206 + Susana Narotzky

Woolcock, M. 1998. 'Social Capital and Economic Development: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis and Policy Framework', Theory and Society 27: 151-208. Ybarra, J.A. 1991. 'Industrial Districts and the Valencian Community', International Institute for Labour Studies, Discussion Paper No. 44. Geneva: International Labour Organization. 7 Ybarra, J.-A., et al. 2004. El calzado en el Vinalop6, entre la continuidad y la ruptura. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante. Flexible Capitalism and Zelizer, V.A. 1988. 'Beyond the Polemics on the Market: Establishing a Theoretical and Empirical Agenda', Sociological Forum 3(4): 614-634. Transactional Orders in Colonial and PostcolonialMauritius A Post-Occidentalist View

Patrick Neveling

In the early 1970s, a series of crises struck Western advanced capital­ ist societies. As the number of workers in industrial manufacturing declined, it seemed as if the whole world was changing. Sociologist Daniel Bell's The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (1973) provided a catch-phrase for such sentiments. In Europe, Alain Touraine's The Post-Industrial Society: Tomorrow's Social History (1971) gave voice to a similar mood. Not least in the social sciences, those years would cast a long shadow. To this day, the early 1970s have been regarded as a turning point towards post-Fordism, flexible accumulation and so forth (see Harvey 1990). Nash (1995), however, has long pointed to the spatial and, hence, analytical limitations to the notion of 'post­ industrial society'. Neither Bell nor Touraine took into account that changes in Western core areas had to do with the relocation of indus­ trial manufacturing to other regions. The bigger picture was, indeed, a 'global shift' (Dicken 2003). From an analytical perspective, notions such as 'post-industrial society' thus emerge from what may be seen as a particular and limited conception of change, which is recurrent as Kjaerulff points out (see Introduction, this volume), and which has profoundly shaped recent 'end of work debates' (e.g. Strangleman 2007). Gloomy declarations of the end of a 'golden age' of manufac­ turing and the coming of flexible capitalism forget that only a few decades earlier the same societies had lamented the social disrup­ tions caused by the advent of industrial manufacturing (ibid.: 91). Analytical engagement with capitalism at the scale of the global, the regional or the factory therefore has to consider spatial and temporal 208 Patrick Neveling + Flexible Capitalism and Transactional Orders in Mauritius + 209

coming of a limitations of change. Caution is advised whenever the The chapter, then, extends Garsten's observation (Garsten, this or flexible new era is declared, be this post-industrial, post-Fordist volume) that change is 'an everyday constant' (i? t~e la?our pr?~ess Neveling 2006). capitalism (cf. Baca 2005; at Apple Computer), to the long history of capttahsm m Mauntms. regarding This chapter is an enquiry into anthropology's position This move requires a reconsideration of those conceptual ~ools t~at understanding of a such processes. What can a discipline claiming economic anthropology uses to understand the a~vent ?f mdus~nal end of work, wide range of societies contribute to debates over the manufacturing in a particular location. That reconstder~tton provtd~s the flexibility of capitalism and its impact on social structures across the analytical bracket for the three sections below, and ts grounded m history the globe? To address this question, I focus on the long the following reflections which are expanded on .in the course of the informed of capitalist practice in Mauritius and how this history chapter. The relocation of industrial manufactunng to non-W~s~ern changes in the 1970s, when garment and electronics manufacturing regions has often been portrayed as the advent of c.ommodmz~d scale. was established in an export processing zone (EPZ) on a large exchange relations in places that had so far been dommated by gtft from Western These developments were partly shaped by relocations exchange, barter and, on a different analytical level, by ,what. S~ott and Asian regions, as many companies expanded their business (1976) has identified as a 'moral economy of the peasant . Thts JUX­ small ventures and set up new production sites in Mauritius. This taposition essentializes both 'Western ~ocie~ies' and 'non-Western' EPZs as an Indian Ocean island nation-state was not alone in using societies. The notion of the latter as gtft-dnven and the former as Neveling 2014; see export-oriented development strategy. India (see capital-driven is core to 'Occid~ntalis~' i~ anthropolo~y (cf. ~a~rier (Fernandez­ also Cross, this volume), Malaysia (Ong 1987), Mexico 1992). As I will show, such Occtdentahsm ts also ~atent m the dtstmc­ Kelly 1983 ), South Korea (Kim 1997) and many other nation-states tion between long-term and short-term transactional orders (Bloch a market have done so since the 1970s or earlier. EPZs have become and Parry 1989), when long-term transactional orders becom: syn­ to their ter­ where nation-states bid for manufacturing relocation onymous with pre-capitalist ways for securing 'the ~eproductton of ritories. Central features of this market are investment incentives, the cosmic and social order', and short-term transactiOnal orders are low­ including tax and customs duty holidays, special labour laws, seen as synonymous with capitalism's 'individual competition' .(ibid.: cost factory space, credit portfolios and so on. Such particular 24). In this view, individual competition contradicts the cosmtc and mean that relations of exchange between capital, state and labour social orders of many non-Western societies and therefore needs EPZs are one focal point in global, flexible capitalism (cf. Neveling 'cosmic purification'- as in India, for example, 'where even weal.th forthcoming). acquired through the most devious means by .merch~n~s, ?andtts the departure My concern is thus with the coming rather than and kings is unproblematic so long as a p~oport10n of ~t ~s gtfted to because this is of large-scale industrial manufacturing in the 1970s, Brahmans as part of the long-term cycle' (tbtd.: 25). T.hts tgnores. the the end of the flipside of developments captured in debates about fact that most societies, if not all, have for long been mtegrated mto establishing a syn­ work and post-industrial society. But rather than global capitalism, and that a long-term transacti~nal, orde~ may well jobs chronic juxtaposition of regions 'giving' away manufacturing offer the 'greatest potential for capital accumulation , particularly so granted that with regions 'receiving' those jobs, I do not take for if it is coupled with development efforts and monetary exchanges economic zones or free trade EPZs (sometimes also called special (Gregory 1980: 627). . . . zones) are 'cornerstones of flexibility' that have 'made informality I build on the latter insight to explore how rehg10n and cosmtc global commodity and precariousness an integral part of ... many order may serve as ideological foundations for flexible, c~~ital­ requires chains' (Cross 2012: 4). Analysing Mauritian developments ist exploitation. To do so it is necessary to go beyond a traditiOnal the diachronic enquiry as well, and I go back in time and juxtapose anthropological conception of a 'native's point. of view' t.hat ~ssumes devel­ advent of new industrial manufacturing in the 1970s with the coherent social formations. Instead, my analysts of the htstoncal tra­ after opment of the colonial sugar industry. The latter was established jectory of flexible capitalism concentr~tes ~n the conflicting viev:s socio-economic 1810 and, as I will show, has dominated Mauritian that a population, in a given space at a gtven tt~e, ~olds ab?ut c?srm,c precarious labour relations ever since, creating highly flexible and and socio-economic orders. The approach IS rrurrored m Ztgon s system. relations embedded in a competitive global capitalist work, which abandons normative distinctions of moral and immoral

. .

transactional transactional

colonial colonial

the the

transactional transactional

from from

exploitation exploitation

and and Mauritian Mauritian possession possession struggle. struggle.

the the

term, term,

capitalism capitalism

women's women's possession possession adjustments adjustments

actional actional

tures. tures. of of

tation tation

between between

the the EPZ EPZ

actional actional

example example

volume) volume)

peasant' peasant' (see (see

I I where where

views views

order order

istence istence

nomic nomic

210 210

cerns cerns as as

analytical analytical

links links

wider wider

by by

contradict contradict

The The

the the

In In

either either

introducing introducing

expansion expansion

Mauritian Mauritian

+ +

many many

following following

below). below).

factories, factories,

a a

order order

situated, situated,

In In

capitalist capitalist

(indeed (indeed

have have persistence persistence

are are

Patrick Patrick

by by

social social

anthropologists anthropologists

moral moral

the the

of of

chapter chapter

orders orders

order order

other other

(see (see

of of

This This

capitalism capitalism

has has

work work

times. times.

moral!pre-capitalist moral!pre-capitalist

implied implied

move, move,

commenting commenting

other other

in in

gift gift

sugar sugar

in in

among among

largely largely

to to

moral/immoral moral/immoral

the the

this this

Building Building

and and

Neveling Neveling

long-term long-term

made made

above), above),

economy economy Mauritian Mauritian

affecting affecting

settings settings

orders. orders.

order. order.

