation District has resulted in poor environmental and water quality on site and significant offsite impacts including high nutrient loads. Significant irrigation induced salinity exists, exacerbated by extensive clearing and draining of wetlands. The natural state of the Gippsland lakes in under threat with severe and frequent algal blooms being the most noticeable symptom. A number of management strategies and action plans have been developed to ensure these threats and others do not lead to degradation of the regions ital natural resources. Groundwater The region’s water supplies are dependent upon in addition to several rivers in the region an adequate ground water resource for irrigation purposes although there are seasons where rain water is sufficient for minimal irrigation to occur. Soil types In this region the major soil types are: • Palaeozoic soils – developed on rolling to steep slopes with weathered parent material they are generally yellow or brown Kurosols as well as Tenosols being strongly acid throughout • Cretaceous soils – typically brown and grey dermosols and are characterised by a lack of strong texture contrast, they are also strongly acid throughout their profile • Tertiary volcanic soils – deep red friable soils formed on tertiary basalts and are associated with the rolling hills in the Warragul and Thorpdale areas • Tertiary sediments – a diversity of soils developed on tertiary sedimentary deposits • Quaternary soils – usually associated with alluvial plains and valley floors

For further information www.dpi.vic.gov.au (Victorian Resources Online)

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 15. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Western and Southern Gippsland Region compared with the State as a whole Victoria Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) Asparagus 9,515.0 1,496.0 144.40 80.90 Beans -French & Runner 3,284.3 816.7 1,107.47 219.10

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Broccoli 19,410.6 2,769.3 2,975.00 568.80 Cabbages 26,866.7 673.0 601.80 26.70 Carrots 53,622.5 1,193.0 3,279.20 133.20 Cauliflower 19,384.9 965.3 2,236.00 109.10 Lettuce 53,611.8 2,846.3 3,126.10 487.50 Onions - White & Brown 12,974.3 285.6 4,588.20 102.70 Onions - Red 1,034.4 25.5 4.00 0.20 Peas 172.8 55.9 10.10 5.10 Peas - Snow & Sugar snap 2,698.4 1,623.2 2,201.17 1,013.40 Potatoes 322,446.4 10,720.2 89,621.40 3,243.90 Silver beet / Spinach 2,698.4 343.9 17.93 9.00 Sweet corn 10,327.0 533.0 3,569.50 181.40 Tomatoes 174,379.0 2,995.6 859.90 3.90 Zucchini & button squash 3,566.5 173.7 13.99 0.70 Total Area Sown 27,516.20 6,189.80 Total Production (Tonnes) 689,126.30 114,356.52

SOUTH AUSTRALIA The vegetable industry sector is the largest component of the Horticulture industry within South Australia, and its GVP was approximately valued at A$388M for the period 2005/06,31 with vegetables being grown on a commercial scale in many regions of the State, but most predominately in the areas of Riverland and Murray Mallee, Adelaide Hills, Northern Adelaide Plains and South East (Limestone Coast). The total area of commercial vegetable production within the State is over 10,000ha with potatoes, onion, carrots and other heavy vegetables accounting for the largest areas.

The commercial vegetable production sector can be broken into three main types • Traditional vegetables – potatoes, onion, carrots, pumpkin, broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, peas, beans and sweet corn • Salad vegetables – tomatoes, capsicums, cucumbers, mushrooms, lettuce, salad greens, shoots, sprouts, and celery • Contemporary vegetables – zucchini, squash, asparagus, Asian vegetables, herbs, garlic, cassava and sweet potato

South Australia is ideally suited to growing a wide range of vegetables on a commercial scale due to the climatic diversity, and soil types experienced within the State, and the proximity to the major fresh food markets of Adelaide, and Melbourne. There are estimated to be approximately 2,000 vegetable growers in South Australia,32 with the majority on the Northern Adelaide Plains and Adelaide Hills. Many of the larger commercial vegetable growers, particularly those producing potatoes and onions have expanded their operations into the Riverland and Murray Mallee over the last decade mainly as a result of increased land costs and urban infringement.

31 ABS, Australian Agricultural Commodities, 7121.0, 2006 32 South Australian Government, Department of Primary Industries and Resources, website www.pir.sa.gov.au

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The South Australian vegetable industry in 2003/04 used 86,747 ML of water amounting to 19% of water used in horticulture.33 South Australia is • a major supplier to the Australian fresh vegetable market of potatoes, onions and carrots, • a moderate supplier of cauliflower, cabbages, and pumpkins, and • a small scale supplier of broccoli, peas, beans and sweet corn.

Other traditional style vegetables grown commercially but on a limited scale within the State are leeks and Brussel sprouts (note - that although a smaller market, South Australia is the major supplier of Brussel sprouts to the Australian market).

The largest contribution to the growth in commercial vegetable production sector in South Australia has been through the increased value of potatoes (fresh, fries and crisps) and in the use of ‘protected cropping’ (which includes greenhouse, hothouse, shadecloth, and other protective materials, used to modify the growing environment) predominately in the production of salad vegetables varieties.

The production of salad type vegetables within South Australia as mentioned previously is heavy dependent upon the use of ‘protected cropping’, especially for the production of tomatoes, capsicums and cucumbers, where South Australia produces nearly half of Australia’s ‘protective cropping’ production of these crops.34

Mushrooms are also grown within a protective environment, and now form one of the largest vegetable crops grown in the State. This has been mainly achieved through industry co-ordination and promotional activities aimed at consumers, which has seen the consumption of mushrooms increase over the last thirty years, taking over from imported canned product.

Whilst vegetables can be grown in many regions of the State, the most dominate regions for commercial production are; • Riverland / Mallee – through the use of water sourced from the Murray River along the river corridor and accessing underground aquifers in the Mallee. The dominate vegetables grown within the region are potatoes and onions • Adelaide / Mount Lofty Ranges – this region includes the Northern Adelaide Plains, and Adelaide Hills. The majority of vegetable production within this region occurs on the Northern Adelaide Plains and is centred around Virginia and includes potatoes, onion, and carrot, and the majority of the State’s ‘protected cropping’ production of salad vegetables. The Adelaide Hills produces some field vegetables (mostly of the heavy varieties), and continues mainly as a fruit growing area. The Southern Vales and Fleurieu Peninsula have minimal commercial vegetable production. It should be noted that there is a small viable horticultural sector situated on Kangaroo Island, (located 15km south west of the southern tip of the Fleurieu Peninsula) predominately centred around irrigated vegetable seed production, most notably potato, which has emerged as an exciting new industry on the Island in recent years. The growth of the potato industry on the Island has been supported and encouraged by the Island being a declared potato quarantine zone. • South East Coast – stretching from Bordertown to Robe to Mount Gambier produces processing potatoes and a variety of vegetable seed crops.

33 Shirley Sylvia & Mark Skewes, March 2006, South Australian Government, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry: South Australia, page 2 34 S.A Government, South Australian Food Centre, SA Fruit, Vegetables & Nuts – Market Overview, page 12

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Climate The climate of South Australia varies from hot and dry in the interior, to the cooler and wetter climates of the Mount Lofty Ranges and the south-east coast of the State, with the temperatures on the Northern Adelaide Plains being moderately influenced by the Gulf of St. Vincent. The mean average annual rainfall within the State ranges from less than 100mm in the pastoral and desert areas in the north, to more than 1000mm on the higher parts of the Mount Lofty ranges. Large parts of South Australia are also relatively flat or slightly undulating with approximately half of the State less than 150 metres above sea level. The agricultural areas of South Australia are less than 25% of the area of the state, roughly south of a line from Ceduna on the Eyre Peninsula to Port Augusts and to Renmark on the Victorian Border. Commercial vegetable growing is generally confined to the Murray River corridor, the high rainfall Mount Lofty Ranges and the South East, or areas of good quality aquifers. Further information pertaining to the climate of South Australia can be obtained at Bureau of Meteorology website at www.bom.gov.au

Water Policy In South Australia access to water and its use is licensed within prescribed areas and any licenseholder has the right to take access water, however in areas where water resources are not ‘prescribed’ no limit is placed on the volume of surface water or groundwater which may be extracted provided that this doesn’t detrimentally affect either the ability of another person to access water or the enjoyment of the amenity of water by another person35. Water trading is by sale or lease (i.e temporary) trade of permanent licences or allocations to take water within prescribed areas eg. groundwater aquifer, from watercourses, or surface water from dams. Some pipelines have been established to convey Murray River water to other irrigation regions to supplement or replace surface and ground water. One example is the BIL (Barossa Infrastructure Limited) Scheme, where licensed extraction is conveyed to a reservoir and then to farm dams. This is known as imported water.

Water Supply South Australia is the driest state within mainland Australia with only approximately 3.5% of the total land area receiving a mean annual rainfall >500mm whilst approximately 83% receives < 250mm. Another compounding problem is that there is very little runoff. The major water source for the state is the Murray River which originates outside the state. The scarcity of water has made it necessary to develop resources which would be consider marginal at best in better resourced regions of the country. As a result commercial vegetable production within the State is largely confined to; • the southern regions of the State • areas having access to irrigation water sourced from the Murray River • areas having access to irrigation water sourced from underground aquifers having an adequate quantity and quality • by utilising recycled water for irrigation. Approximately 90% of the State’s population is now wholly or partially dependent upon reticulated water sourced from the Murray River. The Murray River is the major source of irrigation water in the State with annual diversions for irrigation purposes from the river system typically amounting to twice the quantity of water drawn for urban and rural requirements.

35 Australian Government, Managing connected water resources website, www.connectedwater.gov.au

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There are nine irrigation trusts (Mypolonga, Cadell, Waikerie, Kingston, Moorook, Cobdogla, Berri, Loxton and Chaffey) which are collectively managed by the Central Irrigation Trust and are privately owned by their members who then contract the Central Irrigation Trust to manage and operate their systems under a three year agreement. Golden Heights, Sunlands and Renmark make up the other three major irrigation trusts within the State which source water directly from the Murray River and provide retail supply to their irrigator customers. All irrigation trusts supply pressurised piped water to their customers for use in predominately drip or under tree sprinkler systems. South Australia also has a number of smaller private irrigation trusts with access to approximately 8 gigalitres (GL) or less. In addition, there are two private companies which also supply irrigation water sourced from the Murray River, Barossa Infrastructure Limited which supplies water sourced from Swan Reach to Barossa Valley irrigators and the Langhorne Creek Pipeline Company which supplies water sourced from the Murray River to Langhorne Creek irrigators. Many areas of the State are dependent upon underground water sources, particularly to water livestock and the number of flowing or pumping wells within the State is estimated to be about 150,000. Townships in the south-east of the state together with most on the Eyre Peninsula rely entirely on the flow from natural springs and shallow underground basins for water. The Great Artesian basin which extends into the north-eastern quarter of the State has been vitally important in allowing pastoral activities to be undertaken and is growing in importance in relation to mining resource activities. Finally, wastewater sourced from both the Boliver and Christies Beach Wastewater Treatment Plants is treated by SA Water and then distributed to irrigators by the Virginia Pipeline Scheme and the Willunga Basin Water Company respectively.

Cost of Water to the Farmgate A range of State governing bodies and catchment boards are responsible for the collection of levies, application of access, supply and excess water use charges throughout the commercial vegetable growing regions of the State. For private diverters accessing unpressurised water, the costs associated are dependent upon the head and distance over which the water is drawn (from pump or river). Additional pumping costs may need to be covered by the grower for any on-farm pumping used to increase the head pressure from low pressure irrigation schemes. These costs also include fuel or power (diesel or electric), pump overhead set up costs, depreciation, maintenance and labour charges. As an example of the costs which can be incurred, in 2005 the individual grower faced on-farm pumping costs for fuel only from between $45 to $55 per ML of water accessed. Water Trading / Flexibility of Price Water trading, that is the buying and selling of water access entitlements within South Australia was first introduced in 1983. Water trading may entail the purchase of a permanent allocation of water or the leasing of water temporarily (i.e. within the same financial years). Water trading along the Murray River is very flexible with water transferred between States within the Murray Darling Basin. The Table below shows the value of water for irrigation for both permanent and leased water in regions of South Australia. 36 Table 16. – Value of water used for irrigation in regions of SA Region Township Permanent $ML Lease ($/ KL) Comment South East Francis 50 N/a Low values for water salty and low demand Naracoorte 2,500 N/a Higher demand, better water

36 Shirley Sylvia and Mark Skewes, SA Government, Department of Primary Industries & Resources, “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – South Australia”, page 32

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quality for vegetables Lucindale 100 – 1,500 N/a Low to medium values, some good pockets of water although some areas have very salty water Langhorne Creek 300 – 700 N/a Pockets of good quality bore water [located in the Angas Bremer Basin for underground water and has reticulated water from the Murray River and Lake Alexandrina]

Mt Gambier N/a N/a South of Mt Gambier water is valuable but no more available Nth Adelaide Gawler River 1,200 N/a Lower values in region around Plains Gawler River and outer areas higher value around Virginia and other pockets. Average of $4,000 to $5,000 per ML see comments below. Virginia 7,000 N/a As above Murraylands Loxton 1,400 – 1,500 40 – 80 Water sourced from Murray River Barossa Valley 1,500 – 2,500 N/a Piped water value less than Riverland Adelaide & Mt Lenswood N/a N/a No transfers permitted at Lofty present and as there is no allocation there is no $ value to water. However this catchment is coming up for prescription soon. Ashbourne 1,000 – 1,500 N/a Pockets with less value since water rights leased long term, not much spare water Strathalbyn 300 – 700 N/a Pockets of good quality bore water are supplemented with Angas Bremer Basin water results in good water at a lower price McLaren Flat 16,000 – 18,000 N/a Willunga 14,000 N/a Now have recycled water Other McLaren Vale 1,200 – 1,600 N/a Formerly about 5X Riverland price due to less water being available although recycled water is now available. Clare 1,500 – 2,500 N/a Piped water has value less than Riverland higher values may be expected from good bore water obtained through fractured rock. NOTE: there is a need to be clear on the source of water

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when discussing price as to whether it refers to groundwater or Murray River water.

Salinity Impacts on Production Increased salinity of the groundwater in the Virginia area of the Northern Adelaide Plains region has lead toward the introduction of recycled water. Recycled water within the Virginia area is about 700 to 1200 EC µS/cm (1,000 µS/cm can be too high for some sensitive vegetable crops whilst other vegetable crops can tolerate up to 1,700EC µS/cm. In the south east region of the State around Padthaway salinity of the groundwater is driving out production of salt sensitive crops. Salt interception schemes have been implemented along the Murray River in high salinity Impact Zones. The aim of the schemes is to prevent groundwater flowing back into the river by pumping saline groundwater from strategic points under irrigation areas, along the edge of the river valley and pumping water out to evaporation ponds.

Use of Irrigation in Commercial Vegetable Production in South Australia Groundwater is the major source of agricultural water (see Table 17) used in South Australia amounting to 62%, 37 whilst the principal source of surface irrigation water in South Australia is the Murray River where as previously mentioned (Water Supply) a number of irrigation trusts source water, with additional supplies being drawn from the three proclaimed irrigation areas of: • Northern Adelaide Plains • Padthaway • Angas Bremer District (located near Strathalbyn)

Since April 2009 new legislation (The Irrigation Act 2009 (SA) and Remark Irrigation Trust Act 2009 (SA)), has been introduced in accordance with the Water Act 2007 (SA), which has meant that the Irrigation Trusts are no longer able to restrict permanent water trading out of the irrigation districts under their control and are now required to facilitate any such trading at the request of a member (although exist fees will still generally apply for any sale of water out of the network).

Table 17. – Sources of Agricultural Water in South Australia 2008/9 Sources Amount (ML) Water supplied by Government or private irrigation scheme 182,396 Surface water 129,765 Groundwater 559,437 Town or Country reticulated mains supply 15,906 Recycled / reused water from off-farm sources 12,074 Other 2,071 Total all sources 901,649

Most field vegetable production on a commercial scale in South Australia occurs under centre pivot sprinklers, however some Brassica crops are initially established with the use of sprinklers and then grown-on with drippers. In more established areas, fixed sprinkler systems and some hand shift or wheel line fluming remain in use. Flood irrigation is still in use in limited areas of the south east for lucerne production or on the Murray River swamp lands for dairy pastures. Very little, if any, flood or furrow irrigation is now used in commercial vegetable production.

37 ABS, Water use on Australian farms – 2008/9, Series 4618.0, page 21

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The move within the industry toward the adoption of more efficient irrigation practices reflects the increased perception within the community as a whole that water resources are diminishing, whilst the demand on water resources is ever increasing. It is the ability by producers to balance the water requirements for efficient and quality commercial vegetable production within the State, whilst still meeting the environmental needs, including soil and water salinity levels, (in recent years the use of soil moisture monitoring equipment has increased to enable greater irrigation efficiency) which will lead to sustainable irrigation in the future for the State’s commercial vegetable production sector.

Soil Types The mapping of the agricultural districts of South Australia to establish a Soil Profile Data Base has been undertaken by the South Australian Government’s Department of Environment and Natural Resources and entailed extensive field work including the description of soil profiles at sites representative of the different landscapes throughout the State. Approximately 27,000 soil profile descriptions have been recorded, and of these, about 21,000 are in an electronic data base format. These site descriptions are primarily 'morphological', meaning that the data is derived mostly from field observations. These descriptions are accessible on CD38. The data provided includes a reference map (showing towns and roads), the point data and a help file on the data. Additional information on soil types and their profiles in South Australia can be obtained from the Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

South Australia’s Principal Commercial Vegetable Growing Regions As previously mentioned at the start of this article the total area of commercial vegetable production (see Table 18) in South Australia (both field and ‘protected cropping) is in excess of 10,000ha and is predominately grown in the Riverland, Upper Murray, Adelaide Hills, Northern Adelaide Plains and along the South East Coast regions of the State.

Table 18 – Main vegetable crops grown commercially in South Australia, 2007/08 Type of Vegetable SAProduction(Tonnes) Area Sown (HA) Beans (Butter) 8.81 4.40 Beans (French & Runner) 5,174.38 32.80 Beetroot 304.20 9.6 Broccoli 724.42 98.7 Brussel sprouts 3,482.17 98.9 Cabbages 4,410.00 97.40 Capsicums, Chillies & Peppers 6,709.96 151.70 Carrots 48,314.20 775.4 Cauliflower 5,985.90 163.20 Celery 234.78 35.90 Cucumbers 4,672.08 75.30 Eggplant 113.87 11.0 Leeks 599.43 24.20 Lettuce 10,917.60 357.20 Mushrooms 5,721.79 20.40 Onions (Red) 13,649.30 236.90 Onions (White & Brown) 72,406.80 1,209.00 Parsnips 562.70 20.20 Peas 9.00 4.50 Peas (Snow & Sugar Snap) 9.10 2.20 Potatoes (Fresh market) 272,980.90 7,339.00

38 SA Government, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Land Management, www.environment.sa.gov.au/dwlbc/land/soil/database.

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Potatoes (Processed) 204,081.30 4,785.30 Pumpkins (including Butternut) 2,585.50 187.80 Radish 74.90 7.60 Silverbeet & Spinach 216.12 12.30 Spring Onions / Shallots 419.70 13.60 Swedes & Turnips 289.20 32.40 Sweet Corn (Fresh market) 167.30 16.90 Sweet Corn (Processed) Nil Nil Sweet Potatoes Nil Nil Tomatoes (Fresh market) 14,714.80 81.30 Tomatoes ( Processed) 92.90 3.7 Zucchini & Button Squash 279.43 23.90 Total Area (Ha) Sown 16,199.40 Total Production (Tonnes) 679,912.54

Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region This region includes the Northern Adelaide Plains, Adelaide Hills, Southern Vales and the Fleurieu Peninsula and covers an area of approximately half million hectacres. The region is a significant cool climate commercial vegetable production region, and is the traditional market garden region for Adelaide having several different micro-climates which have been successfully developed by both wine grape growers and orchardists benefiting from good rainfall together with access to supplies of natural spring water. There is a diverse land use within the region ranging from dense urban residential, commercial and industrial purposes to rural residential and primary production with land use patterns following rainfall, soils, terrain and infrastructure. The majority of the region lies within 1 to 1 ½ hours by road to both Adelaide’s Airport and Seaport as well as to the fresh food markets of Adelaide and Melbourne and this has accelerated the rate of land use changing from rural to urban residential in recent years, which in turn has resulted in a decline in commercial horticulture production especially vegetable and field crop production in those areas. The region’s commercial vegetable production zones are; • The Northern Adelaide Plains sub-region centred around the township of Virginia and situated 25 to 40kms north of the City of Adelaide. The area supports both field and ‘protected cropping’ (which includes greenhouse, hothouse, shadeclothe, and other protective materials, used to modify the growing environment) production of vegetables on a commercial scale and is serviced by a consistent water supply. The region also has Australia’s largest concentration of greenhouses which has encouraged the development of high value hydroponic crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers, capsicums and fancy lettuce. The Virginia horticultural district also has access to - centralised high-tech vegetable packing operations and several large food processors and is also able to benefit from its close proximity to Adelaide (½ hour by road) for the manual labour required at harvest. • The Adelaide Hills sub-region has a traditionally strong food-producing heritage being the vegetable basket and fruit bowl for the city of Adelaide and its surrounds. Food production is a significant contributor to the area’s economy with the cool, green hills producing cabbages, leeks, lettuces and rhubarb throughout the year together with a wide range of fruit such as strawberries, raspberries and cherries in the summer, apples, pears, plums and quinces in the autumn. • The Southern Vales and Fleurieu Peninsula sub-regions currently have minimal vegetable production on a commercial scale.

Climate The region especially the hinterland is subject to cold wet winters and mild summers which provides the higher chill units needed for certain vegetables such as Brussel sprouts and leeks. The climate in

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the various sub regions is affected by the topography or maritime influence of the gulf waters. Rainfall ranges from 1200mm in the higher parts of the Mount Lofty Ranges down to 500mm or less. Adelaide’s climate itself is typical of the Mediterranean, being characterised by cool wet winters and hot dry summers with an average maximum daily temperature range of 15°C in the winter months through to 25°C - 27°C in the summer and is moderately influenced by the Gulf of St. Vincent. Frosts are common throughout the higher areas of the region in early winter and early spring. Water supply There are around 8,980kms of watercourses extending from the hilly uplands of the western and southern Mount Lofty Ranges, west and south into the Gulf of St. Vincent and the Southern Ocean respectively. Water flow modelling for the region indicates that water flows through the region’s water courses can exceed 345,000ML per annum. In an average year the City of Adelaide and its surrounds consumes approximately 216,000ML of water39and to supply this volume the region relies upon 10 metropolitan water supply reservoirs storing approximately 233,000ML of water when filled to capacity. These storage reservoirs are located on stream and are supplied by water obtained within their catchment areas, however in recent years due to the growth of Adelaide the water obtained within the local catchments has been insufficient to satisfy the growing demand and so water has been transferred into the region by SA Water from the Murray River via pipeline. This will be further supplemented by the construction of a desalination plant designed to provide up to half the potable water supplied to Adelaide40.

Reservoirs are not the only surface water impoundments and the region is host to approximately 15,300 on-farm storages holding when filled more than 39,700ML. On average farm dams capture around 10% of the annual surface water flow although on a seasonal basis, this can be more than 70% in some catchment areas over the summer and autumn months.

Use of Irrigation The region has several different water resources that can be utilised for primary production including surface water, groundwater and reclaimed water. Surface water within the region is sourced from the catchment areas situated in the Adelaide Hills and from the Murray River and used for domestic, stock and irrigation needs. Groundwater in the region is predominately used for irrigation of high valued horticultural crops in the Adelaide Hills, and Northern Adelaide Plains, and in the wine production areas of the Barossa Valley, and the McLaren Vale. Reclaimed water is used primarily in the Northern Adelaide Plains by the area’s market gardeners and is sourced from the Bolivar effluent treatment plant.

Groundwater The Mannum Formation on the Adelaide Plains serves as an aquifer and has provided water of good quality and quantity for the Langhorne Creek area where it is used to irrigate vegetable, fruit trees and grape vines. The region has six major groundwater zones based on surface water catchment boundaries, geological setting (sedimentary or fractured rock strata) and structural controls that may influence the movement and recharge of the groundwater basins.

The six major groundwater zones are: • Adelaide Plains • Gawler Barossa

39 South Australian Government 2005 40 SA Department of Planning and Local Government 2010, “The 30 Year Plan for Greater Adelaide: A Volume of the South Australian Planning Strategy”

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• Upper Torrens Onkaparinga • Willunga Noarlunga • Hindmarsh Inman • Southern Fleurieu

The high salinity levels within the groundwater are reflective of the conditions encountered broadly in production wells across all zones in the region, the salinity levels found (< than 1,000 milligrams per litre (mg/l) and yields > than 10 litres per second) are still able to support wide spread industrial and irrigation demand within the region.

Soil types The soils within the region are predominately deep well drained loamy soils suitable to a wide range of vegetable production. The undulating topography of the region improves drainage and assists to create the microclimates necessary for a varied crop production. Additional information on the soil types and their profiles within this region can be obtained from accessing the Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 19.- The main vegetable crops grown within the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges region compared to the State as a whole41 Type of Vegetable SAProduction Area Sown Production Area Sown (Tonnes) (HA) (Tonnes) (HA) Beans (Butter) 8.81 4.40 Beans (French & Runner) 5,174.38 32.80 Beetroot 304.20 9.6 Broccoli 724.42 98.7 Brussels Sprouts 3,482.17 98.9 Cabbages 4,410.00 97.40 Capsicums, Chillies & Peppers 6,709.96 151.70 Carrots 48,314.20 775.4 Cauliflower 5,985.90 163.20 Celery 234.78 35.90 Cucumbers 4,672.08 75.30 Eggplant 113.87 11.0 Leeks 599.43 24.20 Lettuce 10,917.60 357.20 Mushrooms 5,721.79 20.40 Onions (Red) 13,649.30 236.90 Onions (White & Brown) 72,406.80 1,209.00 Parsnips 562.70 20.20 Peas 9.00 4.50 Peas (Snow & Sugar Snap) 9.10 2.20 Potatoes (Fresh market) 272,980.90 7,339.00 Potatoes (Processed) 204,081.30 4,785.30 Pumpkins (including Butternut) 2,585.50 187.80 Radish 74.90 7.60 Silverbeet & Spinach 216.12 12.30 Spring Onions / Shallots 419.70 13.60 Swedes & Turnips 289.20 32.40

41 Statewide statistics are as recorded by ABS, Agricultural Commodities Australia 2007/08, series 7121 and the regional statistics are as compiled by PIRSA 2009/10 (Incomplete series)

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Sweet Corn (Fresh market) 167.30 16.90 Sweet Corn (Processed) Nil Nil Sweet Potatoes Nil Nil Tomatoes (Fresh market) 14,714.80 81.30 Tomatoes ( Processed) 92.90 3.7 Zucchini & Button Squash 279.43 23.90 Total Area (Ha) Sown 16,199.40 Total Production (Tonnes) 679,912.54

Limestone Coast (South East) Region This region economy is rich in diversity based upon primary production, horticulture/viticulture, dairy, forestry and associated processing due to having a combination of a plentiful supply of underground water, reliable rainfall, fertile soils and a temperate climate.

The region is located approximately 6 hours from Melbourne and Adelaide Air and Sea Ports as well as the fresh food markets of both cities. The principal vegetables grown within this region are potatoes (processed into chips and French fries at Nangwarry, Penola and Snuggery) and onions with the entire vegetable production sector generating A$61M for the State’s economy.

As both land and water resources are cheaper in this region than those closer to Adelaide this has encouraged the development of larger broadacre farming enterprises combined with centralised vegetable packing and processing operations. The requirement for labour for the manual harvesting within the region is sourced mainly from Mount Gambier area.

Climate The Limestone Coast region of the State has been regarded as having one of the most reliable rainfall patterns. The region is wetter and cooler along the southern coastal fringe grading to warm to hot and drier inland. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 800mm south east of Mount Burr to 450mm north east of Keith and is characterised Mediterranean with dry summers and moist winters. Water supply Water within the region is sourced from a number of supplies, such as the Tailem Bend to Keith pipeline (Murray Darling Basin water) which services a number of towns and large agricultural areas in the northern sector of the region. The balance of the region obtains its water from a combination of both surface and groundwater and in the case of Mount Gambier from the Blue Lake (a volcanic crater).

The surface water resources for the region are mainly provided by four (ephemeral in nature) streams having their catchments in Victoria and as a result the use of surface water within the region for agricultural or horticultural purposes is low due to the widespread availability of good quality groundwater.

Use of Irrigation Irrigation is available through accessing the underground unconfined aquifer which provides good quality and quantity of water, having a low salinity level of 500 – 700 EC for use by both the agricultural and horticultural industries, especially in broadacre farming such as potatoes and onions where water is delivered via centre pivot irrigation.

Groundwater The Limestone Coast has the most significant groundwater resources in the State covering a catchment area of approximately 28,120kms². Two extensive regional aquifer systems exist and are separated by a clay aquitard:

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• The upper unconfined aquifer – the principal resource within the region flows throughout the region moving toward the coast and is predominately used for municipal supplies for towns, stock and domestic water, industrial use and widespread irrigation. The recharge rate for this aquifer varies depending upon local rainfall, vegetation coverage, soil and depth of watertable which varies between 2 & 8 metres in the interdunal flats and 40 & 45 metres in more elevated areas • The deeper confined aquifer – is utilised mainly by the agricultural industry and to a lesser extent for municipal water supplies The unique limestone geology of the area along with reasonably reliable rainfall over time has enabled the groundwater resource to develop into a high yielding, good quality water resource in most areas of the region. As a result a number of key industries and intensive water users have been established and contribute to the regional economy. The region relies heavy on its unique groundwater resources and as a result proactive regulations were introduced in the 1970’s to manage groundwater depletion and quality deterioration. There are four Prescribed Wells Areas in the region;

• Lower Limestone Coast • Padthaway • Tatiara • Tintinara Coonalpyn

Soil types The soils of the Limestone Coast are diverse and complex often existing in combinations and to assist in understanding these soils and their properties a land system has been developed to group soils into both soil associations and forms. Additional information on the soil types and their profiles within this region can be obtained from accessing the Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Processing potatoes are the major vegetable crop grown in the region. There are small signs of interest in development of field vegetable production (cabbages, lettuce, broccoli, leek, beetroot, and celery). The South East region also hosts large areas for vegetable seed production of many vegetable varieties for commercial seed companies. Table 20.- The main vegetable crops grown within the Limestone Coast region compared to the State as a whole42 Type of Vegetable SAProduction Area Sown Production Area Sown (Tonnes) (HA) (Tonnes) (HA) Beans (Butter) 8.81 4.40 Beans (French & Runner) 5,174.38 32.80 Beetroot 304.20 9.6 Broccoli 724.42 98.7 Brussels Sprouts 3,482.17 98.9 Cabbages 4,410.00 97.40 Capsicums, Chillies & Peppers 6,709.96 151.70 Carrots 48,314.20 775.4 Cauliflower 5,985.90 163.20

42 Statewide statistics are as recorded by ABS, Agricultural Commodities Australia 2007/08, series 7121

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Celery 234.78 35.90 Cucumbers 4,672.08 75.30 Eggplant 113.87 11.0 Leeks 599.43 24.20 Lettuce 10,917.60 357.20 Mushrooms 5,721.79 20.40 Onions (Red) 13,649.30 236.90 Onions (White & Brown) 72,406.80 1,209.00 Parsnips 562.70 20.20 Peas 9.00 4.50 Peas (Snow & Sugar Snap) 9.10 2.20 Potatoes (Fresh market) 272,980.90 7,339.00 Potatoes (Processed) 204,081.30 4,785.30 Pumpkins (including Butternut) 2,585.50 187.80 Radish 74.90 7.60 Silverbeet & Spinach 216.12 12.30 Spring Onions / Shallots 419.70 13.60 Swedes & Turnips 289.20 32.40 Sweet Corn (Fresh market) 167.30 16.90 Sweet Corn (Processed) Nil Nil Sweet Potatoes Nil Nil Tomatoes (Fresh market) 14,714.80 81.30 Tomatoes ( Processed) 92.90 3.7 Zucchini & Button Squash 279.43 23.90 Total Area (Ha) Sown 16,199.40 Total Production (Tonnes) 679,912.54

South Australian Murray Darling Basin Region (SA-MDB) The South Australian Murray Darling Basin (SA-MDB) region covers approximately 70,000 square kilometres or above 7% of the State’s total area and supports a population of approximately 81,000 spread across 15 Local Government Areas (LGA). The region extends from the low laying coastal plains of the Coorong to the flat expanse of the Murray Mallee to the steeper slopes of the Mount Lofty Ranges in the west.

