Lexico-Semantic Areality in the Greater Hindu Kush an Areal-Typological Study on Numerals and Kinship Terms

Lexico-Semantic Areality in the Greater Hindu Kush An Areal-Typological Study on Numerals and Kinship Terms

Jacqueline Venetz

Department of Linguistics Independent Project for the Degree of Master (Two Year) 30 hp Typology and Linguistic Diversity Spring Term 2019 Supervisor: Henrik Liljegren Examiner: Ljuba Veselinova Project affiliation: ”Language contact and relatedness in the Hindukush region”, VR 421-2014-631 Lexico-Semantic Areality in the Greater Hindu Kush

An Areal-Typological Study on Numerals and Kinship Terms

Abstract

The Greater Hindu Kush designates a mountainous area extending from Afghanistan over Pakistan, Tajikistan and India to the westernmost parts of China. It is home to over 50 languages from six different phyla; Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Nuristani, Turkic, Tibeto-Burman and the language isolate Burushaski. Due to its unique geographical setting, it is characterised by language contact and isolation, which lays the perfect ground for research on linguistic diversity, language convergence and genealogical relations. The present study relies on data from the entire region and attempts to identify structural similarities based on lexical items from core vocabulary, numerals and kinship terms. The study reexamines the genealogical affiliation through lexical similarity and investigates areal patterns of vergence, i.e. the branching out or mergence of these patterns. Results reconfirm the established classification of the languages and indicate a certain level of structural similarity across language families for some features such as numeral bases, numeral composition and the terms for ‘parents’ and ‘parents-in-law’, yet it also shows great diversity for other features such as ‘grandchildren’ and one’s siblings’ partner.

Keywords Greater Hindu Kush, areal typology, lexical areality, numerals, kinship terms, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Nuristani, Turkic, Tibeto-Burman, Burushaski Lexikalisk Arealitet i Hindukushområdet

En areal-typologisk undersökning om numeraler och släktskapstermer

Sammanfattning

Hindu Kush är ett bergsområde som sträcker sig från Afghanistan över Pakistan, Tadzjikistan och Indien till västra Kina. Där finns över 50 språk från sex olika språkfamiljer: indoariska, iranska, nuristanska, turkspråk och tibeto-burmanska språk samt isolatspråket burushaski. På grund av områdets unika läge karaktäriseras språken av språkkontakt och isolation. Området lämpar sig således väl för forskning inom språklig mångfald, språkkonvergens och genealogiska relationer. Denna studie bygger på data från hela regionen och försöker identifiera strukturella likheter baserat på lexikala enheter från kärnordförrådet, numeraler och släktskapstermer. Studien undersöker den genealogiska tillhörigheten genom lexikala likheter och undersöker areala mönster av konvergens och divergens. Resultaten bekräftar den etablerade genealogiska till- hörigheten och indikerar en nivå av likhet i struktur, numeraler samt orden för ‘föräldrar’ och ‘svärföräldrar’. Resultaten påvisar också stor mångfald när det gäller andra termer såsom ‘barnbarn’ och ens syskons partner.

Nyckelord Hindukushområdet, arealtypologi, lexikalisk arealitet, numeraler, släktskapstermer, indo-ariska, iranska, nuristanska, turkspråk, tibeto-burmanska, burushaski List of Figures

1 Geographical distribution of languages and linguistic genera in the GHK, representing the traditional classification ...... 3 2 The language sample of the Greater Hindu Kush ...... 8 3 Visual representation of the cognate analysis ...... 13 4 Phylogram based on cognate analysis ...... 35 5 Simplified phylogenetic representation of the sample languages, based onGlot- tolog 3.4 (Hammarström et al. 2019) ...... 36 6 Distribution of numeral bases (Map data © 2019 Google) ...... 37 7 Distribution of numeral composition (Map data © 2019 Google) ...... 38 8 Distribution of patterns for ‘parents’ (Map data © 2019 Google) ...... 39 9 Distribution of patterns for ‘grandparents’ (Map data © 2019 Google) . . . . . 40 10 Distribution of patterns for ‘grandchildren’ (Map data © 2019 Google) . . . . . 40 11 Distribution of patterns for parents and their siblings (Map data © 2019 Google) 41 12 Distribution of patterns for ‘siblings’ children’ (Map data © 2019 Google) . . . 42 13 Distribution of patterns for ‘parents-in-law’ (Map data © 2019 Google) . . . . 43 14 Distribution of patterns for ‘partner’s siblings’ (Map data © 2019 Google) . . . 44 15 Distribution of patterns for ‘siblings’ partner’ (Map data © 2019 Google) . . . 44 16 Visual representation of the feature analysis ...... 45

i List of Tables

1 Kinship Abbreviations ...... 5 2 Language Sample (classification based on Glottolog 3.4 (Hammarström etal. 2019)) ...... 7 3 Cognate analysis example ...... 8 4 Patterns for numeral composition ...... 9 5 Features and values for kinship analysis ...... 10 6 Examples for words more likely to be cognates ...... 12 7 Examples for words less likely to be cognates ...... 13 8 Numeral Bases ...... 14 9 Ishkashimi multiples of ten ...... 14 10 Dameli multiples of ten ...... 15 11 Gojri (Afgh) multiples of ten ...... 15 12 Munji numerals ...... 15 13 Numeral Composition ...... 16 14 The numerals ‘5’, ‘15’ and ‘25’ in Sawi, Palula andKhowar ...... 16 15 Expressions of ‘parents’ ...... 16 16 Expressions of ‘grandparents’ ...... 17 17 Extended list of values for ‘grandparents’ ...... 20 18 Expressions of ‘grandchildren’ ...... 20 19 Expressions of one’s parents and their siblings ...... 22 20 Expressions of ‘siblings’ children’ ...... 24 21 Expressions of ‘parents-in-law’ ...... 27 22 Expressions of one’s siblings’ partners with male/female ego ...... 28 23 Expressions of one’s partner’s siblings ...... 30 24 Summary of results: Numerals ...... 32 25 Summary of results: Kinship Terms ...... 33

ii Abbreviations

GHK Greater Hindu Kush HKIA Hindu Kush Indo-Aryan B brother BD brother’s daughter BS brother’s son D daughter DD daughter’s daughter DS daughter’s son f feminine F father FB father’s brother FF father’s father FM father’s mother FZ father’s sister m masculine M mother MB mother’s brother MF mother’s father MM mother’s mother MZ mother’s sister S son SD son’s daughter SS son’s son Z sister ZD sister’s daughter ZS sister’s son

iii Contents List of Figures ...... i List of Tables ...... ii Abbreviations ...... iii 1 Introduction ...... 1 2 Background ...... 2 2.1 The Greater Hindu Kush ...... 2 2.1.1 The Geographical Area ...... 2 2.1.2 The Linguistic Setting ...... 2 2.2 Previous Research ...... 3 2.3 Areal Typology ...... 4 2.3.1 Lexico-Semantic Areality ...... 4 3 Method and Data ...... 6 3.1 Data ...... 6 3.2 Language Sample ...... 6 3.3 Analysis ...... 7 3.3.1 Cognate Analysis ...... 7 3.3.2 Numerals ...... 9 3.3.3 Kinship Systems ...... 9 3.4 Comparison ...... 11 4 Results ...... 12 4.1 Cognate Analysis ...... 12 4.2 Numerals ...... 13 4.2.1 Numeral Bases ...... 13 4.2.2 Numeral Composition ...... 14 4.3 Kinship Terms ...... 16 4.3.1 Parents ...... 16 4.3.2 Grandparents ...... 17 4.3.3 Grandchildren ...... 19 4.3.4 Parents and their Siblings ...... 21 4.3.5 Siblings’ children ...... 24 4.3.6 In-Law Relationships ...... 26 4.4 Summary ...... 31 5 Discussion ...... 34 5.1 Cognate Analysis ...... 34 5.2 Numerals ...... 37 5.2.1 Numeral Bases ...... 37 5.2.2 Numeral Composition ...... 37 5.3 Kinship Systems ...... 38 5.3.1 Parents ...... 38 5.3.2 Grandparents ...... 38 5.3.3 Grandchildren ...... 39 5.3.4 Parents’ Siblings ...... 41 5.3.5 Siblings’ Children ...... 41 5.3.6 In-Law Relationships ...... 42 5.4 Areal Clusters vs. Genealogical Affiliation ...... 43

iv 5.5 Method Discussion ...... 45 6 Conclusion ...... 47 6.1 Summary of the Study ...... 47 6.2 Further Research ...... 47 Bibliography ...... 51 Appendix I ...... 52 Appendix II ...... 55 Appendix III ...... 61 Appendix IV ...... 71 Appendix V ...... 79

v 1 Introduction

The mountain region of the Hindu Kush is a multiethnic and multilingual melting potbringing together over fifty languages from six different genera. A majority of these languages are members of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, while the remaining idioms belong to the Iranian, Nuristani, Tibeto-Burman and Turkic language families, as well as the language isolate Burushaski (Liljegren 2014: 136). Despite its linguistic diversity, the area as a whole is relatively underdescribed, which is due to the remoteness and the politically unstable situation of certain parts of the region. So far, only a handful of the languages have been studied in various length and depth and even less work has been done on an areal-typological level. Given this background, many aspects of the languages of the Greater Hindu Kush remain to be uncovered and the present thesis aims to close one of these gaps, by shedding further light on the complex linguistic situation from a macro-typological perspective. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the understanding of the languages of the Greater Hindu Kush, especially in regard to their similarity in lexical structure. It aims to answer the following research questions:

1. How do the languages of the Greater Hindu Kush resemble/differ from each other struc- turally, based on numerals and kinship terms? 2. Can significant areal patterns be identified in regard to numeral bases, numeral composition and various kinship terms? 3. Do these patterns mirror the genealogical affiliation of the languages or are theypurely areal?

The investigation is carried out in two steps: first, the proposed genealogical relationship between the languages of the Greater Hindu Kush is reexamined by means of a cognate analysis. Second, a number of lexical features are analysed, in order to detect patterns of areality in the area. These two analyses are then synthesised in a last step, where the genealogical affiliation is compared to the areal patterns. For this endeavour, the study relies on extensive data gathered from speakers of a total of 59 different languages and language varieties spoken in the region. In a first step, acognate analysis based on core vocabulary is performed, in order to verify the genealogical relatedness previously established by other researchers. Secondly, the numerals and kinship terms are analysed in terms of a number of selected structural features. Lastly, significant patterns in regards to the structural properties of these lexical items are identified, and determined whether these patterns mirror the genealogical affiliation of the languages or represent geographical clusters. The thesis is outlined as follows. In the second section, an overview of the geographical area and its languages in question is given, as well as an introduction to areal typology with particular focus on lexical areality. In section three, the data, language sample and methodological approach used for this thesis are presented. The results of the analyses are displayed in section four and discussed in section five. Section six concludes the thesis by summarising the important findings as well as predicting possible future research on the present subject.

1 2 Background

In this section, key notions and elements of this thesis are introduced. The first part is dedicated to the relevant region, both in terms of its geographical setting and linguistic context. The second part contains an introduction to the concept of areal typology, with a special focus on lexical-semantics in regard to kinship terms and numerals.

2.1 The Greater Hindu Kush 2.1.1 The Geographical Area The region that encompasses the languages relevant for this study is embedded within the highlands of Central and South Asian, as seen in Figure 1. Including parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, China and India, the area displays a high degree of linguistic and cultural diversity. As the region not only covers the Hindu Kush mountain range itself, but also surrounding areas like the westernmost foothills of the Himalayan arc, the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir, and several peripheral Afghan provinces, the term Greater Hindu Kush (GHK) will be used in this thesis, as suggested by Liljegren (2014: 134). Given its ethnic and re- ligious richness, the Greater Hindu Kush is not only linguistically speaking of interest, but also regarding its socio-cultural and political situation (Kreutzmann 1995). Especially Afghanistan has experienced decades of major political instability resulting in civil wars and international interventions. Pakistan has seen the rise of militant activities post 9/11, and has been in an ongoing dispute with India over the borderlands of Kashmir. These preconditions paired with geographically difficult terrain make the GHK quite hard to access, which in turn explainsthe lack of linguistic research done in the area, despite it being a goldmine of language diversity.

2.1.2 The Linguistic Setting The Greater Hindu Kush is a major junction of four well-known phyla; it hosts thenorth- western outliers of the Indo-Aryan languages, the easternmost representatives of the Iranian languages, the westernmost extension of the Sino-Tibetan family and touches on the southern border of the Turkic branch (Liljegren 2014: 134-135). The majority of the languages spoken in the GHK belong to the northernmost Indo-Aryan languages, which historically have been grouped under the term ”Dardic”. Since any striking similarities between these Dardic languages is most likely due to their longstanding contact in isolation from other Indo-Aryan languages, the languages are now considered to be an areal group instead of a genealogical one (Strand 2001: 251). Hence the group has increasingly been referred to in the purely geographical term ”Hindu Kush Indo-Aryan” (HKIA), which will also be employed in this thesis. The HKIA languages can be further divided into six subgroups, namely Chitral, Kunar, Pashai, Kohistani, Kashmiri and Shina (Bashir 2003: 824- 825). Not all Indo-Aryan languages within the confines of the Greater Hindu Kush are part of the geographical HKIA subgroup; a few of them belong to other sub-groupings, such as Domaki, Gojri or Pahari-Pothwari (Liljegren 2014: 137). The linguistic neighbours of the HKIA languages, namely Iranian and Nuristani, areboth spoken around and partly within the HKIA sphere of influence. The Nuristani languages, con- stituting the third main branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, are mainly based in the Afghan province of Nuristan, and to a lesser extent on Pakistani grounds. The Iranian languages are spread around the western part of the HKIA continuum, most predominantly represented by

2 Figure 1: Geographical distribution of languages and linguistic genera in the GHK, representing the traditional classification

Pashto in the south and south-west, and by the Dari/Tajiki dialect continuum in the north (Liljegren 2014: 135). The West Tibetan varieties found within the GHK realm, Balti, Ladakhi and Purik,are spoken in the Pakistan-administered Gilgit-Baltistan and the Indian-held state of Jammu and Kashmir respectively (Zemp 2018: 1). Kyrgyz and Uzbek, exponents of the Turkic branch, are situated at the periphery of the GHK in the north of Afghanistan. The language isolate Burushaski is mainly spoken in northern Gilgit-Baltistan, but a few hundred speakers are also located in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (Yoshioka 2012: 2-3).

2.2 Previous Research The main body of previous research consists of studies on individual languages or language families in varying length and depth, but still remain rather limited in their number. Especially Norwegian linguist Georg Morgenstierne has substantially contributed to the research of the Indo-Iranian languages in the first half of the last century. His work includes studies andtenta- tive grammars on a number of Indo-Iranian languages, such as Waigali, Pashto, Wakhi, Dameli, Pashai and Torwali, among others (Morgenstierne 1936; 1938; 1942; 1967). Early accounts of the Nuristani languages have been provided by the research of Strand (1973), Grjunberg (1980) and Degener (2002). The Hindu Kush Indo-Aryan languages have been extensively discussed in Masica (1991) and Bashir (2003). Earlier areal-typological studies on the languages of the GHK are confined to a small amount of features, but they already propose compelling evidence for areality. Such features include the tripartite affricate/fricative distinction (Tikkanen 2008: 254-255), lexically con-

3 trastive tone (Baart 2014), alignment with curious ergative-accusative splits (Liljegren 2014), the prevalence of left-branching complex structures (Bashir 1988: 401-403), vigesimal numeral systems (Tikkanen 1988: 309), multi-valued deictic systems (Bashir 2003: 823) and grammatical evidentiality (Bashir 2006).

2.3 Areal Typology As a relatively new field within linguistics, areal typology is situated at the junction oflan- guage typology and areal linguistics. The discipline has been defined as ”the study of patterns in the areal distribution of typologically relevant features of languages”. It not only describes the patterns themselves, but also explains the processes generating them, thus adopting botha synchronic and diachronic viewpoint at the same time (Dahl 2001: 1456). While the main interest of areal linguistics and areal typology coincide, their perspectives on the matter fundamen- tally differ; areal linguistics’ primary focus lies on the identification of linguistic areas, whereas language typology, and areal typology in particular, are more concentrated on linguistic features and their geographical distribution (Dahl 2001: 1456). From an areal-typological angle, diversity is just as significant as similarity and areal patterns are taken into account regardless of whether they correspond to the traditional notion of ”linguistic area” or not (Nichols 1992). Dahl (2001) lists several crucial factors that are involved in the processes of areal diffusion such as migration routes, historical relations, bilingualism and the geography of the area encompassing a certain set of languages. In addition to these features, Aikhenvald & Dixon (2001: 1-3) mention four further explanations of linguistic similarity, namely universal properties or tendencies, chance, genetic retention and parallel development, all of which need to be taken into account when investigating areal diffusion. Koptjevskaja-Tamm (2010: 582-584) introduces a framework for the construction of areal- typological studies which combines both a micro- and a macro-perspective. The micro-perspective adopts an approach similar to dialectology and traditional areal linguistics in that it provides a systematic and detailed description of linguistic domains across languages varieties. The macro-perspective complements the micro-typology by interpreting the findings against a general typological background (Koptjevskaja-Tamm 2010: 584). The combination of both perspectives thus permits a more fine-grained approach with a larger number ofsam- pling point than what is usually common for a large-scale typological study, and allows for the identification of usual as well as unusual traits shared in the area (Koptjevskaja-Tamm 2010: 588).

2.3.1 Lexico-Semantic Areality Analogous to areal typology, lexico-semantic areality is concerned with the diffusion of semantic features cross-linguistically in a geographical area (Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Liljegren 2017: 204). Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Liljegren (2017: 205) have identified a number of lexico- semantic phenomena that may serve as indicators of areal clustering. These phenomena include lexico-semantic parallels, shared formulaic expressions, areal-specific lexicalisations and internal organisation of semantic domains.