and and

this this

allows allows

develop develop

words, words,

EPZ EPZ

was was

and and

section section

and and

individual individual

in in

the the

and and

transactional transactional

way workers workers way

forms forms

correlates correlates

view view

The The

we we

informed informed

sector sector

of of

EPZ EPZ

not not

women women

maintenance maintenance

is is

concept concept

yet yet

important important

commodity commodity

the the

in in

established established

and and

need need

in in

colonial colonial

In In

a a

but but

me me

on on

The The

I I

and and

as as

only only

next next

Scott's Scott's

general general

of of

these these

factories, factories,

the the

have have

to to

of of the

outlines outlines

way way

introduce introduce

the the

transactional transactional

on on

EPZ EPZ

with with

my my

religion, religion,

an an

contested contested

to to

also also

supposedly supposedly

to to

be be

show show

workers workers

points points

final final

conceptions conceptions

1970s, 1970s,

the the

the the

in in

of of

analysis analysis

highlight highlight

sections sections

nexus nexus

go go

begun begun

Mauritian Mauritian

that that

concluding concluding

perspectives perspectives

factories factories

capitalism's capitalism's

developed developed

order order

conception conception

peasant peasant

gendered gendered

in in

criticize criticize

or or Bloch Bloch

moralities moralities

steps steps

thrust thrust

beyond beyond

ideological ideological

of of

as as

historical historical

empirical empirical

exchange exchange

how how

how how

one one

where where

immoral/capitalist. immoral/capitalist.

women women

rather rather

the the

of of

and and

the the

an an

increasingly increasingly

prevails, prevails,

is is

rather rather

in in

of of

in in

and and

view view

of of

orders. orders.

of of

driven driven

spirit spirit

problem problem

non-capitalist non-capitalist

analyse analyse

to to

the the

integral integral

capitalist capitalist

is is

a a

spirit spirit

the the

how how

the the

this this

normative normative

of of

Ong Ong

anthropology's anthropology's

sugar sugar

this this

exploitation exploitation

best best

an an

than than

for for

capitalist, capitalist,

(Zigon (Zigon

remarks remarks

Parry's Parry's

of of

long-term long-term

have have

fundamental fundamental

on on

in in

section section

short-term short-term

establishment establishment

than than

colonial colonial

ideological ideological

on on

linkages linkages

economy economy

possession possession

direction. direction.

a a

volume). volume).

this this

by by

economic economic

possession possession

understood understood

though though

(1987) (1987)

a a

solid solid

'moral 'moral

lamenting lamenting

part part

the the

events events

of of

contested contested

industry industry

given given

system system

the the

to to

2007). 2007).

coherent. coherent.

distinction distinction

rested rested

inequality inequality

· ·

I I

views views

consider consider

shows shows

empirical empirical

establishment establishment

painful painful

long-term long-term

of of

and and

exchange exchange

argues argues

cosmic-religious cosmic-religious

suggest suggest

and and

Such Such

economy economy

of of

Narotzky Narotzky

in in

capitalist capitalist

and and

To To

Likewise, Likewise,

and and

global global

This This

foundation foundation

is is

role role

anthropology anthropology

at at

core core

in in

commodities commodities

on on

postcolonial postcolonial

postcolonial postcolonial

on on

radical radical

continuities continuities

as as

an an

throughout throughout

this this

further further

all all

of of

why why

Mauritius, Mauritius,

Such Such

long-term long-term

normative normative

actions actions

transition transition

that that

a a

gendered gendered

approach approach

the the

that that

exchange exchange

and and

excellent excellent

of of

scales. scales.

how, how,

texts texts

ground, ground,

critique critique

a a

exploi­

market market

play play

trans­

trans­

of of the

social social

coex­

long­

spirit spirit

spirit spirit

class class

rup­

con­

gifts gifts

(this (this

eco­

this this

on on

of of

of of in in

in in

to to

years years

century century

for for

fied fied

surge surge International International

hit hit

ture ture

or or

anything anything

exploitation exploitation

labourers labourers

processing processing

racist racist

Ocean Ocean

tion tion

agriculture, agriculture,

with with

and and

French French

the the

meant meant

was was

1998; 1998;

evance evance

routes, routes,

lasted lasted

in in

Mauritius Mauritius

Company Company

to to

Europeans. Europeans.

terms terms

Mauritius Mauritius

best best through through

One One

protectionism protectionism

1810. 1810.

the the

Mauritian Mauritian

exploit, exploit,

island island

an an

technology, technology,

incorporated incorporated

class class

were were

framed framed

financial financial

Transactional Transactional

consensus consensus

meant meant

in in

Neveling Neveling

The The

of of

from from

preferential preferential

industry. industry.

existing existing

business business

new new

settlers settlers

crucial crucial

and and

because because

Trade Trade

prices prices

centuries centuries

but but

ambiguous ambiguous

to to

divisions. divisions.

set set

into into

and and

abandoned abandoned

was was

now now

Flexibility Flexibility

early early

British British

well well

banking banking

replace replace

of of

1735 1735

in in

Possibly Possibly stable stable

stable. stable.

Sugar Sugar

several several changed sugar

compensation. compensation.

up, up,

anthropological anthropological

and and

labour labour

Flexible Flexible

long-term long-term

elsewhere, elsewhere,

had had

before before

change change

a a

2013: 2013:

one one

communities. communities.

dominated dominated

determined determined

This This

banking banking

into into

of of

in in

mono-crop mono-crop

until until

into into

capitalist capitalist

while while

rather rather

access access

privateering privateering

and and

Britain Britain

Agreement Agreement

prices prices

slaves slaves

to to

For For

its its

French-British French-British

practices practices

and and

of of

the the

crisis crisis

Capitalism Capitalism

within within

126). 126).

Order: Order:

accept accept

the the

the the

the the

because because

1810. 1810.

old old

came came

proximity proximity

one one

of of

successive successive

the the

twentieth twentieth

than than

to to

capital capital

transport, transport,

transactional transactional

and and

for for

West West

flexible flexible

island island

meant meant

global global

was was

French French

Capitalism Capitalism

everyday everyday

The The

the the

ventures ventures

thing, thing,

external external

few few

The The

and and

As As

the the

with with

economy. economy.

sustain sustain

being being

sugar, sugar, of of

Chambers Chambers

and and

The The

(ISA) (ISA)

research. research.

British British

were were

resolved resolved

Indian Indian

and, and,

cycle cycle

there there

the the

exchange exchange

around around

beyond beyond

abolition abolition

that that

latter latter

uninhabited uninhabited recession recession

capitalism capitalism

Transactional Transactional

the the

century century

struck struck rulers

to to

British British

the the

times times

and and

a a

joint joint

Colonial Colonial

island island

not not

and and

in in

relations, relations,

life, life,

to to

a a

failed. failed.

sudden sudden

preferences preferences

major major

of of

political political

Empire's Empire's

cheap cheap

order order

Sugar Sugar

was was

was was

First First

1937, 1937,

end. end.

would would

As As

in in

with with

least, least,

sugar sugar

1710; 1710;

throughout throughout

the the

but but

of of

were were

ventures ventures

which which

governors governors

(Neveling (Neveling

of of

had had

invested invested

of of

subjects subjects

the the

commerce commerce

no no

The The

In In labour labour

of of

legal legal

international international

Protocol Protocol

may may

arrival, arrival,

World World

otherwise-this otherwise-this

which which

slavery slavery

Orders Orders

the the

in in

the the

population population

battle battle

places places

Sugar Sugar

cane cane

followed followed

French French

soon soon

capitalist, capitalist,

exchange, exchange,

gained gained

markets, markets,

a a

Long-term Long-term

settled settled

importing importing

deal deal

have have

Dutch Dutch

and and

ratification ratification

limits. limits.

be be

1920s 1920s

mushroomed mushroomed

supply supply

in in

in in

effectively effectively

cultivation cultivation

of the the of

War. War.

and and

include include

over over

2013: 2013:

the the

in in

understood understood

facilitated facilitated

export export

Mauritius Mauritius

after after

colonized colonized

in in

been been

new new

Sector Sector

colonial colonial

strategic strategic

and and

1835, 1835,

population population

and and

nineteenth nineteenth

An An

how how

by by

East East

and and

1825. 1825.

reciprocal reciprocal

Mauritius Mauritius

free free

The The

structure structure

123-29). 123-29).

(Teelock (Teelock

shipping shipping

takeover takeover

contract contract

produc­

Empire, Empire,

agricul­

life life

at at

a a

overall overall

quotas quotas

turned turned

Indian Indian

of the the of

1930s 1930s

this this

albeit albeit

trade trade

work work

India India

+ + brief brief

rati­

This This

war war

was was

rule rule

and and

rel­

the the

211 211

by by

in in

in in is is

crisis crisis

cipation cipation

lement lement

ideology ideology

protection protection

from from sitions sitions relations' relations'

plots plots

in in

everyone everyone

management management

three three

for for

new new tions tions

British British

off. off.

tion tion

the the

steadily steadily

ued ued

their their

One One

commodity-based commodity-based 141). 141).

the the

labour, labour,

built built

of of ers. ers.