The region is situated between two and three hours by road from Adelaide and its fresh food markets, as well as the freight hubs of the Adelaide Airport, Seaport, the interstate rail network, and hence to the fresh produce markets of Melbourne and Sydney. Another significant advantage of the region is the price of land which is cheaper than that of areas closer to Adelaide which has encouraged the development of larger broadacre farming enterprises.

Also located within the region are several large vegetable packing operations and food processors whilst the commercial vegetable growers within the region can also take advantage of labour from the region and in addition the use of mechanised harvesting which has been introduced for such broadacre crops as carrots, potatoes, and onions.

The region is composed of two distinct sub-regions, that of; • Riverland sub-region comprises the Local Government Areas (LGA) of Renmark - Paringa, Berri - Barmera, and Loxton - Waikerie, with a combined area of 9,386 kms. The Murray River provides the structure for the region by defining the landscape and the basis for the key regional industries of tourism and primary industry, as well as providing the linkage between the region’s five main townships and is the basis for the establishment of a diverse range of irrigated horticulture.

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The Riverland is not only one of the major commercial horticultural production regions of the State, but also of Australia and whilst it is principally known for its wine production it is also as a result of highly productive soils and a conductive climate the centre for the production and processing of citrus, stone fruit, almonds and vegetables.

The Region is situated approximately 250 kms north-east of Adelaide and stretches from the townships of Blanchetown and Morgan in the west to the junction of the Victorian/South Australian/New South Wales borders. The Sturt Highway is the key transport route through the region providing access to both Adelaide and Mildura and further to Melbourne (700kms) and Sydney (1,200kms). Other main roads within the region provide access to regional townships as well as offering alternative routes to other major regional centres located outside the region such as Murray Bridge. Additional access to the region is provided by a rail link that runs between Loxton and Tailem Bend and is principally used to transport grains from the region, and two sealed aerodromes located at Renmark and Waikerie.

• Murray Mallee (or Murraylands) region comprises the major township of Murray Bridge which is in the top ten vegetable growing areas of the Murray Darling Basin (MDB)43 , with the townships of Mannum, and Swan Reach situated along the Murray River north of Murray Bridge and the townships of Tailem Bend and Meningie located to the south. Pinnaroo and Parilla in the eastern side of the mallee have become important potatoe growing regions in recent years.

The region is situated in the eastern section of South Australia and extends from the southern Murray River areas through the Mallee to the Victorian border and south to the Coorong, and straddles one of the major transit corridors (Princes Highway / A1 Highway) from the east coast of Australia to South Australia and then on to Western Australia.

The horticulture industry provides 23% of gross food revenue of the Murraylands region’s economy, and whilst tomatoes were traditionally the crop which made Murray Bridge a prime commercial vegetable growing region more recent diversification into potatoes, onions and carrots has become a new focus for irrigators. Murray Bridge is also home to the State’s largest lettuce growing enterprise.

Herbs and salad vegetables are successfully grown at Murray Bridge, and a large mushroom producer has recently relocated to the region. The recent growth in potato production has been supported by underground water available in the Parilla and Pinnaroo areas of the region.

Climate The South Australian section of the Murray Darling Basin (SA-MDB) is subject to mild winters and hot summers, which combined with a low average rainfall has seen the region in recent years suffer severely from drought and has in turn placed an increased reliance upon both the Murray River and underground aquifers as a source of water for irrigation use. Temperatures within the region range on average in the Riverland sub-region from a high in February of 31.1°C to a low of 4°C in July and in the Murraylands sub-region from a high in January of 31.7°C to a low of 4°C in July. Winter and Spring frosts are common throughout the region. Water supply Water use and quality are the dominate issues within not just this region but the State as a whole reflecting in part the importance of the Murray River as the State’s primary source of water for both drinking and agricultural use. Many of the Murray River’s catchments are located outside South Australia and have experienced degradation of their natural habitats and resources with the main

43 Judith Stubbs, “Report 4 - Exploring the relationship between community resilience & irrigated agriculturein the Murray Darling Basin”, City of Murray Bridge, SA Case Study, July 2010, page 29

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cause being the rising salinity combined with a decline in water quality levels, the result of over exploitation of the available resources in the past, alteration to the water flows, habitat modification combined with the inappropriate use and mismanagement of the land itself, as well as the introduction of feral plants and animals. The Murray River within the SA-MDB region is highly regulated with an extensive system of dams, weirs and in addition 11 locks running from Mildura (Lock 11) to Blanchetown (Lock 1) before running into the Southern Ocean, approximately 70kms south of Murray Bridge. The South Australian Government constructed a series of barrages across Lake Alexandrina where it discharges into the Coorong in the 1940’s to guarantee a source of permanent fresh water for the surrounding communities for domestic and irrigation uses. The barrages on Lake Alexandrina have generally maintained the water level below Blanchetown at levels suitable for extraction by irrigators however the recent drought which brought about historically low water flows lowered the Murray River to a level where the extraction of even reduced water allocations was not possible for many irrigators. In March 2010 the Murray River at Blanchetown was 1.5 metres below the level of the weir. The city of Adelaide also sources water from the Murray River via several pipelines without which it is doubtful that Adelaide could support its current level of population44. Use of Irrigation within the region Irrigation within the region is from two different sources, in the Riverland sub-region irrigation water is sourced directly from the Murray River, whilst in the Murraylands sub-region it is sourced from bores accessing underground aquifers.

The supply of an adequate quantity and quality of water has in the past enabled the expansion of the commercial horticultural industry (of which commercial vegetable production is a small but integral part) to occur within the region, with irrigation at its peak being responsible for 95% of water usage which in turn affects approximately 80% of the river’s flow. This overuse of irrigation has lead to induced salinity levels especially where flood or furrow irrigation methods were used which caused the excess water to seep down into the groundwater table. Over the last 30 years the region has seen a move away from the traditional irrigation methods of flood and furrow where water was delivered to the irrigators through a system of sluice gates and levees that provided gravity fed flood irrigation when the river was at an appropriate level. As a result of the severe drought experienced in South Australia recently the State Government introduced water efficiency both for domestic and industrial use which saw the introduction of a range of measures to modernise the use of irrigation such as the adoption of more water conservative methods of drip and trickle irrigation. Groundwater There are large resources of groundwater within the SA Murray Darling Basin (SA-MDB) region being present in all three underground aquifer types. The Great Artesian and the Murray sedimentary basins cover by far the largest area within the region and provide the major underground water source of the SA-MDB region however the quality and quantity of the water is varied and unevenly distributed. The Murray Basin covers approximately 297,000kms and it is a relatively thin saucer shaped basin between 200 and 600 metres thick made up of Cainozoic aged unconsolidated sediments and sedimentary rocks, primarily silts, clays, and limestone and has a limited storage capacity. The thin and flat nature of the Basin means that it can fill quite rapidly, and there is evidence that it has refilled six or seven times over the past 500,000 years. Whereas previous fillings have taken between 2,000 to 3,000 years the current refilling phase is taking less than 1,000 years due essentially to the clearing of natural vegetation and its replacement by shallow rooted plants both within the dry land and in the irrigated sections of the region.

44 City of Murray Bridge website, www.murraybridge.sa.gov.au

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There are large recoverable reserves of groundwater in the SA-MDB aquifers of which only a small percentage is used due mainly to the high variability of the water quality, with the best water being found around the SA-MDB margins especially in the east, south east and south west portions of the Murraylands sub-region. In the Riverlands sub-region the quality of groundwater found adjacent to the Murray River below the confluence of the Murrumbidgee River is highly saline.

Soil types Commercial vegetable growing within the SA-MDB region is predominately undertaken on the region’s shallower soils which are suitable to a wide range of commercial vegetable production. The light soils within the region assist in improve drainage thereby helping to reduce root disease and also assists in mechanical harvesting by producing a cleaner crop. Additional information on the soil types and their profiles within this region can be obtained from accessing the Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 21.- The main vegetable crops grown within the SA-MDB region compared to the State as a whole45 Type of Vegetable SAProduction Area Sown SA-MDB Prod. Area Sown (Tonnes) (HA) (Tonnes) (HA) Beans (Butter) 8.81 4.40 Beans (French & Runner) 5,174.38 32.80 0.7 Beetroot 304.20 9.6 Broccoli 724.42 98.7 25.7 Brussel sprouts 3,482.17 98.9 Cabbages 4,410.00 97.40 13.90 Capsicums, Chillies & Peppers 6,709.96 151.70 5.0 Carrots 48,314.20 775.4 202.80 Cauliflower 5,985.90 163.20 10.50 Celery 234.78 35.90 Cucumbers 4,672.08 75.30 2.10 Eggplant 113.87 11.0 Leeks 599.43 24.20 Lettuce 10,917.60 357.20 120.60 Mushrooms 5,721.79 20.40 Onions (Red) 13,649.30 236.90 Onions (White & Brown) 72,406.80 1,209.00 559.40 Parsnips 562.70 20.20 Peas 9.00 4.50 Peas (Snow & Sugar Snap) 9.10 2.20 Potatoes (Fresh market) 272,980.90 7,339.00 6,166.30 (combined total of fresh and processed) Potatoes (Processed) 204,081.30 4,785.30 Pumpkins (including Butternut) 2,585.50 187.80 594.10 Radish 74.90 7.60 Silverbeet & Spinach 216.12 12.30 Spring Onions / Shallots 419.70 13.60 6.4 Swedes & Turnips 289.20 32.40 Sweet Corn (Fresh market) 167.30 16.90 0.9

45 Statewide statistics are as recorded by ABS, Agricultural Commodities Australia 2007/08, series 7121 and the regional statistics are as compiled by PIRSA 2009/10 (Incomplete series)

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(combined total of fresh and processed) Sweet Corn (Processed) Nil Nil Sweet Potatoes Nil Nil Tomatoes (Fresh market) 14,714.80 81.30 67.10 (combined total of fresh and processed) Tomatoes ( Processed) 92.90 3.7 Zucchini & Button Squash 279.43 23.90 18.5 Total Area (Ha) Sown 16,199.40 Total Production (Tonnes) 679,912.54

TASMANIA Tasmania produces an extensive range of vegetables both for the fresh and processed markets the majority of which are produced in the high rainfall, high fertility areas of the state in the north-west (around the Meander Valley), central north as well as in the north-east although in recent years there has been some development in the drier areas of the state where irrigation is available but to date the southern region of the State accounts for less than 10% of the total vegetable crop. The vegetable growing and processing industry is an important component of the State’s economy accounting for 18% of total value of agricultural production in the State in the period 2006-07 or

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A$193M at the farm gate. When packed and / or processed the value of Tasmania’s vegetables is estimated to be valued at approximately A$352M per annum.46 Tasmania is Australia’s largest producer of potatoes with a harvest yield of more the 420,000 tonnes per year and an industry value of A$193 M. The state also supplies one third of Australia’s onion crop and is responsible for 80% of Australia’s export of onions.

Climate Tasmania has a cool temperate climate with mild temperatures and four distinct seasons and is able to escape from the temperatures and humidity experienced in other parts of Australia due to its location at latitude 40° South longitude 144° East which places it right in the path of the “Roaring Forties” wind that encircles the southern portion of the globe. Tasmania has four distinct seasons. Summer is warm with sunny days and mild evenings, the weather being more stable between the months of February and April. Autumn is the classical transition to Winter with cool to frosty nights and clear cool days. The Winter months are characterised by sudden storms, shorter day light hours and snow on the higher peaks ( Mt Ossa 1617m / 5300 ft the highest ). Spring has mild showers and a general warming to summer.

Water Policy In Tasmania both surface water and groundwater are controlled by the Water Management Act 1999, which contains all licensing, allocation, water use restrictions, trading and other management provisions affecting both surface water and groundwater. The Act requires water to be allocated to the environment (including groundwater dependent ecosystems), allows for licensing and allocation of surface water and groundwater, sets priorities for access to water whenever demand exceeds supply and provides for the development of water management plans. Surface water is both licensed and actively managed however as of 2008 there was no licensing system in place for groundwater as the level of use was determined to be low. The right to access groundwater without a licence is provided for under the Act which also establishes the right to take stock and domestic water without a licence. The Act does allow for restrictions to be put in place should either surface water or groundwater quality be compromised, environment ecosystems are threatened or adversely impacted upon. These conditions are very similar to those imposed by the South Australian legislation.

Water Supply There is a perception that Tasmania has an abundance of water resources however the distribution of these resources are predominately in the west of the State. Rainfall is fairly evenly spread throughout the year although the Winter months are naturally the wettest. Hobart despite being Australia’s second driest capital city does not suffer the severe water shortages faced by other capital cities due to the water reservoirs being fed by mountain catchments. The total volume of allocated water entitlements amounted to 378,000 ML in 2004 (compared to 250,000 ML in 1999). The increase which has occurred over the last five years has been due to the increases in the number of dam permit approvals and on-farm storage capacity. Water allocations are primarily for winter river extraction into storage and during the summer period (December / April) for direct irrigation to crop. Water use is evenly split between dairy production and intensive horticultural use of which vegetable production is the primary sector. Table 22. - Comparable rainfall statistics for both regions of Tasmania 47

46 David O’Donnell, Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry: Tasmania, page 2

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Month North / North West Central / Midlands January 46mm 28mm February 18mm 16mm March 31mm 23mm April 63mm 52mm May 58mm 36mm June 130mm 96mm July 113mm 85mm August 110mm 66mm September 90mm 83mm October 46mm 39mm November 46mm 41mm December 49mm 21mm Annual Totals 800mm 590mm

Table 22 above profiles the average monthly rainfalls for the North Coast and Midlands region of Tasmania taken over a three year period at the DPIWE Forthside (Northern) and Cressy (Midlands) weather stations during the period 2002 -04. The three bulk water providers in Tasmania are: • Hobart Water, principal supplier to eight councils of Southern Tasmania • Esk Water, principal provider to four councils in the Launceston / Tamar Valley region of the State • Cradle Coast Water, principal supplier to six councils of North-West Tasmania

Each of the above water providers is owned by joint authorities comprising the councils within their respective constituencies (Southern Regional Corporation, Northern Regional Corporation and North western Regional Corporation respectively). In addition some councils are also responsible for the supply of their own water with Burnie City Council being the largest supplying between 3,000 and 4,000 ML annually. Other regional suppliers for irrigation purposes only are the Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Cressey – Longford Irrigation Scheme, Winnaleah Irrigation Scheme, Shannon Clyde Water Company and the Elizabeth Macquarie Trust.

On-farm metering and water licensing All river, groundwater and dam supply was prior to the implementation of the 1999 Tasmanian Water Management Act extracted without metering and by July 2006 approximately 500 meters had been installed and all new water storage or river extraction required meter installation. Groundwater remains unregulated.48 In Tasmania there are approximately 3,000 high reliability water licences with an allocation of 375,000 ML and an average licence volume of approximately 100 ML per season.

Water Trading / Flexibility of Price

47 David O’Donnell, Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry: Tasmania, page 6 48 IBID, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry: Tasmania, page 14

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The 1999 Tasmanian Water Management Act legislated temporary water trading between licensed waterholders. Trading is still relatively low with only 8,000 ML being traded in 2002/03.49

Salinity Impacts The impacts of salinity are increasing in the northern and central regions of the State. These regions are typically duplex soils with a high soil salt concentration and saline seeps are becoming increasingly more common in newly developed intensive irrigation areas with these soil types and surface salt scalds are becoming increasingly evident. A survey conducted by the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industry, Water and Environment in 2000 estimated that salinity was significant in 55,000 ha with 80% of the salt affected land being in the Central and North East regions of the State. The bulk of vegetable production which occurs on the deep well drained north coastal ferrosol soils is considered to be a low salinity risk.

Use of Irrigation The vast majority of vegetable production within the state is irrigation-dependent, as typical rainfall during the summer production season is in the vicinity of 350 mm, whilst evaporative losses are around 900 mm.50 There are over 1300 farms within the State with licensed water allocations and of these approximately 600 are predominately involved in vegetable production. • Potatoes and Broccoli are mostly grown under travelling gun irrigation although some of the larger contracts are now grown under centre-pivot or linear move irrigation • Onions, Beans, Peas and carrots are predominately watered by travelling gun although set sprinklers are becoming relatively common

There is considered to be a low risk of salinity through irrigation due to the bulk of vegetable production occurring on deep, well drained north coast ferrosol soils.51 The Rivers and Water Supply Commission provides bulk water for irrigation although the vast majority of water comes from unregulated streams through private infrastructure. The major irrigation schemes in Tasmania include:52 • Cressy-Longford Irrigation Scheme, a co-operative established by irrigators on the scheme which services properties in the Cressy / Longford area of North-Eastern Tasmania • Winnaleah Irrigation Scheme, a co-operative of irrigators involved in the scheme which services 60 properties in the Derby / Winnaleah area of North-Eastern Tasmania • South-East District Irrigation Scheme managed by the Rivers and Water Supply Commission which services properties in the Colebrook / Richmond / Cambridge areas of Southern Tasmania • River Clyde Irrigation Scheme managed by the Rivers and Water Supply Commission which services properties in the Clyde River valley area of central Tasmania • Meander District Irrigation Scheme managed by the Rivers and Water Supply Commission which services properties in the Meander Valley area.

Soil types

49 David O’Donnell, Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry: Tasmania, page 14 50 IBID, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry: Tasmania, page 2 51 IBID, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry: Tasmania, page 13 52 IRIS Tasmania, Website www.iris.tas.gov.au/infrastructure/water/supply

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For information on soil types / profiles in Tasmania refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au The three major vegetables grown in Tasmania are: • potatoes at 43%, are the largest component of the vegetable industry. The main advantage of potato production in Tasmania are the quality of the product and the continuity of supply • onions at 16% account for 25% of Australia’s national crop. Most of Tasmania’s crop is for overseas export with Germany being the largest importer • carrots at 12% is the State’s third most important crop having doubled in recent years to approximately 31,000 tonnes 60% of which are sold to interstate markets Other vegetable crops grown but not necessarily in exportable quantities are asparagus, beans, cauliflower, celery, cucumber, leeks, parsnip, sweet corn, tomatoes and zucchini.53 Other vegetables which can be grown but at present not in sufficient large volumes are asparagus, beans, cauliflower, celery, cucumber, leeks, parsnip, sweet corn, tomatoes and zucchini. Tasmania also supplies greenhouse capsicums, herbs and exotic mushrooms.54 Tasmania’s Vegetable Growing Regions

North Region The North Region combined with the North West Region are the main centres for vegetable production within the State due to the highly fertile coastal lands which make up the regions characterised by the significant areas of deep well drained red volcanic clay / loam soils. Vegetable production occurs between October and March and is very dependent upon irrigation as annual rainfall during this period is between 900mm and 1200mm.

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 23. - The main vegetable crops grown within the North Region compared with the State as a whole Tas Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans – Butter 2422.79 252.00 422.38 83.00 Beans -French & Runner 9828.03 1064.30 4030.45 441.60 Broccoli 2652.00 376.40 551.93 79.00 Capsicum 11.68 0.40 11.68 0.40 Carrots 65135.50 820.40 9155.20 112.90 Garlic 538.35 151.70 534.65 146.40 Onions - White & Brown 76069.50 1379.50 32576.20 558.80 Onions – Red 6,835.90 131.70 5,196.70 97.70 Parsnips 43.70 4.40 43.70 4.40 Peas 38156.32 2400.90 28230.53 1646.10 Potatoes 311218.00 5968.50 133843.50 2581.40

53 IRIS Tasmania, Website – www.iris.tas.gov.au/resources_industry/agriculture/supply/vegetables 54 Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Brochure “Tasmanian Produce – Vegetables”, page 1

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Pumpkins 1477.50 101.80 456.40 42.20 Swedes & Turnips 3889.40 128.00 257.40 16.90 Tomatoes 996.60 7.90 36.00 0.20 Zucchini & Button Squash 128.67 4.30 17.50 1.00 Total Area Sown 12,792.20 5864.60 Total Production (Tonnes) 519,404.20 215364.34

North West region

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 24. - The main vegetable crops grown within the North West Region compared with the State as a whole Tas Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans – Butter 2422.79 252.00 2000.41 169.00 Beans -French & Runner 9828.03 1064.30 5797.57 622.70 Broccoli 2652.00 376.40 2100.08 297.40 Brussel sprouts 1002.77 72.10 1002.77 72.10 Cabbages 1103.70 32.80 1033.70 30.00 Carrots 65135.50 820.40 55980.30 707.50 Cauliflower 5894.50 282.40 5587.50 266.40 Celery 972.80 17.70 972.80 17.70 Cucumbers 39.18 0.50 22.77 0.10 Leeks 82.25 3.60 75.77 3.00 Lettuce 1,689.50 166.70 25.00 19.70 Onions - White & Brown 76069.50 1379.50 43493.30 820.70 Onions – Red 6,835.90 131.70 1639.30 34.00 Peas 38156.32 2400.90 7803.23 594.90 Potatoes 311218.00 5968.50 171166.00 3172.00 Pumpkins 1477.50 101.80 1021.10 59.50 Silver beet / Spinach 139.96 8.80 120.51 7.90 Swedes & Turnips 3889.40 128.00 3632.10 111.10 Sweet Potato 446.40 11.20 446.40 11.20 Tomatoes 996.60 7.90 500.70 1.40 Zucchini & Button Squash 128.67 4.30 111.17 3.30 Total Area Sown 13,231.50 7029.80 Total Production (Tonnes) 530,180.60 304532.48

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Southern region The Southern region or more commonly referred to as the Central and Midlands area is traditionally a dry land sheep and grain production area however with the introduction of irrigation over the last ten years particularly using centre pivots the region has seen a growth in vegetable production. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 25. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Southern Region compared with the State as a whole Tas Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beetroot 9.70 1.00 9.70 1.00 Cabbages 1103.70 32.80 70.00 2.80 Cauliflower 5894.50 282.40 307.00 16.00 Cucumbers 39.18 0.50 16.41 0.30 Garlic 538.35 151.70 3.70 5.30 Leeks 82.25 3.60 6.48 0.60 Lettuce 1,689.50 166.70 1664.50 147.00 Peas 38156.32 2400.90 2122.55 159.90 Potatoes 311218.00 5968.50 6208.50 215.10 Radish 16.20 1.00 16.20 1.00 Silver beet / Spinach 139.96 8.80 19.45 1.00 Spring onions - Shallots 9.78 2.90 9.72 1.00 Tomatoes 996.60 7.90 459.90 6.20 Total Area Sown 9,028.70 1043.70 Total Production (Tonnes) 359,893.90 10914.11

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WESTERN AUSTRALIA The most significant vegetable crops in terms of value to the State’s economy are potatoes, carrots, cauliflower and onion which are predominately grown in the southern half of the State. The vegetable industry was valued in the period 2005/06 at approximately A$292M (farm gate), and directly employed 4,774 on a total of 445 farms located throughout the State. During this period (2005/06), the average area available to growers was 130ha of which only 19ha was actually sown to crop. In the period 2006/07 the area available to growers decreased to 85ha but the area sown increased to 28ha.55 The horticultural industry has developed a strong export trade with South East Asia which can be supplied competitively and all year round due to the broad climatic range experienced. In addition an increase in demand by consumers for convenience food could also led to a higher demand for pre- packaged vegetables and salads, pillow packs and speciality vegetables for the domestic retail market.

Climate Western Australia due to its size (running the entire length of Australia’s western coastline) experiences a diverse climate ranging from tropical in the northern zone of the State (Kimberley / Kununurra) where heavy rains are experienced in the summer (Wet) season, sub-tropical within the central portion of the State (Gascoyne / Carnarvon) through to the more temperate / Mediterranean style climate in the south west corner of the State where snow can occasionally fall in the far south during the winter months particularly on the Mount Stirling range. The size of the state’s land mass is a major influence on the climate experienced within the State with a general decrease in rainfall and an increase in the range of temperatures experienced as one moves away from the coast. The interior of the State is mostly dry due to excessive heat in summer.

Due to a history of geological stability, much of the State consists of a broad, relatively featureless plateau between 300 and 600 metres above mean sea level, with only the Pilbara and the Kimberley having any major areas of rugged country. Though less pronounced than in the other mainland States, topographic features do exert a significant influence in some areas, for example near the lower west coast a rapid increase in rainfall can be measured from the coastal plain to the top of the Darling Range, followed by a marked decrease to the east. Inland temperatures are modified to some degree by the elevation of the land, but the effect is not large.

It is as a result of this diverse climate range that the State’s commercial vegetable industry is able to produce such a wide variety of vegetables ranging from cucumber, chilli, eggplant, sweet corn, tomatoes, zucchini in the north of the State, artichokes, beetroot, lettuce, cabbages in the Peel / Harvey region south of Perth, to broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, red onions, and shallots in the south west corner of the State.

Water Policy Western Australia’s water policy is defined by legislation and the National Water Initiative, State Water Plan 2007, and A Blueprint for water reform in Western Australia. Relevant State legislation includes the Water Resources Legislation Amendment Act 2007, Rights in Water and Irrigation Act 1914, Waterways Conservation Act 1976, Country Areas Water Supply Act 1947, Metropolitan Water Supply Sewerage and Drainage Act 1909 and various other Acts relating to providing water services. The Rights in Water and Irrigation Act 1914 was amended in 2001 to reflect the COAG water reforms agreed to by the States and the Act treats water resources as three entities, these are: • water in a watercourse

55 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Agricultural Commodities – 2006/07, series 7121, 7113.0 and 7503.0

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• water in wetlands • groundwater

Western Australia has 221 major waterways which form an important part of the environment, culture and economy of the State. The Rights in Water and Irrigation Act 1914 differentiates between “certain surface waters” referring to every watercourse and wetland situated within the boundaries of an area proclaimed under the Act, and “other surface waters” which refers to every watercourse and wetland not within a proclaimed area. What this means in effects is that water access and use within a proclaimed area must be licensed whereas if it is outside a proclaimed area no licence is required. Both surface water and groundwater are treated separately under the Act and there is no recognition of the interaction between surface water and groundwater aquifers. The Western Australian Department of Water is the lead agency for waterways management within the State with the stated aims of improving the integration of waterways management with other water resource issues such as water allocation, water use, water efficiency, water conservation, salinity, drainage, prevention or limiting of flood damage, maintaining the hydrological regime, water quality and the impact of climate change. The Department of Environment and Conservation and the Environmental Protection Agency with assistance from the Department of Environment and Conservation performing a more specialised role in waterways management throughout the State.

Water Supply Compared to the eastern states of Australia water resources have not declined sufficient as yet to require restrictions to be introduced. Farmers are provided water allocations through a time limited licensing system. In certain areas of the State for example Carnarvon water is metered, (the price of water decreasing with the amount used) and water allocations are transferable. Whereas in the metropolitan area of Perth only farms using in excess of 500 ML of bore water are metered.

Surface water for the Perth and southern regions of the State is sourced from 13 river basins with most having their headwaters on the Darling Plateau and then either flowing across the Swan Coastal Plain and into the Indian Ocean or flowing south and crossing a relatively narrow coastal dune system to the Southern Ocean. There are also many short streams that rise on the Whicher Scarp and flow to the Busselton Coast.