Kinship Terms One of the key features researched in this study are kinship terms and ter- minological systems. Systems of family relations are a remarkably promising domain for investigation, as they potentially mirror cross-community relationships in the region (Liljegren 2017: 146). Research of kinship, initiated by anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan in the nineteenth

4 century, has mainly been confined within the realms of anthropology and anthropological linguistics (cf. Carsten 2000, Schweitzer 2000, Holy 1996 and Dousset 2011). Linguistic research of kinship terminologies is primarily limited to the field of lexical typology (Koptjevskaja- Tamm, Rakhilina, et al. 2015: 437). A major contribution to the research of kinship terminology within linguistics has been done by Kroeber (1909). Kroeber argues against the classic distinction between classifying and descriptive kinship systems and instead details eight features he considers to be universal for all kinship terms. These features comprise generation, direct versus collateral, age difference in one generation, sex of the relative, sex of the connecting relative, sex of the speaker, consanguineal versus affinal, and the status of the connecting relative (Kroeber 1909: 78-79). In her work on ”Typology of Kinship Terms”, Nikolayeva (2014) discusses the typological approach to study kinship terms and presents methods, and problems, of describing kinship systems. She points out that in order to objectively compare lexico-semantic systems, core symbols of the six simplest kinship terms should be used instead of taking another living language as the basis (Nikolayeva 2014: 30). More complex term are then expressed by combination of the core items. In the present thesis, the following abbreviations will be used:

Term Abbreviation father F mother M brother B sister Z son S daughter D

Table 1: Kinship Abbreviations

Numerals Within linguistics, numerals and numeral systems have long been interesting from a typological and historical point of view (Schapper & Klamer 2014: 285). A number of studies on the typological variety and distribution of numeral systems with respect to their basic mathematical structure have been published beginning in mid-nineteenth century. Impor- tant contributions have been, among others, Greenberg (1979), Hurford (1975, 1987), Comrie (2013) and Hammarström (2007, 2010). While the 10-based (decimal) and 20-based (vigesimal) systems have been identified as the cross-linguistically most common ones, other arrange- ments such as body-part tally systems and 5- (quinary) or even 7-based (senary) systems have also been found among the languages of the world (Schapper & Klamer 2014: 249-250). As the preliminary studies by Edelman (1999: 221) and Liljegren (2017: 143) have shown, the numeral systems of the languages of the GHK are peculiar, in that they overwhelmingly favour a vigesimal or hybrid vigesimal-decimal system. Different hypotheses have been put forward in order to explain this curiosity: Edelman (1999: 221-223) argues that the vigesimal system might be an innovation of these languages, as the original number system seems to have been decimal, which is still found in other relatives outside the GHK. Tikkanen (1988: 309) on the other hand sees potential Burushaski substratum at the origin of the vigesimal system.

5 3 Method and Data

This chapter is dedicated to the data and methodology used for this thesis. The firstsection details the data collection process and the languages that have been sampled. The second section outlines the methodological approach and analytical procedure of the data evaluation. In terms of its theoretical framework, the present study adopts a functional-typological perspective as defined in Croft (2003: 2). This analysis is exploratory in its nature and wholly data-driven.

3.1 Data The data used for this study has been gathered in collaborative workshops with native speakers between 2015 and 2018. These multilingual workshops were held in Islamabad (Pakistan), Gilgit (Pakistan), Kabul (Afghanistan), Faizabad (India) and Srinagar (India) in addition to a number of individual sessions. The data collection was carried out by Henrik Liljegren within the frame of the research project ”Language contact and relatedness in the Hindu Kush region”, funded by the Swedish Research Council (2015-2019). The goal of the project is the creation of a typological profile of the region on the basis of data from 60 varieties spoken in theGreater Hindu Kush area. The collected material includes, among others, the following data sets:

– Basic vocabulary word list (40 items), based on the Automated Similarity Judgement Program1 – Numerals (59 items), based on Eugene Chan’s questionnaire for the cross-linguistic project ”Numeral systems of the world’s languages”2 – Kinship terms (95 items), compiled by Henrik Liljegren

For the elicitation, the participants filled in written questionnaires that were provided inboth English and either Urdu, Pashto or Dari, depending on the contact language of the consultant. In addition to the written questionnaires, audio recordings were produced of the participants reading aloud their answers. In order to avoid ambiguity, the terms of the kinship questionnaire were mostly of descriptive nature and not representing the actual lexical term used in English, Urdu, Pashto or Dari. This is the reason why, for example, the terms corresponding to English cousin, are given as one’s parent’s sibling’s child. The consultants were thoroughly instructed on how to fill inthe questionnaire and that no literal translations of the descriptive kinship terms were demanded. However, this does not exclusively rule out the possibility, that certain translations might still be literal and not lexical.

3.2 Language Sample The sample used for this thesis contains 59 varieties, with at least one representative ofeach phylum and, when relevant, of each subgroup. Table 2 gives an overview of all the languages as well as the percentage each of the subgroups makes out of the whole sample. Figure 2 shows their geographical distribution within the Greater Hindu Kush. The complete sample

1https://asjp.clld.org 2https://mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de/numeral/

6 of languages including their language code, exact location of the speaker, and time and place of the recording, can be found in Appendix I.

Family Subfamily Count Sampled Languages Indo- 29 (49%) Kalasha, Khowar, Kashmiri (Ind), Kashmiri (Pak), Ba- Aryan teri, Gawri, Indus Kohistani, Torwali, Dameli, Gawar- bati (Afgh), Gawarbati (Pak), Alasai, Alingar, Alis- hang, Amla, Aret, Chalas, Korangal, Sanjan, She- mal, Brokskat, Kalkoti, Kohistani Shina, Kundal Shahi, Palula, Sawi, Shina (Ind), Shina (Pak), Ushojo, Gojri Indo- (Afgh), Gojri (Pak), Hindko, Pahari-Pothwari European Iranian 13 (22%) Dari, Ishkashimi, Munji, Parachi, Pashto (Afgh), Pashto (Ind), Pashto (Pak), Roshani, Sanglechi, Shughni, Wakhi (Afgh), Wakhi (Pak), Yidgha Nuristani 6 (10%) Ashkun, Kamviri, Kati Eastern, Kati Western, Prasun, Waigali Turkic Common 2 (3%) Kyrgyz, Uzbek Turkic Sino- Tibeto- 3 (5%) Balti, Ladakhi, Purik Tibetan Burman Isolate Burushaski 2 (3%) Hunza, Nagar

Table 2: Language Sample (classification based on Glottolog 3.4 (Hammarström etal. 2019))

The sample is very tight and covers most languages spoken in the area, except for languages that are extinct or moribund. The broad range of the sample allows to exclude chance asanun- derlying factor of potential areal correlations. Further, the prevalence of the HKIA languages is also noticeable in the sample, making up nearly half of all the languages included. Follow- ing the research strategy suggested by Koptjevskaja-Tamm (2010: 582-589) for investigating geographical regions in areal-typological terms, the language sample contains a number of varieties from the same language, spoken in different countries or neighbouring areas. As mentioned in the previous chapter, this variation in languages will allow for the more detailed micro-perspective.

3.3 Analysis Concerning the processing of the data, the audio files have been phonetically annotated in IPA by Noa Lange, reassembled in an Excel file and colour-coded according to language affiliation by Nina Knobloch. All of the following steps of the analysis have been carried out by the author of this thesis. As initially stated, only the three lists on basic vocabulary, kinship terms and numerals have been taken into account for the analysis. A number of features based on numeral terms and kinship systems have been selected. The exact procedure of analysis is detailed in the following sections.

3.3.1 Cognate Analysis The first step was to reassess the genetic relationship of the different languages byidentifying cognates. In order to do so, a list of 83 items was used, which included the 40-item word list as well as basic numerals and selected kinship terms. Words were considered to be cognates

7 Figure 2: The language sample of the Greater Hindu Kush if they were deemed to be phonologically similar enough, to have developed from the same original word. All languages sharing the same cognate for one word would be assigned the same symbol as exemplified by the words ‘sun’ and ‘tooth’ in Table 3. The values of the symbols are of no particular importance; they merely serve as indicators of the different sets of cognates for each word.

language ‘sun’ symbol ‘tooth’ symbol Ashkun su 2 dont 3 Balti ŋimah 3 soː 2 Bateri suːr 2 daːn 3 Brokskat suri 2 dæni 3 Burushaski, Hunza sa 1 ameː 1 Burushaski, Nagar sah 1 ameː 1 Dameli sir 2 dan 3 Dari, Darwoz aftoːw 7 danduː 3 Domaki toː ? don 3

Table 3: Cognate analysis example

Once all lexical items were examined, the assigned values were then fed into the software SplitsTree3, which visualised the lexical similarity among the languages. SplitsTree uses an algorithm called NeighborNet, which allows for the construction of phylogenetic networks by agglomerating clusters, all without forming a hierarchy, as opposed to the traditional tree model (Bryant & Moulton 2004: 255). The thus obtained NeighborNet visualisation (see Figures

3The software is available at www.splitstree.org

8 3 and 16) shows the level of similarity between each language; the further away they are from each other, the less lexically similar they are.

3.3.2 Numerals For the analysis of the numerals, two features have been selected, namely their numeral bases and their composition. The base of a numeral system is defined by the value n, in a numeral expression constructed after the pattern xn + y, as for example in Swedish (1), which uses a 10-based system:

(1) Swedish fyr-tio-fyra four-ten-four ‘fourty-four’

WALS identifies six different values for the numeral bases, namely decimal, hybrid decimal- vigesimal, pure vigesimal, other base, extended body-part system and restricted. The hybrid decimal-vigesimal system differs from the pure vigesimal system in that it only expresses numbers up to 99 vigesimally, to then switch to a decimal format (Comrie 2013). For this analysis, however, any language expressing at least one multiple of ten by any combination including the lexical numeral 20 has been regarded as vigesimal. The numerals have further been analysed in regard to their composition of the baseandthe single digit. The different possible patterns are displayed inTable 4; either the base is always followed by the single digit as in French, or the single digit always precedes the base, as in German, or the composition changes, as in English:

language pattern ‘17’ ‘27’ French base + x dix-sept vingt-sept German x + base siebzehn siebenundzwanzig English x + base, base + x seventeen twenty-seven

Table 4: Patterns for numeral composition

3.3.3 Kinship Systems The kinship terms have been examined on the basis of their semantic reach and their structural composition, i.e. whether a kinship term is lexically expressed or semantically constructed, and if this construct is recurring in other languages. The sets of kinship terms that have been selected for the analysis, together with their assigned values, are shown in Table 5. The values have been set up in the course of the analysis and were not predefined. The parents have been studied in terms of their composition, i.e. whether theyareex- pressed through a ‘mother-father’ compound or their own lexical expression. The identified values are (1) ‘father-mother’ compound (2) ‘mother-father’ compound and (3) ‘other’. The grandparents have been analysed according to how descriptive the systems are;ifa language differentiates between all four relations, it has been classified as a ‘four-way split’ type, if the difference only arises between the sex of the relative, the language was classified as a ‘two-way split’ type.

9 The grandchildren have been analysed in a similar fashion, i.e. the languages were classified according to whether they are differentiating between the sex of the grandchild, thesex of the connecting relative or both. Four values have been set up for classifying the possible patterns of expressing ‘grandchild’. The parents’ siblings were classified in comparison to the terms for ‘father’ and ‘mother’, i.e. whether they use the same term for ‘father’ and paternal brother, respectively ‘mother’ and maternal sister, or entirely different lexical expression. This way of analysing yielded six different values that were possible for expressing one’s parents and their siblings. One’s siblings’ children have been categorised analogous to ‘grandchildren’, which also resulted in four possible values, where a language either has four distinct lexical terms, only one lexical term, or varying combinations of grouping certain relations together under one term. Regarding the in-law relationships, they all have been categorised similar to the grandparents according to the amount of differentiation within each system. The siblings-in-law have been split up into one’s siblings’ partner and one’s partner’s siblings. As mentioned in section 2.3.1, abbreviations of the six most basic kinship terms have been used and any further relations have been expressed with a combination of the initial six terms. This analysis is by no means exhaustive and only serves as an entry point to the vastfieldof kinship terminologies in the languages of the GHK.

Feature Values Feature Values father-mother compound BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD parents mother-father compound BS=ZS/BD=ZD other siblings’ children BS≠BD/ZS=ZD two-way split BS=BD=ZS=ZD grandparents four-way split other other two-way split SS=DS/SD=DD parents-in-law three-way split SS≠SD≠DS≠DD four-way split grandchildren SS=SD=DS=DD two-way split SS=SD/DS≠DD three-way split siblings’ partners other four-way split F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ other F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ two-way split F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ three-way split partner’s siblings parents and their siblings F=FB≠MB/M=MZ≠FZ four-way split F=FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ other F≠FB≠MB/M=MZ=FZ other

Table 5: Features and values for kinship analysis

10 3.4 Comparison Once all the features have been analysed, they have been plotted on feature maps in order to trace potential patterns of areality. For this, Google’s MyMaps app4 has been used, which provided rudimentary maps. Unfortunately these maps are not equipped with scales and a subsequent insertion of the scales was not possible. For a more accurate representation and interpretation of the clusters, a scale would have been crucial. Clusters have been identified purely on the basis of visual estimate, and no specific geospatial analysis was conducted. For further comparison, a similar approach has been adopted as for the cognate analysis; languages sharing the same pattern for a certain feature were assigned the same symbol, i.e. languages representing ‘parents’ as a ‘father-mother’ compound were assigned a different value than languages that express ‘parents’ with their own lexical term. The SplitsTree software was then used again to generate a graphic approximation of the similarity between the languages which revealed potential patterns of vergence, that is to say patterns ofeither divergence or convergence. These findings have subsequently been compared to the findings of the cognate analysis to see whether these structural patterns reflect the genealogical relationship or if they indicate areal clustering due to factors such as language contact or parallel development.

4available at https://www.google.com/maps/d/

11 4 Results

The present chapter details the results from the analysis. The first sections specifies thefind- ings from the cognate analysis based on basic vocabulary. The sections thereafter treat the results from the analysis of the numerals as well as the kinship terms. The genealogical implications and geographical distributions of the following results will be addressed in section 5.

4.1 Cognate Analysis The word list, together with additional items from the numeral data set and the kinship questionnaire, have been analysed in terms of cognacy. The analysis of the cognates has yielded some interesting results; it not only confirmedthe previously established genealogical relationships between the languages of the GHK, it also uncovered certain tendencies within the sample. Several lexical items have shown to be more or less uniform throughout the entire sample and across language families, while other lexical items appear to be unique, sometimes even within language families. Generally, words like pronouns, body-parts, numbers, core kinship terms and terms related to nature tend to be cognates more often. Table 6 presents a few examples, where most languages share cognates for each of the words. Obvious outliers are the non-Indo-European languages, such as Burushaski, Kyrgyz and Purik. On the other hand, words like complex kinship terms, verbs and individual words from certain categories displayed more variation, even within language families. This can be ob- served in Table 7, where even related languages such as Sawi, Gawri, Kalasha and Pashai have very different lexical entries for the same word.

‘I’ ‘ear’ ‘leaf’ ‘name’ ‘mother’ Ashkun (Nuristani) aj kamaʈ͡ʂə paːr nam aɽaj Purik (Tibeto-Burman) ŋa hr̥naː loːma miŋ ama Gawri (Kohistani) jɑ kɑn pɑɬ nɑːm jaj Sawi (Shina) ma kaːɳ paːɬu naːm jeːj Hunza (Burushaski) d͡ʑe altumal tap ajik ami Gawarbati, Pak (Kunar) ãː kʰamʈa faʈa naːm d͡ʒaːj Parachi (Iranian) ɑːn guːʃ puːn nɑːm mɑː Gojri, Afgh (Indo-Aryan) hũː kaːn baːmfru naː maː Kashmiri, Ind (Kashmiri) bɨ kan panɨ naːw moːd͡ʒ Kalasha (Chitral) a kõ põ nom aːja Kyrgyz (Turkic) men qulaq berk ɑt ene Chalas (Pashai) a χoɽ paʈek nom aːi

Table 6: Examples for words more likely to be cognates

The lexical similarity of the languages has also been rendered visually byusingthe SplitsTree software, which generated a NeighborNet seen in Figure 3. The lines between languages indicate their lexical similarity; the closer and shorter a line is, the more similar the languages are to each other. A distance matrix5 has also been calculated and it follows the same principle;

5Due to its size, the distance matrix could not be included in this document, but it is accessible via this link.

12 ‘liver’ ‘hear’ ‘mountain’ ‘see’ ‘wife’s brother’ Ashkun (Nuristani) vijon purud͡zu kanɖrə vendə aːj mi Purik (Tibeto-Burman) t͡ʃʰinma ɲanma riː juŋma nunu Gawri (Kohistani) jan bud͡ʒuːg kʰɑn t͡ʃʰaʈɑːg ʃɑːʃur Sawi (Shina) jiːnuː bud͡ʒiloː ɖaɖu paʃiloː awχaj Hunza (Burushaski) akin dojalas t͡ɕʰar barenas arik Gawarbati, Pak (Kunar) andeːt͡s ʂuɳɖaːwa daɽa - gala baːlawa ʐami Parachi (Iranian) d͡ʒigar hatu dahɑːr duɽuː χusur bura Gojri, Afgh (Indo-Aryan) pʰapru suɳun ɖʰaːkuː deːkʰaɳ saːɽoː Kashmiri, Ind (Kashmiri) krehən maːz bɔːzun baːl wut͡ʃʰun həhər Kalasha (Chitral) ʒaŋgu kõːkarik denta d͡ʒagek weːwaj Kyrgyz (Turkic) bor uqan qɯr kɯrgi quda Chalas (Pashai) zəɽ aːrak izor paɽajk ʃiwuɽuk

Table 7: Examples for words less likely to be cognates the lower the number, the more similar two languages are to each other.

Figure 3: Visual representation of the cognate analysis

4.2 Numerals 4.2.1 Numeral Bases The analysis fo the numeral bases has been based on a more generalising definition ofviges- imality, as discussed in section 3.3 and section 5.5. Adopting said broad definition has led to

13 the present results, where a majority of the GHK languages display a vigesimal-based system, as has already been indicated in previous studies (Liljegren 2017: 144). This does not reflect the global tendency, which clearly favours the decimal system in 64% of the world’s languages (Comrie 2013). Only a third of the GHK languages adhere to the decimal type, as seen in Table 8.