212 212

to to

of of icant icant

157 157 ling ling

global global abundant abundant collected collected

exchange exchange

While While

volatile volatile

All All different different

the the

bilateral bilateral

+ +

structure structure

ever ever

mills mills

Historians Historians

next next

to to

Contradicting Contradicting

down down

system system

is is

steam-driven steam-driven

such such

families. families.

went went

of of

of of the

bankrupt bankrupt

room room

local local

Patrick Patrick

colonies colonies

the the

movement movement

affect affect

well well

from from

banking banking

meant meant

for for

land, land,

to to

and and

more more

and and

processing processing

in in

by by harvest harvest

who who

relations. relations.

supply supply

(Alien (Alien

same; same;

macro-structural macro-structural

factor factor

from from

43 43

the the

bust, bust,

banks banks

example, example,

trading trading

for for

early early

1823 1823

directions. directions.

captured captured

of of

Neveling Neveling

the the

developments developments

in in

1839 1839

liberation liberation

academics academics

not not

of the the of

just just

Around Around

a a

commodity commodity

for for

exploitation exploitation

indentured indentured

had had

distinguish distinguish

ventures, ventures,

those those

Mauritians' Mauritians'

United United

crisis crisis

voJatile voJatile

marauding marauding

and and

'major 'major

(Teelock (Teelock

1999: 1999:

of of

was was

1870s. 1870s.

least least and, and,

of of

went went

after after

the the

to to

mills. mills.

systems systems

the the

agreements. agreements.

The The

no no

cheap cheap

sugar sugar

was was

commodities commodities

landless landless

created created

surviving surviving

1859, 1859,

in in

that that

of of

import import

because because

despite despite

117). 117).

1845, 1845,

common common

Large Large

residence residence

the the

Kingdom Kingdom

bust. bust.

of of

alike alike

Mainly Mainly

restructuring restructuring

macro-structural macro-structural

The The

Empire's Empire's

the the

the the

increasingly increasingly

but but

1998: 1998:

slave slave

industry industry

former former

indentured indentured

labourers, labourers,

two two

chain chain

within within

First First

of of

and and

introduced introduced

hordes hordes

integration integration

manoeuvring. manoeuvring.

late late

number number

Postcolonial Postcolonial

considerable considerable

shift shift

other other

supplies supplies

white white

interpret interpret

Suddenly, Suddenly,

of of

establishments establishments

exchange, exchange,

intervention intervention this this

enterprises enterprises

labour, labour,

This, This,

periods periods

former former

96) 96)

a a

sugar, sugar,

World World

1840s 1840s

distinction distinction

of of

permit. permit.

authorities authorities

grand grand

from from

by by

centre centre

Mauritian Mauritian

slaves slaves

plots plots

gave gave

of of

settlers settlers

to to

changed changed

sugar sugar

way way

to to

of of

centralized, centralized,

and and

the the

of of

303 303

of of

labourers labourers

this this

and and

Mauritian Mauritian

hit hit

factors factors

for for

indentured indentured

extensification extensification

War War

of of

them them

there there

some some

sugar sugar

morcellement morcellement

were were

the the

money money

and and

granted granted

rural rural

Thousands Thousands

bourgeoisie bourgeoisie

Mauritian Mauritian

of of

exchange exchange

to to

turmoil. turmoil.

in in

ignored ignored

Investment Investment

that that

the the

land land

some some

restructuring restructuring

Mauritius Mauritius

filled filled

from from

between between

a a

ISA ISA

society, society,

radically. radically.

(North (North

was was

1863, 1863,

reach reach

took took

indentured indentured

rights rights

was was

parcelled parcelled

extent, extent,

reciprocal reciprocal

island island

mills. mills.

beyond beyond

now now

social social

sales, sales,

fell fell

of of

sent sent

the the

handed handed

preferential preferential

thus thus

'plantocrats' 'plantocrats'

cultivation cultivation

the the

no no

and and

over over labourers labourers

the the

Being Being

even even

the the

relations relations

modernized modernized

of of

short. short.

nation-building nation-building

Coombes Coombes

ranks ranks allowing allowing

This This

and and

(ibid.: (ibid.:

ended ended

of of

a a

remittances remittances

gift-based gift-based

and and

hunting hunting

credit credit

colonial colonial

Many Many

following following

in in

facilitated facilitated

to to

residence residence

customs customs

then then

their their

fact fact

petit petit

out out

fertile fertile

small small

as as

land land

recognition recognition

back, back,

intensifica­

indentured indentured

labourers.' labourers.'

two two

used used

rose rose

economic economic

of of

an an

Then Then

that that

and and

declined declined

129-36). 129-36).

a a

control. control.

to to

morcel­

bought bought

contin­

planta­

moved moved

upper­

quotas quotas

period period

signif­

acqui­

eman­

out out

plant­

down down

called called

trick­

2000: 2000:

lands lands

to to

state, state,

from from

fund fund

duty duty

sold sold

and and

and and

this this

and and

the the

the the

the the

an an

of of

to to

perity perity

Instead, Instead,

Keynesian Keynesian

holders holders

manently manently

workers workers

ments ments

British British

by by

on on

ing ing

population. population.

cutting cutting

with with

there there

with with

larger larger

Owners Owners

dency dency

1937, 1937,

postcolonial postcolonial

These These

to to

women women

on on

persisted. persisted.

hold. hold.

teurs), teurs), than than

and and

entered entered

workers workers

newly newly

took took

numbers numbers

capitalism'. capitalism'.

But But

sourcing sourcing

1930s 1930s

In In

The The

fill fill

the the

week' week'

Indenture Indenture

larger larger

position, position,

so so

the the

subsidies subsidies

short short

monthly monthly

90 90

was was the the

The The

place place

the the

in in

world's world's

households households

businesses businesses

in in

suggests suggests

of of

out out

landed landed

side side

colonial colonial

canes canes

in in

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employed employed

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1937, 1937,

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cent cent

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2001: 2001:

2 2

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plots plots

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361). 361).

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2001: 2001:

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323-50). 323-50).

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1985). 1985).

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2012: 2012:

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161-91). 161-91).

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fetched fetched

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house­

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302). 302).

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paid paid

+ +

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jobs jobs

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and and

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In In

set set 213 213

In In

an an nalists, nalists,

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trade trade

months months

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have have had had

torically torically

lation lation

today today

Mauritius, Mauritius, other other so so

and and also also the the female female

the the agriculture agriculture

214 214

millers. millers. mistJames mistJames in in

of of

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majority majority

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Patrick Patrick

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75 75

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62). 62).

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minister minister

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Addressing Addressing

25 25

how how

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Bank Bank

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Sugar Sugar

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provided provided

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Nations Nations

important important

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in in

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world world

successful successful

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investment investment

well well

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capitalism capitalism

work, work,

1970. 1970.

State: State:

production production

strategy strategy

as as

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state. state.

I I

Mauritian Mauritian

on on

capital capital

received received

would would

Investments Investments

expand expand

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itself itself

and and

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before, before,

Industrial Industrial

and and

sector sector

from from

houses houses

affirming affirming

above above

plantocracy plantocracy

of of

and and

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of of

these these

There There

machine machine

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and and

Building Building

above above

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trade, trade,

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with with

Transactional Transactional

has has

be be

harvest harvest

was was

social social

to to labourers labourers

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on on there there

local local

prototypical prototypical

significant significant

and and

20 20

and and

religious religious

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while while

way way

around around

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independence independence

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per per

Development Development

and and

as as

' '

a a

had had

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deserves deserves

engine. engine.

rather rather

the the

dimensions, dimensions,

kind kind

were were

on on

colonial colonial

economists economists

the the

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it it

had had a a

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from from

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services services

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in in

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factor factor

the the

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of of

Organization, Organization,

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relations relations

and and

shaped shaped

Mauritius Mauritius

investors investors

an an

had had

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and and

this this

rushed rushed

below. below.

be be

1968 1968

in in

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labour labour

extent. extent.

postcolonial postcolonial

politics politics

and and

labour labour

input input

generating generating

experience experience

space, space,

anthropo­

the the

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1960s. 1960s.