The rivers with the largest flow rates within the Perth and southern regions are the Blackwood, Swan- Avon and Murray with mean annual flows of 570GL, 355GL, and 245GL respectively

In addition there has been more than 10% decline in the average ‘wet season’ rainfall since the mid 1970s which has resulted in a 50% reduction in streamflow.56 As a consequence the city of Perth has experienced a dramatic downturn in inflows to its reservoirs. Rainfall and therefore streamflow was particularly low from 2001 to 2007 thereby increasing demands placed upon both surface and groundwater catchments. Table 26. - Seasonal rainfall throughout Western Australia 57 Region Summer Autumn Winter Spring Total (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Kununurra 486 160 6 86 738

56 Western Australian Govt., Sept. 2009, Department of Water, Climate change, water demand and water availability, page 3 57 Harald Hoffmann, Dennis Phillips & Bob Paulin, Dec 2005, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry : Western Australia, page 10

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(Ord River ) Carnarvon 35 66 111 18 230 Mid-West 25 111 274 60 470 Gingin / Wanneroo 33 171 477 158 839 Perth 30 168 473 140 811 South West WA Peel / Harvey 43 215 554 198 1010 PWB 65 232 505 234 1036 Great Southern 71 193 335 209 808 Whicher 48 264 624 220 1156

Water is supplied throughout the State by the following agencies: Water Corporation Perth metropolitan area and regional centres Gascoyne Water Harvey Water Ord Irrigation Cooperative Preston Valley Irrigation Cooperative Aqwest Bunbury region Rottnest Island Authority Rottnest Island Busselton Water Busselton Region Hammersley Iron Dampier, Paraburdoo and Tom Price Local Government Authorities Regional centres

Cost of Water to the Farmgate Any attempt to define the cost of water to the producer within the commercial vegetable production sector of Western Australia can be inherently risky and would depend upon the crop yield, water application rates and operating costs which can vary according to the location within the State, individual farming practices, and the costs associated with irrigation infrastructure relating to economies of size and land prices. In the South West region of the State for example the estimated average rate of $7,610 per ML reflects the order of magnitude of the value of water in vegetable production which is well above the price paid for permanent water rights on markets in the NSW and Victorian Murray regions. A study which was undertaken at Carnarvon by the Department of Agriculture and Food indicated that the annual return of water for a mixed vegetable enterprise was around A$114 per ML which equates to an asset value of approximately A$2,000 per ML. Gross margin data based upon farm management budgets obtained from the Ord River office indicated a range of A$62 to A$186 per ML for that region.58

Use of Irrigation

58 Donna Brennan, May 2006, Department of Agriculture and Food – Government of Western Australia, Current and Future Demand for Irrigation Water in Western Australia, Page 18

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The irrigated agricultural sector together with the horticulture sector accounts for approximately 40% of the State’s total water consumption. The horticulture industry sector is the State’s fastest growing primary production sector and is highly dependent in most regions upon irrigation to ensure continued success due to the declining rainfall which has been experienced in recent years in particular during late Autumn and Winter seasons. Table 27. – Irrigation schemes in Western Australia59 Region Irrigation Area or District Area Irrigation Water Main Irrigation Irrigated Supply Allocation Industries (Ha) System (ML) Metro Nth Wanneroo / Carabooda 5,620 Self-supply 83,693 Vegetable crops, some perennial horticulture (e.g. Avocados) Metro East Hills Area Self-supply Perennial horticulture (Fruit) Metro South Self-supply Viticulture Vegetables Peel / Harvey Harvey Water (SWIA) 10,426 South west 180,379 Traditional dairy Irrigation pastures

management Recent growth in Co-operative horticulture and T/as Harvey Viticulture Water

Myalup Self-supply Mostly annual vegetable crops Whicher Busselton 5,331 Self-supply 33,864 Viticulture & Vegetables Margaret River Scott River Preston Donnybrook 5,966 Preston 41,958 Perennial Warren Valley horticulture (Fruit

Blackwood Irrigation including Grapes) scheme Vegetables

Manjimup Self-supply Great Frankland 3,212 Self-supply 756 Viticulture Southern Mount Barker Gingin 3,206 Self-supply 84,419 Vegetables, Fruit, (including Olives,

Grapes)

Mid-West 721 Self-supply 8,275 Pasture, Vegetables and Fruit Gascoyne Carnarvon Irrigation Area 950 Carnarvon 10,800 Fruit & Vegetables Irrigation Area West 942 Self-supply 2,845 Pasture, Vegetables Kimberley & Tropical Fruit

59 Western Australian Government, Irrigation Review – Final Report, July 2005, Page 30

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East Ord Stage 1 9,878 Ord 335,000 Tropical Fruit, Kimberley Irrigation Trees, Sugar, (Kununurra) Co-operative Cotton, Seed Crops, Vegetables, Pasture Total 46,252 782,089

A large percentage of the water used on-farm within Western Australia is not metered and therefore it is difficult to provide accurate estimates of water usage however allowing for this constraint it is estimated that approximately 520,000ML of water for use in irrigation is consumed annually, with approximately 340,000ML of this being consumed in the South West corner of the State and a further 180,000ML consumed in the Gascoyne and Kimberley regions. Approximately 64% of the water allocated (not necessarily consumed) is covered by the three major irrigation schemes these being - South West Irrigation Area managed by Harvey Water, Ord Irrigation Area and Carnarvon Irrigation Area. There is a fourth smaller irrigation scheme, the Preston Valley Irrigation Scheme which supplies water from the Glen Mervyn Dam to irrigators along the Preston River valley. The remainder of the State’s irrigation allocation is self supplied through either on-farm pumping of groundwater or the diversion of surface water within the high rainfall areas of the South West At State level, 55% of water used in agriculture is for high value horticulture crops, and in the South West Region horticulture represents 65% of total water use. This large proportion of high value horticulture can be compared, for example, with the Victorian Goulburn-Murray, where horticulture represents only 5% of irrigated water entitlements.60 Table 28. - illustrates the most common method of irrigation used by district and the product quality resulting. District Main Irrigation Method Quality of Product Kununurra (ORIA) Flood, weed problems. Water supplied Good, Export quality from Ord River Dam Carnarvon Drip and Polythene mulch, good for Mostly good but sometimes weed control. Water supplied from sunburned Gascoyne River, bores or scheme water. Gingin & Wanneroo Sprinklers used for cooling and moving In some carrot farms high sand control. Water is self supplied nitrogen levels in the ground groundwater sourced from bores. water which is then used to irrigate increased top growth and causing ‘lodging’ tops which make harvest difficult. Quality however is still good. Perth (Metropolitan Area) Sprinklers used for cooling and moving Good sand control. Water supplied from bores. South West WA Sprinklers or travelling irrigators used Good for cooling and moving sand control. Water supplied either by surface dams, or by scheme water supplied via aqueducts or groundwater. Around Albany crops are partly or fully rain fed as rain is more evenly distributed.

60 Donna Brennan, W.A. Department of Agriculture and Food, May 2006, Current and future demand for irrigation water in Western Australia – page 2

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Kununurra, Carnarvon and the Mid-west regions of the State are totally dependent upon irrigation whilst Perth and the south west regions only require irrigation from September onwards. It should be noted that in the South Coast region of the State some crops such as processing peas can be grown just on the rainfall received within the region and are not dependent upon irrigation.

Groundwater Groundwater is a significant source of irrigation water within Western Australia except for the Kimberley region which relies on water sourced from the Ord River for use in irrigation. There are however extensive unallocated reserves of groundwater within the Kimberley region (mainly in the western zone of the region) with the potential for development for irrigation use in the future.

It should be noted the affect of irrigation (where bore water has been used) can have on sandy soils through the deposit of high nutrient levels caused by the leaching affect of nitrates and other nutrients into the groundwater and thus possibly being recycled in the future. This unplanned fertilisation can have a devastating effect on a crop as has been shown in the Gingin region where carrot tops can ‘lodge’ making them difficult to harvest due to their high water nitrate levels61. Although the State’s rainfall as previously mentioned has been in decline over a number of years the commercial vegetable industry sector continues to have unrestricted access to water for irrigation with no cost burden being placed upon growers accessing groundwater resources through their own infrastructure. Water charges at present only apply to areas where government provides the required infrastructure such as Kununurra, Carnarvon and Harvey. In all of the districts where irrigation is used farmers are required to be shareholders of the relevant water trust to get the lowest price for water. There are currently no reductions in the number of bore allocations resulting from the effects of drought or short term aquifer decline experienced around Perth.

Soil Types For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

Western Australia’s Vegetable Growing Regions Vegetable production is conducted at eleven main locations throughout the State, ranging from Kununurra in the north to Albany in the South, wherever good quality irrigation water is abundant. Production areas for vegetables range from one to 600 ha dependent upon the crop and district. In some districts notably the South West and Great Southern regions of the State vegetables are grown on mixed farms together with livestock or other horticultural activity. Table 29. - The main vegetable crops grown within the State by area and tonnage are 62 WA Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 19.20 2.1 Asparagus 96.1 22.8 Beans - Butter 38.88 11.6 Beans -French & Runner 1,146.52 238.3

61 Harald Hoffmann, Dennis Phillips & Bob Paulin, Dec 2005, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry : Western Australia, page 18 62 ABS, Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08, Western Australia, Series 7.120

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Beetroot 184.6 19.3 Broccoli 6,235.42 571.9 Cabbages 8,531.5 247.2 Capsicum 3,835.65 162.5 Carrots 65,320.4 1,071.1 Cauliflower 7,626.5 298.2 Chilli 129.63 10.9 Celery 6,941.70 195.3 Cucumbers 1,144.27 37.2 Eggplant 524.82 37.3 Fennel 11.12 1.2 Garlic 42.53 14.7 Leeks 516.30 42.2 Lettuce 20,985.7 841.7 Onions - White & Brown 25,140.6 408.5 Onions - Red 2,316.0 37.2 Parsnips 478.2 31.2 Peas 0.67 0.7 Snow Peas / Sugar Snaps 10.92 2.4 Potatoes 85,761.0 1,949.1 Pumpkins 17,302.5 875.6 Radish 645.36 55.1 Silver beet / Spinach 539.97 117.8 Spring onions - Shallots 1,845.06 69.7 Swedes & Turnips 374.5 28.8 Sweet corn 8,190.4 374.2 Sweet Potato 530.4 32.5 Tomatoes 12,316.8 259.4 Zucchini & Button Squash 1,135.70 97.8 Total Area Sown 9,887.1 Total Production (Tonnes) 279,918.92

The major regions of Western Australia are Kununurra (Ord River Irrigation Area) 2,839.88ha, Carnarvon situated on the Gascoyne River 622.48ha, Midwest region 114.29ha, Gingin / Wanneroo region 2,631.47ha, Perth 980.61ha, South West incorporating Peel / Harvey, Whicher, Preston / Warren / Blackwood, and Great Southern 4,256.38ha.

Kununurra (Ord River Irrigation Area / Kimberley region) Crop production within the region is dominated by the Ord River Irrigation Area, located near Kununurra. There are also horticultural activities undertaken in the West Kimberley, near Broome and Derby. The Kimberley region due to its remoteness is highly underdeveloped. The region covers

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an area twice the size of Victoria and is bound by the Northern Territory to the East and the Pilbara Region to the South, South East Asia to the north, with Timor and Indonesia both geographically closer to the Region than the State’s capital of Perth. Vegetables accounted for 24% (A$33 million) of the Kimberley total value of agricultural production in 2006-07, with watermelons, pumpkins and squash varieties accounting for the majority of vegetable production. Climate The region has a wet/dry tropical climate characterised by two well defined seasons, a warm dry season and a hot humid wet season which occurs between November and April each year during which 90% of the annual precipitation occurs. Water supply The Kimberley holds 80 per cent of the State's divertible, fresh, surface water resources. Water supplies for Broome, Derby, Fitzroy Crossing, Halls Creek and Kununurra are sourced from bore- fields located near the towns. Water is supplied to Wyndham from the Moochalabra Dam. The State's Water Corporation manages all water supplies to the regional towns.

The storage volume (to the top of the spillway) of the main Ord River Dam, Lake Argyle, is 10,763 million cubic metres of water. This equates to a surface area of 980 square kilometres, and serves the Ord River Irrigation Area through an open irrigation scheme which is owned by the Water Corporation and managed by the Ord Irrigation Cooperative.

Most of the annual rainfall is the result of the monsoonal depressions and tropical cyclones. Rainfall can be infrequent for the remainder of the year and consecutive dry months are common.63 Water is gravity feed via a hydro power station to Lake Kununurra from which it is then diverted again mostly by gravity to the irrigation areas on the Ivanhoe and Packsaddle Plains.

Use of irrigation The Ord River Irrigation Scheme (ORIS) includes approximately 14,000ha of developed land which has access to considerable water resources from Lake Argyle on the Ord River. This land is harvested to produce a diverse range of crops including melons, pumpkins, sugarcane, chickpeas, sorghum seed, and various fruit crops with a current annual production valued at between A$40 and A$55 million. The ORIS consists of approximately 159kms of earth lined channels controlled by flow regulators. Water is delivered to the user through supply channels by a combination of both automatic and manual operated control and check devices. Packsaddle irrigation area is located on the Packsaddle Plain situated to the south and west of Lake Kununurra with the southern and eastern sides being bounded by the Carr Boyd Ranges. Ivanhoe Irrigation Area is located on the Ivanhoe Plain situated to the north of Lake Kununurra and between the east bank of the Ord River and the western ridge of the Pincombe range. Groundwater Groundwater exists in the alluvial and bedrock throughout the region and is used for both public and private potable water supply within the area of the Lake Kununurra Dam and its associated channel development. It is also a minor supply for irrigation situated in areas outside the channel system. The quality of the groundwater is variable and can be unsuitable for both drinking and irrigation. Prior to the development of the ORIS groundwater was relatively deep and was replenished mostly by seasonal surface water infiltration when the Ord River was flowing, however since the introduction of agriculture and horticulture to the area the groundwater table has risen by 10 to 20 metres beneath the ORIS due to hydrological impacts of irrigation.

63 Kimberley Development Commission, Kimberley Development Commission Annual Report 2007/2008

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Soil types The ORIS is located on the palaeo-alluvial floodplain of the lower Ord River which is bounded along its flanks by rocky ranges of outcropping sandstone and basalt. The floodplain extends up to 10kms in width across the river axis. The region is composed in part of Cununurra Clay, a heavy cracking black clay which is preferred soil type given its ease of irrigation with the use of flood irrigation technique. Land elevation varies by only approximately 10 metres within the irrigation area whereas the surrounding ranges rise 300 metres to 400 metres above the plain. For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 30. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Kununurra (Ord River Irrigation Area / Kimberley) Region are Vegetable Main Harvest Period ------Basil March to December Beans (runner) April to December Beans (stringless) April to December Capsicum April to February Chilli Year round Cucumber Year round Eggplant Year round Pumpkin (butternut) Year round Pumpkin (bulk) Year round Sweet corn May to January Tomato April to February Tomato (cherry) Year round Zucchini March to December Gourmet eggfruit April to December Okra May to December Paprika April to December Squash April to November Winter melon March to November

Gascoyne Region The region is centred around the fertile banks of the Gascoyne River and provides fresh fruit and vegetables to the Perth market approximately 900kms distant to the south and is the key to the economic development of the region. During the period 2008/09 the region grew approximately 30,500 tonne of vegetables valued to the State’s economy of in excess of A$80.9M. The township of Carnarvon is the regional centre for the lower Gascoyne district situated at the mouth of the Gascoyne River. The Carnarvon plantation area (161 plantations) borders the Gascoyne River and includes about 1020ha of cropped horticultural land, and as at June 2009 this area was broken up into vegetables grown on about 570ha, 350ha planted to bananas, and 100ha planted to tree fruits. The diversity of the produce grown in the area is considerable, vegetable crops such as tomatoes, beans,

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capsicums and asparagus are grown together with tropical fruits such as paw paw, mangoes, citrus, stone, avocados, and grapes. During the winter months Carnarvon supplies the WA Market with most of its vegetables including zucchinis, tomatoes, capsicums, eggplant, beans, sweet corn, pumpkins, chillies to mention but a few. Climate The region has an arid climate with hot summers and mild winters although inland climatic conditions are more extreme than those experienced at the coast. The region can be influenced by seasonal factors such as cyclones, river flows, pests and disease for example rainfall generated by cyclone Steve in March 2000 caused significant flooding and severe crop damage which took industry three years to fully recover from. Water supply The water supply for Carnarvon is provided by groundwater stored within the sediments beneath the course of the Gascoyne River and is supplemented by surface water when the river is flowing. The water supply is divided into two management areas, the first a public water supply operated by the Water Corporation and the second a private well field. The public water supply well field supplies water for town use and for the horticulture industry, while the private well field is mainly used the horticulture industry with miscellaneous licensees such as caravan park operators. Use of irrigation Vegetable production within this region is possible only through the use of irrigation with crops being grown on micro drip irrigation using water sourced from below ground. The region is considered by many to be the best managed irrigation district in Australia and is seen as a model for using water efficiently and shifting the focus of water usage from flood distribution to the adoption of the latest technology including drip and micro sprinklers to minimise water loss whilst maximising economic returns per unit of water used. Water supply for the township of Carnarvon and the Irrigation District is sourced from the Gascoyne River alluvial aquifer. This aquifer comprises an upper aquifer known as first or top water which overlays an older alluvial aquifer (see Groundwater section for further information). On the 7th October 2009 the Western Australian government announced a commitment of A$7.4M to major pipeline upgrades in Carnarvon with the intention of supporting a further 400ha expansion of the horticulture precinct. The Australian Government also agreed to provide financial assistance to the project up to A$6.6M toward upgrading the irrigation infrastructure throughout the Carnarvon Irrigation Area. The primary objective was to construct a high pressure irrigation water delivery system throughout the Carnarvon Irrigation Area to replace the existing buried asbestos cement pipes with high density polyethylene pipe. A secondary objective of the project was to install meters and telemetry controls and implement an on-line accounting, consumption and reporting system. The upgrade project is scheduled to be concluded by 31st October 2011. Groundwater Owing to the very low rainfall and intermittent runoff within the region groundwater is the main source of water and is obtained from the Carnarvon Artesian Basin (CAB) which has the largest artesian conditions in the State. The CAB is located along the coast extending from close to the Murchinson River in the South to the mouth of the Fortescue River in the North and covers an area of approximately 115,000km².

Groundwater supports pastoral and horticultural properties, industry, mining, tourism, and town water supplies with the Birdrong Sandstone being the primary, most extensive and productive artesian groundwater source in the CAB. The Birdrong Sandstone outcrops (is at ground surface) in small areas on the eastern margin of the CAB and becomes deeper towards the coast, where it is typically 600 m below the surface.

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As mentioned previously (Use of Irrigation section) the water supply for the township of Carnarvon and the Irrigation District is sourced from the Gascoyne River alluvial aquifer. This aquifer comprises an upper aquifer known as first or top water which is separated from an older deeper alluvial aquifer by a clay horizon which is continuous over most of the basin. The upper aquifer is coarse grain and high yielding with a maximum thickness of 12 metres whereas by contrast the lower aquifer is finer grained, geologically variable and more laterally extensive having a thickness of between 51 and 65 metres. The Department of the Environment (with the function of the Water and Rivers Commission), licences all groundwater abstraction. The Government has regulated groundwater abstraction within the region since 1959 and there has been a moratorium on increasing allocations since 1980. Each plantation has an assessment number and a licence issued with a unit allocation with a maximum draw of 72,000 KL per annum. Recharging of the aquifers occurs during river flow events with the upper aquifer being directly recharged immediately the river flows whilst the lower aquifer is recharged at a slower rate due to its reliance on leakage from the upper aquifer. Therefore whilst the upper aquifer is generally recharged fully the lower aquifer is fully recharged only occurs when the river flow is for an extended period. There is permitted unrestricted pumping of groundwater from the upper aquifer and from surface flow during periods of recharge. The groundwater supply is sourced from both public and private water supply areas which have been subdivided into; Basin A groundwater is extracted by private bores form both aquifers with an allocation of 5,800 ML with individual irrigators having an annual allocation of 72 ML. During periods of river flow licensees within Basin A are provided with unrestricted access to both groundwater and surface water. Whereas during periods of no-flow these licensees are restricted to their licence allocation. Basin B – L public water supply areas currently operated by the Water Corporation in accordance with the licence issued by the Department of the Environment (with the function of the Water and Rivers Commission) where water is distributed by the Gascoyne Water Co-operative. The water in Basin B – L is extracted from predominately the lower aquifer. Soil types The soils in the Gascoyne region have many features that are common to semi-arid soils elsewhere in Australia. Most obvious is the predominantly red colouration of the soil which is due to soil particles covered by oxides of iron. Towards the coast, sandy calcareous soils are often lighter in colour due to littoral shell fragments and oxide leaching, while the browner calcareous earths tend to differ in colour due to the high concentrations of carbonates and lower concentrations of iron oxides. Organic matter is low and generally concentrated within the top few millimetres. The alluvial soils of the Carnarvon plantation area are loamy fine sands or silty loams. They are well drained and alkaline. Fertility is high and only small amounts of nitrogen fertiliser are required for high yields. For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 31. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Gascoyne region compared with the State as a whole WA Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Asparagus 96.10 22.80 13.20 4.00

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Beans - Butter 38.88 11.60 20.68 11.60 Beans -French & Runner 1146.52 238.30 462.09 113.60 Beetroot 184.60 19.30 6.60 1.30 Cabbages 8531.50 247.20 6.60 1.30 Capsicum 3835.65 162.50 2620.95 125.50 Carrots 65320.40 1071.70 13.20 1.30 Chilli 129.63 10.90 100.32 9.50 Cucumbers 1144.27 37.20 328.19 11.20 Eggplant 524.82 37.30 490.04 34.40 Lettuce 20985.70 841.70 26.40 2.60 Onions - White & Brown 25140.60 408.50 52.80 2.60 Pumpkins 17302.50 875.60 13455.40 639.20 Silver beet & Spinach 539.98 117.80 6.59 1.30 Spring onions - Shallots 1845.06 69.70 13.18 1.30 Sweet corn 8190.40 374.20 500.20 46.80 Sweet potato 530.40 32.50 213.20 19.30 Tomatoes 12316.80 259.40 3356.50 102.70 Zucchini & Button Squash 1135.70 97.80 52.39 75.00 Total Area Sown 9887.10 2193.80 Total Production (Tonnes) 967147.23 21738.53

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 have provided statistics for the area known as the Rangelands which correspondences with the areas of Kununurra and Carnarvon as cited by Harald Hoffmann, Dennis Phillips and Bob Paulin of the Western Australian Department of Agriculture and Food in December 2005 for their report entitled “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – Western Australia” and therefore the ABS data has been used.

Wanneroo Region (including Gingin) Wanneroo Shire is located just to the north of Perth’s metropolitan area and has been particularly important for vegetable production ranking with Cockburn and Manjimup as one of the three most important areas for vegetable production in the State. In the period 2005/06 it had nearly half of the vegetable growers in Perth.64 Commercial vegetable production was valued at approximately A$21,872,458 in the period 1993/94 however high land prices are limiting further development of the Shire for vegetable growing as the urban expansion of Perth encroaches into the Shire with large portions of existing horticultural land being rezoned under the metropolitan region scheme which has been in operation since 1963.65

64 Science Matters & Economics Consulting Services, Nov 2008, Consolidated summary prepared for the WA Department of Agriculture and Food, “The feasibility of a new horticulture precinct on the Gnangara Mound”, page 5 65 Western Australian Government, Planning WA, Website, www.planning.wa.gov.au

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There have been significant developments in recent years in the area surrounding Gingin where land is cheaper for horticultural expansion design to cater for new producers as well as those growers displaced from the Perth metropolitan region. Commercial vegetable production was valued at approximately A$16,673,301 in the period 1993/94. Climate The climate of the region is described as Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The long term average rainfall for Gingin is 724 mm with most rainfall being recorded during the winter months from May through to October. Water supply Town water is supplied to Gingin by pumped groundwater from a Water Corporation well field through two bores accessing the lower Leederville formation between the 138 and 161 metre depth and a further two bores accessing the upper Leederville formation between 15 and 33 metres depth.66 The Leederville formation is both confined and unconfined within the region. Unconfined aquifers are more vulnerable to contamination from inappropriate land uses than confined aquifers. The Wanneroo growing area is able to access water from the Gnangara Mound, possibly the most important water source in Western Australia providing >60% of Perth’s water. Licensed groundwater allocations for irrigated horticulture total approximately 66 GL per annum, with Wanneroo receiving 21 GL per annum It should be noted that the availability of water for further expansion of the horticulture industry within the Wanneroo area is limited due to the demands placed upon it by the city of Perth and it would appear that any endeavour to expand the industry would be reliant upon the use of recycled water as groundwater sources are completely allocated. Use of irrigation The profitability of commercial vegetable production within the region is dependent upon the use of irrigation. Crops follow closely after each other and so irrigation needs to be applied to most cropped areas over the summer period. Approximately 2,500ha of sandy soils are irrigated in the Wanneroo region for horticulture. Groundwater The Gnangara Mound is the most important water resource in the State, generating and supporting significant wealth for Perth and the Greater Metropolitan area and is therefore of strategic importance for both public and private water extraction. Its aquifers are recharged mostly be direct infiltration from rainfall and runoff from the State forest areas in Wanneroo and Gingin and along the base of the Darling Scarp and Dandaragan Plateau. Groundwater resources are contained within three aquifers, the superficial, Leederville and Yarragadee and of the three the superficial aquifer provides most water for public drinking water supply, horticulture and agriculture, industry, domestic and livestock purposes. The confined Leederville and Yarragadee aquifers are generally reserved for future public drinking water supplies. Licensed groundwater allocations for irrigated horticulture over the Gnangara Mound total approximately 66 GL/per annum with 21GL/ per annum being used in the Wanneroo region. Consideration has been given by the Western Australian Government in the State Water Strategy to extending the horticultural precinct within the Wanneroo Groundwater area Soil types Wanneroo region is part of the Bassendean Dune System with soils of a pale grey sometimes with a faint yellow colouring and is ideal for horticulture especially vegetables. For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

66 Rueban Taylor (1997), WA Water and Rivers Commission – Policy and Planning Division, “Gingin Water Reserve – Water Source Protection Plan”, page 1

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Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 32. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Wanneroo region (including Gingin) compared with the State as a whole Vegetable Main Harvest Period ------Lettuce January to December Broccoli April to December Sweet corn December to March Tomatoes December to April (Greenhouse – January to December) Beans (French / Runner) October to April Celery January to December Cabbages January to December Carrots January to December These crops covered 83% of the total area planted to vegetables in the 2005/06 season and with the exception of tomatoes and beans these crops individually made up a substantial proportion of the State’s plantings (over 35%).67

Perth Region (Metropolitan area) Perth is the capital city of Western Australia and is situated between the Indian Ocean and a low coastal escarpment known as the Darling Range. The city and its suburbs are located on the sandy and relatively flat Swan Coastal Plain with the Swan River flowing through the plain. The soils of the Swan Coastal Plain are quite infertile. The metropolitan area extends from Yanchep in the north to Rockingham in the south a distance of approximately 90kms and from the Indian Ocean in the west to Mundaring in the east a distance of approximately 50kms. There are two major river systems that of the Swan and Canning Rivers and the second that of the Serpentine and Murray Rivers which discharge into the Peel Estuary at Mundurah. Perth is geographically closer to East Timor, Singapore and Jakarta, Indonesia than it is to Australia’s eastern seaboard and the capital cities of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane.

Climate Perth has a classic Mediterranean climate receiving moderate to high seasonal rainfall. Summers are generally hot and dry lasting from December through to late March with February generally being the hottest month of the year. Winters are relatively cool and wet with most of Perth’s rainfall (80%) falling between May and September. Water supply Reduced rainfall in the region in recent years has lowered inflow to reservoirs by two-thirds over the last 30 years which in turn has affected groundwater levels. About 27% of Perth's mains water comes from reservoirs, whilst a further 56% is pumped from underground, where there are enormous freshwater reserves. Due to a belief that Perth’s relatively high growth rate in recent years could see the city running out of water the government introduced water restrictions similar to those in the eastern states. In November 2006 a water desalination plant commenced operation at Kwinana able to supply over 45 GL of potable water per year.68

67 Science Matters & Economics Consulting Services, Nov 2008, Consolidated summary prepared for the WA Department of Agriculture and Food, “The feasibility of a new horticulture precinct on the Gnangara Mound”, page 6 68 WA Water Corporation, Website, www.watercorporation.com.au/desalination

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Prior to the construction of the plant consideration had been given to pumping water from the Kimberley region but this was rejected primarily due to cost. In May 2007 the State government announced the construction of a further desalination plant at Binningup on the coast between Mandurah and Bunbury to commence mid 2009. In September 2009 Western Australia’s dams reached 50% overall capacity for the first time since 2000.69 Use of irrigation Insufficient region data available. Groundwater In the Perth region there are two types of aquifers – the unconfined or water table aquifer and the confined aquifer. The most readily accessible and widely used groundwater resource is from the water table aquifers of the Gnangara and Jandakot Mounds. The water table aquifers are generally recharged by direct infiltration from rain and water bodies and is therefore vulnerable to contamination. The Gnangara Mound is the major shallow groundwater resource able to provide the public drinking water requirements for the Perth region and its future growth, as well as the water needs for agriculture, horticulture and commercial industrial uses. It covers approximately 2,200 square kms and extends from the Swan River to the Moore River and Gingin Brook. Soil types The soils within this region are typically young alluvial soils, very deep, with excellent moisture retention capacity. Soil types vary widely from deep draining sand over limestone along the coastal strip to well drained gravelly loam along the fringes of the Darling Scrap, rich deep red loam around the Swan River and grey sand over clay in the Herne Hills flats of the Swan valley subregion Commercial vegetable production within the region requires a high input of fertiliser as all the sands are naturally infertile, there are slight differences in water holding capabilities and nutrient retention but they are not very significant. For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 33. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Perth region (Metropolitan Area) compared with the State as a whole WA Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 19.20 2.10 19.20 2.10 Beans - Butter 38.88 11.60 18.19 7.20 Beans -French & Runner 1146.52 238.30 578.28 115.20 Beetroot 184.60 19.30 156.00 15.50 Broccoli 6235.42 571.90 1983.37 163.50 Cabbages 8531.50 247.20 7643.70 218.30 Capsicum 3835.65 162.50 1154.60 29.60

69 WA Water Corporation, Website, www.watercorporation.com.au/dams

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Carrots 65320.40 1071.70 28810.80 473.10 Cauliflower 7626.50 298.20 3344.70 119.80 Chilli 129.63 10.90 29.24 1.40 Celery 694170.00 195.30 6921.00 188.70 Cucumbers 1144.27 37.20 809.85 25.00 Eggplant 524.82 37.30 20.26 1.50 Fennel 11.12 1.20 11.12 1.20 Garlic 42.53 14.70 35.84 11.80 Leeks 516.30 42.20 516.30 42.20 Lettuce 20985.70 841.70 19607.00 794.40 Onions - White & Brown 25140.60 408.50 3702.10 52.30 Parsnips 478.20 31.20 478.20 31.20 Potatoes 85761.00 1949.10 13797.10 360.80 Pumpkins 17302.50 875.60 1497.10 51.80 Radish 645.36 55.10 645.36 55.10 Silver beet & Spinach 539.98 117.80 499.92 112.80 Snow Peas & Sugar Snaps 10.92 2.40 10.77 2.40 Spring onions - Shallots 1845.06 69.70 96.81 7.10 Swedes & Turnips 374.50 28.80 305.80 22.50 Sweet corn 8190.40 374.20 7446.50 290.30 Sweet potato 530.40 32.50 317.20 12.70 Tomatoes 12316.80 259.40 7673.20 131.50 Zucchini & Button Squash 1135.70 97.80 214.63 20.90 Total Area Sown 9887.10 3640.40 Total Production (Tonnes) 967147.23 108344.81

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 have provided statistics for the area known as the Swan and Northern Agricultural which correspondences with the areas of Gingin / Wanneroo and Perth as cited by Harald Hoffmann, Dennis Phillips and Bob Paulin of the Western Australian Department of Agriculture and Food in December 2005 for their report entitled “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – Western Australia” and therefore the ABS data has been used. Peel - Harvey Region The Peel – Harvey region is situated directly south from the city of Perth and is situated between the Indian Ocean and a low coastal escarpment known as the Darling Range. Land use within the region can be divided into three broad areas with both irrigated and non-irrigated intensive agriculture occurring on the coastal plain. There are two major river systems that of the Serpentine and Murray Rivers which discharge into the Peel Estuary at Mundurah. Annual horticulture accounts for less than 5% of the region’s output with the majority being centred on beef production.