System Distribution Vigesimal 37 (64%) Decimal 21 (36%) Total 58

Table 8: Numeral Bases

The languages displaying a decimal system are quite uniform and no unexpected patterns have been identified9 ( ).

Number Translation ten daː twenty biːst thirty siː forty t͡ʃəl fifty pind͡ʒɑː sixty ʃaːst seventy aftɑːd eighty aʃtɑːd ninety nawad hundred sad

Table 9: Ishkashimi multiples of ten

As discussed in the previous chapter, any language using the numeral 20 at least once to form any other multiple, has been considered vigesimal. While most of these languages consistently use the lexical numeral 20 as a means of expressing multiples of ten, as seen in example (10), in some cases the system deviates slightly from this constant vigesimal system. Afghan Gojri, for example, has its own numeral for ‘forty’ t͡ʃɽiː but switches to a vigesimal system for the remaining multiples of ten, as seen in (11). One very curious case is Munji. While superficially Munji appears to have a normal decimal- based system, it becomes clear after close observation that Munji actually does not haveany ten-based numerals at all. Instead, Munji only has numerals for 0 to 9, and any number higher than nine is a mere combination of these basic numerals, as for example juː o sifɛr – ‘ten’, which literally means ‘one and zero’. All single digits and the multiples of ten for Munji are given in Table 12.

4.2.2 Numeral Composition The actual composition of the numerals reveals three different patterns: an n + base type, a base + n type, as well as a mixed pattern, which uses n + 10 but switches to base + n for any

14 Number Translation Composition ten daʃ 10 twenty biʃiː 20 thirty biʃi oː daʃ 20 + 10 forty du biʃiː 2 + 20 fifty du biʃi oː daʃ 2 + (20 + 10) sixty traː biʃiː 3 + 20 seventy traː biʃi oː daʃ 3 + (20 + 10) eighty t͡ʃoːr biʃiː 4 + 20 ninety t͡ʃoːr biʃi oː daʃ 4 + (20 + 10) hundred pãːt͡ʃ biʃiː 5 + 20

Table 10: Dameli multiples of ten

Number Translation Composition ten da 10 twenty biː 20 thirty triː 30 forty t͡ʃɽiː 40 fifty daːte t͡ʃɽiː 10 + 40 sixty trɛː biː 3 + 20 seventy daːte trɛː biː 10 + (3 + 20) eighty t͡ʃaːr biː 4 + 20 ninety daːte t͡ʃaːr biː 10 + (4 + 20) hundred suː 100

Table 11: Gojri (Afgh) multiples of ten

Number Translation Number Translation zero sifɛr ten juː o sifɛr one juː twenty lə o sifɛr two lə thirty çiraj o sifɛr three çiraj forty t͡ʃəfiːr o sifɛr four t͡ʃəfiːr fifty pɑːnd͡ʒ o sifɛr five pɑːnd͡ʒ sixty ɑːχʃe o sifɛr six ɑːχʃɛ seventy ɑːvde o sifɛr seven ɑːvdɛ eighty ɑːʃce o sifɛr eight ɑːʃcɛ ninety new o sifer nine nɛw hundred juː o lə siferiː

Table 12: Munji numerals

15 number above 19. Table 136 summarises the distribution of the different patterns. The sample displays a tendency towards the mixed pattern, with almost half of the languages adhering to that pattern. The patterns n + base and base + n are both equally spread among the other half of the languages.

Composition Distribution n + 10, 20 + n 26 (46%) n + 10, n + 20 17 (30%) 10 + n, 20 + n 14 (24%) Total 57

Table 13: Numeral Composition

Table (14) gives an overview of the three types, with examples illustrating each of them. In- terestingly, all of the languages in this example are Indo-Aryan and while their lexical forms are similar, the structural make up of the numbers is clearly different, which points towards an areal feature rather than a genealogical one.

‘5’ ‘15’ ‘25’ Sawi n + 10, n + 20 paːnd͡ʒ pand͡ʒiʃ paːnd͡ʒɑːn biʃ Palula n + 10, 20 + n paːnd͡ʒ pand͡ʒiːʃ bʰiʃeː paːnd͡ʒ Khowar 10 + n, 20 + n põːt͡ʃ d͡ʒoʃ põːt͡ʃ biʃir põːt͡ʃ

Table 14: The numerals ‘5’, ‘15’ and ‘25’ in Sawi, Palula andKhowar

4.3 Kinship Terms 4.3.1 Parents The expression of ‘parents’ is predominantly a compound formed by the juxtaposition ofthe terms for ‘mother’ and ‘father’. Out of these languages, a majority of 34 languages put ‘mother’ first and ‘father’ second, while the remaining 15 form the compound the other wayround.Ten languages express ‘parents’ with their own lexical item. Table 15 summarises these numbers.

Parents Distribution mother-father compound 34 (58%) father-mother compound 15 (25%) special lexical item 10 (17%) Total 59

Table 15: Expressions of ‘parents’

Kundal Shai, see example (2), is one of these languages, that puts ‘mother’ first and ‘father’ second. Uzbek is an example of a language that places ‘father’ first, followed by ‘mother’, as seen in (3). 6This table excludes Pahari-Pothwari as well as Kundal Shahi, as the numeral terms for these languagesare missing in the data.

16 (2) Kundal Shahi [shd] meːl maːl mother father ‘parents’

(3) Uzbek [uzs] ɑːta ɑːna father mother ‘parents’

The remaining ten languages have a unique lexical term for ‘parents’ which is notderived from ‘mother’ and/or ‘father’ as in example (4):

(4) Dari (Darwoz) [prs (d)] a. bɑːba – ‘father’ uːma – ‘mother’ b. χuːnawɑːda – ‘parents’

4.3.2 Grandparents The ways of expressing ‘grandparents’ among the GHK languages can be divided up intothree different patterns. The most common way to designate one’s grandparents is tosimplydis- tinguish between ‘grandfather’ and ‘grandmother’, regardless of their paternal or maternal affiliation. A good third of all languages in the sample differentiate between all fourpossible types of relations. Two languages adhere to their own patterns, which do not fit into either the two-way nor the four-way split type. The different patterns and their distribution aregiven in Table 167.

Value Sample representation two-way split 37 (64%) four-way split 19 (33%) other 2 (3%) Total 58

Table 16: Expressions of ‘grandparents’

Most languages adhering to the first type either have distinct lexical items for ‘grandfather’ and ‘grandmother’, as in 5, or items based on the term of ‘father’ and ‘mother’ with additional markers indicating the older generation.

7Pakistani Kashmiri has been disregarded in this analysis as the term for ‘mother’s father’ is missing in the data.

17 (5) Brokskat [bkk] a. duːdo – ‘grandfather’ b. dædeː – ‘grandmother’

The additional marking of the senior generation is either done by reiteration of theoriginal parental term (6) or by adding an adjective meaning ‘big’ or ‘old’ (7).

(6) Sanglechi [sgy] a. taːt taːt b. naːn naːn father.father mother.mother ‘grandfather’ ‘grandmother’

(7) Sawi [sdg] a. gaːna baːbu b. gaːni jeːj old.m father old.f mother ‘grandfather’ ‘grandmother’

The four-way split type can further be divided into languages subscribing to a FF≠MF/FM≠MM type or a FF≠MF≠FM≠MM type. The FF≠MF/FM≠MM type is characterised by phonologically similar words for both ‘grandfather’ with the distinction between paternal and maternal affiliation is made apparent by means of different consonants. The paternal side is usually defined by the use of bilabial consonants (8a) while the maternal side is marked by nasal consonants, as it is the case in Palula (8b).

(8) Palula [phl] a. dôːdo – ‘father’s father’ dêːdi – ‘father’s mother’ b. môːmo – ‘mother’s father’ mêːmi – ‘mother’s mother’

This subtype also includes languages that add a specific maternal marker to the otherwise identical lexical item for both ‘grandmother’ and ‘grandfather’. This maternal marker has been found in four languages of the sample, and it is usually a term derived from ‘mother’ as seen in Kashmiri (9):

(9) Kashmiri (Ind) [kas (i)] a. maːd͡ʒi bɨɖi bab b. maːd͡ʒi naːnʲ mother grandfather mother grandmother ‘maternal grandfather’ ‘maternal grandmother’

The FF≠MF≠FM≠MM pattern expresses all four types of relations lexically different. Inthis regard, Gawarbati (Afgh) strikes as particularly special, as it appears to have lexical items for ‘father’s father’ and ‘father’s mother’ but not for the maternal grandparents. In fact, ‘mother’s father’ seems to be a combination of ‘father’ and the lexical item for ‘paternal grandfather’, as seen in (10):

18 (10) Gawarbati (Afgh) [gwt (a)] baːp buɖa father (paternal).grandfather ‘maternal grandfather’

The term for ‘maternal grandmother’ d͡ʒaːjani d͡ʒaːj looks like a literal translation of ‘mother’s mother’. Equally curious is the case of Kalkoti, displayed in example (11), where no clear pattern can be made out.

(11) Kalkoti [xka] a. leːg baːn – ‘father’s father’ daːd – ‘father’s mother’

b. deːd – ‘mother’s father’ maːm – ‘mother’s mother’

The two languages classified as ‘other’ – Pashai (Aret) and Uzbek – do in fact display athree- way split. The Aret variety of the Pashai languages uses a FF≠MF/FM=MM type, whereboth maternal and paternal grandmother are expressed with the same lexical item but a difference is made between FF and MF, as exemplified in12 ( ):

(12) Pashai (Aret) [aee (at)] a. bəːwəs bɑːbeː – ‘father’s father’ gaɽeːam – ‘father’s mother’

b. bɑːbeːam – ‘mother’s father’ gaɽeːam – ‘mother’s mother’

Uzbek follows a very curious FF=MF/FM≠MM pattern, where both grandfathers share the same term, but not the grandmothers. The grandfathers are called ‘big fathers’ – ɑːta ‘father’, buːwa ‘big’, while the grandmothers are expressed more descriptive. The Uzbek example is shown in (13):

(13) Uzbek [uzs] ɑːta mɑːmɑː – ‘father’s mother’ ɑːna mɑːmɑː – ‘mother’s mother’

Table 17 is taking these different sub-types into account and gives a more detailed overview of the expression of ‘grandparents’.

4.3.3 Grandchildren Grandchildren are expressed in several different ways. Half of all languages simply have two separate terms to refer to either ‘grandson’ or ‘granddaughter’. The most descriptive type,

19 Value Sample representation FF=MF/FM=MM 37 (64%) FF≠MF/FM≠MM 15 (26%) FF≠MF≠FM≠MM 4 (7%) FF=MF/FM≠MM 1 (1%) FF≠MF/FM=MM 1 (1%) Total 58

Table 17: Extended list of values for ‘grandparents’ where each relation has its own lexical term, makes up 22% of the sample. The simplest descriptive type, namely only one term for all relations, has been found in eight languages. The remaining eight languages of the sample display their own patterns that do not fall into any of the above mentioned categories. The different patterns and their distribution are shownin Table 18.

Value Sample representation SS=DS/SD=DD 30 (51%) SS≠SD≠DS≠DD 13 (22%) SS=SD=DS=DD 8 (14%) SS=SD/DS≠DD 3 (5%) other 5 (8%) Total 59

Table 18: Expressions of ‘grandchildren’

The predominant type found in the sample simply distinguishes between the sex of thegrand- children, disregarding the sex of the connecting relative, as exemplified in the Pakistani variety of Pashto (14):

(14) Pashto (Pak) [pbu (p)] a. nwaseː – ‘son’s son’ nwasej – ‘son’s daugther’ b. nwaseː – ‘daughter’s son’ nwasej – ‘daughter’s daughter’

This pattern is followed by the most descriptive type, where all four relations areexpressed differently, as in Hindko15 ( ):

(15) Hindko [hno] a. poːtraː – ‘son’s son’ poːtriː – ‘son’s daughter’ b. dʰeːtraː – ‘daughter’s son’ dʰeːtriː – ‘daughter’s daughter’

20 Parachi (16) is one of the languages that adheres to the least descriptive pattern, with only one lexical item for ‘grandchild’:

(16) Parachi [prc] a. nawɑː – ‘son’s son’ nawɑː – ‘son’s daughter’ b. nawɑː – ‘daughter’s son’ nawɑː – ‘daughter’s daughter’

Three languages in the sample display a SS=SD/DS≠DD pattern, where the son’s descendants share the same term while a distinction is made between the daughter’s male and female offspring, as seen in Kyrgyz17 ( ):

(17) Kyrgyz [kir] a. nibire – ‘son’s son’ nibire – ‘son’s daughter’ b. d͡ʒen – ‘daughter’s son’ t͡ʃibire – ‘daughter’s daughter’

A few special cases have been identified that do not resemble any of the previously defined patterns. One such case is Uzbek, where both granddaughters share the sameterm qiz niːwara, which is clearly a compound of ‘daughter’ qiz and ‘grandchild’ niːwara. The son’s son follows a similar pattern with ‘son’ wuʁul and niːwara. Curiously enough, however, the term for ‘daughter’s son’ is a compound of bat͡ʃa and niːwara, where bat͡ʃa is most likely a Persian loan for ‘son’. Equally curious is the case of the in Darwoz spoken Dari variety, which has the Persian word for ‘son’s son’ nuwasa, aand a derived form of ’sister’ χɑːr as both ‘son’s daughter’ and ‘daughter’s son’ χɑːrzɑː. ‘Daughter’s daughter’, however, is the compound daχtari χɑːr, which literally translates to ‘daughter’s sister’. Gawri falls in the same category, as it has one term covering two kinship relations, but as opposed to Uzbek and Darwoz Dari, Gawri summarises both ‘daughter’s son’ and ‘daughter’s daughter’ under the term nosaj, while ‘son’s son’ is expressed through poːɬ and ‘son’s daughter’ through peːɬ. Both Waigali and the Afghan variety of Wakhi have the same term for all relations but one; in Waigail’s case, the ‘son’s son’ is expressed as nawaː, while all others fall together under the term nut. Afghan Wakhi covers all relations under the term nəpɨs, except for the daughter’s daughter which is a compound formed of ‘daughter’ ðəɣd and ’child’ zəman. Interestingly enough, the term for ‘child’ in Afghan Wakhi is wəxtək, but still zəman in the Pakistani variety of Wakhi.

4.3.4 Parents and their Siblings The parents’ siblings have been compared not only to each other, but also to the respective terms for ‘father’ and ‘mother’. Six different patterns have been identified in the data:(1) separate terms for all six types of relations, (2) the male relations have different terms; the term for mother’s and father’s sister is the same but different from mother, (3) father’s and mother’s brother are the same but differ from father; father’s and mother’s sister are the same

21 but differ from mother, (4) father and father’s brother are the same but differ frommother’s brother; mother and mother’s sister are the same but different from father’s sister, (5) father and father’s brother are the same but different from mother’s brother; mother’s and father’s sister are the same but different from mother, and (6) father, father’s brother and mother’s brother are all distinct; mother, mother’s sister and father’s sister are the same. The most predominant pattern is the one differentiating between all possible relations, making up two thirds of the entire sample. All other types are considerably less common and each one is only found in a handful of languages. Two languages do not adhere to any of the defined values and are thus classified as ‘other’. Table 198 summarises the patterns and their distributions.

Value Sample representation F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ 37 (64%) F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ 8 (14%) F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ 6 (10%) F=FB≠MB/M=MZ≠FZ 4 (7%) F=FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ 2 (3%) F≠FB≠MB/M=MZ=FZ 1 (2%) Total 58

Table 19: Expressions of one’s parents and their siblings

The most descriptive type has six different lexical items for each of the18 relations( ):

(18) Gojri (Pak) [gju (p)] a. baːp – ‘father’ t͡ɕaːt͡ɕu – ‘father’s brother’ maːmoː – ‘mother’s brother’

b. mãː – ‘mother’ moːsiː – ‘mother’s sister’ pʰupʰi – ‘father’s sister’

Type (2) has five different lexical items, the only terms overlapping are the ones formother’s sister and father’s sister. The Pashai variety of Alingar is one example of a type (2) language (19):

(19) Pashai (Alingar) [psi (ar)] a. bwɑː – ‘father’ kɑːkɑː – ‘father’s brother’ mɑːmɑː – ‘mother’s brother’

b. ɑːi – ‘mother’ mɑːmoː – ‘mother’s sister’ 8Balti is missing in this analysis, as the term for ‘father’s brother’ has not been recorded.

22 mɑːmoː – ‘father’s sister’

Type (3) has distinct terms for father and mother, but shared terms for aunts and uncles, as exemplified by Khowar (21):

(20) Khowar [khw] a. tat – ‘father’ mik – ‘father’s brother’ mik – ‘mother’s brother’

b. nan – ‘mother’ bet͡ʃ – ‘mother’s sister’ bet͡ʃ – ‘father’s sister’

Type (4) merges the parents’ same sex siblings together with the term for the respective parent. The opposite-sex siblings have each their own lexical term, as seen in21 Brokskat( ):

(21) Brokskat [bkk] a. boː – ‘father’ boː – ‘father’s brother’ muːmo? – ‘mother’s brother’

b. aːj – ‘mother’ aːj – ‘mother’s sister’ peːpeː – ‘father’s sister’

Type (5) has one term referring to both ‘father’ and ‘father’s brother’, and one term for both mother’s and father’s sister. Both Kati varieties adhere to this type, here with an example from Western Kati (22):

(22) Western Kati [bsh (w)] a. tɑː – ‘father’ mad͡ʒim tɑː – ‘father’s brother’ mam – ‘mother’s brother’

b. nu – ‘mother’ naniː – ‘mother’s sister’ naniː – ‘father’s sister’

Type (6) regroups all female relations under one term, while all male relations have their distinct lexical expression. The Korangal variety of Pashai is the only language in the sample belonging to this type (23):

23 (23) Pashai (Korangal) [aee (kg)] a. babɑː – ‘father’ dɑːdɑː – ‘father’s brother’ mɑːmɑː – ‘mother’s brother’

b. aːi – ‘mother’ aːi – ‘mother’s sister’ kaniʃʈiːaːi – ‘father’s sister’

An interesting pattern, which is not captured by the defined types, is found in thetwoBu- rushaski varieties. Both have distinct terms for ‘father’s brother’ and ‘mother’s sister’, yet the same for ‘father’s sister’ and ‘mother’s brother’ (24):

(24) Burushaski [bsk (h)] a. t͡ʃaːt͡ʃaː – ‘father’s brother’ nanaː – ‘father’s sister’ b. nanaː – ‘mother’s brother’ χaːlaː – ‘mother’s sister’

Parkin (1987: 161-163) already discusses this curious term nanaː and hypothesises that it might possibly be a Tibeto-Burman loan but comes to no final conclusion about its exact meaning.