and Asia Asia and

was was

relations relations

business business

in in

But But

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and and

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he he

gives gives

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by by

glob­

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off off

from from

+ +

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were were

con­

pro­

lives lives

will will that that

then then

held held

and and

this this per­

and and

the the

the the

for for

215 215

as as

in in a a 216 + Patrick Neveling Flexible Capitalism and Transactional Orders in Mauritius + 217

be ready to relocate if another zone offers a higher surplus. In this established foreign businesses, which shifted to Mauritius with the sense, EPZ factories are 'world-market factories' (Frobel, Heinrichs explicit aim of exploiting a cheap labour force, whose wages were 30 and Kreye 1981: 347). per cent below the already low wages of Asian EPZs (World Bank The Mauritian state contributed to this by granting tax and 1973: 3). customs duty holidays for periods of ten years. This was a signifi­ In 1975, there were seventy-nine EPZs in twenty-five coun­ cant step. On the one hand, expenses for industrial zones and other tries (Frobel, Heinrichs and Kreye 1981: 306), and Mauritius com­ infrastructure were enormous. On the other hand, tax and customs peted with the Irish EPZ in Shannon, Taiwan's EPZ in Kaohsiung revenues as a potential means for refinancing these expenses were and maquiladoras in the larger cities along the Mexico-US border. waived. In order to understand why the state made such a significant For Mauritians entering EPZ factories, this maturing global labour gift to investors, itis instructive to look at how Mauritian politicians market was a manifestation of how the 'historical geography of capi­ imagined export-led development. talism' (see Harvey 1990) cuts across space and time. Some factories In 1970, the Mauritian parliament debated EPZ laws and invest­ hired training personnel from Hong Kong, German managers ran ment incentives. Whether it was necessary to set up an EPZ soon others and, as one company owner remembered, even retired offi­ became a side issue. Instead, opinion was split over its negative cers of the British colonial army would be recruited to make workers impact on social order and morale. In parliamentary debates over the meet production targets. Newspapers invited EPZ factory managers matter, some said that the arrival of foreign managers and new pro­ to talk about Mauritian workers' lack of productivity.' On the shop duction processes would upset public order and undermine morals.' floor, line managers regularly repeated how much faster and better Free-market liberals instead imagined a prosperous future with jobs workers in EPZs in the Philippines and elsewhere operated. for everyone, and Mauritius joining the ranks of Taiwan, Hong Kong The factory environment was ~challenge in itself. Before 1970, and Singapore as world-famous examples of rapid industrialization.' labour had taken place mainly outdoors or in rather modestly sized The latter arguments carried the day, not least because everyone manufacturing establishments, and only workers in sugar mills had agreed that mainly women would work in the EPZ. And because experience of highly standardized and rhythmic production pro­ women would be part of a household with a male breadwinner who cesses. In this sense then, work in EPZ factories was indeed a new could make up for the low EPZ wages and ensure the enforcement of experience. Those predominantly women workers who spent ten- morals, the minimum wage for the EPZ was set much lower than for ' hour working days in cheaply built and non-air-conditioned fac­ the national economy. tories surely had new views on the subtropical Mauritian climate. Interestingly, conservative members of the Mauritian parliament Unfamiliar work routines, constant demand for high performance had little regard for the fact that their island had been integrated into and precision, the noise of industrial machines and the smells and a highly volatile world market for sugar all along, and that morals had garment fibres filling the air on the shop floor added to the challenge. been changing all the time. Similar to Western sociologists declaring Considering that husbands and families often demanded household the coming of post-industrial societies or an end of work, a stable past labour to be finished before and after factory shifts, these women that is under attack and subject to rapid rupture was constructed in workers indeed had to be highly flexible. these parliamentary debates. Setting up an EPZ as a second pillar for These demands could not always be met. A late 1970s study the national economy thus had little to do with offering workers an revealed that most workers were slim, malnourished and lacked both alternative to the long-term transactional orders of the sugar sector the financial means and the eating habits necessary to maintain the and its flexible employment conditions. pressure on their bodies (Hein 1984: 256). The way this problem was On the investors' side, continuity rather than change prevailed as dealt with is another example of how the long-term transactional well. Throughout the 1970s, many joint ventures between Mauritian order of colonial days extended into the new factories. sugar companies and foreign corporations from the electronics and Milk and yoghurt are rather expensive consumer goods, as they garment sectors were set up. Soon, the first fully Mauritian-owned have to be imported to an island whose agricultural sector is domi­ factories emerged, and the local plantocracy could reap the full nated by sugar. For EPZ businesses, they were surely affordable, as benefit of generous EPZ incentives. In this, they collaborated with moderate estimates put the annual value added per worker around

spending spending

workforce. workforce.

too too

labour labour

be be

with with ing ing

consumer consumer But But

scrutinize scrutinize

in in for for

This This Bank Bank

also also

achieved' achieved'

tries. tries.

social social

essentials essentials

social social friendly friendly

that that able able

that that

'native' 'native'

exchange exchange

$2,000 $2,000

218 218

companies companies

evident evident

factories factories

So So

Crucially, Crucially,

Continuity Continuity

type type

MEPZA MEPZA

sibly sibly addition) addition) productivity, productivity,

Past Past some some

of of

equate equate

paid paid

the the

high high

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+ +

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wages wages

established established

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is is

EPZ EPZ

The The

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far, far,

Ltd. Ltd.

rupture rupture

setting, setting,

Patrick Patrick

was was

shortcomings shortcomings

studies studies

for for

quoted quoted

of of

postcolonial postcolonial

lower lower

be be

friendly friendly

Franco-Mauritian Franco-Mauritian

that that

country' country'

for for

or or

sugar sugar

latter latter

habits habits

(ibid.: (ibid.:

relations relations

my my

like like

the the

operation operation

whether whether

markets markets

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investors investors

partly partly

[Mauritius [Mauritius

This This

the the

adopted adopted

earned earned

The The

declared declared

and and

unwholesome unwholesome

women women

Neveling Neveling

the the

EPZ EPZ

wages. wages.

success success

analysis analysis

commonly commonly

have have

clothing clothing

enabling enabling

was was

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and and

power power

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industry, industry,

country country

working working

92). 92).

report report

is is

that that

double double

above above

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illnesses illnesses

freely freely

the the

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developmental developmental

seen seen

1970s 1970s

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showed showed

Export Export

If If

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report report

today. today.

surely surely

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evident evident

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moral moral

workers, workers,

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nutrition nutrition

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upper upper

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Processing Processing

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Mauritian Mauritian

employment employment

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Although Although

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well-balanced well-balanced

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standards. standards.

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us us

in in

Parry Parry

(1980) (1980)

transactional transactional

and and

notion notion

households households

would would

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systems. systems.

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in in

Guinea, Guinea,

or or

to to

enter enter

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money'. money'.

is is

(ibid.: (ibid.:

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societies, societies,

see see

Mauritian Mauritian

religious religious

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capitalism capitalism Mauritian Mauritian

and and

is is

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(ibid.: (ibid.:

acknowledges acknowledges

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accept accept

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627). 627).

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2007: 2007:

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1999). 1999).

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life life

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188). 188).

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+ +

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223 223

to to

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resistance, resistance,

224 224 tion tion

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capitalist capitalist scale. scale.

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factory factory

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1973, 1973,

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1987: 1987:

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Patrick Patrick

orders. orders.

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workers workers

section section

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Neveling Neveling

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managers managers

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urban urban

opportunities. opportunities.

factories factories

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spirits spirits

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Catholic, Catholic,

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Raymond Raymond

Ong Ong

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factories. factories.

factories factories

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priest priest

life, life,

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EPZ EPZ

actors actors

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281), 281),

of of

the the

setting; setting;

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of of

mediate mediate

confront confront

where where

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1987: 1987:

allies allies

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Plaine Plaine

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Occidentalist Occidentalist

comparison comparison

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Williams Williams

Possession, Possession,

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1973 1973

9), 9),

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factory factory

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resume resume

corporations, corporations,

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factory factory

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called called

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88). 88).

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night night

Women Women

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gious gious

example. example.

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or or

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factories. factories.

God's God's

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psychiatrist psychiatrist

workers. workers.

mid mid

the the

the the

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1978, 1978,

authorities authorities

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Tamil, Tamil,

centre centre

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workers workers

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During During

Mauritius. Mauritius.