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Climate The Peel – Harvey region has a classic Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers and cool wet winters. Approximately 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between April and October. The area of highest rainfall is on the scarp where annual rainfall is approximately 1,300mm per year dropping down to 900mm on the coastal plain. Rainfall also decreases east of the scarp to around 450mm per year in the eastern most part of the region. Water supply The Peel – Harvey catchment is approximately 70 Kms south of Perth and covers an area of approximately 3,072 kms, of which 190,000 hectare comprises the coastal portion of the catchment which extends east into the forested portions of the Darling Scarp and on the coast extends as far north as Kwinana and south to Harvey. The region is serviced by seven dams located in the Darling Ranges providing irrigation supply water to the Harvey Water Irrigation Area (HWIA). The quality of the water is generally very good. Use of irrigation The Harvey Water Irrigation Area (HWIA) established in 1915 is located in the southern portion of the region and to the west of the Darling Scarp and covers approximately 112,000ha contained with three irrigation zones (Harvey, Waroona and Collie). There is currently around 10,000ha of land under permanent irrigation for dairy farming, beef production and horticulture with a total irrigable area of 30,000ha. Unlike most irrigation schemes found in Australia the HWIA is different in that it does not have a longitudinal river system from which water can be diverted or pumped. Water is supplied by gravity flow from dam to farm along a network of open concrete lined and earthen channels. The slopes are quite short and relatively steep and feed water laterally across the system to the irrigated farms. Harvey Water is currently upgrading the irrigation system by replacing open concrete and earthen channels with pipelines when finished it is estimated that it will eliminate 17.1 GL of water loss currently being incurred. Irrigation salinity is an issue within the HWIA caused by the soils on the western margins of the HWIA being prone to salinisation due to their poor drainage. Groundwater Groundwater is a major source of water in the Perth and Collie groundwater basins. The Perth Basin comprises the flat sandy Swan and Scott coastal plains combined with the more elevated and clayey plateaux such as the Blackwood and Dandaragan. Annual groundwater use with the region is estimated to be currently approximately 74% of all water used with the main use being the self supply of irrigation of public and private lawns and gardens, horticulturalists, industry and commerce. Soil types There are broadly two major types of soils within this region, the first is a series of dune systems near the coast formed as a result of deposits from the sea. The oldest being the Bassendean Dunes which are believed to be 800,000 years old and as a result the most leached, infertile and acidic. The depth to ground water varies across the region from close to the surface to at most 10 metres below the surface with the water being suitable for irrigation. The second major type of soil is a series of soils formed by deposits directly eroded from the Yilgarn block which comprises soils of the Pinjarra plain occurring between the dune systems and the scarp and is of varying ages. It covers approximately one-third of the region. There is also a third very narrow strip of soil called the ridge hill shelf located next to the scarp formed from material eroded from the scarp however it is too small to be of any significance. For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

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Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 34. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Peel – Harvey region compared with the State as a whole WA Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 19.20 2.10 19.20 2.10 Beans - Butter 38.88 11.60 18.19 7.20 Beans -French & Runner 1146.52 238.30 578.28 115.20 Beetroot 184.60 19.30 156.00 15.50 Broccoli 6235.42 571.90 1983.37 163.50 Cabbages 8531.50 247.20 7643.70 218.30 Capsicum 3835.65 162.50 1154.60 29.60 Carrots 65320.40 1071.70 28810.80 473.10 Cauliflower 7626.50 298.20 3344.70 119.80 Chilli 129.63 10.90 29.24 1.40 Celery 694170.00 195.30 6921.00 188.70 Cucumbers 1144.27 37.20 809.85 25.00 Eggplant 524.82 37.30 20.26 1.50 Fennel 11.12 1.20 11.12 1.20 Garlic 42.53 14.70 35.84 11.80 Leeks 516.30 42.20 516.30 42.20 Lettuce 20985.70 841.70 19607.00 794.40 Onions - White & Brown 25140.60 408.50 3702.10 52.30 Parsnips 478.20 31.20 478.20 31.20 Potatoes 85761.00 1949.10 13797.10 360.80 Pumpkins 17302.50 875.60 1497.10 51.80 Radish 645.36 55.10 645.36 55.10 Silver beet & Spinach 539.98 117.80 499.92 112.80 Snow Peas & Sugar Snaps 10.92 2.40 10.77 2.40 Spring onions - Shallots 1845.06 69.70 96.81 7.10 Swedes & Turnips 374.50 28.80 305.80 22.50 Sweet corn 8190.40 374.20 7446.50 290.30 Sweet potato 530.40 32.50 317.20 12.70 Tomatoes 12316.80 259.40 7673.20 131.50 Zucchini & Button Squash 1135.70 97.80 214.63 20.90 Total Area Sown 9887.10 3640.40 Total Production (Tonnes) 967147.23 108344.81

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NOTE: Vegetable production within the region in 2003/04 totalled .4 million or .2% of the State’s production. South West WA Region The South West Region occupies the beautiful south-west corner of the State, facing the Indian and Southern Oceans, it covers an area of 23,998 square kilometres. The Region has the largest residential population outside of the Perth Metropolitan Area and is one of the fastest growing regions within the State. The region has the most diverse regional economy in Western Australia and is well positioned to capitalise on this diversity. The value of vegetable production increased from $61.5 million in 1994/95 to $72.8 million in 2003/04. Although vegetable production has increased over the decade, its relative share of total regional agriculture production has dropped from 15.3 per cent in 1994/95 to 13.1 per cent in 2003/04, due to increasing commodity diversification. Despite crop diversification, the South West remains an important source of vegetable produce for the State, accounting for 30.2 per cent of the State's total value of vegetable production in 2003/04, second in value to Perth (35.4 per cent). The South West Region continues to be the State's prime producer of certain crops. For example, in 2003/04, the value of potatoes, onions and cauliflowers in the South West represented 81.5 per cent, 80.3 per cent and 51.9 per cent of the State's production respectively. The most significant vegetable crops in 2003/04 were potatoes (with a value of $28.3 million), carrots ($12.7 million), onions ($8.2 million), cauliflowers ($7.5 million), broccoli ($5.0 million), sweet corn ($3.6 million) and pumpkins ($3.0 million). Although most vegetables are sold on the Perth market, an increasing share is exported to South East Asia. The Shire of Manjimup is the largest exporter of cauliflowers in Western Australia. Climate The south west region of Western Australia enjoys a temperate climate and observes four definite seasons. The summer provides a maximum temperature of around 32°C, and winters are pleasantly cool and mild with an average of 14°C. The rainfall within the region is winter dominated with approximately 80% of rainfall occurring between May and October. Water supply The south west region of the State is one of the most water challenged regions of Australia experiencing the highest rate of climate change together with a rapid population growth and its associated growth in demand for urbanised areas. In the major rainfall months of May to July rainfall within the region has fallen by 15% since 1975 with an associated runoff to dams decreasing by over 75% and ground storages in the Gnangara Mound have declined by over 45GL each year. The Department of Water is responsible for the management of water and issues water allocation licences to the South West Region's three public water utilities, Water Corporation, Aqwest (Bunbury Water Board) and the Busselton Water Board. Licences are also issued to private water users such aslarge horticultural enterprises requiring groundwater from confined aquifers. South of Bunbury, surface water resources were developed for public water supplies in a number of towns including Walpole, Pemberton, Manjimup, Bridgetown, Boyup Brook, Kirup, Balingup and Margaret River. On the coastal plain, most towns are supplied with groundwater from the Yarragadee or Leederville Aquifers. These include Binningup, Bunbury, Eaton, Australind, Capel, Busselton and Dunsborough. The Harris Dam, 12 kilometres north of Collie, supplies water to Collie, 31 towns connected to the Great Southern Towns Water Supply Scheme, and to the State's Integrated Water Supply via the Stirling Dam. To supplement the supply of surface water the region has an extensive integrated water supply scheme managed by the relevant water authorities which distributes surface water, groundwater and desalinated seawater from the coastal strip to both metropolitan and inland centres. The major of surface water diversion occurs in catchments areas east of the Darling fault and also on the Leewin

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Naturalist Block where the topography allows storage dams to be constructed. Groundwater diversions on the other hand are taken from the Swan and Scott Coastal Plains collectively known as the Perth Basin and from the Collie Basin and the eastern Bremer Basin close to Albany. Use of irrigation Irrigation is the major use of water in the South West. The Water Corporation supplies bulk water to Harvey Water (formerly South West Irrigation Cooperative) from dams in the Darling Scarp, including Waroona, Samson, Logue Brook, Stirling, Harvey and Wellington. The Glen Mervyn Dam near Donnybrook supplies the Preston Valley Irrigation Cooperative. A joint State and Federal government project to decrease salinity and increase Western Australia's supply of drinking water was announced in 2005. The $30 million Collie River Salinity Recovery Project is designed to reduce salinity levels in the Wellington Dam with a long-term goal of making the water suitable for drinking by 2015. Groundwater Coastal plain groundwater is also used extensively for private irrigation, while the major groundwater resource of the Collie Basin is used for industrial purposes associated with coal mining and power generation. The Water Corporation extracts 45 gigalitres from the Yarragadee Aquifer, located south of Bunbury. An investigation into the Yarragadee aquifer started in December 2002 by the State Government and involved a comprehensive aerial mapping program covering the Blackwood Groundwater Area as well as an exploratory drilling program to further understand the aquifer and its relationship with the environment. The Water Corporation provides rural drainage services in defined rural drainage districts. It also manages all public wastewater (sewerage) schemes in the South West and operates and maintains 26 wastewater treatment plants. Each wastewater scheme must be managed to meet health requirements, environmental conditions, as well as social and community needs. Soil types Soil types in south west region of the State are closely related to the underlying geology and physiographic regions, however the soil formation is influenced by other factors including climate, organisms and time. The pattern of soil types within the region are complex and only a general summary is given here. There are five main types of soil within the region these are the deep coastal sands, massive ironstone duricrust soils, the pallid zone soils, young soils on bedrock, and the sand plain complex (sands containing or overlying ironstone gravel). For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 35. - The main vegetable crops grown within the South West WA region compared with the State as a whole WA Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans -French & Runner 1146.52 238.30 58.03 5.20 Beetroot 184.60 19.30 22.00 2.50 Broccoli 6235.42 571.90 4128.47 398.70 Cabbages 8531.50 247.20 881.20 27.50 Capsicum 3835.65 162.50 60.10 7.30 Carrots 65320.40 1071.70 36495.40 597.10

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Cauliflower 7626.50 298.20 4237.70 176.40 Celery 694170.00 195.30 20.66 6.70 Cucumbers 1144.27 37.20 6.22 1.00 Eggplant 524.82 37.30 14.50 1.50 Garlic 42.53 14.70 6.69 2.90 Lettuce 20985.70 841.70 1326.30 43.90 Onions - White & Brown 25140.60 408.50 21385.70 353.50 Onions - Red 2316.00 37.20 2316.00 37.20 Potatoes 85761.00 1949.10 71958.90 1587.80 Pumpkins 17302.50 875.60 2310.00 182.70 Silver beet & Spinach 539.98 117.80 33.45 3.60 Spring onions - Shallots 1845.06 69.70 1735.05 61.30 Swedes & Turnips 374.50 28.80 68.70 6.40 Sweet corn 8190.40 374.20 12.70 14.30 Tomatoes 12316.80 259.40 1238.00 24.30 Zucchini & Button Squash 1135.70 97.80 38.10 1.90 Total Area Sown 9887.10 3986.30 Total Production (Tonnes) 967147.23 148354.07

South Coast WA Region The south coast region of Western Australia covers an area of 5.4 million hectares or 2% of the State and stretches along the South Coast from the Esperance Coastal Basin in the east to the Shannon River Basin in the west. Major settlements within the region are Esperance, Ravensthorpe, Albany, Gnowangerup, Mt Baker and Denmark. The Frankland River is the largest river by volume in the region and the eighth largest within the State, having an annual flow of 200 GL the equivalent to approximately two-thirds of the potable water supplied within the State. Approximately 70% of the region is under some form of primary production the majority being cropped or under pasture and a small but growing number of more diverse enterprises including such things as inland aquaculture, cut flowers, native seed production and experimental truffle production. There is also an increasing number of organic and biodynamic farming enterprises ranging from livestock, through to poultry and vegetable production. Climate The south coast region of Western Australia enjoys a Mediterranean style climate with generally hot dry summers and cool wet winters. The region’s climate is influenced to a great degree by the Southern Ocean which imparts a moderating influence via sea breezes in the warmer months and more generally through the effects of a relatively mild and moist air mass at anytime of the year. Annual rainfall averages from 1,400mm in the west of the region to 300mm in the northeast. Water supply The south coast region of the State has over 100 rivers or major tributaries, 33 estuaries and more than 300 regionally significant wetlands. The region’s rainfall is approximately 930mm per annum although there can be considerable variation from year to year. Approximately 72% of the annual rainfall occurs between May and October with July being the wettest month having a long term average of 140mm.

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Rainfall declines to both the east and from the coast with the south west of the region receiving 1,400mm of annual rainfall and the north east of the region having an average of only 300mm of annual rainfall. As a consequence, the only rivers having year round freshwater are located in the west of the region. Like other parts of southern Western Australia the amount of winter rainfall has decreased during the latter half of the 20th century with evidence suggesting that both natural variability and enhanced greenhouse effect have contributed to the decrease. The topography of the region is generally flat and dominated by the Stirling Ranges in the north, with rivers flowing in a southerly or southwesterly direction discharging into estuaries, most of which are permanently or intermittently closed to the ocean. Use of irrigation Agriculture and horticulture production is the economic backbone of the region and it’s continuation, growth and diversification is dependent on water availability. There are approximately 2,383 ha of irrigated land within the region. Groundwater Groundwater within the region is generally limited mainly to coastal sedimentary aquifers, with some fractured rock aquifers in the inland areas. The coastal aquifers are important from a regional perspective as they are generally fresh and highly allocated for town water supplies. Coastal aquifers provide a small but highly significant source of freshwater and provide the source of drinking water for the majority of the region’s urban population. Soil types Many of the soils in the region have formed on highly weathered parts of the laterite profile and are naturally infertile. The application of phosphate fertilisers since clearing has increased the P levels. Various trace elements have also been added and nitrogen has either been applied as a fertiliser or naturally through the use of nitrogen fixing crop and pasture species. The soils throughout this region are predominantly duplex with coarse sand, of low water holding capacity and high salt storage, over relatively impermeable kaolinitic clays. For information on soil types / profiles in Western Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 36. - The main vegetable crops grown within the South Coast WA region compared with the State as a whole WA Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Asparagus 96.10 22.80 82.90 18.80 Beans -French & Runner 1146.52 238.30 48.11 4.40 Broccoli 6235.42 571.90 123.57 9.70 Carrots 65320.40 1071.70 1.00 0.20 Cauliflower 7626.50 298.20 44.00 2.00 Lettuce 20985.70 841.70 26.00 0.70 Potatoes 85761.00 1949.10 5.00 0.50 Pumpkins 17302.50 875.60 40.00 2.00 Sweet corn 8190.40 374.20 231.00 22.90 Tomatoes 12316.80 259.40 49.00 0.90 Total Area Sown 9887.10 66.10

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Total Production (Tonnes) 967147.23 650.58

NORTHERN TERRITORY Northern Territory's vegetable industry is total reliant upon access to irrigation sourced from groundwater bores for its success, however the vast range of climatic conditions experienced in the Territory enables the production of a wide variety of vegetables and herbs. Excellent seasonal conditions ensure premium quality produce can be grown throughout the year. The Territory produces many traditional vegetables and an increasing array of Asian vegetables due to an increased demand for Asian vegetables from both the export and domestic markets. Production in 2007 of vegetables in the Territory benefited from supply shortages experienced in the southern states as a result of drought conditions. The value of the vegetable industry sector in the period 2007/08 has been estimated by the ABS at A$29M.

Climate The Territory has two distinct climate zones with the northern zone centred around Darwin, Katherine and Arnhem Land having two seasons. The ‘Wet’ season from December through to March is when the territory receives most of its rain together with high humidity, and the ‘Dry’ season which runs from May through to October. The mean annual rainfall is between 600mm to 1,500mm with a streamflow of 2 ML per ha annually. Stream flow has huge variability with most streams recording nil flow over the ‘Dry’ season months and maximum flows of up to 10 times the average during the ‘Wet’. All streams flow north into either the Timor Sea or to the Gulf of Carpentaria.

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The southern part of the territory which includes Alice Springs, Tennant Creek and the Barkly Tablelands experiences a semi arid climate with four typical seasons, Summer from December to February with very hot days, Winter from June to August mild days and very cold nights whilst Autumn and Spring are warm throughout the day but have cool nights. The mean annual rainfall in the arid zone is between 100mm and 550mm with a streamflow of .2ML per ha annually. All streams flow inland and then to the sea.

Water Policy The Territory manages its water resources through a regulatory framework that includes the Water Act 1992, the water regulations and a series of water allocation plans which are currently in preparation. Under the Water Act 1992 the Crown owns all surface and groundwater which is a situation unique to Australian Laws70 covering water. Water is allocated to consumer uses which are licensed for industry use such as horticulture and public water supplies and non-consumer use that includes the environment and other public benefits which are not licensed. The Water Act provides for the investigation, allocation, use, control, protection, management and administration of water resources except in regards to the extraction of surface water and groundwater for mining and petroleum activities which are covered by an interagency memorandum of understanding that ensures that water resources are used within sustainable limits. The intent of the Act at present is that at least 80% of flow at any time in any part of a river is allocated to the environment the intention being to ensure an adequate resupply of groundwater occurs during the ‘Dry’ season. Statutory declaration of water allocation plans and the widest application of extraction licensing controls is only possible in water controlled areas which are currently centred around Alice Springs, Ti Tree, Tennant Creek, Katherine, Gove and Darwin. The only water allocation plan currently (as at August 2009) being written is the Katherine Draft Water Allocation Plan (Tindall Limestone Aquifer) which will limit allocation during the dry months to 87% environment and 13% consumer and in the wet months 70% environment and 30% consumer.

Water Supply Rainfall across the Northern Territory is considerably more seasonal than that experienced in the rest of the continent and results in a distinctive pattern of ‘Wet’ and ‘Dry’ seasons. The prevalence of cyclonic depressions as rain generating mechanisms means that many regions across the north zone of the territory are characterised by a high inter-annual variability in rainfall. The Territory can experience some of the highest daily rainfall amounts in the world resulting in 60% to 70% of the total water runoff experienced in Australia. It is the Territory’s climate which is the principal driver of both stream and river flows. There are few perennial (permanent) rivers and those that do exist are fed by groundwater systems which results in unique natural ecosystems dependent upon the quantity and quality of the flow during the ‘Dry’ season. As a result of the relatively flat landscape of the Territory there are limited opportunities for the establishment of storage systems able to provide water during the ‘Dry’ season. In addition the high level of evaporation experienced would negate any advantage gained in storing large amounts of water, having said that however the Territory does have three major dams these are the Darwin River Dam, Manton Dam, and Mary Anne Dam. Currently there are two major water supply systems that access surface water in the Territory these are the Darwin River Dam which supplies Darwin and the Donkey Camp Weir situated on the Katherine River which supplies the water demands of Katherine.

70 O’Donnell 2002, cited CSIRO report 2009, Water in the Daly Region, Page 305

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Currently as at June 2009 the supply of water to users in Darwin, Katherine, Alice Springs and Tennant Creek is through the Power and Water Corporation.

Use of Irrigation As stated previously the success of the vegetable industry in the Territory is total reliant upon access to high quality irrigation for its sustained development and viability. The quality of irrigation water is generally good however in areas where water has been extracted from limestone aquifers the lime levels may present some management difficulties especially where overhead irrigation is used resulting in the leaves being wetted. The annual volume of surface water used in the Territory is 50,000ML of which only 12% is used for irrigation, urban use accounts for the majority at 75%. The type of crop to be grown also influences irrigation practice, for example melon crops are high users of water and irrigation management is extremely critical to their productivity during their relatively short life span (between 10 and 20 weeks).

Soil Types The soils of the Northern Territory as with the rest of the country are a complex pattern of highly weathered soils generally low in nutrients. The soil type directly influences irrigation management practices due to the ability of soils to store varying quantities of moisture depending upon the texture of the soil with sandy soils holding the least amount and clay soils the most. For further information on soil types / profiles in the Northern Territory of Australia refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

Northern Territory’s Vegetable Growing Regions The Darwin, Katherine, Douglas-Daly and Ti Tree statistical regions are recognised by the ABS as being the main horticultural and agricultural areas of the Northern Territory. In 2006-07, 97% of all vegetables produced in the Territory were grown in Litchfield Shire which is situated on the outskirts of Darwin. This was comparable to the vegetable harvest of $27 million in 2005-06, with only 85% of vegetable production grown in Litchfield Shire.71 The second largest vegetable growing region was Central NT. In Central Australia there is a growing emphasis on commercial horticultural partnerships between Aboriginal landholders and experienced growers (e.g. Centrefarm Aboriginal Corporation) focused primarily on the commercialisation of bush foods such as acacia seed, bush raisin and Kakadu plum which are already being harvested for commercial markets. Table 37. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Territory by area and tonnage are- 72 NT Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) Capsicum 2.87 0.6 Cucumbers 256.62 16.8 Eggplant 80.5 2.9 Lettuce 5.6 2.8 Potatoes 30.0 4.0 Pumpkins 1775.2 51.5

71 ABS, Australian Agricultural Commodities – 2006/07, series 7121, 7113.0 and 7503.0 72 ABS, Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08, Northern Territory, Series 7120

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Tomatoes 30.0 0.7 Zucchini & Button Squash 67.25 6.9 Total Area Sown 827.5 Total Production (Tonnes) 2,248.04

NOTE: It should be noted that the above Table was generated from data compiled by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007 / 08 Series 7121.0 however there appears to be some level of dispute between the figures as recorded above and the Territory’s Department of Regional Development, Primary Industry, Fisheries and Resources own figures which stated that the commercial vegetable growing regions and their crops in 2006 were as follows:

Darwin region Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 38. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Darwin region compared with the Territory as a whole Vegetables Months available Profile ------Asian or Long Melon March to October existing Bamboo Shoots (Fresh) October to February existing Basil March to October existing Bitter melon May to October existing Capsicum May to October existing Cherry Tomatoes May to October existing Chilli April to October existing Kai Choy (Chinese Mustard) May to September potential Chives May to October potential Choy Sum (Caisin) April to October existing Coriander May to September some scope Coriander – Long (Ngo Gai) May to October potential Cucumber (Lebanese) May to October existing Eggplant May to October existing Garland chrysanthemum May to August some scope Ginger - Thai May to October existing Hairy Melon May to November existing Indian curry / leaf January to December existing Kabocha April to October some scope Kaffir lime January to December existing Kang Kong May to October existing Lemon Grass January to December existing Luffa (smooth) May to October existing Mint May to October some scope Mint Vietnamese May to October potential

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Okra January to December existing Pumpkin butternut April to November existing Pumpkin hard April to October existing Shallots May to October existing Silverbeet April to October some scope Sinqua May to October existing Snake Beans May to November existing Spinach May to October some scope Spring onions May to October existing Squash Button May to October existing Sweet corn April to January some scope Sweet potato May to December potential Taro May to November existing Tomato May to October existing Tumeric / Galanga May to December some scope Winged / four angled bean January to December potential Yam bean May to October existing Zucchini May to October existing

Katherine region Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 39. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Katherine region compared with the Territory as a whole Vegetables Months available profile ------Asparagus March to October some scope Bok choy / Pak Choi May to August some scope Broccoli June to August potential Broccoli Chinese / Kai Lan May to October some scope Cabbage May to September potential Chinese cabbage (Won bok) May to October some scope Capsicum May to October existing Cauliflower June to September potential Cherry Tomatoes May to October existing Chilli April to October existing Chives May to October potential Coriander May to September some scope Cucumber (Lebanese) May to October existing Eggplant May to October existing French beans May to October potential Garland chrysanthemum May to August some scope

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Kabocha April to October some scope Kaffir lime January to December existing Kang Kong May to October existing Potato July to October potential Pumpkin butternut April to November existing Pumpkin hard April to October existing Shallots May to October existing Silverbeet April to October some scope Spinach May to October some scope Squash Button May to October existing Sweet corn April to January some scope Sweet potato May to December potential Taro May to November existing Tomato May to October existing Zucchini May to October existing Climate The Darwin and Katherine regions of the Territory having two distinct seasons. The ‘Wet’ season, which runs from December through until March is when the Territory receives most of its rain together with high humidity, and the ‘Dry’ season which runs from May through to October. Water supply The Darwin River Dam supplies the surface water needs of Darwin together with supplementary supply sourced from groundwater pumped from the McMinns (est. 1964) and Howard East (est. 2001) Bores situated in the Darwin rural region. Both bores are licensed to the Power and Water Corporation in accordance with the Territory’s Water Act 2004. The Darwin River Dam constructed in 1972 has a capacity of 265,000 ML with a further four to five thousand ML pumped from the bores per annum.73 Previous to its construction Darwin sourced its water from the Manton Dam however this is now only used in emergencies due to the level of water recreational activities which has been deemed to lower the water quality.74 The Donkey Camp Weir situated on the Katherine River supplies the water demands of Katherine. The weir was constructed in 1992 at the Donkey Camp Pools raising the naturally occurring pool by1.5 metres in anticipation of increased demand for Katherine and the neighbouring Tindall Air Force Base. Demand rarely exceeds 12kl per day during the dry season and 6Kl per day during the wet.75 The climate experienced at both Darwin and Katherine leads to a lot of water stocks being lost through evaporation, as an example the Darwin River Dam covers approximately forty sq kms when full with an average depth of only eight metres with consumer extraction annually amounting to 40 centimetres compared to an evaporation rate of two metres in the same period. The Katherine Water Control District was declared on the 26th April 2007. There is recognition of the strong linkage between the Tindall Limestone Aquifer and the Katherine River in that the base flow of the river is dominated by the level of discharge from the aquifer and as such an extraction limit for the aquifer will be determined annually.

73 Power and Water Corporation website, 2005 74 Power and Water Corporation, Darwin Water Story 2006, Page 30 75 CSIRO report 2009, Water in the Daly Region, Page 306

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The Territory’s Government has commenced a project scheduled to run for two years designed to obtain information relating to the consumption of groundwater and its management in both the Darwin rural (Litchfield Shire) and Daly regions. The project is focused on 300 trial bore meters installed on properties in the Darwin rural and Daly regions with a flow of two to five litres per second. Currently bores with a flow rate under 15 litres per second are not required under the Water Act 2004 to be metered and as a result there is no statistical data on the amount of water being drawn from the aquifer.76 The Daly Basin has been selected by the Territory’s government major agricultural development which will intensify the current pastoral use through land subdivision, large scale clearance of native vegetation and land modification.77 In conjunction with the above mentioned project a survey was undertaken in 2007 of landholders attitudes to water management and patterns of water use, however the results are not as yet released.

Alice Springs region Alice Springs lies in the heart of Australia’s arid zone approximately half way between Adelaide and Darwin and was chosen for settlement due to the availability of water in the bed of the Todd River. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 40. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Alice Springs region compared with the Territory as a whole Vegetables Months available profile ------Asparagus March to October some scope Basil March to October existing Bok choy / Pak choi May to August some scope Broccoli June to August potential Cabbage May to September potential Cauliflower June to September potential French beans May to October potential Garlic October to January potential Lettuce January to December existing Parsley March to October existing Silverbeet April to October some scope Sweet corn April to January some scope

Climate Alice Springs is similar to the Tennant Creek and the Barkly Tableland regions in that it experiences a semi arid climate with four typical seasons. Summer from December to February is characterised by very hot days. Winter from June to August mild days and very cold nights whilst Autumn and Spring are warm throughout the day but have cool nights.

Water supply

76 DNREA, Fact sheet – Questions and Answers on Bore Metering Project, 2007, Page 2 77 CSIRO report 2009, Water in the Daly Region, Page 305

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Alice Springs water supply is sourced from the Roe Creek Bore field in the Amadeus Basin, an enormous underground sedimentary rock formation which extends south from Alice Springs towards the South Australian border and west into Western Australia. Most of the water sourced (approximately 80%) comes from the Mereenie Formation which is an aquifer about 14 to 18 kms south of the township containing approximately 5,200,000 ML. The Alice Springs Water resource Strategy 2006 – 2015 requires that 95% of surface water flow is allocated to the environment, that the total extraction rate from groundwater alluvial aquifers should equal the average recharge and that current and future extraction needs from the Amadeus Basin aquifer must not exceed 80% depletion of total available aquifer storage over a period no less than 320 years. Annual rainfall for Alice Springs is extremely viable ranging from 60mm in 1928 through to 903mm in 1973 but averages 286mm per year. The average rainfall over the whole region is approximately 750,000ML but pan evaporation is very high at 3,000mm per year which would suggest that much of the rainfall is returned directly to the atmosphere.

The Commercial Value of Asian Vegetables to the Northern Territory Given the close proximity of Darwin to existing Asian markets and in particular Singapore (which is Australia’s largest trade and investment partner in South East Asia region) the export of Asian vegetables in commercial quantities into the Asian market is a viable alternative to sending the more traditional European style vegetables to the southern states of Australia. Existing Asian vegetable exports from Australia have been dominated by Chinese cabbage either from Brisbane or Perth with lesser amounts being sent from Sydney and Melbourne. The Northern Territory government as well as the Northern Territory Horticultural Association has reported increased market interest especially from Singapore for leafy Asian vegetables and tropical Asian gourds due to the proximity of growers to Singapore and the recognised potential quality of Asian vegetables. In 2003 the Rural Industries Research and Development Commission (RIRDC) found that Asian vegetable production dominated commercial vegetable production in the Territory accounting for 75% or 3,205 tonnes by weight and 90% of gross value of vegetable production.78 Their study also found that the Asian vegetable sector had grown in value from A$2.5M in 1994 to just over A$11M in 2002.79 Production of Asian vegetables currently occurs only within a radius of 100Kms of Darwin, Katherine whilst having a commercially viable vegetable sector currently focuses on the traditional European style vegetables although some Asian vegetables have been trialed (for example Kabocha) but to date commercial quantities have not been established. According to statistics obtained from Prime Stats - Horticulture Industry of the Northern Territory for 2003 approximately 95% of the Territory’s production of Asian vegetables was purchased by consumers in either Sydney or Melbourne with the balance being consumed locally. Currently the predominant producers of Asian vegetables in the Territory are members of the Vietnamese community who make up 94% of growers with the rest being either Cambodian or Thai. The size of farms appears limited to small acreages being on average around 3ha due to limited labour

78 Hassell & Assoc., Report for the Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Asian Vegetable Industry – A Situation Assessment, page 38 79 Barry Lee, Report for the Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Marketing Asian vegetables from Darwin, page 1

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availability and a lack of technological development being confined solely to soil preparation implements, spray gear and some mulching. 80

80 Melinda Gosbee - 2000, NT Department of Business, Industry and Resource Development – Darwin, Project Milestone Report, Pilot Project on Extension and Communication with Asian non- english speaking background vegetable growers for the Adoption of best practice

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QUEENSLAND Queensland is Australia’s premier state for fruit and vegetable production, growing one third of the nation’s produce. Horticulture is Queensland’s second largest primary industry with the combined fruit and vegetable industry being worth more than $1.3 billion and employing approximately 25,000 people. A host of rural communities rely heavily on business created by local horticulture enterprises. In total the State has approximately 3700 farms producing more than 120 types of fruit and vegetables and hundreds more in different varieties. Fresh produce ranges from temperate stone fruits and staple vegetables grown in the southern portion of the State to more exotic tropical fruits and Asian vegetables in the areas north of Mackay. The size of farms also varies greatly throughout the State depending on where they are situated. As an example farms located in the south coast region may only average between 9 – 12ha whereas in the Bowen / Mackay or the western Darling Downs regions they would average 60ha.81 The State enjoys the advantage due to the variation in climate of being able to supply both the export and domestic markets all year round, and is the dominant supplier during the winter months for the southern States. Growing areas extend from Mossman in North Queensland to Stanthorpe in the Granite Belt.

Climate Queensland’s capital city Brisbane has a sub-tropical climate with very hot humid summers and mild, dry, sunny winters. Most rain falls during the height of summer, between November and February. Cairns has a tropical climate with little distinction between the seasons. Temperatures are warm to hot all year round, with the occasional cold snap during June and July. The rainy season is between November and May, characterised by sudden heavy falls and occasional tropical cyclones.

Water Policy In Queensland the Water Act 2000 deals with water and does not separate surface water from groundwater, although unlike the previous Water Resources Act 1989, the Water Act 2000 allows for the separation of a water entitlement from the land. The Act also allows for specifying groundwater and baseflow water as one resource. Water users get one licence with the allocation for the extraction of a specific volume attached although some conditions may vary between surface water and groundwater to reflect different hydraulics. A Water Resource plan provides a framework to establish water allocations that can be traded however trading can only occur when a Water Resource Plan is implemented under a resource operation plan which provides for entitlements to convert to tradable water allocations and the rules under which they may be traded. In regards to water trading there have been none for groundwater / baseflow systems and it is unlikely that these would be allowed at this present time given a lack of modelling of the processes and hydrologic data / understanding and consequently into the modelling of the assessment of the feasibility of the particular trade and the rules of trading in a particular area. In other words the approach is one of caution.