4.3.5 Siblings’ children Four main patterns have been identified for the expression of one’s siblings’ children. Themost common pattern is the most descriptive one with four different terms for each of therelations, making up almost half of the sample. The second most common pattern, much like in English, only distinguishes between the sex of the siblings’ children, without considering the sex of the connecting relative. This pattern accounts for one fourth of the sample. 14 % of thelanguages in the sample express one’s sister’s children with the same lexical item, while one’s brother’s children are distinguished by their sex. The last prominent pattern simply groups all four relations under one term. Four languages within the sample could not be assigned to any of the patterns and are separately discussed below.

Value Sample representation BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD 28 (47%) BS=ZS/BD=ZD 14 (24%) BS≠BD/ZS=ZD 8 (14%) BS=BD=ZS=ZD 5 (8%) other 4 (7%) Total 59

Table 20: Expressions of ‘siblings’ children’

Almost half of the languages in the sample describe all four relations lexically different, as for example in Indus Kohistani (25):

24 (25) Indus Kohistani [mvy] a. ʐʰaliːʈ͡ʂ – ‘brother’s son’ ʐʰaːdiː – ‘brother’s daughter’ b. χoraj – ‘sister’s son’ sazuj – ‘sister’s daughter’

Ladakhi (26) is an example of a language making only a lexical distinction between male or female children of one’s siblings:

(26) Ladakhi [lbj] a. t͡sʰaʁo – ‘brother’s son’ t͡sʰamo – ‘brother’s daughter’ b. t͡sʰaʁo – ‘sister’s son’ t͡sʰamo – ‘sister’s daughter’

Included in this category are also languages that use a literal translation of the terms.

The pattern BS≠BD/ZS=ZD groups together one’s sister’s offspring, while one’s brother’s children are expressed separately, as for example in Dameli (27):

(27) Dameli [dml] a. braːsãː put – ‘brother’s son’ braːsai ʒu – ‘brother’s daughter’ b. iʂpaʂi – ‘sister’s son’ iʂpaʂi – ‘sister’s daughter’

It is noteworthy that all languages, that are adhering to this type, use a compound for the brother’s children and a lexicalised term for the sister’s children like in Dameli, where braːsãː put and braːsai ʒu are compiled of ‘brother’ braːsãː and ‘son’ put, respectively ‘daughter’ ʒu.

The least descriptive pattern uses the same item for all four relations, exemplified inRoshani (28):

(28) Roshani [sgh (r)] a. χiːr – ‘brother’s son’ χiːr – ‘brother’s daughter’ b. χiːr – ‘sister’s son’ χiːr – ‘sister’s daughter’

The four languages not fitting into any of the previous categories are Kyrgyz, the Sanjan variety of Pashai, Sanglechi and Waigali.

Both Sanjan and Waigali have a separate term for ‘brother’s son’, while the remaining three relations are covered with the same term, as seen in example (29):

25 (29) Waigali [wbk] a. braː zaga – ‘brother’s son’ paʃi – ‘brother’s daughter’ b. paʃi – ‘sister’s son’ paʃi – ‘sister’s daughter’

Again, the one term distinct from the others in the pattern is a compound of ‘brother’ braː and ‘son’ zaga.

In the case of Sanglechi, ‘sister’s daughter’ is expressed literally using the term wədəʁd ‘daughter’, whereas the other relations are expressed by means of a ‘sibling + child’ compound, where vruːd means ‘brother’, ɑːχɑːj means ‘sister’ and zəman stands for ‘child’ (30):

(30) Sanglechi [sgy] a. vruːd zəman – ‘brother’s son’ vruːd zəman – ‘brother’s daughter’ b. ɑːχɑːj zəman – ‘sister’s son’ ɑːχɑːj wədəʁd – ‘sister’s daughter’

Kyrgyz is the only language in the sample that distinguishes between the sex of the connecting relative as opposed to the sex of the siblings’ children (31):

(31) Kyrgyz [kir] a. inim – ‘brother’s son’ inim – ‘brother’s daughter’ b. d͡ʒen – ‘sister’s son’ d͡ʒen – ‘sister’s daughter’

It has to be noted that a few of the languages, that only differentiate between the sex of the children, use the same lexical items for one’s siblings’ children as for one’s children’s children, like Yidgha for example (32):

(32) Yidgha [ydg] a. nuwis – ‘nephew’ nuwiso – ‘niece’ b. nuwis – ‘grandson’ nuwiso – ‘granddaughter’

4.3.6 In-Law Relationships In-law relationships have been analysed in terms of the parents-in-law, as well as the siblings- in-law. The siblings-in-law have further been divided into one’s partner’s siblings andone’s siblings’ partner.

26 Parents-in-law An overwhelming majority of languages simply distinguishes between the sex of the relative, not taking into account the sex of the connecting relative. Only five languages do make further distinctions; three languages summarise two of the relations under one term while the other two are expressed differently. Two languages have completely different lexical items for all four relations. The patterns and their distributions are shown in Table 21.

Value Sample representation two-way split 54 (92%) three-way split 3 (5%) four-way split 2 (3%) Total 59

Table 21: Expressions of ‘parents-in-law’

The two-way split type only marks the father/mother relationship, regardless of theaffinal connection. The same lexical item is used for ‘husband’s/wife’s mother’ and ‘husband’s/wife’s father’ respectively, as seen in Munju (33):

(33) Munju [mnj] a. χusur – ‘wife’s father’ χuʃə – ‘wife’s mother’ b. χusur – ‘husband’s father’ χuʃə – ‘husband’s mother’

The only language falling out of this paradigm is the Alishang variety of Pashai; eventhough it also only has two different terms, they mark the affinal relationship, rather than the parental one (34):

(34) Pashai (Alishang) [glh (ag)] a. ʃeːriːm – ‘wife’s father’ ʃeːriːm – ‘wife’s mother’ b. ʃeːreːm – ‘husband’s father’ ʃeːreːm – ‘husband’s mother’

The remaining languages are divided up into a four-way split and a three-way split category. The four-way split has four different items for each relation, as exemplified by DarwozDari in (35):

(35) Dari (Darwoz) [prs (d)] a. χəsər – ‘wife’s father’ χəʃ dumɑː – ‘wife’s mother’ b. taʁɑːji – ‘husband’s father’ χɑːla – ‘husband’s mother’

27 Darwoz Dari strikes as particularly interesting, since Standard Dari belongs to the predominant two-way split type and does not have four different lexical terms. It remains unclear as to why Darwoz Dari has this four-way distinction pattern.

The three-way split type designates languages where two terms fall together under one lexical item Both Kalasha and Dameli use the same term for one’s partner’s father, yet have a different one for either the husband’s or the wife’s mother, as exemplified in36 ( ). The Aret variety of Pashai uses the same term for one’s wife’s parents but different terms for the husband’s parents (37):

(36) Kalasha [kls] a. iʃpaːʃur – ‘wife’s father’ d͡ʒeʂʈaːli – ‘wife’s mother’ b. iʃpaːʃur – ‘husband’s father’ ispres – ‘husband’s mother’

(37) Pashai, Aret [aee (at)] a. ʃeːrim – ‘wife’s father’ ʃeːrim – ‘wife’s mother’ b. ʃenʃuːrɑː – ‘husband’s father’ ʃenʃuːrim – ‘husband’s mother’

Siblings-in-law In English, brother- or sister-in-law can either refer to one’s sibling’s partner or to one’s partner’s siblings. For the first type of relations, namely one’s sibling’s partner, the ego’s sex has alsobeen taken into consideration. Almost half of all languages in the sample do not differentiate between the ego’s sex and simply have two terms for either one’s brother’s wife or one’s sister’s husband. Twelve languages have different terms for one’s sister’s husband depending onthe ego’s sex, but they share the same term for ‘brother’s wife’, regardless of the ego’s sex. Only nine languages distinguish between the ego’s sex and have four different terms. Two languages do not fall into any of the previously mentioned categories. Table 229 displays the different values and their representation within the sample.

Value Sample representation two-way split 33 (59%) three-way split 12 (21%) four-way split 9 (16%) other 2 (4%) Total 56

Table 22: Expressions of one’s siblings’ partners with male/female ego

9This table excludes Kalasha, Kalkoti and Sawi, as some of their relevant terms are missing inthedata.

28 The majority of the languages use only two terms, for one’s brother’s wife and one’s sister’s husband. The sex of the ego is not taken into account, as seen for example in theAfghan variety of Gojri (38):

(38) Gojri (Afgh) [gju (a)] a. bʰaːbiː – ‘brother’s wife (male ego)’ bʰaːbiː – ‘brother’s wife (female ego)’ b. buɳʰajiː – ‘sister’s husband (male ego)’ buɳʰajiː – ‘sister’s husband (female ego)’

Most languages, that do differentiate between the ego’s sex, do so only in regard toone’s sister’s husband. One’s brother’s wife falls under the same term, no matter whether the ego is male or female; one such language is Torwali (39):

(39) Torwali [trw] a. bʰejeːj – ‘brother’s wife (male ego)’ bʰejeːj – ‘brother’s wife (female ego)’ b. d͡ʒamaːʂ – ‘sister’s husband (male ego)’ saraːn – ‘sister’s husband (female ego)’

An exception to this pattern is Kyrgyz, which has the same term for the sister’s husband, but different terms for the brother’s wife depending on the ego’s40 sex( ):

(40) Kyrgyz [kir] a. d͡ʒiŋe – ‘brother’s wife (male ego)’ keliŋ – ‘brother’s wife (female ego)’ b. d͡ʒizde – ‘sister’s husband (male ego)’ d͡ʒizde – ‘sister’s husband (female ego)’

A few languages use the most descriptive pattern, where all four relations have their own lexical expression. The Shemal variety of Pashai, as seen in example (41), is one such language, displaying four different terms.

(41) Pashai (Shemal) [aee (sh)] a. ʃənigeːm – ‘brother’s wife (male ego)’ laːstəm ɬika – ‘brother’s wife (female ego)’ b. zomɑːm – ‘sister’s husband (male ego)’ pɑːrijeːm – ‘sister’s husband (female ego)’

Both Indus Kohistani and Waigali only have one distinct term for one’s sister’s husband from a male perspective; all other relations fall under the same term. Example (42) shows the Indus Kohistani case.

29 (42) Indus Kohistani [mvy] a. ʐʰaːzaj – ‘brother’s wife (male ego)’ ʐʰaːzaj – ‘brother’s wife (female ego)’ b. bʰajaː χawan – ‘sister’s husband (male ego)’ ʐʰaːzaj – ‘sister’s husband (female ego)’

For the second type of relations expressed by ‘brother/sister-in-law’, the ego’s sex has not been taken into consideration. An overwhelming majority of the languages in the sample favour a four-way split, with four different lexical terms for each relation, making up 72% of theentire sample. Eight languages group two relations under one term, leaving them with a three-way split pattern. Seven languages only have two terms, while one language does not followany of these patterns. The different values for this features as well as their distribution aregiven in Table 2310.

Value Sample representation four-way split 42 (72%) three-way split 8 (14%) two-way split 7 (12%) other 1 (2%) Total 58

Table 23: Expressions of one’s partner’s siblings

The most descriptive pattern with four different lexical expressions clearly dominates thelan- guage sample. The Kashmiri variety spoken in India serves as an example for this type(43):

(43) Kashmiri (Ind) [kas (i)] a. druj – ‘husband’s brother’ zaːm – ‘husband’s sister’ b. həhər – ‘wife’s brother’ saːl – ‘wife’s sister’ Languages adhering to a three-way split group two relations under one term. However, they do not all group the same two relations together; Ashkun, for example, has the same term for ‘husband’s brother’ and ‘husband’s sister’, seen in (44), while Eastern Kati has the same terms for one’s wife’s siblings, seen in (45). Waigali, on the other hand, groups ‘husband’s sister’ and ‘wife’s sister’ together, whereas in Pakistani Wakhi, ‘husband’s brother’ and ‘sister’s brother’ fall together. The Waigali example is given in(46) and the Pakistani Wakhi example in (47).

(44) Ashkun [ask] a. kəɽis – ‘husband’s brother’ kəɽis – ‘husband’s sister’ b. aːj mi – ‘wife’s brother’ ʃiːja – ‘wife’s sister’

10Gilgit Shina is not included in this analysis, as the terms for ‘husband’s brother’ and ‘husband’s sister’ are missing in the data.

30 (45) Eastern Kati [bsh (e)] a. mɑːt͡ʃi bɻɑː – ‘husband’s brother’ mɑːt͡ʃiː sus – ‘husband’s sister’ b. ʒami – ‘wife’s brother’ ʒami – ‘wife’s sister’

(46) Waigali [wbk] a. deʃʈə – ‘husband’s brother’ ɻuk – ‘husband’s sister’ b. waːwej – ‘wife’s brother’ ɻuk – ‘wife’s sister’

(47) Wakhi (Pak) [wbl (p)] a. lol – ‘husband’s brother’ nun – ‘husband’s sister’ b. lol – ‘wife’s brother’ xɨj – ‘wife’s sister’

The languages displaying a two-way split only distinguish between the sex of the affinalrel- ative. One such language doing so is Khowar (48):

(48) Khowar [khw] a. gomit – ‘husband’s brother’ briʒaju – ‘husband’s sister’ b. gomit – ‘wife’s brother’ briʒaju – ‘wife’s sister’

Shughni is the single language in the entire sample that merges three relations under one term; the only relation with its own lexical item is ‘wife’s sister’, see example (49):

(49) Shughni [sgh (a)] a. χesiːrt͡s – ‘husband’s brother’ χesiːrt͡s – ‘husband’s sister’ b. χesiːrt͡s – ‘wife’s brother’ χejyːn – ‘wife’s sister’

4.4 Summary The Tables 24 and 25 summarise the previous findings, by detailing each feature and itsas- signed values, as well as the distribution of each value within the sample.

31 Feature Values Distribution vigesimal 37 (64%) numeral bases decimal 21 (36%) n + 10, 20 + n 26 (46%) numeral composition n + 10, n + 20 17 (30%) 10 + n, 20 + n 14 (24%)

Table 24: Summary of results: Numerals

32 Feature Values Distribution mother-father compound 34 (58%) parents father-mother compound 15 (25%) other 10 (17%) two-way split 37 (64%) grandparents four-way split 19 (33%) other 2 (3%) SS=DS/SD=DD 30 (51%) SS≠SD≠DS≠DD 13 (22%) grandchildren SS=SD=DS=DD 8 (14%) SS=SD/DS≠DD 3 (5%) other 5 (8%) F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ 37 (64%) F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ 8 (14%) F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ 6 (10%) parents and their siblings F=FB≠MB/M=MZ≠FZ 4 (7%) F=FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ 2 (3%) F≠FB≠MB/M=MZ=FZ 1 (2%) BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD 28 (47%) BS=ZS/BD=ZD 14 (24%) siblings’ children BS≠BD/ZS=ZD 8 (14%) BS=BD=ZS=ZD 5 (8%) other 4 (7%) two-way split 54 (92%) parents-in-law three-way split 3 (5%) four-way split 2 (3%) two-way split 33 (59%) three-way split 12 (21%) siblings’ partner four-way split 9 (16%) other 2 (4%) four-way split 42 (72%) three-way split 8 (14%) partner’s siblings two-way split 7 (12%) other 1 (2%)

Table 25: Summary of results: Kinship Terms

33 5 Discussion

The following chapter presents a detailed discussion of the previously outlined results. As expected, the analysis paints a picture of great variation among the languages of the GHK. While patterns of convergence might not be as surprising in some areas, given the genetic affiliation of certain languages, it nonetheless uncovers interesting traits about the Greater Hindu Kush in general. First, the analysed features are discussed in light of their areal distribution as well as within language families. The areal distribution of the patterns is then compared to the genealogical relation of the languages. Lastly, the method and data sample used for this thesis are discussed.

5.1 Cognate Analysis As mentioned in the results section, the analysis of the cognates has largely confirmed the established genealogical relatedness of the languages. This is not only visible in the SplitsTree visualisation (see Figure 3), but also in the direct comparison. The phylogram in Figure 4 has been drawn up based on the cognate analysis, while Figure 5 displays an approximated phylogenetic representation of the classic family tree, based on the classification presented in Glot- tolog (Hammarström et al. 2019). The different language families group together as expected; the Turkic languages, the two varieties of the Burushaski isolate as well as the three Tibeto- Burman languages are the furthest away from the remaining Indo-Iranian languages. These in turn group together in the respective subfamilies, with clusters of the Iranian family, the Nuristani languages and the Indo-Aryan subfamily. Within the Iranian group, especially the three Pashto varieties stand out, which again does not really distort the picture as it is known that Pashto has developed somewhat differently from all other Iranian languages (Robson & Tegey 2009). The Indo-Aryan family is clearly more scattered than the other families, with thePashai varieties building their own cluster. Other subgroups are more intertwined and not as easily identifiable, as for example the Shina and Kohistani group. One outlier in the Shinagroup is Kundal Shahi which is no surprise; it is usually assigned to that group, yet its status as a proper Shina language remains disputed. It appears to be much closer to Hindko, which can be explained by the fact that Hindko is a dominant neighbour language and thus heavily influencing the few remaining Kundal Shahi speakers (Baart & Rehman 2005: 3). The two Chitral languages Kalasha and Khowar as well as the two Kashmiri varieties are situated outside of this cluster of Indo-Aryan languages. The close relationship between Kalasha and Khowar outside the other HKIA languages seems to confirm the idea put forward by Morgenstierne (1932: 51), that the ancestor language of Khowar and Kalasha arrived in the mountains as a first wave of Indo-Aryan immigrants from the south, therefore sharing certain retentions that are not present in any of the other languages The Kunar languages, especially Dameli, are relatively close to the Nuristani languages. Dameli’s genetic affiliation continues to be a matter of debate; while Morgenstierne (1942) did not dare to classify Dameli as either a ‘Kafir’11 or ‘Dardic’ language, he later became convinced that Dameli belonged to the ‘Dardic’ group (Morgenstierne 1961). This classification received further support by Strand (1973), but it remains to be treated with caution (Perder 2013: 6).