2004, 2004,

about about

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Inhabitants Inhabitants

anything anything

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factory factory

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up up

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I I

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8 8

ahead, ahead,

hardships hardships

all all

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heard heard

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A A

in in

an an

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factory factory

matters matters

time time

ordinance, ordinance,

of of

political political

had had

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he he

workers workers

Hindu Hindu

following following

capable capable

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phone phone

Plaine Plaine

Transactional Transactional

time time

diseases diseases

exceptionally exceptionally

factory factory

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became became

was was

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was was

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he he

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factories factories

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priest priest

some some

district district

was was

found found

again. again.

jeopardized jeopardized

deal deal

in in

went went

was was

blessings blessings

area area

conversation conversation inhabitants inhabitants

of of Lauzan, Lauzan,

'the 'the

of of

and and

the the

cases cases

of of

high, high,

and and

he he

managers managers

But But

St St

at at

one's one's

factory factory

scarce scarce

retired retired

dead dead

the the

he he

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handling handling

with with

no no

years, years,

upper-class upper-class

recalled, recalled,

days days

had had

man man

exorcism exorcism

Orders Orders

noon) noon)

needed needed

religious religious

beyond beyond

Pierre Pierre

famous famous

out out

near near

in in

of of

machines machines

to to

called called

of of

(a (a

factory factory

longer longer

-

strong strong

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neighbour neighbour

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to to

sailors sailors

that that

different different

much much

in in

who who

kind kind

perform perform

the the

so so

spirit spirit

workers, workers,

the the

in in

factory factory

because because

the the

were were

-

workers, workers,

priest priest

encountered encountered

the the

and and

rural rural

a a

Mauritius Mauritius

with with

that that

Algerian Algerian

was was

posses­ spirit

those those

to to

the the

regions regions

had had

local local

commenced. commenced.

psychologist psychologist

operate, operate, performance performance

harbour, harbour,

movements. movements.

can can

had had

of of

Expanding Expanding

priest priest more more

club club

urban urban

possession possession

were were

roaming roaming

exorcise exorcise

local local

in in

ghost ghost

freelance freelance

sufficient sufficient

everyone everyone

failed failed

a a

'went 'went

an an

districts districts

face face

haunted haunted

legacies legacies

at at

factory factory

manag­

serious serious

profes­

certain certain

Hindu Hindu

he he

called called

panic panic

mid­

+ +

since since

exor­

care­

rigid rigid

psy­

reli­

belt belt

this this

was was

rec­

of of

the the

for for

225 225

to to

in in

a a

a a

a a a a 226 + Patrick Neveling Flexible Capitalism and Transactional Orders in Mauritius + 227 operations continued. In Plaine Lauzan, a few days rest were crucial that EPZ factories have to offer, not least an exorcism performed by to give workers time off from the 'social revolution' that the estab­ a Catholic priest: lishment of new industries had caused in the 1970s, putting immense physical and psychological strains on women EPZ workers. Proving A Roman Catholic Priest who specialized in exorcism was called in as him right, possession ended once workers were given some leave. In an emergency by the boss. He and his sakristen [minister] arrived. Both the Moka case, the priest also had to obtain consent from the same were in full fancy aress. Long robes, gold crosses, purple cummerbund and what-nots. psychiatrist to exorcise the ghost. But the priest's recommendation The unconscious Deomala was picked up first by the priest and his that the haunted factories be closed and workers given rest derived assistant, laid on a table, and hit firmly on each side of the jaw. from his awareness that it was a South Africa complaints individually with the Ministry of Industrial Relations in to Mauritius in the early 1970s, and became a leading figure in the accordance with the Industrial Relations Act of 1973. The ministry Mouvement Militante Mauricien (MMM), a hybrid socialist move­ should then have negotiated on the workers' behalf, but nothing hap­ ment influenced by the European uprisings of 1968, as well as pened.' Less than four weeks later, Tit Albert indeed haunted the anti-colonial and anti-imperialist movements in the Global South. shop floor. On this, another Mauritian newspaper plainly reported, Its union wing, the General Workers' Federation (GWF) orga­ 'New industrial disease: P'tit albert in a factory in Saint Pierre ?' 10 In nized strikes throughout the 1970s, and the Muvman Liberasyon this case, rather than irrational sentiment or moral outrage marking Fam (MLF, 'Women's Liberation Movement') attracted many EPZ the transition from a moral economy to one of immoral capitalism, workers to the fight against gendered exploitation. In the MLF, possession was a last resort in an industrial dispute. Collen met many of those women and made their experiences central My overall point here is that generalizing talk of a social revolu­ to her novel. The main character, Shiny Tiny, encounters sexism, high tion cannot capture such conjunctures as those experienced within production pressure, tough working conditions and everything else single factories (cf. Narotzky, this volume). But neither can many

ferently, ferently,

perceive perceive

dead, dead, exploitation. exploitation.

order, order, sion sion

disruption disruption colonizer's colonizer's

to to

vative vative

production production

events events beliefs beliefs

ible ible

tional tional

of of

of of

they they

that that of of

cal cal

nomic nomic

lives lives

the the

the the

Equally Equally

peasants peasants

many many global global

tion tion of of

228 228

long long

modities modities

between between

and and

ous, ous,

concepts concepts

real-world real-world

It It

be be

French French

land, land,

the the

social social

images images

+ +

advent advent

capitalism. capitalism.

in in

carried carried

as as

an an

such such

before. before.

is is

refer refer

(Ong (Ong

for for

'states 'states

Patrick Patrick

but but

other other

order, order,

Mauritian Mauritian

in in

colonial colonial

plantation plantation

power power

in in

Mauritian Mauritian

well well

along along

EPZ EPZ

the the

common common

EPZ EPZ

Mauritian Mauritian

a a

in in

in in

example example

early early

for for

order order

ghosts, ghosts,

rather rather

rule rule

to to

spontaneity spontaneity

to to

moral moral

of of

1987: 1987:

of of

ghost ghost

anthropology. anthropology.

an an

for for

the the

out out

features features

as as

main main

Neveling Neveling

of of

factory factory

but but

this this

the the

the the

society, society,

a a

labour labour

such such

EPZ EPZ

in in

'social 'social

industrializing industrializing

to to

1970s 1970s

social social

ghosts', ghosts',

among among

sugar sugar

global global

1970s, 1970s,

by by

to to

Mauritius Mauritius

210-13). 210-13).

social social

parliamentarians parliamentarians

rather rather

concrete concrete

economy economy

factories factories

in in

of of

the the

and and

means means

complex complex

were were

Uensen Uensen

individual individual

lament lament

lines lines

employment employment

workers workers

the the

now now

course. course.

was was

Mauritius Mauritius

relations relations

which which

revolution revolution

present. present.

revolutions' revolutions'

industry industry

for for

markets markets

it it

spiritual spiritual

stability stability

ruled ruled

expressed expressed

ambiguous ambiguous

as as

factory factory

seems seems

of of

of of

erected erected

portrayed portrayed

1988). 1988).

This This

Thus, Thus,

earlier earlier

must must

continuity continuity

a a

a a

of of

where where

was was

production. production.

historical historical

is is

lack lack

used used

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continuation continuation

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workers workers

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A A

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explanation explanation

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beings beings

be be

of of

for for

in in

for for

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and and

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kings kings

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decades. decades.

on on

spirit spirit

peasant peasant

disputes disputes

were were

'the 'the

invoked. invoked.

a a

read. read.

Plaine Plaine

shown, shown,

Mauritians Mauritians

and and

disruption disruption

a a

long long

Ong, Ong,

as as

'moral' 'moral'

such such

of of

the the

reality reality

the the

that that

of of

odd odd

continuity continuity

independently independently

reflect reflect

thus thus

spatial spatial

satisfactory satisfactory

who who

defining defining

moral moral a

dislocation dislocation

unequal unequal

common common

possession possession

The The

If If

exploitation exploitation

grave grave

defined defined

Catholic Catholic

possession possession

imaginings imaginings

Lauzan Lauzan

and and

was was

to to

As As

of of

EPZ EPZ

Mauritius Mauritius

over over

be be

is is

long-term long-term

govern govern

Given Given

for for

appearance appearance

sustain sustain

upon upon

this this

in in

actually actually

my my

an an

and and

that that

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consider consider

a a

of of

order order

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nature nature

much much

exchanges, exchanges,

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capitalist capitalist

that that

in in

by by

economy economy

order. order.

was was

a a

historical historical

the the

priest priest

interpretation interpretation

that that

the the

workers workers

not not

the the

experienced experienced

pre-EPZ pre-EPZ

dead dead

was was

a a

the the

from from

of of

of of

threatened threatened

was was

spirit spirit

juxtaposition juxtaposition

continuity continuity

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transactional transactional

of of

informed informed

organization organization

because because

souls souls

to to

commodity commodity

each each

a a

of of

burial burial

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ownership ownership

then then

'spontane­

or or

the the

hierarchi­

colonizer, colonizer,

part part

exploita­

lament lament

a a

the the

of of

transac­

close close

as as

did did

posses­

conser­

French French

outline outline

other', other',

world world

of of

times. times.

claim claim

com­

were were

their their

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a a

world-views world-views

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whereby whereby

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are are strenuous strenuous

assumptions assumptions comes comes pre-capitalist pre-capitalist actional actional

Anthropologists Anthropologists as as

and and

to to

transactional transactional

alike, alike,

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dants dants

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wages wages

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tions tions ments. ments.