Water Supply The is at present undertaking a Water Strategy Project through the Department of Natural Resource Management and Water designed to improve and supplement future water supplies for urban, domestic, and industrial use. The agricultural sector has always been the

81 CDI Pinnacle Management and Street Ryan & Assoc. 2004, cited in Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry - QLD

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major consumer of water in Queensland, for example in the period 2004/05 the Agricultural sector was responsible for 67% of the State’s total water consumption. The following Tables shows the percentage of water consumption in Queensland:82 1. Table 41. - The total percentage by the major sectors in Queensland:

Sector Consumption % Agriculture 67 Household 11 Manufacturing 4 Mining 2 Other 16

2. Table 42. - The total amount of water used in Queensland by commodity:

Commodity Water Used (ML) Sugar 931,000 Cotton 194,000 Fruit 133,000 Grapes 6,000 Vegetables 87,000 Dairy 64,000 Other 425,000 Total 1,840,000

3. Table 43. - The total water used by irrigated area in Queensland:

Commodity Area Irrigated (ha) Sugar 196,000 Cotton 35,000 Fruit 37,000 Grapes 1,000 Vegetables 31,000 Dairy 15,000 Other 143,000 Total 458,000

Prior to the recent amalgamation of councils in Queensland water was supplied to users through the following businesses: Beaudesert Shire Council

82 ABS 2007, Water Use on Australian Farms 2006/07 & Water Account Australia 2004/05, series 1318.3 & 4610.0

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Esk Shire Council Gatton Shire Council Kilcoy Shire Council Laidley Shire Council Seq Water Supply Schemes Brisbane City Water Gold Coast City Council Logan City Council Caboolture Shire Council Ipswich City Council Pine Rivers Shire Council Redcliffe City Council NQ Water Townsville Council Thuringowa Council Maroochy Shire Council SunWater 38 Local Government Councils Government owned Water Boards 23 water supply schemes Gladstone Area Water Board Gladstone City Council Calliope Shire Council Industry use Mount Isa Water Board Mount Isa City Council Industry use Caloundra Maroochy Water Supply Board Caloundra City Council Fitzroy River Water (Rockhampton City Council) Livingstone Shire Council Fitzroy Shire Council Wide Bay Water Corporation Hervey Bay surrounding areas

Use of Irrigation Estimates of the area of Queensland which relies on irrigation for vegetable production vary from 34,000ha to 38,000ha per annum with an irrigation investment of 110,000ML. This amount of irrigation represents less than 6% of the annual crop irrigation in the State yet results in 19% of the gross value of product.83

Table 44. - Queensland’s total available irrigation infrastructure84

83 ABS 2006c, Water Account Australia 2004/05, series 4610.0 84 Australian Natural Resources Atlas - 2000, Website www.anra.gov.au

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Region Natural Length of Length of Area serviced Area serviced waterways used supply channel supply pipeline by surface by sub- as carriers drains surface drains (Kms) (Kms) (ha) (ha) Barker – 116 0 6 0 0 Barambah Irrigation Project Boyne River 87 0 0 0 0 Irrigation Project Bundaberg 129 99 518 0 0 Irrigation Area Burdekin 123 378 35 27,338 0 Haughton Irrigation Area Dawson 330 46 3 0 0 Valley Irrigation Area Eton Irrigation 0 44 146 0 0 Area Logan River 125 0 0 0 0 Irrigation Area Mareeba 276 180 221 0 0 Dimbulah Irrigation Area Mary River 275 12 50 0 0 Irrigation Area Nogoa- 347 103 20 17,393 500 MacKenzie Irrigation Area Pioneer Valley 100 5 35 0 0 Irrigation Area Proserpine 35 7 2 0 0 River Irrigation Project South 0 116 14 0 0 Burdekin Water Board St George 114 114 1 10,000 0 Irrigation Area Upper Burnett 250 0 0 0 0 Water Supply Scheme Upper 280 0 0 0 0 Condamine Irrigation Project

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Warrill Valley 120 18 8 0 0 Irrigation Project Queensland 2,707 1,122 1,059 54,731 500

The horticultural irrigation areas within Queensland mainly use micro-irrigation systems, including drip, trickle and micro sprinkler and are widely employed in the Granite Belt (Stanthorpe),Lockyer Valley, Bundaberg and Callide Valley regions. The current extent and severity of irrigation induced salinity in Queensland has to date not been specifically researched however it is known that more than 10,000ha has been affected in the Bundaberg, Maryborough, Emerald and irrigation regions. The Australian Bureau of Statistics in the 2004/05 agricultural census revealed a total of 287 agriculture establishments with irrigation salinity issues.85 Table 45 below shows the Gross Value Production (GVP) of irrigated production in Queensland as provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in its publication Water Account Australia 2004/05. It should however be noted that water is only one input to agricultural production from irrigated land and the ABS advises that it is currently unable on data currently collected to accurately establish the value of other components. Table 45. – Gross Value Production (GVP) of irrigated production in Queensland Industry Gross value of irrigated production (A$M) Sugar 471 Cotton 395 Fruit 494 Grapes 16 Vegetables 561 Dairy 108 Nurseries, Cut flowers & Turf 173 (Lifestyle Horticulture) Livestock, Pasture, Grains & 129 Other (Agriculture) Total 2,349

Soil Types For further information on soil types / profiles in Queensland refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

Queensland’s Vegetable Growing Regions The average area sown in Queensland to vegetables in the period 2005/06 was 29ha per farm with approximately 58% estimated to be producing one type of crop whilst the remaining 42% produced

85 ABS 2007, Natural Resource Management on Australian Farms – 2004/05 re-issue, 4620.0

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two or more vegetable crops. These figures were slightly below the Australian average for the period which was 64% and 36% respectively.86 The biggest vegetable sectors of the industry in Queensland which make up approximately 63% of gross value of production are. Table 46. – Vegetable sectors in Queensland and their value Vegetable $M Value Region Tomatoes 135 Bowen / Mackay and Wide Bay. Accounts for 30% of Australia’s production Capsicums & Chillies 60 Burdekin, Bowen / Mackay, and Wide Bay Accounts for 43% of Australia’s production Watermelons, Rockmelons & Honeydew 57 Burdekin, Bowen / Mackay, Wide Bay, and Melons Darling Downs Accounts for 45% of Australia’s production Potatoes 47 Far North Qld, and Lockyer / Fassifern Accounts for 5% of Australia’s production Lettuce 43 Mostly southern Qld Accounts for 18% of Australia’s production French Beans 32 Widely grown throughout the State Accounts for 38% of Australia’s production

A further eight crops are worth in excess of A$10M at the farm gate and another 27 vegetable crops are worth in excess of A$1M at the farm gate.87 Table 47. - Gross Value of Product (GVP) for vegetables for the period ending June 2009 Vegetable 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 Variance (A$M) (A$M) (A$M) 2007/08 2008/09 % Potatoes 55 45 38 -16 Tomatoes 169 205 120 -41 Capsicums & 113 100 100 0 Chillies Sweet Potatoes 0 55 45 -18 Other vegetables 665 375 590 57 Total vegetables 1002 780 895 15

The State’s commercial vegetable growing regions and their crops as recognised by Craig Henderson of the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Queensland in June 2006 for his report entitled “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – Queensland” were as follows.

86 ABS, Australian Agricultural Commodities – 2006/07, series 7121, 7113.0 and 7503.0 87 ABS, Australian Agricultural Commodities – 2006/07, series 7121, 7113.0 and 7503.0

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Far North Qld Region The Far North Queensland region (FNQ) encompasses the coastal wet tropics from Innisfail north to Cape York and inland to Dimbulah in the west and encompasses the Atherton Tablelands. Monoculture within the region is the exception rather than the rule with farmers having fruit orchards and growing vegetables in rotation with either sugar cane grass seed and / or peanuts. The region has approximately 100 vegetable producers with an average holding of 24ha, the majority of who are located within the confines of an area from Cairns, Atherton Tablelands, to Innisfail. Climate The region has a tropical climate, with generally hot and humid summers and milder, drier winters and is characterised by two seasons – the green (or wet) summer season, which begins around November and ends around May, and the dry winter season. Being a monsoonal climate, most rainfall occurs between January and March. The cyclone season is normally confined to between December and April. The region has fairly uniform temperatures throughout the year with the typical daytime temperatures ranging from 14°C to 26°C (52-78F) in mid-Winter/dry season, and 24°C to 33°C (75-91F) in mid-Summer/ wet season. Water supply The region has a regular rainfall combined with the ability to capture major outflows during the seasonal ‘wet’ season. The headwaters and middle reaches of Australia’s second largest river system, the Mitchell River Basin with its major tributaries the Palmer and Walsh flow through Mareeba on their way north west to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The Mitchell River Basin has a mean annual runoff of 22.9ML just below that of the Murray Darling Basin. However, much of the northern and drier areas of the Northern tablelands are supplied water for irrigation via the with a storage capacity of 407,000 ML which supplies the Mareeba-Dimbulah Irrigation Area (MDIA). Water in the Southern Tablelands is mainly sourced from local water systems and bores while local governments provide urban water services throughout the Tablelands. Irrigation The Mareeba Dimbulah Irrigation Area (MDIA) is located on the Atherton Tablelands extending from the Tinaroo Falls Dam situated on the Barron River between the townships of Mareeba, Dimbulah, Walkamin and Biboohra. Tinaroo Falls Dam provides the area with the majority of its water requirements although additional supplies can be diverted from Collins Weir on the Walsh River. Water provided by Tinaroo Fall dam is gravity fed to the irrigation distribution system consisting of a network of channels, pressure pipelines, open pipelines, balancing storages, relift pump stations and reservoirs. Groundwater The Atherton Tableland is situated atop a basalt plain which comprises a number of vertical lava flows. The main aquifer sequence is thickest amounting to approximately 100 metres just to the north east of Atherton with a number of secondary aquifers occurring elsewhere in the region. Soil types A typical horticultural soil on the Atherton Tablelands around the township of Atherton would be red, structured, high clay soil with an acid-neutral pH well drained with good fertility and derived from basalt whilst around Mareeba / Dimbulah the soil would be of a sandy loam or sandy clay loam over a red structured course sandy clay soil with a slightly acid pH and well drained derived from granite and with a low fertility.88 For further information on soil types / profiles please refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 48. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Far North Qld region compared with the State as a whole

88 Queensland DPI&F 2000 cited BTE Working Paper No 43, Page 32

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Qld Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans -French & Runner 12506.55 2757.70 1.96 5.90 Broccoli 12227.53 1670.90 22.54 3.00 Cabbages 15080.60 385.90 38.70 2.70 Capsicum 41003.45 1671.00 125.08 5.00 Carrots 25315.70 702.90 86.90 2.40 Cucumbers 6149.24 191.40 58.83 4.70 Mushrooms 4322.95 15.40 78.00 0.20 Onions - White & Brown 24836.00 703.80 123.00 4.00 Potatoes 99240.80 3353.70 54068.20 16775.00 Pumpkins 43783.10 2750.70 13824.90 722.90 Radish 137.55 13.00 8.40 1.20 Swedes & Turnips 225.20 23.70 3.90 0.40 Sweet corn 22599.60 1791.30 444.90 27.80 Tomatoes 132443.50 2543.40 7.60 2.30 Zucchini & Button Squash 12979.63 1289.70 417.00 4.20 Total Area Sown 31392.60 3089.70 Total Production (Tonnes) 621265.05 69310.30

Table 49. - Details of the major vegetables grown on the Atherton Tablelands 89 Vegetables Area (ha) Volume Months available profile ------Basil 51 979,200* January to December increasing Mixed vegetables 43 5,676 May to October increasing Potatoes 1,900 57,000 August to December increasing Pumpkin 583 11,660 March to November increasing Sweet Potato 51 1,020 April to October increasing Note: That the above values relate to the 2003 cropping season only and that the volume referred to in relation to Basil is number of bunches.

Atherton Tablelands The Atherton Tablelands, is situated inland from Cairns and is a geographically diverse region with a pleasant tropical climate and an economy based primarily on agriculture. The region has experienced significant change over the last two decades in particular the rapid change due to the deregulation of the tobacco industry, and more recently, the dairy industry.

89 Tablelands Futures Corporation, Atherton Tablelands - Cairns Highlands Investment Environment – Tropical Northern Australia, Page 21

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The Atherton Tablelands comprises two major centres Atherton and Mareeba, with smaller towns in the region including Herberton, Ravenshoe and Kuranda. The tablelands lies approximately 60 kms west of Cairns and about 1,784 kms from Brisbane by road. Burdekin Region The Burdekin region covers approximately 133,432 square kms and is centred on Townsville the second largest city in Queensland. The Burdekin is primarily defined by the catchment area of the Burdekin River plus its associated coastal and marine areas which include Magnetic and Palm Islands. The Burdekin River Delta is a major irrigation area producing over 35,000ha (approximately 850 kms²) of primarily irrigated sugarcane but also other crops including vegetables situated approximately 90 kms south of Townsville and includes the townships of Ayr, Home Hill and Brandon. The majority of the commercial vegetables grown are as a secondary crop to Sugarcane. The area is unique in that it overlies shallow aquifers and relies heavily on groundwater supply for irrigation water. The Burdekin River Delta and the Haughton-Barratta system together make up one of the largest alluvial aquifer systems in Australia. Rainfall in the delta is seasonal with average annual amounts of around 1,000mm while the total rainfall varies from 250mm to 2,500mm with over two- thirds occurring between January and March. Vegetables produced the second highest value of production for crops in the period 2004/05 at A$160M and the third highest of all agricultural commodities. Table 50 below is reproduced based upon data provided by Susanne Heisswolf of the DPI&F, Bowen Research Station. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 50. – Value of vegetable production within the region Vegetable Area (ha) Production Gross Value (t) (A$M) Capsicum 130 3,500 5.4 Chillies 20 300 1.2 Egg Fruit 100 2,500 2.8 Pumpkins 350 9,000 3.6 Cucumbers 20 300 .4 Zucchini & Squash 200 3,000 5.3 Sweet corn 1200 12,000 17 Beans 600 500 6.8 Total vegetables 2,620 35,600 42.5

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 have provided statistics for the Burdekin region which correspondences with the area as cited by Craig Henderson of the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Queensland in June 2006 for his report entitled “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – Queensland” and therefore the ABS data has been used without alteration: Climate The Burdekin has very favourable climate conditions including rainfall, temperature, sunshine and humidity that enable counter-seasonal and extended season production of many tropical and sub- tropical horticulture products. In addition, the Burdekin has a lower climate change risk, particularly in relation to rainfall reduction expectations, than many other competing regions. There are several crops with significant market prospects. Whilst detailed assessment would be necessary before final decision, some crops with potential market prospects for processed horticulture might include sweet corn, beans, tomatoes, potatoes, capsicum, melons and mangoes.

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Water supply The rainfall pattern in the Burdekin is typical of a semitropical region, with falls concentrated in the warmer summer months. Rainfall is around 1,000mm per annum. It appears that even in drought, the Burdekin’s rainfall exceeds the mean annual rainfall of many other horticulture regions in other states, including the Goulburn Valley and the Sunraysia.90 There is significant scope for further expansion of the horticulture sector. In excess of 150,000 ML of water entitlements are unallocated to end users and are immediately available for development. The water needs of the region are serviced by the Burdekin Dam (capacity of approximately 1.86M megalitres), (capacity of 214,000 megalitres), (capacity 11,800 megalitres) and the Burdekin / Townsville pipeline. Irrigation use Irrigation requirements of the region are met by the Burdekin Falls Dam and its associated irrigation scheme led to the development of almost 200 new farms in the ten year period between 1988 and 1998. These farms combined with the opening up of other irrigated land, has effectively doubled the area under production in the Burdekin region. Groundwater Having been developed on one of the largest aquifers in Australia the Burdekin Region has access to vast amounts of underground water. The aquifer holds an estimated 20 million megalitres of water which includes water contained in bedrock and in coastal areas. The average groundwater storage above mean sea level is about 400,000 megalitres but this can range up to 700,000 megalitres. Soil types The horticultural areas within the Burdekin region are predominately made up of high quality delta and levee soils (approximately 60,000 and 25,000ha respectively) which range from sandy loam to clay and are generally well draining. For further information on soil types / profiles please refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 51. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Burdekin region compared with the State as a whole Qld Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans -French & Runner 12506.55 2757.70 6192.78 1227.30 Beetroot 38124.30 1315.40 1.10 0.20 Cabbages 15080.60 385.90 2.20 0.30 Capsicum 41003.45 1671.00 25133.65 956.20 Chilli 2122.40 159.50 737.13 68.90 Celery 6867.59 145.40 0.55 0.50 Cucumbers 6149.24 191.40 923.28 64.20 Eggplant 3284.10 235.60 2055.60 115.20 Mushrooms 4322.95 15.40 168.03 0.90 Potatoes 99240.80 3353.70 9867.00 346.20 Pumpkins 43783.10 2750.70 7688.60 393.90 Spring onions / Shallots 3606.99 266.40 5.47 0.10 Sweet corn 22599.60 1791.30 4326.20 601.80

90 Bureau of Meteorology

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Tomatoes 132443.50 2543.40 55273.70 1059.70 Zucchini & Button Squash 12979.63 1289.70 3594.60 215.80 Total Area Sown 31392.60 5765.90 Total Production (Tonnes) 621265.05 115970.04

North Qld – (Bowen / Mackay) Region Bowen is located 190 kms north of Mackay and 200 kms south of Townsville serviced by both rail and road transport. Approximately 9,000ha was cropped for horticulture in 2005 with 6,550ha of this being for vegetables which produced 167,200 tonnes with a gross value of A$198.5M based on gross value estimates calculated on the average price received at the Brisbane Markets (see Table below). Horticulture is the largest industry in the region earning in excess of A$200M per annum and employing approximately 2,500 (20% of the Bowen workforce) during peak season. Due to the crops grown in the region the industry is very labour intensive and growers often experience difficulty in sourcing labour during peak season. Table 52. - Production estimates for the year 2005 Bowen Shire:91 Vegetable Area (ha) Production Gross Value (t) (A$M) Tomatoes 1550 76,000 90.5 Capsicum 1120 29,000 45 Chillies 30 500 1.8 Egg Fruit 120 3,000 3.4 Pumpkins 200 4,500 1.8 Cucumbers 48 700 1 Zucchini & Squash 32 500 .8 Sweet corn 900 9,000 11 Beans 2000 16,000 22 Total vegetables 5,500 139,200 177.3

Climate Bowen is situated in the Dry Tropics Zone of Queensland. Dry Tropics refers to regions lying between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer having a dominant summer rainfall and a pronounced and extended dry season. This includes most of northern Australia with the exception of much of the eastern coastal strip of Queensland which is referred to as Wet Tropics. Water supply All farming in the Bowen Region is carried out using water efficient trickle & subsurface irrigation techniques. Water is very precious and the industry has grown to a size where the available water supply cannot reliably supply the industry in addition there is also a major concern with declining water quality in the groundwater aquifers that supply farmers in Bowen. Gumlu and Guthalungra. SunWater is currently developing the Water for Bowen Project which could supply up to 60,000 Megalitres per annum of water from the Burdekin River to the Bowen area via a new 130km channel and pipeline system.

91 Susanne Heisswolf, DPI&F, Bowen Research Station

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Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 53. - The main vegetable crops grown within the North Qld (Bowen/Mackay) region compared with the State as a whole Qld Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans - Butter 897.68 422.30 8.76 3.80 Beans -French & Runner 12506.55 2757.70 790.55 171.20 Broccoli 12227.53 1670.90 1.44 7.20 Cabbages 15080.60 385.90 4.80 7.20 Cauliflower 15117.40 691.00 9.60 7.20 Cucumbers 6149.24 191.40 3.84 4.80 Lettuce 57669.50 2072.00 4.80 2.40 Mushrooms 4322.95 15.40 157.32 1.40 Potatoes 99240.80 3353.70 60.00 8.00 Pumpkins 43783.10 2750.70 105.80 11.10 Snow peas / Sugar snaps 2109.57 309.20 4.80 7.20 Sweet corn 22599.60 1791.30 3063.80 233.20 Zucchini & Button Squash 12979.63 1289.70 4.80 7.20 Total Area Sown 31392.60 510.80 Total Production (Tonnes) 621265.05 4220.31

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 have provided statistics for the Mackay / Whitsundays region which correspondences with the area as cited by Craig Henderson of the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Queensland in June 2006 for his report entitled Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – Queensland

Central Queensland – Capricornia Region Centred on City of Rockhampton the Capricornia region whilst it is renowned for its beef is also home to small crops grown mainly to the west of Rockhampton in the central highlands near Emerald and in the Dawson and Callide Valleys to the south-west for the local and southern markets. Climate The Central Queensland region has a sub-tropical climate with hot, moist summers and warm dry winters combined with occasional frosts in the southern part of the region. The region is situated further south than the main area for tropical cyclones development and occurrence which can occur anytime between November and April. Tropical cyclones have impacted the region from time to time either from those which track further south than normal or from the heavy rains and strong easterly winds associated with the cyclone. Average rainfall within the region in the last ten years has fallen by nearly 14% compared to the previous 30 years. Rainfall is projected to decline a further 6% to 10% by the Bureau of Meteorology within the next decade.92

92 Queensland Government, Climate Change in the Central Queensland Region, Page 5

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Water supply The Central Queensland region along with the rest of Australia has experienced in recent years a decline in rainfall associated in part with the decline in the number of cyclones crossing the east coast and the consequent decrease in the number of days of high rainfall intensity. As a consequence of the decline in the water supply to the region a Central Queensland Regional Water Supply Strategy was released in December 2006 covering the Fitzroy Basin and nearby coastal catchments. There are currently seven major water supply schemes in operation within the region providing supplemented water supplies, of which five are operated by SunWater (Bowen Broken Water Supply Scheme, Lower Fitzroy Water Supply Scheme, Dawson Valley Water Supply Scheme, Callide Valley Water Supply Scheme and the Nogoa MacKenzie Water Supply Scheme). The Fitzroy Barrage Water Supply Scheme is operated by Fitzroy River Water (FRW) and the Awoonga Dam Water Supply Scheme is operated by the Gladstone Area Water Board (GAWB). The major water supply schemes and their water allocations for the region are:93 • Bowen Broken Water Supply Scheme, supplies water to the Issac –Connors sub-region via pipelines. Interim water allocations are 21,200 ML per year as high priority and 10,244 ML per year held in reserve by SunWater pending performance review of scheme • Lower Fitzroy Water Supply Scheme, total water allocations 28,621 ML per year with 25,520 ML per year as high priority and 3101 Ml per year as medium priority • Fitzroy Barrage Water Supply Scheme, total water allocations 62,093 ML per year with 50,483 ML per year as high priority and 11,610 ML per year as medium priority • Awoonga Dam Water Supply Scheme, total water allocations of 78,000 ML per year as high priority • Callide Valley Water Supply Scheme, total interim water allocation of 24,281 ML per year with 4,311 ML per year as high priority, 19,527 ML per year as medium priority and 443 ML per year at risk priority • Dawson Valley Water Supply Scheme, total water allocation of 61937 ML per year with 5579 ML per year as high priority, 19369 ML per year as medium A priority and 36989 ML per year as medium priority • Nogoa MacKenzie Water Supply Scheme, Total water allocation of 235323 ML per year with 44398 ML per year as high priority and 190,925 ML per year as medium priority

The above schemes provide approximately 293,000 ML per year of medium priority water entitlements together with approximately 250,000 ML per year of high priority water entitlements to users within the region. Demand for this supplemented water comes from Mining (7%), Industrial (6%), Urban, (12%), Power generation (10%) and Irrigation (65%) sectors. The region is also able to access water through 50 town water supply schemes operated by registered local regional councils under the Water Act 2000 which services the urban water requirements of approximately 63,000 ML per year. Much of this water is drawn from the major schemes already mentioned whilst the remaining schemes draw supplies from other surface and groundwater sources. There is also a large network of water supply infrastructure (including approximately 1,000 kms of pipelines) comprising 16 schemes servicing the water requirements of 23 coal mines (currently about 38,500 ML per year) within the Bowen / Callide Basin used in coal handling and preparation and six associated townships. The majority of these schemes are privately owned and operated by the mining companies. Seven small rural water supply schemes are operated by statutory water boards known as category 2 water authorities and registered small service providers to supply water (approximately 300 ML per year) for stock and domestic purposes. In the region a large number of water users also draw unsupplemented supplies direct from streams and nearby rivers.

93 Queensland Government, Central Queensland / Regional Water Supply Strategy, Page 17

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Use of Irrigation In 1972 the construction of and the Emerald Irrigation Area (EIA) resulted in significant development and expansion of agriculture and horticulture sectors across the region as well as initiating large scale coal mining within the Bowen Basin. The EIA is located within the Fitzroy River Basin and consists of two main channel supply networks (Selma and Weemah) and one regulated river system (Nogoa River) extending downstream from the Fairbairn Dam. The system was completed in 1978 and currently supplies water to approximately 14,000ha of irrigable land predominately for the irrigation of cotton. Additional crops include soybean, navy bean, peanuts as well as a variety of other small crops. Groundwater Groundwater within the region is generally used to supply a number of smaller towns and for stock and domestic purposes however the Callide Valley Groundwater Area is used to provide water for irrigation, urban and industrial purposes whilst water drawn from the Braeside borefield is used by mines in the Issac-Connors sub-region. Soil types For further information on soil types / profiles please refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 54. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Central Queensland – Capricornia region compared with the State as a whole Qld Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Broccoli 12227.53 1670.90 7.51 1.00 Capsicum 41003.45 1671.00 346.84 30.90 Carrots 25315.70 702.90 247.40 24.80 Cauliflower 15117.40 691.00 21.80 1.00 Cucumbers 6149.24 191.40 268.73 14.30 Potatoes 99240.80 3353.70 263.30 14.70 Pumpkins 43783.10 2750.70 680.90 71.90 Sweet potato 31553.60 1140.20 2525.80 86.30 Tomatoes 132443.50 2543.40 88.40 8.80 Zucchini & Button Squash 12979.63 1289.70 18.88 7.60 Total Area Sown 31392.60 544.40 Total Production (Tonnes) 621265.05 4469.56

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 have provided statistics for the Fitzroy region which correspondences with the area of Central Queensland as cited by Craig Henderson of the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Queensland in June 2006 for his report entitled “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – Queensland” and therefore the ABS data has been used.

Bundaberg Region The region centred on Bundaberg and has a good balance of weather, water and soil to grow a variety of commodities at commercial levels. The bulk of activity occurs within the Bundaberg Irrigation Scheme (BIS) which covers an area from Bundaberg west to Gin Gin and south to Childers.

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The BIS area is unique as it represents a large horticultural area that includes both tropical and temperate climate. It is the southern end of the tropics and the northern end of the temperate region thus providing ideal weather conditions for several crops that require particular climates. Growers within this area have primarily access to surface water removed from either the Burnett or Kolan River systems. There are a series of weirs situated on both river systems which allow access of water from the river itself or through a vast network of open channels and pressurised pipelines. There is also a substantial network of bores both within and outside the BIS of which the water is of ranging quality. Climate Sub-tropical climate with a 48 week growing period means that the Bundaberg region benefits from extensive range of horticulture. Average temperatures in summer range from 20°C to 29°C. Winter days are mild and dry, averaging 22°C maximums and fewer than 18 wet days through the season. Rainfall is concentrated through the warmer months, when tropical thunderstorms will bring a cooling change after a sultry day. Water supply The major sources of water within the region are the Burnett and Kolan Rivers. The Burnett River begins close to Mount Gaeta east of Monto flowing in a generally southerly direction past Eidsvold and Mundubbera Downstream from which the river swings east going through the townships of Gayndah and Wallaville before reaching Bundaberg and then flowing to the sea at Burnett Heads approximately 20kms from Bundaberg. It has a number of major tributaries including Three Moon Creek, Nogo River, Auburn River, Boyne River and Barambah Creek. The Burnett River basin has a catchment area of 32,500 kms² in which are located over 20 water storages including Paradise Dam (300,000 ML) built in 2005. The Burnett Basin is considered to consist of five sub-basins for irrigation purposes, these are; • Auburn – Boyne River system • Upper Burnett River system • Three Moon Creek system • Baker Barambah Creek system • Lower Burnett River system Portions of both the Upper and Lower Burnett River systems are involved in the Bundaberg water Supply Scheme which draws water from the (562,000 ML), Bucca Weir and Kolan Barrage on the Kolan River and from the Walla Weir and on the Burnett River. Water is released from the Claude Wharton Weir upstream on the Burnett River for use in the Bundaberg Water Supply Scheme and is also transferred from the Fred Haigh Dam via the Isis Channel and Sheepstation Creek to Walla Weir to supplement supplies in the Burnett River. The existing storages have a combined capacity to supply a nominal allocation of 198,354 Ml per annum through four major reticulation systems and 128 kms of regulated stream.

Table 55. - Source of water for urban supply Locality Source Bundaberg Burnett River via Branyan Treatment Plant and supplemented by bores Burnett Heads, Bargara, Burnett River via DNR Woongarra irrigation channel to Kalkie Treatment Elliont Heads, and Plant and Kalkie bores Riverview Moore Park Two bores

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Burnett Downs Burnett River yard supply only River Park Burnett River via DNR Woongarra Storage Rocky Point Bore supply Tantitha (Zorzan) Bore supply Woodgate to Childers Gregory River Dam and supply from Bundaberg Irrigation Area Gin Gin Gin Gin Creek and supply from Gin Gin Main Channel Wallaville Burnett River

Use of Irrigation Irrigation sourced from surface water within the Bundaberg Region is centred around the Fred Haigh Dam and Paradise Dam with water being able to move from the Fred Haigh Dam via a series of channels, lifting stations and natural water courses to the Burnett River. Irrigation water is also sourced from groundwater which is currently under strain with issues of salt water intrusion and the resultant soil degradation. The existing scheme is unique in Queensland in that it is the only large scale irrigation area that was designed to service existing farming enterprises and has over 600 kms of channel and pipeline transverse the landscape distributing supplies to over 1,000 properties connected to the surface water scheme. Groundwater The region also contains significant groundwater supplies in the form of three main aquifers which are able to be used to supplement surface water supplies for both irrigation and town water supplies. As is the case in other parts of Australia, all three aquifers are under major pressure of overuse and pollution through saltwater intrusion which has rendered some bores unusable. Soil types Soil types within the region range from deep red nutrient rich volcanic soils through to extremely poor sodic soils all of which are irrigated and farmed intensively. For further information on soil types / profiles please refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 56. - Vegetables which can be grown commercially in the Bundaberg region 94 Vegetables Area (ha) Volume Est. GVP (A$) ------Beans 130 64,410 (p) 2,562,260 Button squash 120 120,430 (p) 2,553,630 Capsicum 210 826,630 (p) 13,185,260 Chilli 35 200,290 (p) 6,638,550 Cherry tomatoes 170 855,690 (p) 25,784,820 Cucumber 70 1,017,200 (p) 17,462,120 Egg Fruit 20 76,760 (p) 1,227,890 Potatoes 135 3,420 (t) 4,099,930 Potatoes (processed) 360 10,800 (t) 4,050,000 Pumpkins (large) 350 6,960 (t) 5,721,370

94 JL Lovatt, DPI&F, Horticultural crops in the Bundaberg District 2007

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Snow peas 430 323,060 (p) 16,818,670 Sweet corn 90 89,210 (p) 1,428,270 Sweet potato 1,030 1,550,430 (p) 42,514,560 Tomatoes 830 4,873,220 (p) 94,267,550 Zucchini 960 960,460 (p) 21,553,860 (p) packages (t) tonnes

Mary River Region The Mary River Region consists of the local regional council areas of Fraser Coast, Gympie and Sunshine with the main natural resource feature across the three regional councils being the Mary River catchment. The main economic business centres of the Mary River Region are Nambour situated 100 kms north of Brisbane, Gympie 165 kms north of Brisbane and Maryborough 255 kms north of Brisbane whilst Hervey Bay is a centre for tourism to the region. Commercial vegetable production within the region is highly interconnected across the entire industry from farm gate production, processing and packaging, to distribution and marketing. Due to the region’s high fertile soils agricultural and horticultural activities across the region are significant with approximately 800,000ha being farmed producing in excess of A$400M in farm gate value. For ease of analysis the Mary River Region has been broken into three separate zones, these are; • Upper Mary River – based around the former shires of Noosa, Caloundra and Maroochy and is now reflected in the boundary of the Sunshine Coast Regional Council. This zone occupies a significant part of the upper reaches of the Mary River catchment and combined with the area’s high rainfall, generally fertile soils, high real estate values and its sub- tropical environment together with its close proximity to Brisbane has lead to the development of high valued intensive cropping. Vegetable production within the zone accounts for 16% of all agricultural / horticultural activity with mushroom cultivation value at A$5M and ginger value at A$11M being produced in the period 2007/08 based on DPI&F figures

• Middle Mary River – based around the former shires of Cooloola and Kilkivan and part of the shire of Tiaro and is now reflected in the boundary of the Gympie Regional Council. This portion of the region occupies the fertile river flats of both the Mary River and its tributaries and as a result is able to support a wide array of both agricultural and horticultural activities

Principal vegetables grown in this zone are French and runner beans valued at A$7M, zucchini and squash valued at A$4.5M and ginger valued at A$4M. In the period 2000/01 there were 80 businesses whose principal activity was vegetable production

• Lower Mary River – based around the shires of Tiaro, Woocoo, Maryborough City and Hervey Bay and is now reflected in the boundary of the Fraser Regional Council. This final portion of the region occupies a significant part of the river flood plains and the neighbouring inland mountain ranges. Whilst the predominant land use within this zone is cattle grazing on native pastures there are pockets of vegetable production undertaken on the richer alluvial soils. Vegetable production accounts for 4% of agricultural / horticultural activities within the zone

Climate The region has a sub-tropical climate with warm long summers and mild winters with a large part of the region being frost free. In addition because it is a coastal region there is generally reliable and plentiful rainfall with the coastal plains and hinterlands receiving up to 2,000mm annually.