11‘Kafir’ is the old designator for what is nowadays known as ‘Nuristani’

34 Figure 4: Phylogram based on cognate analysis

35 Figure 5: Simplified phylogenetic representation of the sample languages, based on Glottolog 3.4 (Hammarström et al. 2019)

36 The interpretation of this analysis has to be taken with a pinch of salt, as it isonlybased on 83 lexical items, which can represent actual reality only to a certain extend. Nevertheless, these results do indicate clear clusters of genetically related languages.

5.2 Numerals 5.2.1 Numeral Bases As mentioned in section 4.2.1, the analysis of the numeral bases has been based on a broad overgeneralising definition of vigesimality. Therefore it is no surprise that the languages of the GHK expose a dominance of vigesimal systems, which clearly cluster in the centre of the Greater Hindu Kush (Map 6) The decimal system, although being the original system, seemsto either have been pushed back to the peripheries of the areas, or they represent a second wave of less areally integrated languages, that arrived after the central languages have adopted the vigesimal system. The Pashai varieties also express sub-areal variation as not all varieties adhere to theviges- imal system. The two varieties, Alasai and Sanjan, are situated at the westernmost tipofthe Pashai continuum, where they are in contact with Parachi and Afghan Pashto, both languages with a decimal system.

5.2.2 Numeral Composition The patterns of possible numeral composition are not as neatly clustered as the numeral bases (Map 7). The base + n type seems to be a northeastern feature, while the n + base type is more spread in the southern parts of the area. The predominant mixed type clusters in the west, with a few outliers in the east.

37 This distribution is rather interesting as it encapsulates the mixed pattern betweenthe other two patterns, which is indicative of a transition zone, where the northern base + n pattern meets the southern n + base pattern. Especially the Iranian languages exhibit a high variation with all three patterns represented, compared to other families or sub-groupings, that are more or less homogenous.

5.3 Kinship Systems 5.3.1 Parents The ‘father+mother’ compound is the preferred way of expressing ‘parents’ in the languages of the GHK, as it seems to have spread across languages of different genera (see Map 8). However, no clear pattern could be identified in regard to whether languages favour ‘mother+father’ or ‘father+mother’. Likewise, the languages using their own lexical item for ‘parents’ do not seem to be areally convergent; neither do they belong to a specific phylum, as representatives can be found in most of the language families. The only observable tendency is their placing around the perimeter of the Greater Hindu Kush, which potentially indicates that the ‘parent’ compound is an innovation spreading from within the GHK. Considering language affiliation, it is again the Iranian languages that show a high level of variation including all three patterns, when compared to other families or sub-groupings.

5.3.2 Grandparents Map 9 displays the fine-grained analysis of the grandparents. The predominant pattern, which distinguishes between the sex of the relative, is evenly distributed across language families and geographical areas. The most descriptive pattern, i.e. with four different terms foreach

‘grandparents’, is predominantly represented in the western and southern parts of the GHK, with the only outlier being Kyrgyz in the northeast. A small cluster of phonologically unrelated terms for ‘grandparents’ is centred around Afghan and Pakistani borderlands with representatives of four different language families (i.e. Afghan Gawarbati, Kalkoti, Kamviri and Eastern Kati). However, these results have to be interpreted with caution, as irregularities in filling out the questionnaire might more likely be the explanation of this pattern that actual sub-areal convergence. Interestingly enough, the Iranian languages are very uniform in regards to this feature; they all share the same pattern. The Shina languages, along with the Pashai dialect continuum and the Nuristani languages show a great deal of diversity, as many of their respective languages adhere to different types of patterns.

5.3.3 Grandchildren The distribution of the patterns for ‘grandchildren’ is represented inMap 10. The different types of expressing ‘grandchildren’ do not cluster in any particular way, except for the most descriptive pattern, which seems to be more of a southwestern feature. Languages using only one lexical term for ‘grandchild’ stretch from the southwest to the northeast, with the only exception of the Indian variety of Kashmiri, which is situated to the southeast. The three languages adhering to the SS=SD/DS≠DD type are only found in the northern parts of the GHK. Regarding the languages families, they all display varying levels of diversity when it comes to the expression of grandchildren. Most of them have at least two different patterns represented in their samples, with the only exception of Tibeto-Burman, where all three languages belong to the same type.

40 5.3.4 Parents’ Siblings The distribution of the different patterns for parents and their siblings is represented inMap 11. The predominant pattern with six different terms is evenly spread across the Greater Hindu Kush. The less common patterns are mainly clustered to the west, with a few outliers suchas Pakistani Wakhi, Hunza Burushaski and Brokskat. Especially the F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ type appears to be a western feature centred around a few Pashai varieties; the only exception being Roshani situated further up north. It is not as surprising to find the most descriptive pattern as the predominant one,since it seems to be the preferred pattern for Indo-Aryan languages in general. The more interesting patterns are the ones that group together ‘father’ and ‘father’s brother’, and ‘mother’ and ‘mother’s sister’ respectively. They clearly show an areal cluster, since these patterns are lacking in the Indo-Aryan languages outside the GHK (Karve 1953). The Nuristani languages as well as the Pashai varieties are particularly diverse whenit comes to express one’s parents and their siblings, as they both have up to four different types in their samples.

5.3.5 Siblings’ Children Map 12 presents the different patterns for one’s siblings’ children. The main pattern with four individual lexical items for each relation (BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD) is spread out in the southern regions of the GHK. While other patterns do not show any traces of areal clustering, the BS=ZS/BD=ZD pattern is oddly ruptured into a western and an easter cluster, with theeast- ern cluster containing all Tibeto-Burman languages and Brokskat. This eastward spread might indicate a Tibeto-Burman influence. The central cluster around Afghan and Pakistani borderlands with high variance strikes as particularly interesting; all five different types can be found in this area.

41 This feature also shows great variation within some of the languages families; especially Nuristani and Iranian are diverse with four different patterns in each family. But also smaller sampled languages do not adhere to the same type, as for example Burushaski, the two Turkic languages and the Kashmiri varieties.

5.3.6 In-Law Relationships Parents-in-law The geographic distribution of the different expressions of ‘parents-in-law’ is represented Map 13. The two-way split is evenly distributed across the region and clearly dominates the picture, as it seems to be indicative of a GHK features. This, however, remains to be verified by looking at other surrounding languages and their ways of expressing parents- in-law. The three-way split clusters in the centre of the area, while the four-way splitismuch more spread out, yet still somewhat confined to the western parts of the GHK.

Siblings-in-law It is difficult to detect areas of convergence for the distribution of the‘partner’s siblings’ patterns, as seen in Map 14. The three-way split type seems to be mainly concentrated to the western centre of the GHK. Two languages that also adhere to this pattern, namely Brokskat and Pakistani Wakhi, are not part of that cluster as they are further to the east. The two-way split type is scattered to the northwestern and southeastern edgesofthe area. The predominant four-way split does not cluster in any specific way and stretches across the whole GHK. As the favoured way of expressing ‘partner’s siblings’, the four-way split type is represented at least once in all language families, and even the only possible pattern in the Kohistani languages and both the Burushaski and Kashmiri varieties. The Nuristani languages stand out in that five out of the six languages adhere to the three-way split, the only exception being Prasun.

Map 15, representing the distribution of patterns for ‘siblings’ partner’, paints a picture of rather high diversity. Again, all four types cluster in this previously noticed central area of the GHK. The same diversity is displayed within the language families and sub-groups; onlythe Kashmiri varieties, the Tibeto-Burman languages and the Turkic representatives have a uniform way of expressing ‘siblings’ partner’, while all other groups show more variance.

5.4 Areal Clusters vs. Genealogical Affiliation In order to better compare the results with the cognate analysis, the features have alsobeen rendered visually by means of the SplitsTree software (see Figure 16). The visualisation of the features does not facilitate the detection of traces of areality; the only real groupings that stand out are a small cluster of Ushojo, Afghan Gojri, Pahari Pothwari, Kalkoti, Palula, Gawri and Torwali, but they are also genetically not too far from each other. The other noticeable grouping is slightly more interesting, as it plots together Sanjan Pashai, Roshani, Shughni, Ladakhi, Munji and the three Pashto varieties, which is rather surprising as some of them are not only from different language families but also geographically distant from each other. However, this picture has to be interpreted carefully; aggregating all features into one single graphic is naturally not representing the reality adequately, yet it still allows for the identification of certain tendencies. A few of the features do cluster together in what has been referred to as the ‘central area of the GHK’; this sub-area is particularly noteworthy since it has already been pointed out by Liljegren & Svärd (2017: 470-471) and Heegård & Liljegren (2018: 157) as an area where non-related features seem to agglomerate, with its potential centre of diffusion in Nuristan. Liljegren & Svärd (2017: 477) motivate this linguistic diffusion zone by putting forward historical explanations such as ”long-lasting patterns of multilingualism, frequent interaction in the past, a shared material culture as well as practices and narratives grounded in a pre- Muslim

44 Figure 16: Visual representation of the feature analysis world view with significant similarities across ethnic and linguistic boundaries.”

5.5 Method Discussion The present study drew its data from actual field research, which makes the investigation more authentic than if it had only taken into account data from previously published sources. Yet at the same time, the fact that only one speaker per language has been consulted is highly limiting; while the sample used in this thesis was very tight and well balanced, it still only represents one idiolect per language. This obviously makes the data prone to mistakes and distorts the actual picture of reality. These issues are particularly noticeable in the kinship questionnaire; despite thorough instruction, it cannot completely be assumed that all the translations correspond to the actual lexical term in each language. Especially the Afghan variety of Gawarbati seems to be a suspicious candidate, where most terms appear to be simple literal translations of the descriptive terms used in the questionnaire. Similar effects might show in the basic vocabulary word list, where certain items could have potentially been misun- derstood by speakers. Words such as ‘breast’, ‘liver’ and ‘person’ can be ambiguous, in that ‘breast’ might have been simply taken for ‘chest’, while ‘liver’ might have been translated as ‘intestines’ or ‘innards’ in general, and the words given for ‘person’ might just mean ‘man’, excluding women. Thus the results of this thesis have to be interpreted with these potential pitfalls in mind. Moreover, the transcription and general handling of this amount of data will inevitably lead to potentially erroneous entries or mismatches in the tables. While I did verify some

45 inconsistencies or suspicious items by either consulting the questionnaires or listening to the audio files, there is no absolute guarantee that each and every item used for this thesis is accurate. A further complicating factor was the detection of possible patterns for each feature. De- cisions had to be made in order to put the data into categories, which was far from evident for most features. While WALS defines vigesimal as as system where ”the base is consistently 20, i.e. the general formula for constructing numerals is x20 + y” (Comrie 2013), I have chosen to go with a definition that is much looser and thus captures more languages under theterm of vigesimality as the WALS definition would have. This obviously leads to an overgenerali- sation of vigesimal systems in the Greater Hindu Kush, even though most of these languages do have decimal aspects to a certain degree. However, even with a radically stricter definition most of these languages, here classified as vigesimal, would fall into Comrie’s definition ofhy- brid vigesimal-decimal, and certainly not into the decimal category. A more challenging case would then only be the classification of Afghan Gojri as the vigesimality only applies between 60 and 99, which is more comparable to the limited vigesimal system of French (Liljegren 2019, p.c.). Same concerns arise for the analysis of the numeral composition; the definition used in this thesis is primarily based on Liljegren (2017), where the predefined values of 10+n, 20+n; n+10, 20+n and n+10, n+20 have been taken from. A different approach could have been used by adopting Hurford’s (1975; 84) switch word formation rule, whereby the lower number precedes the higher number. The rule seems to be effective at different stages within the numeral system and would potentially yield other results for the analysis of the numeral composition of the GHK languages (Hurford 1975: 84-86). Further, a more in-depth analysis of the results in light of Greenberg’s universals about numeral systems (Greenberg 1979) would certainly have generated interesting insights. The considerable lack of general linguistic literature on kinship terminology made itespe- cially hard to find the right values for the different features. Since there was no previous study I could rely on, most of the categories used in this thesis are my own invention. It was not a simple task to come up with categories that neatly capture all the different patterns found in the data. Needless to say that some of these will have to be revisioned and adapted for further research, but they are sufficient for preliminary results.

46 6 Conclusion

6.1 Summary of the Study The purpose of the present study has been to contribute to the understanding of thelanguages of the Greater Hindu Kush, especially in regard to their similarity in lexical structure. It in- vestigated a number of lexical items, including basic vocabulary, numerals and kinship terms, of 59 languages, representing Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Nuristani, Tibeto-Burman, Turkic and the language isolate Burushaski. Answers to the initially stated research questions are given below:

1. How do the languages of the Greater Hindu Kush resemble/differ from each other struc- turally, based on numerals and kinship terms? Generally speaking, the languages of the GHK do certainly display a certain level of structural resemblance, as most features have at least one pattern, that is represented by over 50% ofthe sample. Yet there is also great diversity, when taking into account all the possible patterns for each feature, as there are usually a number of different types shared by only a small number of languages. The highest level of variance can be found in the expressions of ‘siblings’ children’ and ‘siblings’ partner’ Conversely, great structural similarities are seen in the expressions of ‘parents’ and ‘parents-in-law’. 2. Can significant areal patterns be identified in regard to numeral bases, numeral composition and various kinship terms? Significant areal patterns of divergence have been identified for ‘siblings’ children’ and‘siblings’ partner’. Other features show areal convergence to some extend, as for example certain values for the expression of ‘grandparents’ or ‘grandchildren’. Clear patterns of convergence have been found in regard to the numeral bases and numeral composition. Equally converging are the distribution of the ‘parents’-compound, the most descriptive type for the expression of ‘grandchildren’, as well as the F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ for one’s parents’ siblings, and the three-way split type for ‘partner’s siblings’. 3. Do these patterns mirror the genealogical affiliation of the languages or are theypurely areal? Most patterns do not mirror the genealogical affiliation as they stretch in nearly allcases across languages families and sub-groupings, thus making them mostly areal features. Only very few patterns overlap with the genealogical affiliation, as for example the three-way split for ‘partner’s siblings’, which is almost exclusively a Nuristani feature. The answers to these research questions clearly reiterate the fact that the Greater HinduKush characterises as an area of great linguistic variation, with certain sub-areal tendencies of pattern clustering. These results are obviously only preliminary and extensive further research is needed in order to draw more salient conclusions about the vergence of the here suggested features.

6.2 Further Research The present thesis could only focus on a handful of selected features due to its restricted size. Further research in both more width and depth would certainly help contributing to an even

47 better understanding of the GHK languages from a lexico-semantic perspective. Including more kinship terms into the analysis, such as cousins or further affinal relations, would allow for more fine-grained interpretations of the general display of kinship systems in the Greater Hindu Kush. Another promising feature worth taking into account is the age difference for one’s parents’ siblings, as many GHK languages have shown the tendency of referring to one’s older or younger uncles/aunts as small or big father/mother. Expanding the overall lexico-semantic analysis beyond kinship terms and numerals would not only be profitable for the investigation of the typological profile of the GHK languages, but also for the research of lexico-semantic areality in general. Even though a few small scale studies within the frame of university theses have already been conducted, more comparative work is needed on the languages of the Greater Hindu Kush in order to unravel their linguistic diversity.