Parry's Parry's a a

location location

comes comes to-gods-systems' to-gods-systems'

pre-capitalist pre-capitalist

industrial industrial

ogy's ogy's

tions, tions,

backbone backbone

My My

efforts efforts

A A

a a

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morally morally

A A

the the

findings findings

long-term long-term

changing changing

have have

secular, secular,

in in

of of

analysis analysis

scholars scholars

in in

in in

Economic Economic

Post-Occidentalist Post-Occidentalist

at at

insights insights

They They

But But

indenture indenture

'long-term 'long-term

(2007) (2007)

that that

order. order.

Mauritius Mauritius

for for

earlier earlier

immoral, immoral,

world world

finding finding women women

the the

conflict conflict

to to

work work

society. society.

influenced influenced

sanctioned sanctioned

of of

if if

convert convert

relocation. relocation.

in in

are are

of of

slight slight

societies. societies.

high high

order order

societies. societies.

from from

post-Occidentalist post-Occidentalist

scientific scientific

These, These,

Flexible Flexible

of of

capitalist capitalist

call call

like like

anthropology anthropology

global global

generations generations

transactional transactional

have have

of of

environment. environment.

given given

systems systems

otherwise otherwise

might might

the the

morality morality

flexible flexible

exempted, exempted,

'keep 'keep

with with

and and

cost cost

and and

But But

capitalism capitalism

both both

for for

into into

the the

Bell Bell

transactional transactional

Mauritius Mauritius

income income

further further

right right

Capitalism Capitalism

as as

long-term long-term

free free

places. places.

Instead Instead

(capitalist) (capitalist)

elsewhere. elsewhere.

abandoning abandoning

stable, stable,

of of

and and

Because Because

fact fact

analysis analysis this this

not not

sane' sane'

much much

something something

and and

exploitation. exploitation.

capitalist capitalist

of of

capitalism. capitalism.

misleading misleading

over over shifts

wage wage Conclusion: Conclusion:

spouse, spouse,

of of

coined coined

grounded grounded

that that

from from

like like

era era

Touraine Touraine

orders orders

various various

control control

View View

analytical analytical

that that

(Zigon (Zigon

Instead, Instead,

and and

it it workers workers

long-term long-term as as

presented presented

and and

of of

considers considers

takes takes

and and

was was

labour labour

contemporary contemporary

spirit spirit

any any

order' order'

view view

an an

Women's Women's

the the

system. system.

Transactional Transactional

a a

a a

and and

for for

by by

from from

a a

and and

of of

lack lack

short-term short-term

'moral' 'moral'

cimmoral' cimmoral'

notions notions

In In

and and

emerging emerging

distinction distinction

time time

juxtapositions juxtapositions

of of

2007) 2007)

Gregory's Gregory's

in in

global global

on on

declared declared

possession, possession,

this this

conservative conservative

example, example,

who who

(Flexible) (Flexible)

avoids avoids

rest rest

non-capitalist non-capitalist

implications implications

their their

the the

the the

these these

actually actually

of of

a a

here here

transactional transactional

the the

how how

exploitation. exploitation.

as as

cmoral', cmoral',

Labour Labour

chapter chapter

attention attention

investment investment

on on

in in

were were

shared shared

expansion expansion

1970s, 1970s,

non-

exploitation exploitation

cosmic cosmic

guise guise

Orders Orders

resembling resembling

challenge challenge

regimes regimes

capitalist capitalist

a a

capitalist, capitalist,

particular particular

such such

workers workers

neither neither the the

transactional transactional

conception conception

should should

highly highly

between between

rehearse rehearse

Western Western

exposed exposed

are are

Capitalism Capitalism

of of

long-term long-term

regimes regimes

cosmic-religious cosmic-religious

Mauritius Mauritius

coming coming

has has

in in

religious religious

of of

foundations foundations

purification purification

for for

to to

moralism, moralism,

Mauritius Mauritius

conscious conscious

orders orders

exchange exchange

- I I -

an an

of of

of of

Building Building

in in

shown shown

such such

market market

flexible flexible

not not

widespread widespread

are are

short-term short-term

anthropol­

is is

moralities. moralities.

Bloch Bloch

capitalism capitalism

their their

the the

'immoral' 'immoral'

to to

world world

the the

romantic romantic

certainly certainly

adjusted adjusted

of of

of of

such such

descen­

be be

similar similar

reloca­

orders orders

move­

which which

trans­

moral moral

was was

+ +

post­

'gift­

West West

EPZ EPZ

rela­

how how

read read

acts acts

this this

and and

and and

are are

are are

229 229

on on

of of

of of

as as a a

for for

cal cal

integration integration

historical historical

spective spective

based based

Lalit Lalit

capitalism capitalism

to to transactional transactional

ticularly ticularly

long-term long-term

tion. tion.

Research Research

by by

Halle, Halle,

world world practices, practices,

trading trading

they they

('Education ('Education

effectively effectively

individual individual

tings, tings,

transactional transactional

places, places,

actional actional

ants ants no no

230 230

transactional transactional worldwide, worldwide,

and and the the

and and

the the

tion tion

nor nor

130 130

overcome. overcome.

justice. justice.

and and

+ +

example, example,

opening opening

International International

the the

religious religious

nations nations

the the

at at

as as

driven driven

see see His His

('Struggle') ('Struggle')

they they

on on

Patrick Patrick

system. system.

Burkhard Burkhard

holding holding

a a

the the

religious religious

networks. networks.

long long

orders orders

I I

their their

Martin-Luther-University, Martin-Luther-University,

global global

long-standing long-standing

indebted indebted

reminders reminders

Mauritius Mauritius in

as as

have have

incidents incidents

When When

might might

transactional transactional

have have

and and

equate equate

1970s 1970s

into into

by by

employing employing

seen seen

for for

(Boyenge (Boyenge

Neve/ing Neve/ing

of of

ideologies ideologies

histories histories

orders orders

where where

orders orders

order. order.

dream dream

As As

outlined). outlined).

that that

on on

EPZs EPZs

national national

collective collective

level level

workers') workers')

been been

global global

workers workers

leaders leaders

for for

reconsider reconsider

Schnepel Schnepel

I I

onwards onwards

and and

Labour Labour

to to

It It

such such

to to

have have

many many

that that

of of

I I

in in

may may

gendered gendered

the the

is is

a a

of of

(cf. (cf.

and and

have have

the the

very very

Acknowledgements Acknowledgements

of of

moral moral

2007). 2007).

to to

the the

was was

such such

spirit spirit

collaboration collaboration

more more

markets. markets.

and and

a a

practice practice

Baruya, Baruya,

argued, argued,

export-oriented export-oriented

and and

order order

religion religion

vary vary

most most

The The

N N

contest contest

truly truly

people people

the the

SEZs SEZs

members members

experiences experiences

sense sense

who who

Organization Organization

has has

shown shown

influential influential

carried carried

saw saw

ash ash

practices practices

how how

alliances alliances

their their

economy economy

possession. possession.

If If

than than

concrete concrete

members members

exploitation exploitation

according according

regions' regions'

of of

been been

postcolonial postcolonial

generously generously

1995; 1995;

(Special (Special

decades decades

anthropologists anthropologists

of of

to to

bear bear

is is

with with

in in

to to

flexible flexible

But But

global global

well-established well-established

that that

Bloch Bloch

portray portray

an an

out out

60 60

the the

deal deal

of of

a a

Halle-Wittenberg. Halle-Wittenberg.

between between

of of

resonance resonance

and and

Baca Baca

everywhere everywhere

important important

million million

on on

source source

a a

in in

of of

appearance appearance

the the

in in

world world

such such

integration integration

capitalism's capitalism's

with with

Economic Economic

cosmic-religious, cosmic-religious,

of of

of of

to to

(ILO) (ILO)

capitalism capitalism

capitalist capitalist

development development

and and

May May

the the

2003 2003

my my

their their

these these

a a

is is

Mauritian Mauritian

2005). 2005).

accelerated accelerated

supported supported

a a

Ledikasyon Ledikasyon

Mauritius Mauritius

given given

equations equations

given given

peasant peasant

socio-economic socio-economic

Parry Parry

a a

of of

contest, contest,

work. work.

local local

workers workers

there there

backbone backbone

and and

crucial crucial

counted counted

with with

socio-economic socio-economic

intellectual intellectual

want want

dimension dimension

Instead, Instead,

locations' locations'

this this

practice, practice,

of of

alliances alliances

region's region's

Zones). Zones).

into into

economic, economic,

(1989) (1989)

2004 2004

(other (other

long-term long-term

I I

the the

be be

or or

such such

political political

and and

to to

my my

would would

feature feature

strategies strategies

come come

are are

integration integration

industrializa­

in in

to to

the the

a a

pu pu

general general

3,500 3,500

and and

I I

understand understand

in in

more more

day day

does does

search search

long-term long-term

even even long-term long-term

long-term long-term

pertinent, pertinent,

economic economic

for for

they they

Recently, Recently,

changing changing

of of

capitalist capitalist

am am

in in

travayer travayer

stimula­

moralist moralist

inhabit­

true. true.

funded funded

change change

like like

politi­

global global

of of

trans­

wider wider

when when

many many

EPZs EPZs

party party

them them

hope hope

than than

may may

par­ per­

set­

and and

the the

for for

In In

to to

is is

\ \

10 10

well well

have have

thank thank

could could

9 9

8 8

4 4

6 6

5 5

7 7

3 3

2 2

1 1

club's club's The

political political

his his See See

(from (from

between between

particularly particularly

2005: 2005:

1897labelling 1897labelling

orders, orders, 'Nouveau 'Nouveau

Parry Parry

my my

of of

See See

ers ers The The Debates Debates

Printer, Printer,

and and

Vol. Vol.