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It should be noted that the western portion of the region experiences much drier and has greater temperature extremes that those in the southern or eastern portions. The coldest months in the region are June to August. Light frosts (days when temperatures are below 2ºC) occur between May and September with Gympie experiencing on average 11 light frosts and Maryborough 3 light frosts per year. Water supply Whilst rainfall in many parts of the region is relatively high and reliable, successful commercial vegetable production requires large amounts of water to be delivered at crucial times during the growing season and as a result additional water resources are a key asset. Vegetable producers in the region have access to a number of options including but not limited to: • On-farm storages • Both above ground dams / tanks and underground bores • Supplemented water sourced from river, streams, and creeks • Irrigation channels

The Mary River and its tributaries are the main source of water within the region although flow volumes are highly viable from one year to the next and are at their highest during the period November to April. The Mary River has its origins in the Conondale Ranges in the south of the region at an altitude of 500 metres above sea level and then flows north to Maryborough (passing through Gympie) before empting into the Great Sandy Straits between Fraser Island and the mainland. Note: That there is a tidal barrage positioned downstream from Tiaro. A number of major tributaries enter the Mary River, these are - from the west Munna Creek, Wide Bay Creek, Widgee Creek, Amamoor Creek, Kandanga Creek and Yabba Creek, whilst from the east the Obi Obi Creek, Six Mile Creek and Tinana Creek. There is significant irrigation activity to be found in association with many of these tributaries in addition to that sourced directly from the Mary River in particular a network of channels designed to distribute water below the tidal barrage for sugar cane production. Major irrigation schemes within the region are the: • Upper Mary River Water Supply Scheme (which incorporates the Pie Creek Diversion and Deep Creek scheme) supplies irrigation, industrial, stock and domestic water from the located 10 kms south-west of Imbil to users along the river of 179kms. The releases water for downstream irrigation under the control of SEQ Water

• Lower Mary River Water Supply Scheme is situated between Maryborough and Tiaro and is supplied via pipeline and open channels from the Mary River and Tinana Creek Barrages principally for sugar cane production and is under the control of SunWater

Table 57. - Key impoundments within the Mary River region Storage Name Capacity Stream (ML) Tinana Barrage 4,770 Tinana Creek Mary River Barrage 11,700 Mary River Teddington Weir 3,590 Tinana Creek Tallegalla Weir 385 Tinana Creek Goomeri Weir 22 Kinbombi Creek Cedar Pocket Dam 725 Deep Creek

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east Imbil weir 46 Yabba Creek Borumba Dam 46,000 Yabba Creek Lake McDonald 8,000 Six Mile Creek 61,000 Obi Obi Creek Maleny Weir 57 Obi Obi Creek Total Storage 136,295

Customers in the two water supply schemes as mentioned above hold Interim Water Allocations (IWA) which entitles them to access water from the regulated reaches of streams supplemented by releases from infrastructure within the schemes. The Interim Resource Operation Licence (IROL) holder for each scheme is responsible for both the operation and management of all infrastructure and water entitlements within the scheme. The Water Resource (Mary Basin) Plan 2006 is current for the region whilst a Resource Operations Plan (ROP) is currently under development to define both operation and monitoring rules for the Basin. The current IROLs for the Mary River Basin are: • Upper Mary River Water Supply Scheme issued to Queensland Bulk Water Supply Authority covering the area from Borumba Dam on the Yabba Creek to the Mary River Barrage including Pie Creek Diversion and the Cedar Pocket Dam and supplemented reach of Deep Creek • Lower Mary River Water Supply Scheme issued to SunWater covering the area of the storages of the Mary River and Tinana Creek barrages

A ROP for the region (as at April 2010) is currently in the final stages of development and will be released in draft form for public scrutiny and submissions prior to finalisation. Use of irrigation Currently (as at Jan 2009) approximately 40,000Ml of medium priority water is allocated for agricultural irrigation purposes however due to an overall decline in the area irrigated actual water used is estimated at between 40 – 60% depending upon the location within the region. It is possible that following the release of the ROP a number of water entitlements not in use will be available for purchase. The following Tables show the water allocations for both the Upper and Lower Mary River Supply Schemes: • Table 58. - Water allocation for the Upper Mary River Supply Scheme

User / Customer ML Purpose Priority Amenities at Borumba Dam and Imbil town 120 Urban High water supply Gympie Regional Council – Imbil town water 60 Urban High supply Initial loss – Pie Creek Scheme 60 Losses High (loss) Continuous loss – Pie Creek Scheme 426 Losses Medium (loss)

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Industrial User 60 Industrial High Upper Mary irrigators and other users 17,249 Agriculture Medium Unallocated water 3,000 Medium Sunshine Coast Regional Council 6,500 Urban High Pie Creek Scheme irrigators 864 Agriculture Medium Deep Creek irrigators 512 Agriculture Medium Gympie Regional Council – Gympie town water 3,454 Urban High supply Gympie Regional Council 10 Urban High Industrial customer 400 industrial Medium Total 32,715

• Table 59. - Water allocated for the Lower Mary River Supply Scheme

Customer Section ML Purpose Priority Fraser Coast Regional Mary River 45 Urban High Council Canter Wood Mary Barrage Storage 5 Industrial High Unallocated water As above 75 High Irrigators and other water As above 4,528 Agriculture Medium users – river Irrigators and other water As above 6,266 Agriculture Medium users – Copenhagen Bend / Main Road Initial losses As above 174 Losses High (loss) Continuing losses As above 4,273 Losses Medium (loss) Unallocated water As above 3,000 Medium Unallocated water Tinana Creek / Teddington Weir 1,360 High storage Irrigators and other water Tinana Creek / Teddington Weir 2,426 Agriculture Medium users – river storage Irrigators and other water Tinana Creek / Tinana Barrage 5,205 Agriculture Medium users – river Storage Irrigators and other water Tinana Creek / Tinana Barrage 3,675 Agriculture Medium users – Storage Walker’s Point system Unallocated water Tinana Creek / Tinana Barrage 3,000 Medium Storage Point loss Tinana Creek / Tinana Barrage 150 Losses High (loss) Storage Continuing loss Tinana Creek / Tinana Barrage 315 losses Medium (loss) Storage

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Total 34,497

Note: For further information regarding horticulture in this region the Department of Primary Industries &Fisheries has a research station (Maroochy Research Station) located in the Mary Valley focused on establishing and managing fruit and vegetable crops in the region and on climate, soil and irrigation issues. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region The region is capable of growing a range of seasonal vegetables from those grown to meet specific short term favourable market prices such as cucumbers, potatoes, broccoli and melons to those vegetables grown yearly such as French and runner beans, snow peas and ginger. The climate of the region allows vegetable producers to harvest crops at times during the year when other competitive regions are inactive thus presenting the region’s producers with a window of opportunity to supply the domestic market both within Queensland and the other southern States. The following Tables demonstrate the total value of vegetables grown commercially in this region. 95 Table 60(a). - Total value by zone Zone 1996/97 2000/01 2005/06 Upper Mary River $5,014,000 $12,627,000 $31,734,000 Middle Mary River $9,116,000 $11,596,000 $22,598,000 Lower Mary River $1,035,000 $1,571,000 $2,573,000 Total value $15,165,000 $25,794,000 $56,905,000 Table 60(b). - Total value of vegetable production within the Mary River region by vegetable Vegetable 1996/97 2000/01 2005/06 Zone Potatoes $187,000 $121,000 n/a Upper Mary River $114,000 $21,000 $91,000 Lower Mary River French / Runner Beans $94,000 $293,000 $204,000 Upper Mary River $4,904,000 $5,326,000 $7,026,000 Middle Mary River $232,000 $315,000 $626,000 Lower Mary River Cabbage $92,000 $48,000 $7,000 Upper Mary River Capsicum, chillies, peppers $27,000 $115,000 $7,000 Upper Mary River $111,000 $64,000 $150,000 Middle Mary River Cucumbers $45,000 $286,000 $535,000 Upper Mary River $274,000 $296,000 $301,000 Middle Mary River Zucchini & Squash $626,000 $1,126,000 $1,634,000 Upper Mary River $1,484,000 $1,081,000 $4,580,000 Middle Mary River $168,000 $89,000 $934,000 Lower Mary River Lettuce $598,000 $161,000 $566,000 Upper Mary River Mushrooms $1,228,000 $2,091,000 $5,165,000 Upper Mary River n/a $134,000 $332,000 Lower Mary River

95 ABS Agstats and Agricultural Commodities – Small Area Data Australian 2005/06, Series 7125.0, cited by DPI&F publication Mary Economic Region – Agribusiness Resource Guide, Page 6 - 8

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Onions–Spring (including Shallots) n/a $486,000 $20,000 Upper Mary River Pumpkins, triambles & trombones $318,000 $413,000 $769,000 Upper Mary River $44,000 $64,000 $196,000 Middle Mary River $64,000 $64,000 $310,000 Lower Mary River Parsley n/a $36,000 $43,000 Upper Mary River Peas - Green $342,000 $228,000 $84,000 Middle Mary River Peas – Snow $18,000 $66,000 $64,000 Upper Mary River $663,000 $2,304,000 $1,997,000 Middle Mary River $46,000 $91,000 $61,000 Lower Mary River Sweet corn $2,000 $60,000 $42,000 Upper Mary River Tomatoes $552,000 $287,000 $436,000 Upper Mary River $116,000 $268,000 $162,000 Middle Mary River $138,000 $80,000 $20,000 Lower Mary River

Table 60(c). - Number and distribution of vegetable producers across the Mary River region Zones Upper Middle Lower Total < $22,500 17 18 5 40 $22,500 to $50,000 16 9 1 26 $50,000 to $100,000 9 14 1 24 $100,000 to $150,000 4 4 1 9 $150,000 to $200,00 2 4 1 7 $200,000 to $350,000* 15 11 3 29 $350,000 to $500,000 7 3 10 $500,000 to $1,000,000* 5 6 11 $1,000,000 to $2,000,000* 3 - 3 $2,000,000 > 2 1 3

Total 80 70 12 162 Note: Mushroom farms are denoted by * and total 6 within the region the majority valued above $500,000 per year. The region also contains a large growing number of organic vegetable producers developing high value produce to cater for niche markets both locally and interstate. Two examples of businesses catering to a niche market within this region are: • Buderim Ginger which is the largest manufacturer of sweet ginger products in the world and produces approximately 5,000 tonnes of raw ginger yearly • Botanical Food Co. Pty Ltd trading as Gourmet Garden which is a leading exporter of processed herbs and spices

Note: Reliable figures for the number of farms organically certificated could not be sourced.

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Lockyer & Fassifern Valleys, Eastern Darling Downs and Toowoomba Range region In south eastern Queensland the Lockyer and Fassifern valleys, Eastern Darling Downs and Toowoomba range are major production areas for a range of vegetable products with more than 60% of the State’s processed crops coming from these areas. Climate Extremes in temperature occur from severe winter frosts (-10°C) to summer heatwave conditions (>40°C) in various locations across the region. The regions summer maximum temperatures are modified by coastal influences as well as altitude of the Great Dividing Range at Toowoomba. The regions winter minimum temperatures can vary from near frosting to severe frosting with no areas being completely frost free although some areas can experience no frosts in some years. The extremes of temperatures are the major limitations to vegetable production in these four districts also high temperatures during the summer period combined with normal summer rainfall limit the summer production of many vegetable crops. Water supply Rainfall is uneven throughout the year with up to 60% falling during the summer months and amounts vary throughout the region. As a result there is a heavy reliance upon irrigation with the major source being from underground aquifers, other sources are direct pumping from streams, off stream storage and on-farm catchment dams. Use of irrigation The main source of irrigation water throughout the region is groundwater accessed via alluvial aquifers although there is some sourcing from streams by direct pumping, off-stream storages, and on- farm catchment storages. Most crops require a minimum of 4ML per ha of water. Groundwater Groundwater in the Lockyer valley is sourced from a series of localised alluvial aquifers which vary in their quality and quantity of supply. The Department of Natural Resources and Mines (DNR&M) has determined that the average annual demand exceeds recharge levels. This means water shortages are likely to be a recurring problem. Similar problems are being experienced in the Fassifern Valley. Soil types Soil types within the region range vary with black alluvial clays and clay loams being the most productive soils in the Lockyer and Fassifern Valleys subregion consisting predominately of montmorillonite clay, whilst in the Eastern Darling Downs the soil profile varies widely each having its own different characteristics. For example the Purrawannda dark medium clays are fertile and well drained in addition to which grey to brown alluvial cracking clays also exist in large areas of the Downsand where irrigation is available these soils have been cropped extensively to vegetables. For further information on soil types / profiles please refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 61. - Vegetables which can be grown commercially in the Lockyer & Fassifern Valleys, Eastern Darling Downs and Toowoomba Range region Vegetables Area Volume Est. GVP Months available (ha) (tonnes) (A$) ------Beans 300 1,500 360,000 Mar – May/Nov - Dec Beans – Processed 80 800 270,000 Mar – Jun / Nov - Dec Beetroot – Processed 630 2,720 3,470,000 May - Dec Broccoli 600 3,444 5,710,000 May - Dec Cabbage 80 2,352 1,680,000 May - Nov

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Capsicum 80 1,344 2,220,000 Nov - Apr Carrots 180 3,600 1,260,000 Jul - Nov Carrots – Processed 28 532 110,000 Sep - Nov Cauliflower 150 4,410 2,210,000 May - Oct Celery 150 7,920 3,890,000 May - Oct Chinese Cabbage 40 2,400 890,000 May - Sep Garlic 6 48 20,000 Sep - Dec Lettuce 500 11,250 7,380,000 Apr - Oct Onion 650 26,000 16,120,000 Aug - Dec Peas – Processed 300 1,500 450,000 Sep - Oct Potatoes 2,300 48,300 25,840,000 May - Nov Pumpkins 1,800 36,000 7,560,000 Dec – Jan / May - Jun Sweet corn 300 2,700 2,910,000 Dec - Mar Sweet corn – Processed 650 9,100,000 1,270,000 Nov - May Sweet potato 4 100 60,000 Mar - Apr Tomatoes 300 5,700 6,160,000 Oct - Apr

Scenic Rim Region This region incorporates the former shires of Boonah, Beaudesert and part of Ipswich and lies to the south of Brisbane between the Gold Coast and the Lockyer Valley. As the majority of research into vegetable production on a commercial scale undertaken in this region is based upon data collected from the former shires of Boonah and Beaudesert prior to amalgamation the report is broken into two sections Climate The Scenic Rim Region experiences sub-tropical climatic conditions typically with warm wet summers and mild dry winters. Temperatures range between daytime averages of mid 30oC in summer, to low 20oC in winter. The town of Beaudesert is located 46m above sea level. The average annual rainfall is 916mm. The Boonah township is about 80m above sea level and is located latitude- 28.0067 degrees south and longitude 152.68 degrees east. Average annual rainfall for the region is 866mm, equating to an average of 89 days of rainfall. Water supply Council's water supply scheme provides two types of service - "on demand" and "constant flow” (also known as trickle feed or restricted demand): • On Demand is the supply of treated full pressure water to residential allotments and commercial and industrial properties in town centres. • Constant Flow provides treated water at a controlled rate of two litres per minute to rural residential properties. This involves the delivery of water, measured by water meter, to a storage tank (provided by the owner) on the property.

Council uses a two-part water tariff which consists of an access charge and a consumption charge based on the exact amount of water used by each household. The access charge recovers about two thirds of the cost of operating, maintaining and replacing the water supply network and the consumption charge (per kilolitre) pays for the other one third of those costs plus the cost to Council to purchase, treat and distribute water. Council strongly encourages all residents to install rainwater tanks to catch valuable rainwater that is often lost during rain.

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Sunwater, a wholly owned government water corporation, operates the Logan River System. Council pays Sunwater for an annual allocation of water. Visit www..com.au Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Boonah sub-region Total value of commercial vegetable production within the former Shire of Boonah was valued in the period 2000/01 at $14,578,000 and was broken down in the following Table 62 as follows Table 62. – Value of vegetable production in the Boonah sub-region Vegetable Area (ha) Volume (tonnes) GVP (A$M) No of Farms French & runner Beans 331 2,039,411 $4,358,000 10 Beetroot 81 2,336 $533,000 5 Brussel sprouts 7 272 $148,000 < 4 Chinese cabbage 24 1,014,171 $680,000 < 4 Carrots 58 8,044 $4,800,000 14 Cauliflower 15 188 $87,000 < 4 Onions (Spring & Shallots) 6 55,282 $137,000 6 Onions (White & Brown) 35 1,164 $711,000 10 Parsnips 2 36 $88,000 < 4 Peas – Snow 4 1,841 $12,000 < 4 Potatoes 245 4,369 $1,765,000 20 Pumpkins, triambles etc. 173 1,759 $723,000 30 Sweet Corn 4 14 $13,000 < 4 Swedes 3 7 $13,000 < 4 Marrows, Squashes & Zucchini 2 7,259 $11,000 < 4 Tomatoes 8 17 $22,000 5 Total 998 3,136,170 $14,101,000

Note: Irrigation is crucial to the production of vegetable within the Boonah zone. Beaudesert sub-region Commercial vegetable production within the Beaudesert zone for the same period was valued at $904,000 and was broken down as follows; Table 62(a). - Value of vegetable production in the Beaudesert sub-region Vegetable GVP (A$M) Capsicums, Chillies, Peppers $94,000 Carrots $76,000 Cauliflowers $24,000 Cucumbers $43,000 Zucchini $137,000 Pumpkins $130,000 Potatoes $26,000

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Tomatoes $83,000 Total $904,000

The Beaudesert zone abuts the Boonah zone and a number of its vegetable producers are reliant upon irrigation water supplies originating from the Boonah zone. Table 62(b). - Number and distribution of vegetable producers across both zones as at 2000/01 Zones Boonah Beaudesert Total < $22,500 2 1 3 $22,500 to $50,000 6 3 9 $50,000 to $100,000 9 4 13 $100,000 to $150,000 7 5 12 $150,000 to $200,00 2 1 3 $200,000 to $350,000 4 - 4 $350,000 to $500,000 2 2 4 $500,000 to $1,000,000 6 - 6 $1,000,000 to $2,000,000 2 - 2 $2,000,000 > 1 - 1 Total 41 16 57

Granite Belt Region Located on the southern downs of Queensland at an altitude of between 600 – 1,500 metres and 220 kms from Brisbane, the region is home to a multi-million dollar horticultural and agricultural sector with 1, 772 Ha of vegetables96under cultivation. Vegetable production is concentrated in the summer months taking advantage of the unique climate when other Queensland production areas are too hot and humid to produce Queensland’s salad vegetables in the summer salad season. Stanthorpe Major centre within the region having a population of approximately 10,000 with an altitude of 924 metres the area enjoys the coolest and most pleasant climate in the State with a consistent low humidity and four distinct seasons. Climate The region has a genuine four season climate with heavy frosts as a routine part of each winter. The region’s altitude ranges between 600 – 1500 metres with seasonal temperatures being: Spring: 5.1°C to 25.2°C – Cool mornings followed by warm days Summer: 14.1°C to 27.4°C – Cool nights Autumn: 9.5°C – 24.9°C – Cool nights Winter: 0.9°C – 16.2°C97 - Cold frosty mornings followed by cool crisp clear days and chilly evenings. Water supply Rainfall within the region is approximately 736mm per annum which falls mostly during the summer hail storm season. Dams within the region are:–

96 IBID, ABS 2006 crop statistics 97 Bureau of Meteorology

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Storm King 2,180ML Glenlyon 254,000ML Beehive 98ML The Soak 22ML Cusacks 628ML Use of irrigation Most crops are watered from drip or trickle irrigation from on-farm water storage to manage the precious resource. In fact, the Granite Belt’s apple, grape and vegetable producers are recognised as among the highest value adding industries in the entire Murray Darling Basin – for the small amount of water used. Table 63. – Source of water used in irrigation within the Granite Belt region Irrigation Source % Dams with own catchment 37 Supplemented stream 12 Watercourse 44 Groundwater – State scheme 5 Groundwater 2

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 64. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Granite Belt region compared with the State as a whole QldProd Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) Beans - Butter 897.68 422.30 37.16 7.80 Beans -French & Runner 12506.55 2757.70 922.24 286.20 Beetroot 38124.30 1315.40 1059.40 66.30 Broccoli 12227.53 1670.90 3694.84 510.50 Cabbages 15080.60 385.90 6206.70 135.20 Capsicum 41003.45 1671.00 7136.77 237.00 Carrots 25315.70 702.90 155.10 7.80 Cauliflower 15117.40 691.00 6747.50 273.80 Chilli 2122.40 159.50 80.45 12.50 Celery 6867.59 145.40 3374.52 85.70 Cucumbers 6149.24 191.40 26.40 3.30 Eggplant 3284.10 235.60 24.92 2.20 Garlic 13.91 9.50 4.45 4.90 Leeks 466.90 22.20 456.25 20.10 Lettuce 57669.50 2072.00 21105.40 904.90 Mushrooms 4322.95 15.40 994.27 3.10

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Onions - White & Brown 24836.00 703.80 11635.20 341.20 Onions - Red 2309.20 62.30 259.40 7.00 Parsnips 2.00 0.20 2.00 0.20 Peas 861.96 132.50 10.35 3.10 Potatoes 99240.80 3353.70 2949.50 154.00 Pumpkins 43783.10 2750.70 3109.00 226.90 Radish 137.55 13.00 9.15 1.60 Silver beet / Spinach 3183.60 448.90 2674.57 394.70 Snow peas / Sugar snaps 2109.57 309.20 31.50 9.30 Spring onions / Shallots 3606.99 266.40 24.08 10.10 Swedes & Turnips 225.20 23.70 141.10 14.20 Sweet corn 22599.60 1791.30 575.60 32.10 Sweet potato 31553.60 1140.20 5.10 1.00 Tomatoes 132443.50 2543.40 1588.70 55.80 Zucchini & Button Squash 12979.63 1289.70 447.02 49.40 Total Area Sown 31392.60 3861.90 Total Production (Tonnes) 621265.05 75488.64

NEW SOUTH WALES The vegetable growing industry in New South Wales had its foundation in the Sydney Basin with the arrival of the first fleet and then subsequently spread to the interior of the State as new townships and communities formed. The industry is now spread across a range of climatic zones from the coast to the Tablelands and Central West to the Murrumbidgee and Murray valleys in the south.98 According to the ABS for the period 2000/01 over 23,265 ha of vegetables were grown in the State at a value of A$305M at the farm gate and directly employed 3,100 people. Production methods vary between regions with inland regions being characterised by large area furrow irrigated farms with a high degree of specialisation as against farms located in the coastal regions which are on average small to medium size intensive farming operations utilising either spray or drip irrigation producing several crop types each season.

98 Mark Hickey and Robert Hoogers, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – New South Wales, page 50

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The Murrumbidgee region which includes Griffith, Hillston and Hay has the largest concentration of vegetable production amounting to 41% of the total area under crop (9,695ha) and 32% of the total value (A$102M) for the State.99The Sydney Basin is the next most important region by value with 26% of the total value (A$79M). Table 65 below shows the vegetables grown within the State of NSW in terms of area sown and tonnage produced as defined in the ABS Agricultural Commodities Australia for the period 2007/08. Table 65. – Value of vegetables grown in the State NSW Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 23.41 2.9 Asparagus 70.3 49.4 Beans - Butter 52.95 19.5 Beans -French & Runner 100.35 52.6 Beetroot 2742.7 153.7 Broccoli 4874.5 839.0 Brussel sprouts 0.0 0.0 Cabbages 15547.7 452.1 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 Carrots 14893.0 370.4 Cauliflower 10284.9 492.7 Chilli 55.29 11.5 Celery 211.15 14.0 Cucumbers 3397.9 70.6 Eggplant 1074.97 67.3 Fennel (bulb) 0.0 0.0 Garlic 148.87 27.9 Leeks 195.97 25.8 Lettuce 23826.9 1020.4 Mushrooms 16823.75 54.8 Onions - White & Brown 15066.3 493.0 Onions - Red 1723.9 40.0 Parsnips 182.3 10.4 Peas 99.14 61.1 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 Radish 1001.9 85.3 Silver beet / Spinach 2339.75 265.5 Snow peas / Sugar snaps 6.6 7.0

99 ABS, Australian Agricultural Commodities – 2006/07, series 7121, 7113.0 and 7503.0

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Spring onions / Shallots 581.2 59.1 Swedes & Turnips 715.8 50.5 Sweet corn 12853.3 788.1 Sweet potato 5876.7 257.1 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 Zucchini & Button Squash 2225.25 261.7 Total Area Sown 15997.5 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2

Note: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 have provided statistics for the entire State broken down into regions recorded as per the National Resource Management profile for New South Wales. These regions differ to those used by Mark Hickey and Robert Hoogers of the NSW Department of Primary Industries in August 2006 for their report entitled “Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – New South Wales.” Therefore where possible the regions as recorded by Mark Hickey and Robert Hoogers have been used with data sourced from the ABS being used in support where it relates specific to a particular region, as an example the Murrumbidgee region. Where the ABS data does not collate specifically with a region as nominated by Mark Hickey and Robert Hoogers the ABS regions used have been cited, as an example Sydney Basin – the Sydney Metropolitan region and the Hawkesbury / Nepean region have been used.

Climate Vegetable production in NSW extends from the humid sub-tropical north coast to the predominately urbanised region of the Sydney basin across to the cooler temperate tablelands and through to the dry hot irrigation dependent districts.

Water Policy The New South Wales Water Act is focused on managing the State’s water resources through water sharing plans, these can cover surface water, groundwater or a combination of both. In general the plans deal with surface water and groundwater as two separate issues however there are a few which combine both surface water and groundwater plans. State policy is to manage water as an integrated system through linkages between the different plans, in practice however the linkages are not always present and therefore opportunities are missed. A recent example of missed opportunities is the surface water cap in the Murray Darling Basin where existing groundwater plans do not address this issue and yet it is groundwater extraction which has obvious impacts on river flows. The NSW Department of Natural resources (DNR) have developed a draft policy “Management of highly connected unregulated river – aquifer systems” which proposes three management approaches depending upon the system type; • manage to groundwater dominant system – where river flow is mainly absent during the irrigation season and most use is from groundwater • manage to unregulated surface water where river flow is reliable during the irrigation season and groundwater abstraction from narrow aquifers impacts upon surface water • integrated approach where surface water is reliable and groundwater is productive during the irrigation season and groundwater abstraction occurs at a range of distances from the river.

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There have been no recorded trades between surface and groundwater sources since the late 1980’s when a surface licence was swapped for an equivalent groundwater licence.

Water Supply As previously stated by world standards Australia receives little rainfall on average and much of this is lost through evaporation. Australia not only has a low average rainfall compared to other continents but its runoff averages only 12% of rainfall compared with approximately 40% for Europe and North America. For New South Wales the runoff averages 17% for the coastal basins (which vary between 12 to 30%) and 3.5% for the inland basins (varying between 0.01 and 31%). Approximately 75% of all runoff occurs along the coastal strip where 90% of the State’s population reside and yet the coastal strip only accounts for about 20% of the total water used within the State. The majority of water use (80%) occurs west of the Great Dividing Range where only 25% of the surface runoff occurs. The mean annual streamflow for New South Wales under normal conditions is 42,000 GL the equivalent of approximately 10% of all flows within Australian streams. It should be noted at this point that the total divertible surface water resource for New South Wales cannot at this stage be provided due in part to the lack of reliable information on the yield levels of unregulated rivers within the State caused by: • the lack of reliable water use data • water sharing rules that effectively represent the approach by NSW to environmental flow requirements • water resource system models to assist planning decisions There are currently 90 storage systems (over 1,000 ML capacity) within the State whose combined capacity is 32,065 GL. Table 66. - The major water storages within the State River Basin System Tributary Dam Full Volume Full Supply Dead Level Storage (ML) (Metres) (ML) Border River Pike Creek Glenlyon 254,310.01 412.09 160.00 Severn River Pindari 312,000.00 516.00 80.00 Gwydir Valley Gwydir River Copeton 1,361,720.00 572.65 18,490.00 Namoi Valley Manilla River Split Rock 397,000.00 449.00 3,160.00 Namoi River Keepit 425,500.00 329.56 6,550.00 Peel River Chaffey 61,800.00 518.60 2,360.00 Macquarie Valley Macquarie River Burrendong 1,188,000.00 344.73 33,730.00 Fish River Oberon 45,000.00 33.5 N/K Cudgegong River Windamere 368,120.00 552.00 1,130.00 Lachlan Valley Belubula River Carcoar 36,130.00 847.18 214.00 Lachlan River Wyangala 1,220,000.00 378.85 728.00 Lake Cargelligo 35,900.00 157.14 6,350.00 Lake Brewster 153,000.00 139.40 4,550.00 Murrumbidgee Murrumbidgee River Burrinjuck 1,026,000.00 363.59 3,250.00 Valley Tumut River Blowering 1,631,410.00 379.27 23,990.00

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Murray Valley Murray River Hume 3,038,000.00 192.00 1,790.00 Hunter Valley Hunter River Glenbawn 750,000.00 276.25 14,710.00 Glennies Creek Glennies Creek 283,370.00 186.00 1,070.00 Paterson River Lostock 20,230.00 155.60 490.00 Iron Pot Creek Toonumbar 11,040.00 129.62 235.00 Brogo River Brogo 8,989.00 43.00 194.00

Murray Darling Basin Menindee Lakes Lake Menindee (Storages) Lake Cawndilla Lake Pamamaroo Lake Wetherell Total capacity 1,678,160.00

NOTE: The supply of water in New South Wales is spread across a range of businesses as follows: Sydney Catchment Authority Sydney Water Corporation Wingecarribee Shire Council Shoalhaven City Council

Sydney Water Corporation 34 local councils 5 irrigation companies

Hunter Water Corporation Newcastle and surrounding districts Dungog Council

Gosford Wyong Joint Water Authority Gosford City Council Wyong City Council

Rous County Council Ballina Council Byron Council Lismore Council Richmond Valley Council

Goldfields County Council Cootamundra Council Harden Council Young Council

State Water (First River Water Supply) Sydney Water Corporation Lithgow Council Oberon Council

Cobar Water Board Cobar Council

Central Tablelands County Council Serves areas within the upper catchment of Central West NSW

Riverina Water County Council Wagga Wagga and surrounding areas

Mid Coast County Council Taree and surrounding areas

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In all regulated rivers within the State, rules apply that ensure a very high reliability of supply to those holding high security licenses which apart from local water authorities and domestic supply generally applies to permanent horticulture and agricultural businesses highly dependent upon water such as feedlots and piggeries.