48 References

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51 Appendix I: Language Sample

Language Project Location Elicitation code Ashkun ask Titin, Nurgram, Nuristan, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Balti bft Khaplu, Ghanche, Baltistan, Gilgit- Islamabad, Aug 2016 Baltistan, Pakistan Bateri btv Palas, Lower Kohistan, Hazara, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Brokskat bkk Batalik, Kargil, Ladakh, Jammu & Kash- Kargil, May 2018 mir, India Burushaski bsk (h) Hunza, Gilgit, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan Gilgit, Aug 2016 Hunza Burushaski Na- bsk (n) Nagar, Gilgit, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan Gilgit, Aug 2016 gar Dameli dml Damel, Chitral, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Darwazi prs (d) Darwaz, Badakhshan, Afghanistan Faizabad, Apr 2017 Gawarbati gwt (a) Naray, Kunar, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 (Afgh) Gawarbati gwt (p) Arandu, Chitral, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 (Pak) Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Gawri gwc Kalam, Swat, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Gojri (Afgh) gju (a) Naray, Kunar, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Gojri (Pak) gju (p) Dawanan, Neelum, Azad Jammu & Kash- Islamabad, Aug 2016 mir, Pakistan Hindko hno Mansehra, Hazara, Khyber Islamabad, Aug 2016 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Indus Kohistani mvy Seo, Dassu, Upper Kohistan, Hazara, Islamabad, Oct 2015 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Ishkashimi isk Ishkashim, Badakhshan, Afghanistan Faizabad, Apr 2017 Kalasha kls Bumburet, Chitral, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Aug 2016 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Kalkoti xka Kalkot, Sheringal, Upper Dir, Malakand, Islamabad, Oct 2015 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Kamviri xvi Kamdesh, Nuristan, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Kashmiri (Ind) kas (i) Srinagar, Kashmir, Jammu & Kashmir, In- Srinagar, Apr/May 2018 dia Kashmiri (Pak) kas (p) Sharda, Neelum, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakistan Kati (Eastern) bsh (e) Bargi Matal, Nuristan, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Kati (Western) bsh (w) Du Ab, Nuristan, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Khowar khw Mastuj, Chitral, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Kohistani Shina plk Palas, Lower Kohistan, Hazara, Khyber Islamabad, Aug 2016 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

52 Language Project Location Elicitation code Kundal Shahi shd Kundal Shahi, Athmuqam, Neelum, Azad Islamabad, Aug 2016 Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan Kyrgyz kir Pamirkalan, Wakhan, Badakhshan, Faizabad, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Ladakhi lbj Leh, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, India Srinagar, Apr/May 2018 Munji mnj Sharan, Kuran wa Munjan, Badakhshan, Faizabad, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Pothwari phr Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan Islamabad, Aug 2016 Palula phl Ashret, Chitral, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Parachi prc Ghochulan, Nijrab, Kapisa, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Pashai Alasai psh (ai) Alasai, Kapisa, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Pashai Alingar psi (ar) Alingar, Laghman, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Pashai Alis- glh (ag) Alishang, Laghman, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 hang Pashai Amla psi (am) Amla, Darra-e-Nur, Nangarhar, Kabul, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Pashai Aret aee (at) Aret, Nurgal, Kunar, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Pashai Chalas aee (ch) Chalas, Tsaoki, Kunar, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Pashai Koran- aee (kg) Korangal, Mano Gai, Kunar, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 gal Pashai Sanjan glh (sn) Sanjan, Hesa Awal Kohistan, Kapisa, Kabul, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Pashai Shemal aee (sh) Shemal, Darra-e-Nur, Nangarhar, Kabul, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Pashto (Afgh) pbu (a) Tagab, Kapisa, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Pashto (Ind) pbu (i) Ganderbal, Kashmir, Jammu & Kashmir, Srinagar, Apr/May 2018 India Pashto (Pak) pbu (p) Ghazi, Haripur, Hazara, Khyber Islamabad, Aug 2016 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Prasun prn Pashki, Parun, Nuristan, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Purik prx Kargil, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, India Srinagar, Apr/May 2018 Roshani sgh (r) Roshan, Shughnan, Badakhshan, Faizabad, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Sanglechi sgy Sanglech, Zebak, Badakhshan, Faizabad, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Sawi sdg Sau, Naray, Kunar, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Shina Gilgit scl (p) Gilgit, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan Islamabad, Oct 2015/ Gilgit, Aug 2016 Shina Gurez scl (i) Gurez, Bandipora, Kashmir, Jammu & Srinagar, Apr/May 2018 Kashmir, India Shughni sgh (a) Shughnan, Badakhshan, Afghanistan Faizabad, Apr 2017 Torwali trw Bahrain, Swat, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Ushojo ush Chail, Swat, Malakand, Khyber Islamabad, Oct 2015 Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

53 Language Project Location Elicitation code Uzbek uzs Argo, Badakhshan, Afghanistan Faizabad, Apr 2017 Waigali wbk Muldesh, Waigal, Nuristan, Afghanistan Kabul, Apr 2017 Wakhi (Afgh) wbl (a) Abgach, Wakhan, Badakhshan, Faizabad, Apr 2017 Afghanistan Wakhi (Pak) wbl (p) Gojal, Hunza, Gilgit, Gilgit-Baltistan, Gilgit, Aug 2016 Pakistan Yidgha ydg Garam Chashma, Chitral, Malakand, Islamabad, Oct 2015 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

54 Appendix II: Wordlist

Language blood bone breast come die dog drink

Ashkun lu aʈi t͡sut͡su agə məɽə kuɽi pʰija Balti kʰraq ruːspah braŋ õːma ɕjaː kʰiː tʰũːma Bateri raːt hãɽa͡ẽː t͡sut͡s juː meːrgaː kut͡sur puː Brokskat løːl aːʈiː dud je minis ʃyæ pis Burushaski, Hunza multan tin andil ɖ͡ʐu uweːras huk minaːs Burushaski, Nagar multan tin andil ɖ͡ʐũ a͡eram huk minaːm Dameli loːi anʈʰiː t͡ʃut͡ʃu aːt͡san bren t͡suːnah pen Dari, Darwoz χu astaʁu d͡ʒid͡ʒi / pistu umajan mənran sag χəːran Domaki rot hoʈ indila aːu marina, muja (pl.) ɕuɳo, ɕuɳaː (pl.) pi Gawarbati, Afgh lo haɖuːki t͡sut͡su d͡ʒɑ mimaːn ʂunaː lukɑ Gawarbati, Pak lo(ː) haɖ t͡sut͡su d͡ʒik mik ʂuɳa(ː?) pik Gawri rɑt hɑɽ t͡ʃit͡ʃ jaːg mur kut͡ʃur puːg Gojri, Afgh rat haɖiː t͡ʃut͡ʃi aːnaɽ/aːnaɳ maraɳ kut(ː?)u piːɳ Gojri, Pak rat haɖiː siːnu aː marnu/marɳu kutːu piːɳu Hindko law haɖiː siːnah aː mar kotaː piː Indus Kohistani raːt haːɽ iyũː marilːa/marilːe kut͡sur(ə?) põː Ishkashimi weːn wastuk d͡ʒid͡ʒi ɑːʁad məl kət pəvd Kalasha lui aʈʰi paːs ik anaːʃaw ʃo˞a pik Kalkoti raːt/raːʔt aɽʰ t͡ʃit͡ʃ jaːl/jaː/jaːʔl̥ mur kut͡ʃʰur piːl/piːʔl̥ ɻ Kamviri ɫuj aːɽi t͡ʃuk oːsə maːsə ku i piːsə Kashmiri, Ind kʰuːn əɖid͡ʒ siːnɨ jun, waːlɨ juːr marun huːn t͡ʃon Kashmiri, Pak ratʰ ɽid͡ʒ bab wallə mar hoːn t͡ʃe ɻ ɻ Kati, Eastern luj aːʈi t͡ʃuk aːt͡səstə ma stə qu iː piːstə ɻ ɻ Kati, Western luj aʈiː zərwoːtrə aːt͡səstə mu stə ku iː pijestə Khowar lej koɬ/kʰoɬ pap gik brik re(ː)ni piːk Kohistani Shina leːl ãːʈʰi̥ t͡ɕit͡ɕi̥ eh miriɕ ɕũː pijoːn Kundal Shahi raːt heːɽ siːna je mer kut͡ɕur piː Kyrgyz qɑn søk imt͡ʃek kildi øldø it it͡ʃ Ladakhi ʈʰak ruspa ʈaŋ joŋ ʃi kʰi tʰuŋ Munji iːne jastiː pisteːn / ʃciːn ɑːʁajɑː mərɑː ʁɑːlv ʃemdɑː Pahari-Pothwari rat haɖi t͡ʃʰaːti at͡ʃʰ / at͡ʃʰnãː mari gija moːja kota piː Palula râːt haɳɖúk t͡ʃít͡ʃi jʰajnǐː marajnǐː kut͡ʃúro pilajnǐː Parachi hin ustuχɑːn siz ɑːʁu muɽu espuː tuɽuː / tuːɽuː Pashai, Alasai aːr aʈaː t͡ʃut͡ʃuː ajiːk muɽiːk ʃuːng pijiːk Pashai, Alingar aːʃ anʈiː t͡ʃət͡ʃuː jaː / ik lig ʃuɽing [ʃuniŋg] pejk / peːgam Pashai, Alishang oːr / χun aːʈu t͡ʃut͡ʃu / t͡sut͡su jaː məɽ / məɽtu ʃuŋ piːja / piːja ne Pashai, Amla aːʃ anʈiː t͡ʃut͡ʃu iːm liːkaːlaː ʃuːɽiŋ pek Pashai, Aret oːstr aʈi t͡ʃut͡ʃu ek lik ʃuɽiŋ peːk Pashai, Chalas oːʃ aːʈi t͡suːt͡su eːk lik ʃuɽiŋ pik? [pic] Pashai, Korangal oːjs anʈiː t͡sut͡suː jeː liːk ʃuɽiŋ peːm Pashai, Sanjan oːr ustuχul t͡ʃit͡ʃuː aːid muɽiːk ʃung pediːk Pashai, Shemal oːʃt aːʈi t͡sut͡su iːk lik ʃuɽiŋ peːk Pashto, Afgh wiːna haɖuke teː raːtləl məɽəkeːdəl speː t͡sxəl Pashto, Ind wiːna aɖukeː sina raːza mərg speː skəl Pashto, Pak wiːna aɖuːke siːna raːtlə məɽkidəl speː skəl Prasun isi it͡ʃi ʒuʒu at͡sənij amoːnij kiraw wiːnij Purik kʰraq ruspa braŋ juŋ/joŋ ʃiːjə kʰiː tʰuŋma Roshani χun setχoːn siːnaː, bat͡ʃ jat muːg kəd bruʂt Sanglechi weːn ɑːstoːk t͡ʃit͡ʃiː aʁɑːd maːɽ kəd pəvoːk Sawi raːt haːɖu t͡ʃut͡ʃuː waːlu mariloː kut͡ʃuroː luːkiloː Shina, Gilgit leːl ãːʈi t͡ʃut͡ʃi wa muwo ʃũ piːk Shina, Gurez leːl aʈu̥ sina eː miroːn(u̥?) ʃũː pijoːn(u̥?) Shughni wəχen setχyːn bestyːn jatow miːdow kəd breʂtow Torwali ʐaːt hareiːk t͡ʃiʃ jeuː muː kujuː puː Ushojo lul aːɳʈiː bukʰtʰeʔaːn/t͡ʃit͡ʃi oːn muːru ʃũː pioːn Uzbek, Afgh qɑːn ustuχɑːn eːmt͡ʃak kilmɑːʁ wilmɑːʁ kut͡ʃug it͡ʃmɑːʁ Waigali laj aʈiː t͡ʃyt͡ʃy eːju muɳuː t͡sũː pijũː Wakhi, Afgh χɨːn jaːʃt͡ʃ baːp wəzjaːk mɨrt ʃaːt͡ʃ piːtaːk Wakhi, Pak wuxen jaɕt͡ɕ pɨz wez marg ɕat͡ɕ pitən Yidgha iːnoː jasta(ː?) iht͡ʃiːn aːʁoːjah muːɽoː ʁaːlv ʃemdah/ ʃimdah Language ear eye fire fish full hand hear

Ashkun kamaʈ͡ʂə at͡si aŋə moːt͡s paraj dos purud͡zu Balti snaː mik meː ŋjah gãːse laqpah snjaːba Bateri kaːn ãːʈ͡ʂʰ ãːr mat͡s puːzil haːt ʂũː Brokskat kani aːʈʰiː ʁur njæ pind͡ʒo hæd laʈʰis Burushaski, Hunza altumal alt͡ɕin pʰu t͡ɕʰumo hik areːn dojalas Burushaski, Nagar altumal alt͡ɕin fu t͡ɕʰumu ʂeg (ʂek) ariːŋ dajalam Dameli kaːr ĩːt͡ʃʰ aŋgar aːmras poːrisan daʃ uːʃtruːnan Dari, Darwoz gəːʃ t͡ʃiʃəm/t͡ʃiʃon (?) alaːw moːji/mɑːji ləq dest ʃinawjan Domaki kon at͡ɕ, at͡ɕʰin (pl.) ak t͡ɕʰumo ʂek hot parudaːje Gawarbati, Afgh kamʈɑ it͡sin angaːr mat͡soːʈɑ poːr as ʃunɖimem Gawarbati, Pak kʰamʈa it͡sin haŋgaːr mat͡soʈa po(ː?)r hast ʂuɳɖaːwa Gawri kɑn ɑʈ͡ʂ aŋɑːr mat͡sʰin t͡ʃupuʈ tʰeːr bud͡ʒuːg Gojri, Afgh kaːn akʰ ag mat͡ʃʰiː bʰariju hat suɳun Gojri, Pak kan akʰ ag mat͡ːɕʰiː bʰareːwu hatʰ suɳːu Hindko kan akʰ ag mat͡ʃʰiː pareːdaː hatʰ sunɽ Indus Kohistani kãːɽ ãːẽʈ͡ʂʰ aŋːgaːr t͡sʰim(ə?) ponsiːl haː ʂũː Ishkashimi ʁuːl t͡sɑːm rəʃneː maːi faj / jɑːlip dust aːpaχt Kalasha ko˞ et͡ʃ aŋgaːr mat͡sʰi puːri baza ko˞ːkarik Kalkoti kaːn iʂiː aŋgaːr/aŋgaːʔr̥ mah siːn t͡ʃʰuːpuːʈ/t͡ʃʰuːpuːʔʈ tʰeːr bʰud͡ʒil Kamviri karmoːɽi ɑːt͡ʃeː aŋɑ ɑːmat͡si pareː dijuʃ saŋaːsə Kashmiri, Ind kan ət͡ʃʰ naːr gaːɖ bərɨtʰ atʰɨ bɔːzun Kashmiri, Pak kan ət͡ʃ naːr gaːr bɨritʰ atʰɨ bɔːz Kati, Eastern karmoːʈi/karmoːʈə aːt͡ʃe(ẽ?)ː aŋo ɑːmat͡sə parikərstə duj siŋastə Kati, Western kɑːr at͡ʃiː aŋɑ mat͡siː ɖak duʃt siŋastə Khowar kaːr ʁet͡ʃ aŋgaːr mat͡ʃʰi ʈip host ka(ː)r korik Kohistani Shina koːɳ aʈ͡ʂʰiː hagaːr t͡ɕubu̥ puːɳu̥ hat ʂuɳoːn Kundal Shahi kaːn aɕ aŋgaːr meːt͡ɕʰe puːrgul haːtʰ ɕun Kyrgyz qulaq køz ot bɑlɯq d͡ʒiq qol uqan Ladakhi namt͡ʃok mik me ɲa gaŋte lakpa ɲon Munji ʁuːj t͡ʃɑːm juːr bkɑː qalɑːt lɑːst nəʁəʃcɑː Pahari-Pothwari kan akʰ agʰ mat͡ʃʰi parjaː waː hatʰ bod͡ʒ Palula kâːɳ aʈ͡ʂîː aŋgôːr reːmát͡s purá hǎːt ʂúɳajnǐː Parachi guːʃ tet͡ʃ riːne [rʰiːne?] mɑːhi ɖak dust hatu Pashai, Alasai kahaːj at͡ʃiː laːne maːt͡se aːt͡ʃe haːst kahaːj d͡ʒajiːk Pashai, Alingar χaːl / arejk ant͡ʃ a(ã?)ːr maːt͡ʃ ɖak / purwaː aːs arejk Pashai, Alishang keːʈiː at͡ʃiː aːŋguɽ / aːŋgur masaʈiː dal oːst kand͡ʒaːni Pashai, Amla kaːɽ ajnt͡ʃ aŋgaːr maːt͡ʃ puːrawaː aːs aːreːm Pashai, Aret χoːɽ ãːt͡ʃ aːr maːt͡ʃ ɖak oːst aːrik Pashai, Chalas χoɽ at͡s oːŋgor maːj/maːi pəruwo? oːs aːrak Pashai, Korangal χow aːjt͡s aːngoː maːjs [purjuwo] oːs [arajm] Pashai, Sanjan kuj at͡ʃuj iʃnaːiː maːiː lep oːst kuj d͡ʒahik Pashai, Shemal χoːɽ aːt͡ʃ oŋgor maːi purjuwa oːs arajk Pashto, Afgh ʁwag stərga oːr kab ɖak laːs oːreːdəl Pashto, Ind ʁwag stərga oːr majeː ɖak laːs awreːdə Pashto, Pak ʁwag stərga ʔoːr majeː ɖak laːs ʔawridəl Prasun imuː iʒi anəɣ tuwaːmisi biːraw lust nasnij Purik hr̥naː mik meː ɲah gaŋma lakpa ɲanma Roshani ʁoːw t͡saːm juːt͡s moːj lap ðost ʂidoː Sanglechi ʁɑɽ t͡saːm ʂənaːiː muːiː vən doːst apɑχt Sawi kaːɳ anʈ͡ʂiː hangaːru mat͡siɳ purud͡ʒiloː haːt bud͡ʒiloː Shina, Gilgit kan/kaɳ? aːt͡ʃiː agaːr t͡ʃumo ʂa hat porid͡ʒoːk Shina, Gurez kuʈu aʈ͡ʂʰiː pʰuː t͡ʃʰimu̥ ʂəkboːj hat koɳ dunu̥ Shughni ʁyːʂ t͡seːm joːt͡s moːje seːr ðost ʂedow Torwali kaːn aʂiː/eʂiː aŋgaː maːɕ ɖak haːt(ʰ) bʰuːjuː Ushojo koːn eːʂiː aːŋgaːr mat͡ʃuː purʰaːluː χul bul hat hatʰ ʂunoːn Uzbek, Afgh qulɑːʁ kuːz uːt baːliχ tuːla qoːl eːʃetmɑːʁ Waigali qar at͡ʃeː aj mat͡s par doːʃ akardatu Wakhi, Afgh ɣiːʃ ʈ͡ʂɨːʐəm roχniːg kuːp təqiː daːst kəʂɨjɨːk Wakhi, Pak ɣiʂ ʈ͡ʂeʐəm raχniːʁ kup tiɖiq ðast kʂɨjn Yidgha ʁuː t͡ʃʰam juːɽah bka pʰir last ʁuːleːtaː