Debates Debates Hein Hein

des des

practices practices

coming) coming) identifications identifications

Note Note

stated, stated,

whose whose

Legislative Legislative

activities activities

Social Social

cludes cludes

I I

Allen Allen

suggest suggest

as as

been been

women's women's

struggle struggle

e.g. e.g.

L L

earlier earlier

Rosie Rosie

ses ses

wish wish

view, view,

seems seems

Nation, Nation,

Jens Jens

I I

'Express, 'Express,

(1984). (1984).

that that

has has

149-51). 149-51).

Latin, Latin,

(1999) (1999)

anthropology anthropology

(Port (Port

main main

is is

on on

employes', employes',

'La 'La

introducing introducing

helpful, helpful,

1970), 1970),

practice practice

of of

'men 'men

of of

for for

a a

have have

have have

Parry's Parry's

argued argued

to to

for. for.

the the

unlikely unlikely

the the

malaise malaise

Kjaerulff, Kjaerulff,

name name

Read Read

distinction distinction

matter matter

Floreal Floreal

the the

Assembly, Assembly,

the the

with with

This This

not not

27 27

feature feature

labour labour

Stella Stella

Louis: Louis:

call call

Flexible Flexible

a a

is is

total total

and and

of of

morcellement, morcellement,

2 2

been been

pp. pp.

in in

Also, Also,

critique; critique;

Legislative Legislative

so so

September September

Legislative Legislative

As As

the the

September September

for for

means means

Mauritius Mauritius

of of

albeit albeit 'the 'the

would would

for for

the the

that that

'men 'men

juxtaposition juxtaposition

of of

far far

industry' industry'

1244-56. 1244-56.

Knitwear Knitwear

industriel: industriel:

L'Express, L'Express,

labour labour

given given

Clavisque Clavisque

I I

resistance. resistance.

ignored ignored

Authority Authority

most most

is is

yet yet

and and

the the

further further

Capitalism Capitalism

has has

present. present.

have have

her her

myth myth

comments comments

this this

been been

who who

ethnic ethnic

between between

10th 10th

and and

'the 'the

to to

be be

another another

Schnepel Schnepel

so so

that that

case case

on on

prominent prominent

force force

thought-provoking thought-provoking

spirit spirit

Assembly, Assembly,

a a

shown shown

1978. 1978.

different different

Assembly Assembly

as as

far far

1978. 1978.

industry' industry'

considered, considered,

star star

sharp sharp

March-30th March-30th

of of

on on

has has

(e.g. (e.g.

gendered gendered

discussion' discussion'

Ltd. Ltd.

those those

and and

'whether 'whether

Maris Maris

23 23

Accordingly, Accordingly,

P'tit P'tit

of of

'the 'the

represented represented

Notes Notes

of of

the the

and and

the the

in in

short-term short-term

of of

possession possession

June June

and and

normative normative

EPZs, EPZs,

been been

Labour Labour

investit investit

religious religious

the the

decline decline

1972 1972

(2005) (2005)

star star

above, above,

from from

were were

albert albert

capitalism capitalism

small-planters'. small-planters'.

one one

Transactional Transactional

Indict). Indict).

the the

extents. extents.

among among

pp. pp.

Assembly, Assembly, of of

rather rather

1971. 1971.

exploitation exploitation

and and

it it

the the

hand hand

was was

which which

years years

(Teelock (Teelock

and and

Mauritius, Mauritius,

key', key',

June June

Rs. Rs.

was was

Day Day

three three 939-45. 939-45.

from from

clans clans

shows shows

it it

division. division.

Mauritius Mauritius

the the

indicates indicates

mainly mainly

most most

around around

distinction distinction

and and

is is

than than

225,000 225,000

and and

rituals rituals

historians historians

of of

a a

and and

referring referring

or or

1970, 1970,

more more

une une

build build

key key

not not

''liberation", ''liberation",

Orders Orders

anonymous anonymous

population population

long-term long-term

comments comments

the the

capitalism capitalism

Mauritius Mauritius

La La

2001: 2001:

with with

generous generous

gender gender

ethno-religious ethno-religious

Teelock Teelock

to to

viable viable

139,000, 139,000,

usine usine

on on

Third Third

related related

See See

Coupe). Coupe).

than than

Debates Debates

clans clans

how how

multifariousness multifariousness

on on

as as

the the

in in

a a

capitalism capitalism

to to

to to

303). 303).

supporting supporting

Neveling Neveling

an an

the the

200,000 200,000

global global

Mauritius Mauritius

a a

l'entrainement l'entrainement

Indian Indian

women women

rather rather

Session, Session,

Mark Mark

to to

the the

island island

Saint Saint

transactional transactional

on on

Government Government

increase. increase.

to to

according according instead instead

devaluation devaluation

editor editor

as as

on on

distinguish distinguish

Nos. Nos.

social social

reviewers reviewers

the the

economic economic

has has

scale. scale.

Twain's Twain's

mirrors mirrors

in in

this, this,

Ocean' Ocean'

Pierre? Pierre?

society society

(forth­

(Parry (Parry

work­

other, other,

Third Third

+ +

ritual ritual

1-19, 1-19,

1958, 1958,

what what

been been

con­

and and

one one

231 231

In In

to to

of of as as 232 + Patrick Neveling Flexible Capitalism and Transactional Orders in Mauritius + 233

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'Occidemalism: The World Turned Upside-Down', Commodities, Local Interactions. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, American Ethnologist 19(2): 195-212. pp.121-142. Col! en, L. 1991. There Is a Tide. Port Louis: Ledikasyon pu Travayer. ---2014. (Structural Contingencies and Untimely Coincidences in the Cross, J. 2012. 'Sweatshop Exchanges: Gifts and Giving in the Global Making of Neoliberal India: The Kandla Free Trade Zone 1965-1991 ', Factory', Research in Economic Anthropology 32: 3-26. Contributions to Indian Sociology 48(1): 17--43. Dicken, P. 2003. Global Shift: Reshaping the Global Economic Map in the ---forthcoming. 'Export Processing Zones and Global Class 21st Century, 4th edn. London: Sage. Formation', inJ. Carrier and D. Kalb (eds), Anthropologies of Class: Fernandez-Kelly, M.P. 1983. For We Are Sold, I and My People: Women Power, Practice, and Inequality. Cambridge: Cambridge University and Industry in Mexico's Frontier. Albany: State University of New Press. York Press. North-Coombes, M.D. 2000. Studies in the Political Economy of Mauritius. Forget, P.A. 1983. Wishing a Future for the EPZ Is Not Enough. Port Louis: Moka, Mauritius: Mahatma Gandhi Institute. Mauritius Commercial Bank. Ong, A. 1987. Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Fro bel, F., J. Heinrichs and 0. Kreye. 1981. The New International Women in Malaysia. Albany: State University of New York Press. Division of Labour: Structural Unemployment in Industrialised ---1991. 'The Gender and Labor Politics of Postmodernity', Annual Countries and Industrialisation in Developing Countries. Cambridge: Review of Anthropology 20: 279-309. Cambridge University Press. Parry, J.P. 2005. 'Industrial Work', inJ. Carrier (ed.), A Handbook of Godelier, M. 1999. The Enigma of the Gift. Cambridge: Polity Press. Economic Anthropology. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, --- 2007. 'Death of a Celebrated Truth and Others Still Worth Re­ pp.141-159. stating',journa1 de la Societe des Oceanistes 125(2): 181-192. Safa, H.I. 1995. The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Gregory, C.A. 1980. 'Gifts to Men and Gifts to God: Gift Exchange and Industrialization in the Caribbean. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Capital Accumulation in Contemporary Papua', Man 15(4): 626-652. Schnepel, B. 2005, 'Inder auf Reisen', inK. Geisenhauer and K. Lange (eds), Harvey, D. 1990. The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Bewegliche Horizonte. Leipzig: Leipziger Universitatsverlag, pp.165-183. Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Blackwell. Scott, J.C. 1976. The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Hein, C. 1984. 'Jobs for the Girls: Export Manufacturing in Mauritius', Subsistence in Southeast Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press. International Labour Review 123: 251-265. Strangleman, T. 2007. 'The Nostalgia for Permanence at Work? The End of Jensen,J. 1988. (Synkretismus und ReligiOse Konfession aufMauritius', Work and Its Commentators', Sociological Review 55(1): 81-103. Sociologicus 38: 1-18. Taussig, M.T. 1980. The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South America. Kim, S.-K. 1997. Class Struggle or Family Struggle? The Lives of Women Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Factory Workers in South Korea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Teelock, V. 1998. Bitter Sugar: Sugar and Slavery in 19th Century Press. Mauritius. Moka, Mauritius: Mahatma Ghandi Institute. 234 + Patrick Neveling