These rules can vary from system to system as shown in Table below – Table 67. - Comparison between high security licences and general security licences Regions High security irrigation General security Licences Ratio of high security to licences (ML) (ML) General security licences (%) Macquarie / Cudgegong 17,500 633,000 2.8 Lachlan 27,000 594,000 4.5 Belubula 7,400 19,000 38.9 Murrumbidgee 279,000 2,416,000 11.5 Murray 151,000 1,954,000 7.7 Darling 7,400 30,000 24.7

Use of Irrigation Although only 1.5% of agricultural land is irrigated annually in New South Wales it accounts for an average of approximately 30% of the total agricultural production and nationally irrigated profit contributes over 50% of total agricultural profit.100 Since 1999 the majority of irrigation undertaken within the State is through irrigation schemes which operate as companies, under licences issued by the NSW Department of Water and Energy with the major crops benefiting from irrigation being cotton and rice. Both of these crops however have in recent times been adversely affected by the reduction in water availability. Irrigation methods vary according to region for example inland production is characterised by large area furrow irrigated farms with a high degree of specialisation, while production along the coastal districts comprises small intensive operations either spray or drip irrigated and usually producing several crop types during a season. The Central West and Tablelands are predominately spray irrigated (centre pivot, fixed spray) medium size farms.

Soil Types The State Soils Policy was endorsed by the NSW Cabinet in 1987 and covers all soils in NSW, which are primarily used for agricultural purposes. Soils are basic to the sustained prosperity of agriculture. Misuse and poor land and natural resource management can lead to land degradation, water and air pollution. The state's soil resources are a finite resource and as such, the people of NSW are dependent on a productive and stable soil resource. www.environment.nsw.gov.au/soils/index

For further information on soil types / profiles in New South Wales refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website. www.asris.csiro.au

New South Wales Vegetable Growing Regions The major vegetable crops grown in NSW are potatoes (Murrumbidgee, Murray, North and Central Tablelands) melons (Murrumbidgee, and Central West) processing tomatoes (Murrumbidgee and Murray) lettuce (Sydney Basin, Central West and Murrumbidgee) and sweet corn (Central West and

100 Department of Primary Industries NSW, Projected impacts of climate changes on agriculture, Page 4

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Murrumbidgee). The Sydney basin produces approximately 40% of the State’s fresh perishable vegetables mostly through high intensive small scale operations. The selection of vegetable crops grown within the State vary significantly, with a high proportion of market garden style vegetable crops such as lettuce, cabbages and leafy brassicas together with cucumbers, tomatoes and lettuce grown hydroponically being grown close to the major markets in the Sydney Basin. Vegetable crops which are able to be mechanically harvested, many of which are grown for processing such as tomatoes, sweet corn, potatoes and gherkins are grown and processed in the broadacre inland irrigation regions. Table 68. - Major vegetable crops grown in New South Wales by area (ha) Vegetable Sydney Central & North Coast Murrumbidgee Murray N.S.W Total North West Potatoes 213 221 843 2,608 2,131 6,851 Tomatoes 97 16 64 556 847 1,626 (Fresh & Processed) Lettuce 337 100 14 409 2 1,046 Onions 2 13 86 742 120 969 (White & Brown) Sweet corn 181 1,093 35 2,138 6 3,508 Pumpkins 57 208 96 726 156 1,753 Cabbages 284 111 5 - 6 461 Carrots 21 n/a 246 642 6 1,032 Cauliflower 164 267 4 n/a 1 486 Asparagus n/a 41 n/a 15 117 284 Zucchini 66 6 75 n/a 18 215 Broccoli 38 155 6 12 6 757 Beans 20 36 174 200 30 560 (French & runner) Cucumbers 44 2 22 410 10 506 Total 2,024 2,463 2,053 8,630 3,547 21,637

NOTE: The NSW vegetable production regions based upon ABS survey reports are as follows –

Central West & Lachlan Region The Central West and Lachlan region covers approximately 226,000 kms and is centred around the townships of Orange, Bathurst, Cowra, Forbes, Dubbo, Mudgee and Nyngan with most of the vegetable production being undertaken in the Lachlan, Macquarie and Bogan valleys and valued at $19M per annum making up 6% of the NSW vegetable crop.101

101 IBID, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – New South Wales, page 49

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The two main growing areas of the region are the Lachlan valley with the townships of Cowra, Canowindra, Forbes and Condobolin and the Central Tablelands with the townships of Oberon, Bathurst, Blayney and Orange. Vegetable production within the region is by conventional and organic farming methods which enable a wide variety of vegetables to be grown either from sown seed or transplants. During the growing season the crops are watered by drip irrigation, sprinklers, travelling guns, centre pivot or linear movement irrigators. Climate The region is one of the few places in Australia where cool season vegetables such as broccoli, cabbages and cauliflowers can be grown in the middle of summer without prematurely going to seed thus allowing growers to harvest these crops when similar crops are unavailable in many regions of Australia. The region has a temperate climate with warm summers and cold winters. The Tablelands sector of the region has a short growing season with a frost-free period of 5 months at Orange and 3 months at Bathurst 102 (temperatures at Bathurst range from 13°C to 28°C in January and from 1°C to 11°C in July) and Oberon. Bathurst can receive two to three snowfalls a year, with more falls occurring in the higher tablelands. The annual rainfall ranges from 942 millimetres (mm) at Orange to 631 mm at Bathurst and is evenly spread over the year. The future of the industry in the region is totally dependent upon access to a reliable supply of water for irrigation and therefore the transfer price of irrigation water is expected to determine any future development. Water supply Vegetable growing within this region is dependent upon ready access to irrigation water which is currently available through three dams (Ben Chifley, Carcoar and Wyangala) with a combined capacity of 1,286,600 megalitres. Use of irrigation The Lachlan catchment area covers approximately 84,700 square kilometres and represents 8% of the total land in the Murray Darling Basin. Annual rainfall within the catchment decreases from approximately 780mm in the east to 370mm in the west while evaporation increases from 1351mm in the east to 1825mm in the west. The catchment is affected by two weather systems, to the south winter rains dominate whilst in the north summer rainfall is dominant. The Lachlan River is the main water source within the catchment and is fed from its tributaries – the Belubula, Abercrombie, Crookwell and Boorowa rivers and the Mandagery Creek. The Lachlan River flows northwest from Cowra to Forbes, then generally west to Lake Cargelligo and then divides into a large number of effluent streams. The river ends in the Great Cumbung Swamp and only floods to the Murrumbidgee River after exceptionally wet climatic periods. The Lachlan catchment has a diverse range of crops from pasture, cereals, and oilseeds grown on the alluvial soils of the riverine plain to vegetables, wine grapes and stone fruit grown on both the riverine plain and the tableland region. Irrigation in the mid to lower areas of the catchment has been the result of the construction of the Wyangala Dam in 1935 augmented by the construction in 1970 of the Carcoar Dam. Currently, irrigation farms can be found either along the fertile riverine plains and slopes in close proximity to the Lachlan River or in the Jemalong Irrigation area. Groundwater The groundwater usage in the Lachlan Catchment is extensive with groundwater being used for most applications including irrigation, town water supply, mining and industrial uses as well as recreation, stock and domestic supplies. High quality groundwater is accessible from alluvial aquifers associated with the Lachlan River from Cowra to Condobolin as well as a large fan shaped alluvial sequence starting at Lake Cargelligo and extending for some distance downstream.

102 NSW DPI, Primefacts, November 2005, Primefact 56

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More weather resistant rocks such as volcanic, plutonic and metasediments of Palaeozoic age control the topography of the basin in the east and as a result mountainous terrains can occur. Rainfall within the Catchment varies from high (900.1000 mm/yr) in the southeast to low (300.400 mm/yr) in the arid north west of the catchment. In general, the climate is one of cool, moderately wet to dry winters, and hot, dry to very dry summers. This gives an indication of how important the use of groundwater is to the region. Soil types The soil types throughout the catchment vary considerably ranging from very robust, durable soils to very fragile, naturally acidic and sodic soils. This variability requires effective management for erosion control as well as nutrient and salinity management. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 69. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Central West & Lachlan region compared with the State as a whole NSW Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) Beetroot 2742.7 153.7 1,342.9 52.4 Broccoli 4874.5 839.0 819.1 123.9 Cabbages 15547.7 452.1 4,091.9 53.6 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 2.2 0.6 Carrots 14893.0 370.4 4,237.4 65.4 Cauliflower 10284.9 492.7 6,498.5 186.9 Cucumbers 3397.9 70.6 3.3 0.4 Lettuce 23826.9 1020.4 2,488.1 77.5 Mushrooms 16823.75 54.8 652.9 2.0 Onions - White & Brown 15066.3 493.0 29.0 2.1 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 29,047.9 1,122.3 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 13,135.4 442.3 Silver beet / Spinach 2339.75 265.5 10.6 1.3 Sweet corn 12853.3 788.1 10,259.5 540.7 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 91.2 2.9 Zucchini & Button Squash 2225.25 261.7 59.0 6.0 Total Area Sown 15997.5 3,322.0 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2 72769.7

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 do not provide separate statistics for the Central and North West regions of NSW instead the statistics collected relating to the Central West and Lacklan regions have been used.

Hunter Valley Region The Hunter Valley region is situated just to the north of Sydney and stretches from the east coast west to Cassilis, north to Murrurundi, and south to Newcastle. Commercial vegetable production within the region is low with the total area of vegetable production during the period 2005/06 being 378 ha

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which was approximately 465 fewer ha than the previous year, the result of prolong drought which affected New South Wales extensively during this period (see Table 1). Table 70. - Landuse in the Hunter Valley 2003 to 2006 Area of Holding 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 % change from previous year (ha) Vegetable Crop 869 843 378 ¯44.8%

Climate The Hunter Valley region stretches some 160 kilometres from the ocean at Newcastle to the west and the climate varies significantly, though the temperatures are not much different. The Hunter valley is in the sub-tropical / temperate climatic zone and temperatures are generally mild.

average maximum temperatures between December and February range from about 27°C Summer (81 degrees F) on the coast to 30°C inland (86 degrees F).

September to November the average maximum temperatures range from 21°C to 25° C on Spring the coast (70 to 78 degrees F), 22°C to 27°C inland (72 to 81 degrees F).

March to May the average maximum temperatures range from 26°C to 21°C on the coast Autumn (79 to 69 degrees F), 27°C to 21°C inland (81 to 69 degrees F).

June to August the average maximum temperatures range from 17°C to 18°C on the coast Winter (63 to 65 degrees F), 18°C to 19°C inland (64 to 67 degrees F).

The region can also experience considerable variation including floods and droughts and in addition the topography, elevation and proximity to the ocean also create climatic variation and contribute to both soil and production differences. Water supply Major water supply within the region is drawn from the Hunter, Patterson, Goulburn, Merriwa Rivers with additional sourcing from the Glennies Creek, Wollombi Brook and Wybong Creek. The region is also serviced by three major dams Glenbawn (near Scone), Glennies Creek (near Singleton) and Lostock (near Gresford). The Hunter River’s average annual flow is 1,040,000 ML. Use of irrigation Vegetable production on a commercial scale is totally dependent upon irrigation for its success and approximately 80% of the irrigated area in the NSW Mid-Coast region is in the Hunter catchment and is use either for the production of wine grapes or for the dairy industry. Groundwater No data available on groundwater in this region. Soil types The huge diversity in soil types across the region affects the level of productivity the more favourable soils have a depth of at least 60cm, a balanced composition of clay, silt and sand with at least 2% organic matter and a pH (CaC12) of between 4.5 and 7.5. Soils within the region range from fertile alluvium and deep fertile basaltic clay loams through many intermediate soils to shallow, light textured, stony and impoverished sandy granites. The transition from one soil type to another can be gradual or very dramatic sometimes within a short distance.

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Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 71. - Main vegetable crops grown in the Hunter Valley region compared with the State 103 NSW Prod Area Sown Regional Prod (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) Beans -French & Runner 100.35 52.6 1 Beetroot 2742.7 153.7 2 Broccoli 4874.5 839.0 20 Cabbages 15547.7 452.1 602 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 1 Carrots 14893.0 370.4 100 Cauliflower 10284.9 492.7 465 Cucumbers 3397.9 70.6 38 Garlic 148.87 27.9 5 Lettuce 23826.9 1020.4 123 Mushrooms 16823.75 54.8 800 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 1,168 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 1,282 Silver beet / Spinach 2339.75 265.5 3 Snow peas / Sugar snaps 6.6 7.0 1 Sweet corn 12853.3 788.1 29 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 120 Zucchini & Button Squash 2225.25 261.7 15 Total Area Sown 15997.5 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2 4,775.7

North Coast Region The North Coast region comprises twelve Local Government Areas and extends some 500 kilometres from the Hastings Valley in the south to the Queensland border. This region comprises a narrow coastal plain plus parts of the adjacent New England Tableland and the intervening Great Escarpment.

The region includes all of the Tweed, Brunswick, Richmond, Bellinger, and Nambucca catchments, most of the Hastings catchment and large parts of Clarence and Macleay catchments. It also comprises the eastern half of the Northern Rivers Catchment Management Area, which extends westward across the New England Tableland to the Great Divide. Ocean waters adjacent to the North Coast are also considered to be part of the region, and are also important sites with high resource potential.

The most intensive production areas within this region are located in the Cudgen – Duranbah plateau and the Dorrigo district which is home to a significant potato industry. Approximately 1,900 ha of vegetables are planted annually within the region. In recent years growers in this region have faced

103 ABS, Agricultural Commodities: Small Area Data, Australia, 2005-06 (Cat No 71250D0002 as cited Hunter Valley Research, Newcastle & the Hunter Region 2008-09- Agriculture & Fishing, Page 9

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increased competition from Queensland districts such as Bundaberg. The industry produces between $15M and $25M per annum into the state’s economy.104

Climate The region is predominately sub-tropical along the coast with warm to hot summers and mild winters. Temperatures vary considerably from frost free subtropical coastal zones in the east to the western ranges where there can be snowfalls and heavy frosts. Typical annual rainfall ranges between 820mm to 3,000mm with the Tweed catchment being the wettest catchment and the Macleay catchment being the driest. Rainfall is strongly seasonal falling mostly in late summer and early autumn with the region experiencing large variations in river flows between and within seasons. Water supply Major water supply catchments within the region are the: • Tweed catchment where sugar cane is grown on the alluvial estuarine flats and a significant horticultural industry is located in the hills above the frost zone of the catchment. There is also a significant vegetable production sector on the Cudgen Plateau adjacent to the coastline of the Tweed catchment where large quantities of tomatoes, sweet potatoes and zucchinis are irrigated from both on farms dams and groundwater. • Brunswick catchment supports stone fruit, passionfruit, lycees, coffee, blueberries, and macadamias on the slopes. Similar to the Tweed catchment vegetables are grown on the Cudgen Plateau. • Richmond catchment supports a large horticulture industry (made up of macadamias, avocados, stone fruit, custard apples, nurseries and blueberries) on the frost free well drained krasnozem soils of the Alstonville Plateau and the slopes of the Nightcap Range between Nimbin and Bangalow. This industry has in recent years replaced Dairying. Minimal commercial vegetable production undertaken within this area. • Clarence catchment supports the production of potatoes, horticultural crops and dairies located on the Dorrigo Plateau with some vegetable crops being irrigated in the upper northern arm of the Clarence River between Tabulam and Woodenbong. • Bellinger catchment has little irrigation with most supplies coming from on farms dams. Vegetable production is undertaken in the Nambucca mirco catchment and is irrigated from the river. • Macleay catchment within the eastern section around Yarrahapinni Mountain commercial vegetable production is occurring the main crop being potatoes. • Hastings – Camden Haven catchment supports both dairy and horticulture industries with most farmers extracting river water for irrigation. Use of irrigation There is a lack of data for irrigation within the region. Irrigation appears to be conducted on a small scale and generally during the low flow months of the Spring and early Summer months but can be critical during periods of extended drought. It is during the period of Spring and early Summer that a number of crops have heightened water requirements such as sweet corn, potatoes (spring crop), cabbage. Irrigation is generally by spraylines, solid set and drip with around 80% watered by travelling irrigators whilst the remainder was irrigated by moveable spray systems.105 Groundwater The region has approximately 33,120,000 ML of groundwater, most of which occurs in fractured or porous rocks of which only 2% in 1980 was considered usable and of this only 17% was being used for irrigation. In 1993/94 ABS estimated that the total area irrigated from groundwater sources was 1,336ha. More recent data is unavailable.

104 IBID, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – New South Wales, page 52

105 ABARE 1998

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Soil types North Coast geology comprises five key elements, these being: • Unconsolidated sediments of Quaternary age extensively developed along the coastal plain as well as along rivers and streams of the region. These sediments continue to be important sources of sand and gravel, and historically were also important as sources of heavy mineral sands • Volcanic rocks (mainly basalt), localised intrusive rocks and minor gravels of Tertiary age commonly prominent as eroded remnants of lava piles capped by rich red-brown soils (e.g., Alstonville Plateau, Dorrigo Plateau) or as intrusive complexes (e.g., Mt Warning). These rocks continue to be important sources of crushed and broken stone (armour stone and aggregates) and historically were also sources of diatomite, perlite, opal, and silica gem materials • Sedimentary and sparse associated volcanic rocks of Triassic-Jurassic age forming the Clarence-Moreton Basin and associated infrabasins which occur at the surface or at depth in most of the region north of the latitude of Woolgoolga. These rocks continue to be sources of structural clays, historically were local sources of coal, and are currently being explored for petroleum (including coal seam methane). Certain sandstones and secondary ironstone cappings are current or historic sources of construction materials • Sedimentary rocks of Early Triassic age forming the Lorne Basin along the southern margin of Hastings Shire plus associated volcanic rocks and granites of Late Triassic age. The granites and volcanic rocks have been quarried or prospected as sources of armour stone or coarse aggregate and decorative aggregate is currently being produced • Metasedimentary (weakly to moderately metamorphosed, mainly marine sedimentary rocks) lesser metamorphic rocks, metavolcanic rocks, granites and ultramafic (high-Mg, mantle derived) rocks of mainly Palaeozoic age forming the New England Fold Belt which occur at the surface or at depth throughout the North Coast region

Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 72 - The main vegetable crops grown within the North Coast region compared with the State NSW Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 23.41 2.9 15.4 1.0 Asparagus 70.3 49.4 4.1 0.8 Beans - Butter 52.95 19.5 35.1 8.4 Beans -French & Runner 100.35 52.6 58.4 30.5 Broccoli 4874.5 839.0 283.1 111.2 Cabbages 15547.7 452.1 1,547.5 77.8 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 59.5 3.9 Carrots 14893.0 370.4 375.1 32.2 Cauliflower 10284.9 492.7 922.8 71.9 Celery 211.15 14.0 58.2 4.2

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Cucumbers 3397.9 70.6 1,035.3 20.0 Eggplant 1074.97 67.3 53.2 3.2 Garlic 148.87 27.9 49.3 9.3 Leeks 195.97 25.8 76.9 10.3 Lettuce 23826.9 1020.4 2230.8 84.5 Mushrooms 16823.75 54.8 1,244.4 3.8 Onions - White & Brown 15066.3 493.0 1.0 0.2 Peas 99.14 61.1 42.3 46.3 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 18,014.7 903.3 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 13,581.0 786.8 Radish 1001.9 85.3 154.9 5.3 Silver beet / Spinach 2339.75 265.5 146.1 24.9 Snow peas / Sugar snaps 6.6 7.0 4.2 6.0 Swedes & Turnips 715.8 50.5 3.5 0.2 Sweet corn 12853.3 788.1 56.3 19.9 Sweet potato 5876.7 257.1 5,876.7 233.9 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 3,699.6 82.1 Zucchini & Button Squash 2225.25 261.7 741.7 112.6 Total Area Sown 15997.5 3,055.9 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2 50,370.90 NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 do not provide separate statistics for the North Coast region as defined above instead the statistics collected relating to the Northern Rivers region have been used.

Sydney Basin Region There is a significant industry within the Sydney Basin producing for the fresh market characterised by small vegetable growing enterprises with an average holding of less than 30ha. In 2001 the Sydney Basin produced over 9,200 tonnes valued at AUD12 million (ABS, 2001). This industry is currently under threat due to urban expansion in the southern and north-western areas of Sydney with the number of farms decreasing to approximately 1,050 and covering an area of 2,025ha106 (see map on page 137) as against the 5,000ha recorded by the ABS in 2003. Water is accessed within the region from surface water, town water or on-farm storages. Due to the close proximity to Sydney markets growers incur very low freight costs compared to other regions of NSW. According to a NSW government report in 1998 it was estimated that the Sydney basin produced 17% of the State’s vegetables and 90% of the State’s perishable vegetables that is leafy green vegetables. Vegetable enterprises with the Sydney Basin are mostly concentrated around the outer western and south-western suburbs of Liverpool, Penrith, Blacktown, Hawkesbury, Baulkham, and Fairfield.

106 Peter Malcolm and Riad Fahd, NSW Department of Industry and Investment, cited by Debra Jopson, 12 October 2009

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Climate The Sydney Basin is dominated by a temperate climate characterised by warm summers with no dry season. A sub-humid climate occurs across significant areas in the northeast of the region. A small area in the west around the Blue Mountains falls into a montane climate zone. Snow can occasionally occur in this area of higher elevation. Rainfall can occur throughout the year, but varies across the bioregion in relation to altitude and distance from the coast, with wetter areas being closer to the coast or in higher altitudes. Temperature varies across the bioregion, with areas of higher temperature occurring along the coast and in the Hunter valley and areas of lower temperature on the higher plateaux and western edge. Water supply The vegetable industry of the Sydney Basin is dependent for its success upon the Hawkesbury and Nepean catchment area which covers 22,000 kms. Irrigation is regard as supplementary for much of the district with growers as previously mentioned accessing water direct from the river systems, Sydney town water or on-farm storage. Use of irrigation Most irrigated enterprises occur mainly in the Hawkesbury-Nepean sub-region of the Sydney Basin and rely upon water sourced from unregulated rivers and farm dams with irrigation generally being required during the spring and summer months when rainfall is insufficient to meet crop demand. Groundwater There has been general knowledge and small scale extraction of groundwater resources across the Sydney Basin for many years and to date there are approximately 5,500 private bores in existance. However no detailed investigations have ever been undertaken into the potential of deep aquifer systems to provide a sustainable water supply for large-scale purposes such as a water supply in severe drought for Sydney, the Blue Mountains and the Illawarra. Seventeen groundwater systems and 29 potential borefield sites have been identified and of these, seven priority borefield sites have been recommended for detailed feasibility studies. All these priority sites are in the sedimentary rocks of the Sydney Basin and extend from the Illawarra in the south, to the Southern Highlands area in the southwest, and Megalong Valley in the west. Soil types The Sydney Basin lies on the east coast and covers a large part of the catchments of the Hawkesbury- Nepean, Hunter and Shoalhaven river systems. It consists of a geological basin filled with near horizontal sandstones and shales of Permian to Triassic age that overlie older basement rocks of the Lachlan Fold Belt. The sedimentary rocks have been subject to uplift with gentle folding and minor faulting during the formation of the Great Dividing Range. Erosion by coastal streams has created a landscape of deep cliffed gorges and remnant plateaus across which an east-west rainfall gradient and differences in soil control the vegetation of eucalypt forests, woodlands and heaths. The considerable range of rock types, topography and climates in the Sydney Basin has resulted in a large variety of soils and vegetation communities. The coastal area of the region consists of frontal dunes. Dunes behind this accumulate organic matter and begin to develop coloured subsoil. The oldest dunes on the inland side of the barrier and the parabolic dunes high in the landscape, even on headlands, have well-developed podsol profiles. Limited areas of rainforest can be found in the lower Hunter, Illawarra escarpment and on Robertson basalts, as well as in the protected gorges and on richer soil in most subregions. Species composition and structural form are similar on sandy soils of the sandstone plateaus and the sandy soils of the dunes. Better quality shale soils form caps on sandstone and on the coastal ramps.

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Map 5. - Sydney Basin showing location of commercial vegetable farms Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 73. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Sydney Basin region compared with the State NSW Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Artichokes 23.41 2.9 8.0 1.5 Beans -French & Runner 100.35 52.6 37.6 17.9 Beetroot 2742.7 153.7 1,216.7 87.6 Broccoli 4874.5 839.0 271.6 63.8 Cabbages 15547.7 452.1 9,644.8 309.3 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 828.9 60.1 Carrots 14893.0 370.4 2,098.9 68.4 Cauliflower 10284.9 492.7 2,852.3 228.3 Chilli 55.29 11.5 53.0 10.3 Celery 211.15 14.0 153.0 9.8 Cucumbers 3397.9 70.6 2,143.7 41.2 Eggplant 1074.97 67.3 670.8 49.8 Garlic 148.87 27.9 7.9 3.5 Leeks 195.97 25.8 116.5 15.0 Lettuce 23826.9 1020.4 9,163.9 583.2 Mushrooms 16823.75 54.8 14,321.5 46.3 Onions - White & Brown 15066.3 493.0 156.5 10.1

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Peas 99.14 61.1 55 13.3 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 18,790.4 724.7 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 1028.4 74.3 Radish 1001.9 85.3 845.4 78.9 Silver beet / Spinach 2339.75 265.5 2,158.9 231.9 Spring onions / Shallots 581.2 59.1 484.1 50.1 Swedes & Turnips 715.8 50.5 77.0 5.0 Sweet corn 12853.3 788.1 2,537.4 227.6 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 5,470.6 149.7 Zucchini & Button Squash 2225.25 261.7 1,124.8 111.7 Total Area Sown 15997.5 4,214.7 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2 76317.5

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 do not provide separate statistics for the Sydney Basin region instead the statistics collected relating to the Sydney Metropolitan and Hawkesbury Nepean regions have been used.

Murrumbidgee Region The Murrumbidgee region is predominately dependent upon irrigation through either the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area or the Coleambally Irrigation Area and is responsible for providing 25% of the state’s fruit and vegetable production.107 Vegetable production was valued at A$60M in 2000. The region is home to approximately 520,000 people, covers an area of about 84,000 square kilometres and includes the cities of Canberra, Wagga Wagga, Queanbeyan, Tumut, Junee, Leeton, Griffith and Hay. The Murrumbidgee River with its major tributaries of the Tumut River, Yass River, Tarcutta Creek, Jugiong Creek, Goodradigbee River, Goobarragandra River and Old Man Creek stretches for 1,600 kms and has an average flow rate of 4.4 million ML per annum. The Murrumbidgee catchment area has undergone considerable modification through damming and stream regulation. The Murrumbidgee and its tributaries now have 14 major dams including the Burrinjuck Dam near Yass with a capacity of 1.026 million ML and the Blowering Dam near Tumut with a capacity of 1.628 million ML, together with 8 large weirs, and more than 10,000 kms of irrigation channels. Climate This region is dry to semi arid complemented by pockets of sub-humid on the south-eastern boundary of the region and in the south characterised by virtually no dry season and a hot summer. The mean annual temperature is 13°C to 29°C at Tumut and 14ºC to 33ºC at Leeton, with an average annual rainfall of 260mm (Hay) to 907mm (Tumut). Water supply As previously stated the Murrumbidgee catchment services such areas as Wagga Wagga, Hay, Tumut, Gundagai, Junee, Leeton, Griffith and Yass principally through irrigation via 10,000 kms of irrigation channels and covers an area of 84,000 square kms. The region now has 14 major dams including the Burrinjuck Dam near Yass with a capacity of 1.026 million ML and the Blowering Dam near Tumut with a capacity of 1.628 million ML, together with 8 large weirs.

107 IBID, Maximising returns from water in the Australian vegetable industry – New South Wales, page 51

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A recent CSIRO report (part of a series on the Murray Darling Basin) Water availability in the Murrumbidgee found that surface water within the Murrumbidgee region would drop by an average of 30% if the climatic conditions experienced in the period 1997 to 2006 continued with water diversions dropping 18% and ‘end of system’ flows would decrease by 46%. However the CSIRO in its report went on to advise that its best estimate for climate change by 2030 in the region was a prediction of reduced surface flows of on average 9%, reduction in diversions of 2% and a 17% reduction in ‘end of system’ flows. Use of irrigation Since 1999 the irrigation scheme has moved from Government ownership to a public company Murrumbidgee Irrigation which is a retailer of water purchasing water from the NSW State Water and then on-selling to farms and residential clients. The company’s role includes water management and pricing, infrastructure maintenance and development as well as environmental stewardship. Regulation of the Murrumbidgee River through the construction of Dams (14) and Weirs (8) has allowed irrigation to thrive within the catchment area with water being stored during the winter months in either the Burrinjuck or Blowering Dams then released to supply irrigation needs of farms downstream during the summer months. Buurinjuck Dam receives its inflow from the upper catchment while the Blowering Dam receives its inflow from the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme. Farms requiring irrigation are mostly concentrated on the riverine plains managed by the Murrumbidgee Irrigation (MI) and Coleambally Irrigation Co-operative Limited (CICL) which were developed by the NSW Government to foster regional growth through irrigation in inland NSW brought about by the use of massive diversion weirs and supply and drainage canals. In addition to those farms linked to the irrigation scheme there are a number of farms which draw water directly from the Murrumbidgee River as well as the extraction of groundwater especially around Darlington Point region just to the south of the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. These farms however are at a disadvantage in that during periods of peak demand (such as the summer months) river levels and flow rates are lowest. Very few farms rely upon town water for irrigation and those which do are mostly located around Wagga Wagga.