56 Language horn I knee leaf liver louse mountain

Ashkun ʃiŋ aj zaɖuŋ paːr vijon uː kanɖrə Balti ruaː ŋa bukʰmah loŋa t͡ɕʰinmah ɕik braq Bateri ʂiːŋ mah koʈ pan ʃur zuwa͡ẽː kʰaːn Brokskat ʃiŋ moː quːʈo pæni χalma ʒwa ruŋ Burushaski, Hunza ilturijaŋ d͡ʑe adumus ːtap akin kʰaruː t͡ɕʰar Burushaski, Nagar iltur, altur d͡ʒaː, d͡ʒe adumus tap akin, eː kin kʰaruː t͡ɕʰar Dameli ʂiŋ ai kʰoʈah pʰaʈ pat͡ʃah ʒũː t͡ʃoːʕ Dari, Darwoz ʃoːχ/ʃɑːχ mən zinəː baːrg d͡ʒiːgaːr ʃəpəːʃ kuː Domaki ʂiŋ, ʂiŋa u kuʈa, kuʈeː paʈa kaula/kauɭa d͡ʑuːja, d͡ʑuːjoŋ t͡ɕiːʂa, t͡ɕiːʂoŋ Gawarbati, Afgh ʃing aː ɖungɑ paʈɑ hiɽɑ zum ban Gawarbati, Pak ʂiŋg ãː (ə̃ː?) ɖuŋga faʈa ande(ː?)t͡s zum daɽa - gala Gawri ʂiŋ jɑ kuʈ pɑɬ jan d͡ʒũːi kʰɑn Gojri, Afgh səng hũː d͡ʒanu baːmfru pʰapru d͡ʒũː ɖʰaːkuː Gojri, Pak siŋ hũː kuːɳi patar d͡ʑigar d͡ʑũː paːɽ Hindko siːŋ mẽː goːɖaː patar d͡ʒigar d͡ʒũː ʈakah Indus Kohistani ʂĩːŋg mah kuːʈʰ pãɽ ʃuːr zoĩː kʰaːn Ishkashimi ʃɑːχ aːzəm zang barg d͡ʒigar spəl ɑːlaχ Kalasha ʂiːŋ a ɖʰeŋk kuʃuruk po˞ ʒaŋgu (?) d͡ʒuk denta Kalkoti ʂiŋ ma(h) kuːʈ paːt d͡ʒagar d͡ʒiːn kʰan ɻ Kamviri ʂiŋ ɑːt͡s d͡zɑ pɑr [pɑr̥] ja i juː dɑ Kashmiri, Ind hʲə̃g bɨ kɔːʈʰ pan(ɨ?) wətʰɨr krehən maːz zɔːw baːl Kashmiri, Pak hiŋɡ bɨ koʈʰ pan pɨtɨr krihən maːz zɔw pahaːr Kati, Eastern t͡sɑː u(ũ?)t͡s zɑ̃ː pɑr jɑɻi juː dɑ Kati, Western kɑːʈ wuza zɑː pɑːr jɑɻi ju paːʃiː Khowar sruŋg awa zanu ʈ͡ʂʰan d͡ʒigaːr ʒoːʁ zom Kohistani Shina ʂigu̥ mõː kuʈʰu̥ paʈʰu̥ hijuː ʑũː kʰoɳ Kundal Shahi ɕiːŋ mã kĩːɽ pan kleːd͡ʑe d͡ʑũː baʈoː Kyrgyz myjyz men tize berk bor pit qɯr Ladakhi rut͡ʃo ŋa pikmo lotma t͡ʃʰimpa ʃik ri Munji ʃuw ze ziːng barg d͡ʒigar spəje saːste Pahari-Pothwari siŋ meː / mɛː giʈa patar / patər kaleːd͡ʒa d͡ʒũː ʈaki / paːr Palula ʂiŋg ma kʰúʈo paːlǎː d͡ʒʰaŋgǎːr d͡ʒʰĩ̌ kʰâːɳ Parachi ʃɑːχ ɑːn zɑːnuː puːn d͡ʒigar espo dahɑːr Pashai, Alasai ʂaːng mam kaːɽ paʈaː haːɽ ʒuː dahaːr Pashai, Alingar ʃing mam kuʈaː paʈik d͡ʒigar ʒuː daːr Pashai, Alishang ʃaŋgaʈi moː gunɖu / koːɽ paːʈu d͡ʒigar ʒuː duːr Pashai, Amla ʃuŋg(ə)ɽaː mam kuʈa paʈək d͡ʒigar ʒu daːr Pashai, Aret ʃaŋ aː ɖuwaː (?) paʈək aːɽ ʒuː doːr Pashai, Chalas ʃin a χoɽ paʈek zəɽ ju Izor Pashai, Korangal ʃiŋ aː pinɖr paːʈek aːndet jiw doːr Pashai, Sanjan ʃuχ aː koːɽ poːʈ d͡ʒigaːr ʒu doːr Pashai, Shemal ʃiŋ a ɖuhaw? [ɖuhɐ̃w] paːɽek eːɽ jəw daːr Pashto, Afgh xkar zə zangun paːɳa d͡ʒigar spəga ʁar Pashto, Ind χkər zə zangun paːɳa/pãːɖa spəga ʁər Pashto, Pak χkər zə zangun paːɳa zigar spəga ʁar Prasun ʃing anzu mənij parəɣ iwij kuː Purik rit͡ʃu ŋa puksmoː loːma t͡ʃʰinma ʃik riː Roshani ʂaw aːz zuːn paːrk d͡ʒigaːr sepaw kuː Sanglechi ʂɑːw azeː zuːng barg d͡ʒigar spəl ko Sawi ʂinga ma ɖungoː paːɬu jiːnuː d͡ʒuj ɖaɖu Shina, Gilgit ʂiːŋ ma kuʈo paʈo d͡ʒiga(ː)r d͡ʒũː (?) t͡ʃĩːʂʰ Shina, Gurez ʂiŋu̥ mu kuʈu paʈu̥ sina d͡ʒu( ?)we pahaːɽ Shughni χoːʂ wəz zyːn paːrk d͡ʒigaːr spəʂ kuː Torwali ʂiŋ aː kuɽ paːʂ d͡ʒuːguː d͡ʒʰĩː kʰaːn Ushojo ʂiŋguː maː/maːʔ kuʈuː paʈ͡ʂuː d͡ʒagar d͡ʒʰũː kʰoːn Uzbek, Afgh ʃɑːχ meːn tiːz barg baʁeːr bit qira, gaza Waigali ʃiŋ aŋa aʃŋa poʈ jok wyː daː Wakhi, Afgh ʂəːw uːz bəriːn paːɬt͡ʃ d͡ʒigaːr ʃiːʃ kuː Wakhi, Pak ʂew wɨz birin paɬt͡ɕ/palt͡ɕ d͡ʑigar ɕiɕ kuh/kɨh? Yidgha ʂuː zoː ziːg (pənək) panak d͡ʒigar ʂupuoː vana(?)ʁaroː

57 Language name new night nose one path person

Ashkun nam nusθə zat kəsrə at͡ʃ kurvurt͡ʃo mat͡s Balti mintaχ, min sarfa, suŋa t͡sʰan snamsul t͡ɕik lam miː, mingaː Bateri nãː nũː raː nʰatoːr jak paːn mũːʂ Brokskat nuː nøː bældaŋ nuːto ek pun myʃ Burushaski, Hunza ajik tʰoʂ tʰap amupuʂ han gan sis Burushaski, Nagar guik naja, tʰoʂ tʰap amuːpuʂ han gan sisan Dameli nam nuːãː ret naːs ek pʰan mat͡ʃ Dari, Darwoz nuːm naw ʃaw bəniː jaːk ra nafar Domaki noːm namah tʰop nok ek paɳa maniɕ, maniɕa Gawarbati, Afgh naːm nungɑ heːl naːsi jak pan maːnuʂ Gawarbati, Pak naːm nuŋg el - hel naːsi jak fãt zan Gawri nɑːm nam rɑːt nazoːr ak pɑn miːʃ/miːʔʃ Gojri, Afgh naː noː raːt naːs eːk ra d͡ʒaɳu Gojri, Pak nãː noː raːt nak eːk rah aːdmi Hindko nãː namãː raːt nak hek rah aːdmiː Indus Kohistani nãː nãõ raːl natʰuːr ek pãːd mãːʂ Ishkashimi niːm naw ʃab net͡s wɑːk ʃɑːval ʃaχs Kalasha nom no˞ːa tromiʃ nʰaz ek pʰond mot͡ʃ Kalkoti naːm/naːʔm̥ num raːt / raːʔt ʂumur ak/ek paːn meʔʃ Kamviri nɑm nuĩ (?) ɻadɑr nazəː eː put mand͡ʒi Kashmiri, Ind naːw now raːtʰ nas akʰ watʰ napʰər, ʃakʰɨs Kashmiri, Pak naw now raːtʰ nas akʰ watʰ mohnju Kati, Eastern nɑm nui ɻɑdɑr nasə ev put mant͡ʃi Kati, Western nɑm kajʃtasə (?) nuiː ɻadora nasə ew put χudiwuza Khowar nam no(ː)ʁ t͡ʃu(ː)j niska(ː)r i rah/poːn moːʃ Kohistani Shina num nõː raːti̥ noːtʰu̥ ek pon muɕaː Kundal Shahi nã nãw ratãː natʰ jokʰ goːr mẽːt͡ɕ Kyrgyz ɑt d͡ʒanqɯ tyn moron bir d͡ʒor adam Ladakhi miŋ soma t͡sʰan nakuŋ t͡ʃik lam mi(ː) Munji nɑːm nuwiː χ(ə)ʃawe fəskeː juː pɑːnde ɑːdem Pahari-Pothwari nãː nawã raːt nak (h)ek raː d͡ʒaɽa / d͡ʒəɽa Palula nôː nâːwu rǎːt nâːs âːk pâːn mîːʃ Parachi nɑːm nuː vijɑːr niʃt ʒu parɑːn nafar Pashai, Alasai naːm naːng wijaːl naːst iː paːnde aːdam Pashai, Alingar naːm / naːmi nungaː / nuwaː wel naːs / nastiː aj / iː pan aːd(ə)miː / nafar Pashai, Alishang num / naːmeː nuwe / nuŋgu weːle noːs i paːndə aːdam / nafar Pashai, Amla naːmi nuŋgaː wejl naːs i pan aːdami Pashai, Aret nom naga wijal noːs(t?) eː pan mut͡ʃak Pashai, Chalas nom nawe wel noːs jə paːn kas Pashai, Korangal nom nawaj wel noːs jeː paːn mut͡seːk Pashai, Sanjan noːm nung weːla noːst iː paːnde aːdam Pashai, Shemal nom nagaː wel noːs jeː pan mut͡sək Pashto, Afgh num nəwe ʃpa poːza jaw laːra saɽeː Pashto, Ind num nawe ʃpa poːza jaw laːr tan Pashto, Pak num nəwe ʃpaː poːza jaːw laːr kas Prasun nam inːi woʃʈa nes atəɣ wut wət͡ʃmi Purik miŋ soːma t͡ʃʰan r(ʰ?)u t͡ʃik lam mi Roshani noːm naːw ʂaːb neːt͡s iːw paːnd oːdam, nafar Sanglechi niːm nowoːk fərʂɑw fsek wɑk ra nafar Sawi naːm naːw raːti naːs jak pijaːdoː pʰaːnt maːnuʂ Shina, Gilgit noːm naːwo raːti nato ek pon moʃaː Shina, Gurez noːm naː raːti̥ nuti̥ ek pon nafar Shughni nyːm naːw ʂaːb neːt͡s jiːw pyːnd nafar Torwali naːm nam ʐaːt natkoːl eːk paːn maːʂ Ushojo nuːm nau/naw raːtiː noːtiː ek poːn manuːʐuː muʃaː Uzbek, Afgh ɑːt jangiː kiːt͡ʃa buruːn bir joːl nafar Waigali naːm nuŋa wot naːs ew punt manaʃ Wakhi, Afgh nung ʂɨːɣd naːɣd miːs iːju vədəːk χaːlk Wakhi, Pak nuŋg ʂeʁd naʁd mis jiw fdek xalg Yidgha naːm nuː χiʂowoː fiskoː juː paːduː maɽah

58 Language see skin star stone sun tongue tooth

Ashkun vendə t͡sam isθa vaːʈ su ʒu dont Balti ɬtaː baχspah skarmah rdwaː ŋimah/ŋjemah ɬt͡ɕeː soː Bateri bʰaːluː t͡saːm taːr baːʈ suːr ziːb daːn Brokskat skis moːs, tʰuːro turi naːro suri gib/gip dæni Burushaski, Hunza barenas awaʈ asiː dan sa oːmus ameː Burushaski, Nagar beren, beranas baʈ asiː dan, danan sah baːʂ ameː Dameli daʈ͡ʂan gadrah iʃtaːri baːt sir ʒip dan Dari, Darwoz dijan pəːst sətoːra sang aftoːw zuː danduː Domaki dekʰina t͡ɕom taːro(k?), taːreː boʈ, baʈa toː d͡ʑiba don, dana Gawarbati, Afgh taːwum gaʂ stoːre waːʈ suri zip dan Gawarbati, Pak baːlawa gaɬ taːra waːʈ suri zip dãt Gawri t͡ʃʰaʈɑːg t͡ʃɑm tɑːr/tɑːʔr bɑʈ siːr d͡ʒib dɑn Gojri, Afgh deːkʰaɳ t͡ʃamɽi taːruː gəʈiː dĩː d͡ʒiːb daːnd Gojri, Pak deːkʰɳu t͡ɕamɽi taːroː baʈːo dĩː(h) d͡ʑiːb dand Hindko deːχ d͡ʒamɽaː taːraː baʈah d(ʰ?)ĩː d͡ʒiːb dand Indus Kohistani nʰaːlũː t͡saːm taːr baːʈ suːir ziːb daːn Ishkashimi wiːnd krust stɑːra song rejmuzd zəvuk daːnd Kalasha d͡ʒagek pʰost taːri bat suːri d͡ʒip dando˞ːjak Kalkoti naːlil (?) t͡ʃaːm taːr/taːʔr̥ baːʈ siːr/siːʔr̥ d͡ʒib daːn ɻ Kamviri va isə t͡ʃɑm ɻaʃtɑ vɑʈ su dit͡s dut Kashmiri, Ind wut͡ʃʰun mɨslɨ taːruk kənʲ aːpʰtaːb zʲew dand Kashmiri, Pak wɨt͡ʃʰ t͡sam taːrokʰ kãj akʰtaːbɨ zjo(ɔw?) dand ɻ Kati, Eastern va stə t͡ʃɑm ɻəstɑ vɑʈ su dit͡s dut ɻ Kati, Western wu astə t͡ʃɑːm ʃtɑː wɑːʈ suwej wəriː dut Khowar loɬik pʰost istari boht/boχt joːr ligini don Kohistani Shina ʈ͡ʂakoːn t͡ɕom taːru̥ baʈ suːri̥ ʑip don Kundal Shahi raku fataːu, d͡ʑamɽə taːr baʈoː siːr d͡ʑib daːnd Kyrgyz kɯrgi teri d͡ʒildɯz tɑʃ nur til kørgøn Ladakhi ltos pakspa skarma rdoa ɲima lt͡ʃʰe so Munji ləʃcɑː kaːrɑːst stɑːriː kwiːke miːrɑː zəviːʁ lɑːnd Pahari-Pothwari takɽa t͡ʃamɽi taːra baʈːa / ʈʰol dẽː d͡ʒiːw dand Palula paʃajnǐː t͡ʃâːm tôːro bâːʈ sûːri (?) d͡ʒip dâːnd Parachi duɽuː pust s(ə)tɑːra ger rut͡ʃ bɑːn danɑːn Pashai, Alasai diːk pustaːk s(ə)taːraː zaːmb sura d͡ʒiba daːnd Pashai, Alingar leʃik / leʃwaː pust s(ə)taːraː waːɽ sər d͡ʒibiː / d͡ʒəb daːn Pashai, Alishang dijani poːstak s(ə)taːru zomb sər d͡ʒibə daːndə Pashai, Amla lajkam t͡ʃumpaɽa taːraː waːɽ sor d͡ʒəb daːn Pashai, Aret lat͡ʃeːk pəst tajaːk kaːmar sur zib don Pashai, Chalas paɽajk pəst leːtoro woɽ sur ziːb don Pashai, Korangal meːleːim pəs lajtaroː woː sur zib don Pashai, Sanjan datoː puːstuːk s(ə)taːruː zumb səra d͡ʒiba doːnd Pashai, Shemal paɽajk pəst litaːra woɽ suːr zib/zeːb daːn Pashto, Afgh liːdəl poːstəke stoːre tiːga lmar d͡ʒəba ʁaːx Pashto, Ind katlə t͡sarmən stoːre gaʈ nwar stərga d͡ʒəba ʁaːχ Pashto, Pak lidəl t͡sarmən stoːre kaːɳe lmar d͡ʒəba ʁaːχ Prasun wuskaːznij t͡ʃam iʃtij iːr isij luzuw latam Purik juŋma baχspa skarma ʃkuːwa niːma ɬt͡ʃeː soː Roshani wunʈoː puːst ʂituːrd͡ʒ, s(ə)toːra ʒer χɑr zev, andoːm ðendoːn Sanglechi weːnd krɑːst struːk sɑːng ɑːrmɑːzd zəvuːk daːnd Sawi paʃiloː gaːɬ taːri baːʈ suːri d͡ʒiːbu daːndu Shina, Gilgit paːʃ t͡ʃum taːro baʈ suːri d͡ʒip don Shina, Gurez ʈ͡ʂakjoːnu̥ t͡ʃeːmu̥ taːru̥ baʈ suːri̥ d͡ʒib doni̥ Shughni t͡ʃiːʂtow pyːst ʂteːrt͡s ʒiːr χiːr zev ðendyːn Torwali paʃuː taː (taːʔ?) baːɽ siː d͡ʒib dan (dən) Ushojo paʃoːn t͡ʃoːm taːruː giriː suːriː d͡ʒib doːnd Uzbek, Afgh kuːrmɑːʁ teːriː julduz tɑːʃ ɑːftɑːb til tiːʃ Waigali weːɻu t͡ʃam tara waʈ sø d͡ʒib dunt Wakhi, Afgh wiːnaːk piːst sətaːr ɣaːr iːr ziːk dəndɨːk Wakhi, Pak wiŋg pist stoːr ɣaːr jiːr zik dɨndɨk Yidgha uʐɽah tiːz sataː(rə?) ʁar miːrah zabiːʁ laːd