---2001. Mauritian History: From Its Beginnings to Modern Times. Moka, Mauritius: Mahatma Gandhi Institute. Touraine, A. 1971. The Post-Industrial Society: Tomorrow's Social History. New York: Random House. World Bank. 1973. 'Mauritius, Appraisal of the Coromandel Industrial Estate'. Washington: Development Finance Companies Department, 8 World Bank. Zigon,]. 2007. 'Moral Breakdown and Ethical Demand: A Theoretical The Corrosion of Character Revisited Framework for an Anthropology of Moralities', Anthropological Theory 7(2): 131-150. Rethinking Uncertainty and Flexibility

]ens Kjaerulff

Richard Sennett's The Corrosion of Character (Sennett 1998) is a widely cited contribution to a body of literature which has emerged over the past couple of decades on the social dimensions of recent trends in economic practice. Concisely stated, a major concern in this literature, and pre-eminently in Sennett's book, has been with the ways in which new practices of flexibility ostensibly bring about unprecedented experiences of uncertainty. In her introduction to a special issue of Ethnos focused on 'risk', Boholm nicely summarizes this concern:

A central thought ... is that modern society has entered a new phase in its historical development. Industrial production and the market assume novel structural features emerging from the mobility of capital, people and technology over the globe. Traditional social relationships, groupings and identities erode along with the progression of late modernity ... The embeddedness of the individual in a firm order of meanings and expecta­ tions is disappearing. Certainty has given way to uncertainty, resulting in a state of collapsing ontological security and a sense of fundamental vulnerability and lack of faith. (Boholm 2003: 157)

Likewise, in a more recent review concentrated specifically on key contributions to newer studies in the sociology of work, Strangleman observes:

There is a shared view ... that capitalism has changed profoundly in terms of the speeding up of social and cultural change. Capital now demands greater flexibility and pliability ... The kind of economy that [

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Social anthropology in Europe is growing, and the variety of work being done is expanding. This series is intended to present the best of the work produced by members of the EASA, both in monographs and in edited collections. The studies in this series describe societies, processes, FLEXIBLE CAPITALISM and institutions around the world and are intended for both scholarly and student readership.

1. LEARNING FIELDS 13. POWER AND MAGIC IN ITALY Volume 1 Thomas Hauschild Educational Histories of European Social Exchange and Ambiguity at Work Anthropology 14. POLICY WORLDS Edited by Dorle Drack!C,lain R. Edgar and Anthropology and Analysis of Contemporary Thomas K. Schippcrs Power Edited by Cris Shore, Susan Wright and Davide 2. LEARNING FIELDS PerO Volltme2 Current Policies and Practices in European 15. HEADLINES OF NATION, SUBTEXTS Social Anthropology Education OF CLASS Edited by Dorle Drack!e and lain R. Edgar Working Class Populism and the Return of the Repressed in Neoliberal Europe 3. GRAMMARS OF IDENTITY/ALTERITY Edited by Don Kalb and Gabor I-Ialmai Edited by ]ens Kjaerulff A Structural Approach Edited by Gerd Baumann and Andre Gingrich 16. ENCOUNTERS OF BODY AND SOUL IN CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS 4. MULTIPLE MEDICAL REALITIES PRACTICES PatientS and Healers in Biomedical, Alternative Anthropological Reflections and Traditional Medicine Edited by Anna Fedele and Ruy Llera Blanes Edited by Helle ]ohannessen and Imre Lazar 17. CARING FOR THE 'HOLY LAND' 5. FRACTURING RESEMBLANCES Fi\ipina Domestic Workers in Israel Identity and Mimetic Conflict in Melanesia and Claudia Liebelt the West Simon Harrison 18. ORDINARY LIVES AND GRAND SCHEMES 6. SKILLED VISIONS An Anthropology of Everyday Religion Between Apprenticeship and Standards Edited by Samuli Schielke and Liza Debevec Edited by Cristina Grasseni 19. LANDSCAPES BEYOND LAND 7. GOING FIRST CLASS? Routes, Aesthetics, Narratives New Approaches to Privileged Travel and Edited by Arnar Arnason, Nicolas Ellison,Jo Movement Vergunst and Andrew Whitehouse Edited by Vered Amit 20. CYBERIDENTITIES AT WAR 8. EXPLORING REGIMES OF DISCIPLINE The Moluccan Conflict on the Internet The Dynamics of Restraint Birgit Briiuchler Edited by Noel Dyck 21. FAMILY UPHEAVAL 9. KNOWING HOW TO KNOW Generation, Mobility and Relatedness Among Fieldwork and the Ethnographic Present Pakistani Migrants in Denmark Edited by Narmala Halstead, Eric Hirsch and Mikkcl Rytter ]udith Okely 22. PERIPHERAL VISION 10. POSTSOCIALIST EUROPE Politics, Technology, and Surveillance Anthropological Perspectives from Home Catarina Frois Edited by Usz\6 Kiirti and Peter Skalnfk 23. BEING HUMAN, BEING MIGRANT 11. ETHNOGRAPHIC PRACTICE IN THE Senses of Self and Well-Being PRESENT Edited by Anne Sigfrid Gmnseth Edited by Marit Mc\huus,Jon P. Mitchell and 24. BEING A STATE AND STATES Helena Wulff OF BEING IN HIGHLAND GEORGIA 12. CULTURE WARS F!orian Miihlfried Context, Models and Anthropologists' Accounts Edited by Deborah]ames, Evelyn Plaice and 25. FLEXIBLE CAPITALISM Christina Toren Exchange and Ambiguity at Work berghahn Edited by ]ens Kjaerulff NEW YORK• OXFORD www.berghahnbooks.com Published in 2015 by Berghahn Books Contents www.berghahnbooks.com

©2015 Jens Kjaerulff

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short ~assages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of th1s book Acknowledgements may be reproduced in any form or by any means, ele~tromco: vn mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any mformat10n Introduction 1 storage and retrieval system ~o~known or to .be mvented, without written perm1ss10n of the pubhsher. ]ens Kjaerulff 1 Everybody Gives: Gifts in the Global Factory 43 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ]amie Cross Flexible capitalism: exchange and ambiguity at work I ed1ted by J ens Kjaerulff. 2 Unveiling the Work of the Gift: Neoliberalism and the pages cm. -- (EASA series; 25) . Flexible Margins of the Nation-State 66 Includes bibliographical references and mdex. Tinna Gretarsd6ttir ISBN 978-1-78238-615-5 (hardback)-- ISBN 978-1-78238-616- 2 (ebook) 1. Work environment--Social aspects. 2. Adaptability 3 Flexibility Frictions: Economies of Connection in (Psychology) 3. Interpersonal relations. 4. Capitalism--Soc1al Contemporary Forms of Work 93 aspects. I. Kjaerulff, Jens. Christina Garsten HD6955.F585 2015 331.2--dc23 4 Taking Over the Gift: The Circulation and Exchange of 2014033555 Options, Labour and 'Lucky Money' in Alberta's Oil and Gas Industry 116 :; Caura Wood , British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 5 How to Stay Entangled in a World of Flows: Flexible Subjects and Mobile Knowledge in the New Media Industries 146 ISBN: 978-1-78238-615-5 (hardback) HannahKnox E-ISBN: 978-1-78238-616-2 (ebook) 6 The Payoff of Love and the Traffic of Favours: Reciprocity, Social Capital and the Blurring of Value Realms in Flexible Capitalism 173 Susana Narotzky Index

Notes

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