Groundwater The groundwater in the Murrumbidgee region in general is highly saline and is not suitable for agriculture. It used to be around 20 m below surface before irrigated agriculture came into practice and largely because of these practices, the groundwater tables in many locations are now close to the surface. Currently, the highest watertables are less than 1m from the surface near Murrami, Widgelli/Bilbul, and south and west of Hanwood. In areas towards Gogeldrie Weir and near Willbriggie, the groundwater tends to be around 1-2 m from the surface, whereas in areas towards Koonadan, the groundwater tends to be deeper. Seasonally, groundwater tables tend to be higher in March than in September, except when there is high rainfall in winter. There are currently 377 bores licensed to extract groundwater for stock and domestic needs, and it is estimated that about 2000 ML is extracted annually from these licensed bores. However, it is believed that there are many unlicensed bores that are used for stock and domestic purposes and that the actual usage may be around 4000 ML/yr. Table 74. - Groundwater access licences within the Lower Murrumbidgee Deep Groundwater Source region Licence Category Tenure Total Shares or Volume Aquifer Access perpetual 267,790 shares Local Water Utility perpetual 2,210 ML

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Supplementary Access 10 years 41,196 shares

Soil types Around 20 percent of the region’s soils are self-mulching clay soils and are more suitable for crops such as vegetables, maize, and soybeans. The non-self mulching clays and transitional red brown earths within the region are more suitable for rice. However red-brown earths and some sandy soils are most suitable for horticultural crops. The prior streams comprise sand and gravel deposits. Hill slopes contain colluvial soils. The aeolian clay material which these soils contain makes them permeable with good physical characteristics. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 75. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Murrumbidgee region compared with the State as a whole NSW Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Broccoli 4874.5 839.0 3,458.6 533.0 Cabbages 15547.7 452.1 241.9 4.8 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 51.7 3.3 Carrots 14893.0 370.4 8,147.5 197.7 Garlic 148.87 27.9 40.4 8.6 Lettuce 23826.9 1020.4 9,941.7 275.1 Mushrooms 16823.75 54.8 605.0 2.8 Onions - White & Brown 15066.3 493.0 12,911.7 431.4 Onions - Red 1723.9 40.0 1,243.3 27.5 Parsnips 182.3 10.4 142.2 9.2 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 15,779.5 538.3 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 11,815.5 677.9 Swedes & Turnips 715.8 50.5 24.9 2.5 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 1,167.0 2.2 Total Area Sown 15997.5 3,517.4 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2 65573.90

Riverina (a sub region of the Murrumbidgee) The Riverina region of NSW combines areas previously referred to in the Murrumbidgee and Murray regions above and includes the townships of Corowa, Deniliquin, Griffith, Hay, Hillston, Narrandera, and Tocumwal. There is approximately 7,400ha of vegetables produced each year from about 100 growers. NOTE: The Riverina has been included due to the depth of statistics made available by Tony Napier, District Horticulturist (Vegetables) NSW Department of Primary Industries based at Yanco. Table 76. - Vegetables grown within the Riverina sub-region during 2009/10 Broccoli Sown Mid February to End July Harvested End April to Mid October

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Maturity 10 to 13 weeks (70 to 90 days) as a transplant 13 to 16 weeks (60 to 110 days) direct seeded Water requirements 4 ML per ha (furrow) Average yield 5.5 to 7 tonnes per ha (800 ctns at 8kgs per ctns) Average price $15.00 per ctns Ha in Riverina 50 ha at Hay Carrot Sown Can be sown or harvested year round Harvested No packing scheduled for November to December around Griffith Maturity 16 to 24 weeks Water requirements 5 ML per ha for furrow and 4 ML for pivot for direct seeding Average yield 60 tonne per ha at $140 tonne for processing 40 tonne per ha for fresh Average price 1500 bags per ha (20kg bag) at $7.00 per bag Ha in Riverina 280 ha (majority juice)

Garlic Sown Early March to late April Harvested Late November to end of December Maturity 32 to 35 weeks (8 to 9 Mths) Water requirements 5 ML per ha for furrow Average yield 6 to 8 tonne per ha average although 10 tonne per ha is achievable Average price $3 per kg for larger cloves to $2 per kg for smaller cloves. Smaller processing cloves are approximately $0.60 per kg. Ha in Riverina 20 ha with a few small growers around Hay and Griffith

Gherkin Sown Early October to end of February Harvested Mid December to end of April Maturity 56 to 70 day crop (8 to 10 weeks) Water requirements 2.5 ML per ha on drip Average yield 10 tonne per ha average with 13 tonne as top yield Average price $480 per tonne received from processor Ha in Riverina 300 ha

Lettuce Sown Last week of January to August (Iceberg) Harvested Beginning of April to 1st week in November Maturity 10 to 16 weeks Water requirements 2 to 3 ML per ha for furrow Average yield 2500 ctns per ha

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Average price $12 per ctn Ha in Riverina 370 ha (all around the Hay area)

Onion Sown Early May to late July Harvested Mid November to early February (95% finished by 7th February) Maturity 25 to 30 weeks (7 to 8 Mths)

Water requirements 4 to 5 ML per ha for furrow Average yield 40 tonne per ha (80 tonne possible in good year) 1800 bags per ha Average price Approximately $11 per bag at the markets Ha in Riverina 500 ha (420 ha at Griffith, 50 ha at Jerilderie and 30 ha at Hay

Potato Sown Late July to early August (Summer Harvested Commences late November majority harvested by late Crop) December Maturity 4 months (120 to 130 days) Water requirements 4 ML per ha from pivots Average yield 33 tonne per ha ( about 8 tonne per ha kept as seed for winter crop) Average price $280 per tonne for processing and $380 per tonne for fresh market Ha in Riverina 1500 ha

Potato Sown Mid February to Mid march (Winter Crop) Harvested Commences in Mid June with majority harvested by end of September. Harvest continues until end of November. Maturity 3.5 to 4 mths (100 to 120 days) Water requirements 4 ML per ha from pivots Average yield 25 tonne per ha (shorter growing season reduces yield) Average price $280 per tonne for processing and $380 per tonne for fresh market Ha in Riverina 1000 ha

Potato Total area 2500 ha (60% Summer and 40% Winter crop) (Total) Break up of crop 50% processing and 50% for fresh market

Pumpkin Sown Mid October to end of November

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Harvested Mid January (mid February for Japs) to late April Maturity Japs 20 weeks Jarrahdale’s 18 weeks Butternuts 17 weeks Water requirements 6 to 8 ML per ha for furrow Average yield Japs and Butternuts – 20 to 30 tonnes per ha (1200 to 1800 ctns at 17 kg per ctn) Jarrahdale’s and Grey – 25 to 35 tonnes per ha (60 to 85 Octabins at 400kg each) Average price Packers pay approximately $150 per tonne ($60 per bin or $0.15 per kg) in an oversupplied market Packers pay approximately $600 per tonne ($240 per bin or $0.60 per kg) in an undersupplied market An average price is approximately $350 per tonne or $0.35 per kg $0.12 to $0.15 per kg can sometimes be found for stockfeed and by processors Ha in Riverina Approximately 1250 ha (majority for fresh market with some for processing)

Sweet Corn Sown Mid September to end of January (Processing) Harvested Late December to end of April Maturity 3 mths (85 to 100 days) Water requirements 7 to 8 ML per ha for flood and 5 to 6 ML per ha for overhead pivot Average yield 17 tonne per ha with 24 tonne per ha possible Average price $171 per tonne ($159 plus quality bonus) Ha in Riverina 250 ha

Tomato Sown Early September to mid November (mid December in Victoria) (Processing) Harvested Mid January to mid April (can go as late as mid May in Victoria) Maturity 4 to 4.5 mths (125 to 130 days) for direct seeded (can be up to 140 days) 4 mths (120 days) for transplants (about 2 weeks shorter than direct seeding) Water requirements 8 ML per ha on furrow and 6 ML per ha on drip Average yield 70 tonne per ha with 150 tonne per ha possible 60 tonne per ha on furrow and 80 tonne per ha on drip Average price $115 per tonne $2 increase per tonne for every 0.1% increase in brix

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Ha in Riverina 900 ha

The following Tables show the estimated vegetable production for different sub-regions of the Riverina .for the period 2009/10 Table 76(a) – Estimate of vegetable production at Hay for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 80 800 ctns 64000 ctns 15.00 960.00 Carrots 1500 bags 0 bags 12.00 0.00 Garlic 10 700 ctns 7000 ctns 23.00 161.00 Gherkin 0.00 Lettuce 320 2200 ctns 704000 ctns 12.00 8448.00 Onion 30 1800 ctns 54000 ctns 11.00 594.00 Parsnip 1250 ctns 0 ctns 12.00 0.00 Potato 30 tonnes 0 tonnes 380.00 0.00 Pumpkin 100 30 tonnes 3000 tonnes 350.00 1050.00 Sweet Corn 200 Tomato Other Total 740 ha 11213.00

Table 76(b) – Estimate of vegetable production at Hay for the period 2009/10 (Processed) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 0 0.00 Carrots 60 tonnes 0 tonnes 190.00 0.00 Garlic Gherkin 8 tonnes 0 tonnes 480.00 0.00 Lettuce 40 24 tonnes 960 tonnes 1000.00 960.00 Onion Parsnip Potato 35 tonnes 0 tonnes 280.00 0.00 Pumpkin 30 tonnes 0 tonnes 350.00 0.00 Sweet Corn 17 tonnes 0 tonnes 171.00 0.00 Tomato 70 tonnes 0 tonnes 115.00 0.00 Other Total 40 ha 960.00

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Table 76(c) – Types of Production Type ha Tonnes Million $ per ha % of total % of total % of ha Tonnes total $ $ Fresh 740 20310 15 20801.00 95 95 94 Processing 40 960 1 24000.00 5 5 6 Total 780 21270 16 20965 NOTE: Irrigation for the Hay district is sourced from the Murrumbidgee River. Table 76(d) – Estimate of vegetable production in Southern Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 800 ctns 0 ctns 15.00 0.00 Carrots 1500 bags 0 bags 12.00 0.00 Garlic 700 ctns 0 ctns 23.00 0.00 Gherkin 0.00 Lettuce 2200 ctns 0 ctns 12.00 0.00 Onion 50 1800 ctns 90000 ctns 11.00 990.00 Parsnip 1250 ctns 0 ctns 12.00 0.00 Potato 80 30 tonnes 2400 tonnes 380.00 912.00 Pumpkin 100 30 tonnes 3000 tonnes 350.00 1050.00 Sweet Corn Tomato Other Total 230 ha 2952.00

Table 76(e) – Estimate of vegetable production in Southern Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Processed) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 0 ctns 0.00 Carrots 60 tonnes 0 tonnes 190.00 0.00 Garlic Gherkin 8 tonnes 0 tonnes 480.00 0.00 Lettuce 24 tonnes 0 tonnes 1000.00 0.00 Onion Parsnip Potato 770 35 tonnes 26950 tonnes 280.00 7546.00

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Pumpkin 30 tonnes 0 tonnes 350.00 0.00 Sweet Corn 17 tonnes 0 tonnes 171.00 0.00 Tomato 500 70 tonnes 35000 tonnes 115.00 4025.00 Other Total 1270 ha 11571.00

Table 76(f) – Types of Production Type ha Tonnes Million $ per ha % of total % of total % of ha Tonnes total $ $ Fresh 230 7200 3 12835.00 15 10 20 Processing 1270 61950 12 9111.00 85 90 80 Total 1500 69150 15 9682.00 NOTE: The Southern Riverina includes the districts around Jerilderie, Berrigan and Finley with irrigation being sourced from either the Murray River or Bores. Table 76(g) – Estimate of vegetable production in Central Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 800 ctns 0 ctns 15.00 0.00 Carrots 80 1500 bags 120000 bags 12.00 1440.00 Garlic 10 700 ctns 7000 ctns 23.00 161.00 Gherkin 0.00 Lettuce 2200 ctns 0 ctns 12.00 0.00 Onion 420 1800 ctns 756000 ctns 11.00 8316.00 Parsnip 20 1250 ctns 25000 ctns 12.00 300.00 Potato 270 30 tonnes 8100 tonnes 380.00 3078.00 Pumpkin 400 30 tonnes 12000 tonnes 350.00 4200.00 Sweet Corn Tomato Other Total 1200 17495.00

Table 76(h) – Estimate of vegetable production in Central Riverina for the period 2009/10 (Processed) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 0 ctns 0.00

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Carrots 200 60 tonnes 12000 tonnes 190.00 2280.00 Garlic Gherkin 300 8 tonnes 2400 tonnes 480.00 1152.00 Lettuce 24 tonnes 0 tonnes 1000.00 0.00 Onion Parsnip Potato 380 35 tonnes 13300 tonnes 280.00 3724.00 Pumpkin 200 30 tonnes 6000 tonnes 350.00 2100.00 Sweet Corn 17 tonnes 0 tonnes 171.00 0.00 Tomato 400 70 tonnes 28000 tonnes 115.00 3220.00 Other Total 1480 12476.00

Table 76(i) – Types of Production Type ha Tonnes Million $ per ha % of total % of total % of ha Tonnes total $ $ Fresh 1750 55690 29 16514.00 54 47 70 Processing 1480 61700 12 8430.00 46 53 30 Total 3230 117390 41 12810.00 NOTE: Central Riverina includes the districts around Griffith, Leeton, and Narrandera with irrigation sourced from either the Murrumbidgee River or Bores. Table 76(j) – Estimate of vegetable production at Hillston for the period 2009/10 (Fresh) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 800 ctns 0 ctns 15.00 0.00 Carrots 1500 bags 0 bags 12.00 0.00 Garlic 700 ctns 0 ctns 23.00 0.00 Gherkin 0.00 Lettuce 2200 ctns 0 ctns 12.00 0.00 Onion 1800 ctns 0 ctns 11.00 0.00 Parsnip 1250 ctns 0 ctns 12.00 0.00 Potato 880 30 tonnes 26400 tonnes 380.00 10032.00 Pumpkin 350 30 tonnes 10500 tonnes 350.00 3675.00 Sweet Corn Tomato Other Total 1230 13707.00

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Table 76(k) – Estimate of vegetable production at Hillston for the period 2009/10 (Processed) Crop Area (ha) Average yield per ha Total yield Average farm Total farm gate price gate value ($) ($ ‘000) Broccoli 0 ctns 0.00 Carrots 60 tonnes 0 tonnes 190.00 0.00 Garlic Gherkin 8 tonnes 0 tonnes 480.00 0.00 Lettuce 24 tonnes 0 tonnes 1000.00 0.00 Onion Parsnip Potato 150 35 tonnes 5250 tonnes 280.00 1470.00 Pumpkin 100 30 tonnes 3000 tonnes 350.00 1050.00 Sweet Corn 17 tonnes 0 tonnes 171.00 0.00 Tomato 70 tonnes 0 tonnes 115.00 0.00 Other Total 250 2520.00 Table 76 (l) – Types of Production Type Ha Tonnes Million $ per ha % of total % of total % of ha Tonnes total $ $ Fresh 1380 42600 17 12126 73 77 84 Processing 500 12500 3 6494 27 23 16 Total 1880 55100 20 10628 NOTE: Irrigation is mainly sourced from either Bores or the Lachlan River.

Murray Region The Murray Region of NSW, part of the Murray–Darling Basin covers 78,869 square kilometres and extends along 1400 kilometres of the Murray River, the border between NSW and Victoria. The river is a key to the region’s history and identity, supporting important ecosystems, distinctive inland settlements and a growing tourism industry. The region however is under pressure from influences such as climate change and structural changes to water use and agriculture. Climate This region is predominately dry to semi arid characterised by hot summers and cool winters. Highest rainfall occurs in May and September. Annual rainfall tends to increase from west to east and from north to south within the region although rainfall is unpredictable toward the northwest of the region, and drought periods are not unusual. Water supply Predominately sourced from the Murray River catchment area with some sourced from the Murrumbidgee River to the north. Both groundwater and surface water are used within the region with the majority of licensed surface water users receiving their water direct from the Murray River. Murray Irrigation provides irrigation water and drainage services to over 2,400 farms owned by more than 1,200 farm businesses through a gravity fed channel system which covers an area of 748,000 ha.

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Water costs is about 50% fixed based on the number of delivery entitlements a shareholder has and 50% variable based upon the actual ML used. The annual water charge in the period 2007/08 had a fixed cost of $12.64 per delivery entitlement held plus a variable cost of $13.70 per ML of water used. Use of irrigation Currently eight hundred horticulturists within the region irrigate approximately 12,600 ha predominately for grape vine and citrus production. Recent upgrades to irrigation infrastructure, both on and off the farm has resulted in 30% to 60% savings in the three irrigation districts which divert water from the Murray and Darling Rivers onto irrigated farms. On the farm the use of surface irrigation methods including flooding and furrow irrigation have been more than halved and the use of drip irrigation has tripled. The gains in infrastructure have also included the upgrade to a pressurised or semi pressurised pipeline system in all major irrigation districts within the Murray region which has resulted in a reduction in the amount of water loss through distribution channel seepage, evaporation and from water escaping from the concrete or earthen channels. Groundwater Groundwater within the region has variable quality with salinity and waterlogging problems associated with the rising groundwater table due to seepage of excess irrigation water soaking deep down into the soil. Soil types The soil is unique to the Murray River system and is known technically as calcareous earth, ranging from brown to red-brown loamy sand, sandy loam or loam. The surface is neutral to moderately alkaline with increasing alkalinity at depth as textures become more clayey and calcareous. The surface soils are permeable, although perched water tables (attributable in part to soil properties and topography resulting from management practices associated with salinity build-up) can create problems in some areas. Overall, however, the soil supports the vigorous growth and high grape yields required. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 77. - The main vegetable crops grown within the Murray region compared with the State NSW Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Asparagus 70.3 49.4 66.1 48.6 Beans - Butter 52.95 19.5 17.8 11.0 Beetroot 2742.7 153.7 114.3 9.0 Cabbages 15547.7 452.1 21.6 6.5 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 140.7 5.5 Carrots 14893.0 370.4 34.2 6.7 Cauliflower 10284.9 492.7 11.3 5.6 Chilli 55.29 11.5 1.1 0.6 Cucumbers 3397.9 70.6 191.5 6.9 Eggplant 1074.97 67.3 348.5 13.9 Garlic 148.87 27.9 4.5 5.0 Leeks 195.97 25.8 2.3 0.6 Onions - White & Brown 15066.3 493.0 1,968.1 49.2 Onions - Red 1723.9 40.0 480.6 12.5

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Parsnips 182.3 10.4 40.0 1.1 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 15,767.4 569.2 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 862.6 53.3 Radish 1001.9 85.3 1.7 1.1 Silver beet / Spinach 2339.75 265.5 21.3 7.2 Snow peas / Sugar snaps 6.6 7.0 1.7 0.8 Spring onions / Shallots 581.2 59.1 95.6 8.9 Swedes & Turnips 715.8 50.5 24.0 2.2 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 36,353.9 660.2 Zucchini & Button Squash 2225.25 261.7 264.3 20.6 Total Area Sown 15997.5 1,542.9 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2 56835.0

NOTE: The Australian Bureau of Statistics in their Agricultural Commodities, Australia 2007/08 series 7121 do not provide separate statistics for the Murray region instead the statistics collected relating to the Murray and Lower Murray regions as a whole have been used.

Southern Rivers Region The Southern Rivers region of NSW covers an area of 29,000 square kms from Stanwell Park in the North to the Victorian border in the south and bounded by the Great Dividing Range to the west. The region has a population of approximately 400,000 which doubles during the summer months due to tourism to the area. More than a third of the region is crown land including 1.1 million ha of national park and 415,623 ha of State forest, and includes the major river systems of the Shoalhaven, Snowy and Genoa. Natural assets of the region are grazing, dairy farming, forestry, horticulture, commercial fishing and tourism. Major vegetable crops which can be grown commercially in this region Table 78.- The main vegetable crops grown within the Southern Rivers region compared with the State NSW Prod Area Sown Regional Prod Area Sown (Tonnes) (ha) (Tonnes) (ha) Beans -French & Runner 100.35 52.6 1.50 0.80 Broccoli 4874.5 839.0 42.21 7.00 Capsicum 1084.75 73.6 1.70 0.20 Cucumbers 3397.9 70.6 23.89 2.10 Eggplant 1074.97 67.3 2.28 0.20 Garlic 148.87 27.9 6.30 1.40 Lettuce 23826.9 1020.4 2.30 0.10 Peas 99.14 61.1 1.57 1.60 Potatoes 104447.5 4070.4 7047.60 212.60 Pumpkins 40718.4 2057.2 2.30 0.10 Silver beet / Spinach 2339.75 265.5 1.90 0.20

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Swedes & Turnips 715.8 50.5 586.30 40.50 Tomatoes 46847.7 903.4 9.00 0.50 Zucchini & Button Squash 2225.25 261.7 34.75 10.70 Total Area Sown 15997.5 278.10 Total Production (Tonnes) 330095.2 7764.73

Climate The region experiences relatively mild summers with an average temperature of between 24ºC - 28ºC whilst winters are cool to mild with an average July temperature across the region of between 16ºC - 17ºC. Temperatures rarely fall below 0ºC however the alpine sector of the region does experience significantly lower temperatures with the average January and July temperatures of 21º and 5ºC respectively recorded at Thredbo. Rainfall within the region varies with the coastal strip receiving between 850mm and 975mm annual whilst the alpine sector receives on average twice that amount. Peak rainfall occurs between the months of January and March along the coastal strip and during the winter months for the alpine sector. Water supply The region has many river systems including the Minamurra, Kangaroo, Shoalhaven, Clyde, Deua, Tuross, Brogo, Bega, Bemboka, Towamba, Genoa and Snowy. Use of irrigation Irrigation plays an important role in the horticultural industry within the region predominately in the stone fruit sector. There is limited vegetable production within the region other than potatoes which are grown at Robertson.

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AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY Located approximately 150 kms inland Canberra is the largest inland city in Australia and while Canberra supports a diversity of businesses it is essentially home to Australia’s public service as well as being the focal point for politics and international relationships and therefore not a horticultural centre. This is not to say that there was never a horticultural industry base within the region indeed there once was a very thriving commercial vegetable growing industry within the region able to supply not only the ACT., but also neighbouring townships in New South Wales. Now there is none. The last commercial vegetable producers closed down operations in 1987. The demise of this industry was not due to some natural disaster such as flood, or to an invasion of some blight or disease but to an overall general decline in the industry over a number of years brought about by increased labour costs, introduction of water restrictions (water was sourced from the Molonglo River) imposed by government and rent for the land being increased 108 due to urban encroachment.

108 Max Hill, Commercial Vegetable Growing in the ACT

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MURRAY DARLING RIVER BASIN REGION The Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) is an unique region of Australia primarily because it contains the majority of Australia’s irrigated agricultural land (65% in 2005/06), covers approximately 1,061,469 kms (14%of the total area of Australia) and contains over 40% of all Australian farms which produce wool, cotton, wheat, sheep, cattle, dairy produce, rice, oil-seed, wine, fruit and vegetables for both the domestic and overseas markets. One of the reasons for the proliferation of irrigated crops and pasture in the MDB is its water storage and delivery infrastructure, enabling water to be captured and transported to farms from the three major river systems (Murray, Darling and Murrumbidgee Rivers). The Darling River and its tributaries component (2,740kms) drains southern Queensland and Northern New South Wales crosses the Darling Plains and then joins the Murray River upstream from the township of Wentworth. The Murrumbidgee River and its tributaries component (1,575kms) rises in the Fiery Range of the Snowy Mountains area of the Kosciusko National Park and is joined by the Tumut River (its largest tributary) at Gundagai before crossing the alluvial flats near Narrandera before joining firstly the Lachlan River and then the Murray River. The Murray River together with its tributaries (2,530kms) drain water from inland areas of southern New South Wales and northern Victoria before flowing through South Australia to the Southern Ocean. The MDB’s massive area covers 1/6th of Queensland, ¾ of New South Wales, all of the Australian Capital Territory, 2/3rds of Victoria, and 1/10th of South Australia. In addition nearly 2 million people or 1/9th of Australia’s total population live, work within, or depend upon the MDB for their water supply.109More irrigated farms within the MDB are located in Victoria compared with each of the other States (see Table 81 below 110) but it would appear that this concentration of irrigators would indicate that the average size holding is smaller in the Victorian portion of the Basin compared with New South Wales. Table 79. – Location of irrigated farming enterprises within the Murray Darling River Basin (MDB) region Region Irrigated Non-Irrigated Total Agriculture Area % of Australia’s Area (ha) % of Australia’s Area (ha) irrigated land non-irrigated land ‘000 ‘000 ‘000 Murray Darling NSW 914 36 50,300 12 51,214 Vic 522 20 7,071 2 7,593 Qld 147 6 23,275 5 23,421 SA 71 3 6,484 1 6,555 ACT - - 45 - 45 Total 1,654 65 87,174 20 88,828 Balance of Australia NSW 80 3 10,825 3 10,906 Vic 126 5 4,595 1 4,721 Qld 393 15 121,706 28 122,098

109 ABS, Census 2006 110 ABS, Water and the Murray Darling Basin – A Statistical Profile, Series 4610.0.55.007 (2000/01 to 2005/06), Page 105

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SA 145 6 48,708 11 48,854 WA 60 2 98,592 23 98,653 Tas 81 3 1,658 - 1,739 NT 7 - 59,120 14 59,127 Total 893 35 345,205 80 346,097 Australia Total 2,546 100 432,378 100 434,925

In the period 2004/05 according to statistics released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics111 industries (including agriculture) and households within the Basin used more than half of Australia’s total water consumption. In actual fact 83% of all water consumed within the MDB was used for agricultural purposes. Over three-quarters of Australia’s irrigated crops and pastures are grown in the MDB, and as Australia’s most important agricultural region, the MDB produces one-third of the food supply and supports over a third of the total gross value of agricultural production of the country. A large number of different types of vegetables are grown within the MDB primarily for the fresh market in Sydney or Melbourne with a small percentage destined for either canning or other form of processing. The total area under cultivation for vegetables is 36,200ha which is less than 1% of the total area of the MDB, however the revenue (A$480.9M) generated by the industry accounts for 4% of the total agricultural revenue for the MDB. There were approximately 61,033 farms located within the MDB in 2005/06 which amounted to 39% of the total number of farming enterprises in Australia as a whole. Principal vegetables grown within the region include: • Cabbages • Cauliflowers • Pumpkins • Carrots • Onions • Asparagus By far the most important vegetable grown in the MDB are Potatoes, with different varieties being grown for table, freezing and other processing markets. Total area under potato cultivation is 12,200ha or 34% of the total area of the MDB. In 1992 the Commonwealth, State governments and the communities which rely upon the rivers for their continued existence formed an alliance to ‘promote and co-ordinate effective planning and management for the equitable, efficient and sustainable use of the water, land and other environmental resources of the Murray-Darling Basin’.112 This initiative is the largest integrated catchment management program in the world covering the water catchments of both the Murray and Darling rivers, an area approximately one million square kilometres. This agreement recognises the fact that no one government or community can confront the issues of the emerging natural resource management problems own their own or in isolation.

Climate

111 ABS, Water and the Murray Darling Basin – A Statistical Profile, Series 4610.0.55.007 (2000/01 to 2005/06), Page 2 112 Murray-Darling Basin website, www.mdbc.gov.au , initiative overview

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The climate experienced within the Murray Darling River Basin is highly variable given the size of the area covered from the southern borders of Queensland down to the mouth of the Murray River at Coorong South Australia. The MDB spans several different climatic zones: • cool humid eastern uplands • temperate southeast mallee • inland subtropical northern areas • hot, dry arid and semi arid country in the far west

As well as the differences in climate between the zones of the MDB there are large differences in temperature, rainfall and evaporation which also occur within the zones on both a seasonal and annual basis and over a range of several years.

This variability is then reflected in the MDB’s stream flows which have historically been subject to both extreme floods and droughts. The MDB has a highly variable inflow from just over 1,000GL in the driest year (June 2006 to July 2007) to more than 30,000GL in the wettest years.

Water Policy The Murray-Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) is responsible for directing the operation of water storages along the Murray River, in accordance with the water sharing rules of the Murray Darling Basin Agreement 2006. The MDBC collates water storage volume information obtained from the respective basin jurisdictions, summarises and then issues reports based upon this information.

Water Supply The Murray-Darling Basin is Australia’s most important agricultural region with over 41% of the country’s gross value of agricultural production it has been described as being Australia’s agricultural ‘heartland’ or its ‘food basket’. Expansion within the region has come at a price that is the over use of the water resources of the Murray Darling River system. In recent years the debate over the fate of the Murray Darling River system has been at the forefront of environmental, agricultural and political discussion. Although the MDB is one of the largest catchment zones in the world it is also one of the driest with the annual flow being less than that which flows from the Amazon river in a day. Water availability within the MDB is subject to large variations, throughout the year, between years and over longer periods. In the last 100 years, life in the MDB has been transformed by the construction of major water storages on the rivers. The total volume of publicly managed water storage capacity in the MDB’s larger storages (i.e. > 10 GL) is approximately 24,500 GL, and as at August 2008 there was 5,840 GL in active storage or approximately 24% of the total capacity of the storages. Of this approximately 16% was held in the storages along the Darling River and its tributaries which comprises the northern basin whilst the remainder approximately 84% was held in storages located in the southern basin comprising storages situated along the Murray River and its tributaries including the Lower Darling River. These storages have made it possible to store water during wet periods for release as needed during summer months or droughts.

Use of Irrigation Irrigation is the life blood of the Murray-Darling Basin and is responsible for 95% of water usage within the MDB. This has lead to widespread irrigation induced salinity with excess irrigation water seeping into the groundwater and either raising the watertable and thus bringing with it the salt or taking the salt down through the soil into the groundwater systems which then eventually flow into watercourses which feed into the Murray river.

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Irrigation is used on 1.65 million ha of land within the MDB for crops and pasture with vegetables accounting for 2% of land use however in terms of commercial vegetable production in Australia as a whole it accounts for 26% of land dedicated to the production of vegetables. As a result of the amount of water diverted for irrigation only approximately 20% of the Murray river’s natural flow remains to flush the system leaving large area of the MDB salt affected. In recent years it has been realised that the level of water use is unsustainable and is fast impacting upon the health of the river. The Murray Irrigation Limited is the largest privately owned irrigation supply company in Australia based in southern NSW and one of the largest private organisations in the world. It is responsible for managing 10% of the MDB’s consumptive water use an average of 1.2 million ML distributed to an area of 748,000 ha. Murray Irrigation Limited is owned by the irrigators it supplies and provides irrigation water and drainage services to 2,400 properties managed by 1,200 family farm businesses in addition to providing water supplied to four townships in the region. In September 2008 the Commonwealth government introduced a Small Block Irrigators Exit Grant designed to assist small block irrigators on farms up to 40ha in particularly horticultural producers within the MDB to leave irrigation whilst remaining on their farms. Irrigators as part of accessing the grant were required to sell all of their permanent entitlements to extract water from a watercourse to the Commonwealth.

Soil Types Until now, the only basin-wide coverage of soils has been the Atlas of Australian Soils (Northcote et al., 1968) which, at a scale of 1:2 000 000, provides a broad overview of the soil resources of the MDB. However, in many areas in the MDB, good soil and land resources information is available at larger scales. Each of the states in the MDB, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, and Victoria, has undertaken soil survey mapping in various forms for many years. CSIRO, through the former Divisions of Soils and Land Use Research, has surveyed soils in many parts of the MDB at various scales. This collection of work, from the early 1930s to the present, was undertaken at different scales using different methodologies by different agencies, but for broadly similar purposes—the improvement of knowledge about soils and their responses to various management techniques in different locations. The Murray-Darling Basin Soil Information Strategy (MDBSIS) project was a collaborative project between CSIRO Land and Water, the Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO) and the National Resources Information Centre (NRIC) of the Dept. of Primary Industries and Energy, with the aim of collating all available soils information within a consistent framework, in a common Geographical Information System (GIS) and database format. For further information on soil types / profiles in the Murray Darling Basin refer to Australian Soil Resource Information Service (ASRIS) website www.asris.csiro.au

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