59 Language tree two water we we

Ashkun kandə du abu ima tu Balti staqd͡ʑiː ŋis/ŋjes t͡ɕʰuː ŋaːja, ŋadãː(?)/ŋadaːŋ (kʰ)jãː/(kʰ)jaːŋ Bateri biːʈ͡ʂ duː pa͡ẽː beː tus Brokskat (hr̥?)t͡ʃaqmæ dy wæ bæ ti Burushaski, Hunza tom alto t͡s(ʰ?)il mi un Burushaski, Nagar tom, toman altat͡s t͡sʰil mi, miː um Dameli muʈ duː aːw/aːu ai tuː Dari, Darwoz draːχt duː / dəː oːw/ɑːw moː/mɑː tə Domaki tom, tomit͡ɕan dui paːni ame tu Gawarbati, Afgh muʈɑ du aːw mu tu Gawarbati, Pak muʈʰa du(ː) aːw/aːu ama me(ː), tu(ː) Gawri tɑm duː uː jɑ tu Gojri, Afgh rukʰ doː paːɳi ham tuː Gojri, Pak buːʈo doː paːɳi ham tuː Hindko buːʈaː doː pãːɽĩː asĩː tuː / tusĩː Indus Kohistani gaiː duː wiː beh tus Ishkashimi draχt duː/dow veːk d͡ʒək ta / fak Kalasha muʈ du uk aːbi tu / taj Kalkoti tam duː wa(ʔ) bah tis Kamviri kalɑ duj ɑː iːmɑ tuj [tyː] Kashmiri, Ind kul zɨ aːb əsʲ t͡sɨ, tuhʲ Kashmiri, Pak kul zɨ aːb ɨsʲ t͡sɨ Kati, Eastern kənɑː duj ɑːv mɑs tuj Kati, Western ʃ(ə)tum diju ɑːwə mɑːs tiju Khowar ka(ː)n d͡ʒu uːʁ ispa pisa/tu Kohistani Shina tom duː woe/woj beh tu, t͡sʰo Kundal Shahi muʈ duːi paːni asũː tu Kyrgyz terik eki su ɑj sen Ladakhi lt͡ʃʰaŋma ɲis t͡ʃʰu ŋaʒa kʰoraŋ Munji aːwste ləː jɑːwʁe mɑːχ təː Pahari-Pothwari buːʈa doː paːɳi asãː tuː / tusãː Palula muʈ dûː wîː be tu Parachi bʰiːn? diː aw mɑː tuː Pashai, Alasai butaː doː warajk hama tu Pashai, Alingar d͡ʒal / kaɽik də / duː dijə warik / waruk ama ima Pashai, Alishang kaʈiː doː urgə hama tə / tu Pashai, Amla kaɽək duː(wa?) warik aːma tə Pashai, Aret d͡ʒaːl? duː warək aːma tu Pashai, Chalas zol du waːrik ama tu Pashai, Korangal zal duː warik ama tu Pashai, Sanjan kungaːl dowal oːrga amaː te Pashai, Shemal zol duː warajk aːma tuː Pashto, Afgh wəna dwa oːbə mung tə Pashto, Ind wəna dwa oːbə mung tə Pashto, Pak wəna dwa ʔobə məŋ (?) tə Prasun iʃtun? liː aːw [aːv] asə iju Purik ɬt͡ʃaŋma nis/ɲis t͡ʃʰuː naːtaŋ kʰem Roshani d(ə)raχt ðaw ʂat͡s maːʃ tɑ Sanglechi d(ə)raχt dow veːk amaχ tɑw Sawi d͡ʒul duː iː be tuː Shina, Gilgit tom duː wai/wej be(ː) t͡sʰo Shina, Gurez toːm duː woj be tu Shughni dəraχt ðyjyn ʂat͡s maːʃ to Torwali tʰaːm duː uː mʰoː tuː Ushojo tʰoːm duː uːiː asoː tuː soː Uzbek, Afgh daraːχt jika? [jɪkɪ] su biz sen Waigali d͡ʒala dyː aːw [aːv] ami ty Wakhi, Afgh dəraχt buːj juːpk saːk tuː Wakhi, Pak draxt buːj jupk sak tu Yidgha diraχt loːħ jaʁoː maχ tuː

60 Appendix III: Numerals

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Ashkun at͡ʃ duː trə t͡sətaː punt͡s ʃu soːt oːʃt nu dos Balti t͡ɕik ŋis χsum bʑiː ʁaː truk bdun bgijad rguː ft͡ɕuː Bateri jak duː ʈ͡ʂaː t͡soːr pãːz ʂu saːt aːʈʰ nuː daʃ Brokskat ek dy træ t͡ʃoːr pũːʃ ʂa sat aːʃ ny daːʃ Burushaski, Hunza han alto usko walto t͡sʰundo miɕindo tʰalo altambo hun t͡ɕo toːrumo Burushaski, Nagar han altat͡s usko walto t͡sʰundo miɕindo tʰalo altambo hun t͡ɕo toːrumo Dameli ek duː traː t͡ʃoːr pãːt͡ʃ ʂo sat aʂ no daʃ Dari, Darwoz jaːk dəː seː t͡ʃɑːr paːnd͡ʒ ʃaːʃ haːft haːʃt nəː daː Gawarbati, Afgh jak du ɬe [ʂˡe] t͡sur pant͡s ʂoː sat aʂʈ nu daʂ Gawarbati, Pak jak du ɬe t͡suːr pant͡s ʂoː sat aʂʈ nuː daʂ Gawri ak duː ɬɑː t͡ʃor pɑ̃d͡ʒ ʂo sɑt aʈ͡ʂ num daʃ Gojri, Afgh eːk duː trɛː t͡ʃaːr paːnd͡ʒ t͡ʃʰiː saːt aːʈʰ nuː da Gojri, Pak eːk doː trɛː t͡ʃaːr pand͡ʒ t͡ʃʰeː sat aʈʰ nuː das Hindko hek doː træː t͡ɕaːr pãd͡ʑ t͡ɕʰeː sat aʈʰ nũː das Indus Kohistani ek duː ʈ͡ʂaː t͡sawr pãːz ʂo saːt ãʈ nãw daeʃ Ishkashimi wɑːk doː ruː t͡sfuːr puːnz (?) χuːl oːvd ɑːt naːw daː Kalasha ek duː treː t͡ɕaw poːnd͡ʑ ʂo sat ãʂʈ noː daɕ Kalkoti ak duː traː t͡ʃʰo(ʔ)r paːn(ʔd͡ʒ̚) ʂo saː(ʔ)t eʂ nom deʃ Kamviri eː duj [dyː] treː ʃtɑː puːt͡ʃ ʃuː soːt oːʃt nu dut͡s Kashmiri, Ind akʰ zɨ tre t͡sɔːr pãːt͡s ʃʲe satʰ əːʈʰ naw dah Kashmiri, Pak akʰ zɨ tre t͡sɔːr pãːt͡sʰ ʃe satʰ əːʈ naw dah Kati, Eastern ew duj [dyː] təra ʃtawɑː put͡ʃ ʂu sut uʃt nuː dut͡s Kati, Western ew djuː tra [trɛ] ʃtwɑː puːt͡ʃ ʂuː suːt oːʂt nuː duːt͡s Khowar i d͡ʒu troj t͡ʃoːr/t͡ʃʰoːr põːt͡ʃ ʈ͡ʂʰoj sot oʃʈ niof d͡ʒoʃ Kohistani Shina ek duː ʈ͡ʂeː t͡ɕaːr poɕ ʂah sat ãʂ nãw daːe Kundal Shahi jokʰ duːi traː t͡ɕoːr pãːd͡ʑ ɕa sat ãːɕʈ nõː dʰaj Kyrgyz bir eki yt͡ʃ tørt beʃ ɑltɯ d͡ʒeti segiz toquz on Ladakhi t͡ʃik ɲis suŋ ʒi ʂŋa ʈuk rdun rgjat rgu r̥t͡ʃu/ʂt͡ʃu Munji juː lə çiraj t͡ʃəfiːr pɑːnd͡ʒ ɑːχʃɛ ɑːvdɛ ɑːʃcɛ nɛw juː o sifɛr Pahari-Pothwari ek doː træː t͡ɕaːr pand͡ʑ t͡ɕʰeː sat aʈʰ nõː das Palula aːk duː troː t͡ʃuːr paːnd͡ʒ ʂo saːt aːʂʈ nuː daːʃ Parachi ʒu diː ʃiː t͡ʃoːr poːnd͡ʒ χiː hoːt oːʃt nu doːs Pashai, Alasai iː doː tra t͡ʃaːr paːnd͡ʒe ʂe saːte aːʂʈe naːwe daːje Pashai, Alingar iː də heː t͡ʃaːr pajnd͡ʒ ʃeː sat aʃʈ noː deː Pashai, Alishang iː doː tra t͡ʃoːr paːnd͡ʒə t͡ʃaː saːtə aːʃʈə naːu deː Pashai, Amla iː doː ɬe t͡ʃaːr pand͡ʒ ʃeː sat haʃt noː deː Pashai, Aret eː duː trəː t͡ʃoːr paːnj t͡ʃəː saːt aːʃt naw daːe Pashai, Chalas je du ɬə t͡sor paːjn t͡ʃə saːt aːʃ naːw daːj Pashai, Korangal je du ɬe t͡soːr paːjn t͡ʃe saːt aːʃ naːw daːj Pashai, Sanjan juwal dowal tra t͡ʃur pɑːnd͡ʒe ʂe sɑːta ɑːʃta nɑːwa dɑː Pashai, Shemal je duː ɬeː t͡soːr pɑːjn t͡ʃə saːt aːʃt naːw daːj Pashto, Afgh jaw dwaː dreː t͡saloːr pinzəː ʃpag wə atə nəh las Pashto, Ind jaw dwaː dreː t͡saloːr pinzə ʃpag wə atə naha las Pashto, Pak jaw dwaː dreː t͡saloːr pinzə ʃpag wə atə nəhə las Prasun ipiːn il liː t͡ʃiʃ̥ ʃiː t͡ʃu̥p pu wut͡ʃ t͡ʃə wuʂ ʂə sətə aːstə nuju ləːz zə Purik t͡ʃik ŋis sum d͡ʒbjiː ʁa truk hr̥dun rgjad rguː hr̥t͡ʃuː Roshani iːw ðaw araj t͡savuːr piːnd͡z χuː uːvd waxt naːw ðos Sanglechi wɑːk dəːw roːj t͡safuːr poːnd͡z χɑːɽ hoːvd hɑːt nɑːw dɑːs Sawi jak duː ɬɑː t͡ʃuːr paːnd͡ʒ ʂo saːt aːʃ nu deʃ Shina, Gilgit ek duː t͡ʃe t͡ʃaːr põʃ ʂa sat ãʂ naw daj Shina, Gurez ek dũː ʈ͡ʂeː t͡ʃaːr poʃ ʂa satʰ aːʃʈ naw daj Shughni jiːw ðəjyːn haraːj t͡savoːr piːnt͡s χoːɣ wuːvd waxt noːw ðiːs Torwali ek du ʈ͡ʂa t͡ʃaw pãː(j)i ʂoː saːt aːʈ noːm daʃ Ushojo ek duː ʈ͡ʂiː t͡ʃaːr poːʃ ʂa saːt aːʈ naw daiː Uzbek, Afgh bər jekːi wut͡ʃ turt beːʃ ɑlte jetːi sakːiz toqːuz won Waigali ew dyː treː t͡ʃataː puːnt͡ʃ ʂuː soːt oːʃt nuː doːʃ Wakhi, Afgh jiːw buːj təruːj t͡səbɨːr paːnt͡s ʃaːd ɨːb aːt naw ðas Wakhi, Pak jiːw buːj tʰruːj t͡səbɨːr paːnz ɕaːð hub hat naw ðas Yidgha ju loħ ʃiroiː t͡ʃːiːr pãːd͡ʒ uχʂo aːvdo aːht͡ʃo now les Language 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Ashkun t͡ʃenis baːjs trejs t͡sudis pat͡sejs ʃuɽis sətaːjs Balti t͡ɕust͡ɕik t͡ɕuŋis t͡ɕuksum t͡ɕubʑiː t͡ɕuʁaː t͡ɕuruk t͡ɕubdun Bateri jaːʃ duwaːʃ t͡ʃiːʃ t͡suːdaʃ pand͡ʒiːʃ ʂuweːʃ sataeːʃ Brokskat quːdæʃ buːdæʃ trøbæʃ t͡ʃydæʃ pændæʃ ʂøbæʃ satũːʃ Burushaski, Hunza turmahan turma alto turma usko turma walto turma t͡sʰundo turma miɕindo turma tʰalo Burushaski, Nagar turmahan turma altat͡s turma usko turma walto turma t͡sʰundo turma miɕindo turma tʰalo Dameli jaːʃ baːʃ troːʃ t͡ʃandeːʃ pan t͡ʃeːʃ ʂoweːʃ santaːʃ Dari, Darwoz jɑːzdaː duwɑːzdaː seːzdaː t͡ʃɑːrdaː pɑːn(a)zdaː ʃɑːn(a)zdaː avdaː Gawarbati, Afgh d͡ʒaːʂ baːʂ ɬawanʂ t͡sudaʂ pint͡ʃaʂ ʂoɽaːs sataːs Gawarbati, Pak d͡ʒaːʂ baːʂ ɬawanʂ t͡sudaʂ pent͡ʃaʂ ʂoɽaːs sataːs Gawri ikaː baː ɬoː t͡ʃuːn pãjaː ʂoːr sataː Gojri, Afgh jaːra baːra teːra t͡ʃuːda pandra suːɽa staːra Gojri, Pak jaːra baːra teːra t͡ʃuːda pandra soːla staːra Hindko jaːrãː baːrãː teːrãː t͡ɕoːda pandrãː solːah saːtraː(ãː?) Indus Kohistani agaːleʃ duwaːleʃ ʈ͡ʂigoːleʃ t͡sand(a?)eʃ pãzaleʃ ʂoːeʃ sataːleʃ Ishkashimi jɑːzdaː duwɑːzdaː seːzdaː t͡ʃɑhɑːrdaː pɑːnzdaː ʃɑːnzdaː havdaː Kalasha daɕ ʑe eːka daɕ ʑe duːa daɕ ʑe treːa daɕ ʑe t͡ɕawa daɕ ʑe poːnd͡ʑa daɕ ʑe ʂoːa daɕ ʑe saːta Kalkoti akaː(ʔ)ʃ baː(ʔ)ʃ treː(ʔ)ʃ t͡ʃandeː(ʔ)ʃ pand͡ʒeː(ʔ)ʃ ʂoreː(ʔ)ʃ sataː(ʔ)ʃ Kamviri janit͡s dit͡s trit͡s ʃtrit͡s pɑt͡ʃit͡s ʃet͡s satit͡s Kashmiri, Ind kah bah truːwah t͡sɔːdah pandah ʃurah sadah Kashmiri, Pak kah bah trowah t͡sodah pandah ʃɔɽah sədah Kati, Eastern janit͡s dit͡s tərit͡s ʃturit͡s pət͡ʃit͡s ʂat͡s sətit͡s Kati, Western janiːt͡s diːt͡s triːt͡s ʃtreːt͡s pət͡ʃiːt͡s ʂaːt͡s ʂʈiːt͡s Khowar d͡ʒoʃ i d͡ʒoʃ d͡ʒu d͡ʒoʃ troj d͡ʒoʃ t͡ʃoːr d͡ʒoʃ põːt͡ʃ d͡ʒoʃ ʈ͡ʂʰoj d͡ʒoʃ sot Kohistani Shina akaːe baːe ʈ͡ʂoːe t͡ɕahundeː panzileː ʂõːe sataːẽ Kundal Shahi jagaːi baːi troːi t͡ɕoːdʰãj pandr hãj ɕeː ɽiɕ sataːi Kyrgyz on bir on eki on yt͡ʃ on tørt on beʃ on ɑltɯ on d͡ʒeti Ladakhi t͡ʃukʃik t͡ʃukŋis t͡ʃuksuŋ t͡ʃukʒi t͡ʃoŋa t͡ʃuruk t͡ʃukdun Munji juː o juː juː o lə juː o çiraj juː o t͡ʃəfiːr juː o pɑːnd͡ʒ juː o ɑːχʃɛ juː o ɑːvdɛ Pahari-Pothwari jaːrãː baːrãː teːrãː t͡ɕoːdãː pandərãː soːlãː sətaːrãː Palula akoːʃ boːʃ triːʃ t͡ʃandiːʃ pand͡ʒiːʃ ʂoɽiːʃ satoːʃ Parachi ʒoːns duwɑːs ʃidoːs t͡ʃadoːs pajns [pa͡ɪ̃ s] χoːdoːs hatos Pashai, Alasai ʒaːi duwaːi truːi t͡ʃadaːje pand͡ʒiː ʂuːi satːiː Pashai, Alingar jaːe duːwaːe həwi t͡ʃadeː pand͡ʒuː ʃuːɽ satuː Pashai, Alishang ʒuiː duiː truiː t͡ʃadeː pand͡ʒiː t͡ʃuiː satiː Pashai, Amla jaːe duwaːe ɬue t͡ʃadeː pand͡ʒu ʃoːɽ satu Pashai, Aret juːj duːj truj t͡ʃadaj paːnju ʃiɽ satiju Pashai, Chalas juwoːj duwoːj ɬəj t͡saːdaːj paːziw ʃuːɽ satiw Pashai, Korangal juːj duːj ɬej t͡saːdaj pant͡siːw ʃuj satiːw Pashai, Sanjan ʒuj duj duj triju t͡ʃadɑː pand͡ʒi ʂuj satiː Pashai, Shemal joːj duwoj ɬiː t͡sandaːj pa(n?)ziju səɽ satiju Pashto, Afgh jauːlas duːlas djaːrlas t͡swaːrlas pinzələs ʃpaːɽəs wələs Pashto, Ind jaoːlas doːlas djaːrlas t͡swaːrlas pinzəlas ʃpaːɖlas wərlas Pashto, Pak jawləs doːləs djaːrləs t͡swaːrləs pinzələs ʃpaːɽəs wələs Prasun d͡ʒiːz zə wiːz zə t͡ʃiʃiːz̥ zə t͡ʃu̥pluz wəʃliz wəʂluz sətliz Purik t͡ʃukʃik t͡ʃuŋis t͡ʃuksum t͡ʃud͡ʒbjiː t͡ʃuʁa t͡ʃuzdrug t͡ʃubdun Roshani joːzda duwoːzda siːzda t͡ʃoːrda poːnzda ʃoːnzda avda Sanglechi kədɑːs diːduːs seːzda t͡ʃaːrda poːnzdɑːs χɑːɽdɑːs hoːvddɑːs Sawi jakɑːʃ bɑːʃ trojiʃ t͡ʃadiʃ pand͡ʒiʃ ʂuɽaʃ satijɑːʃ Shina, Gilgit akaːj baːj ʈ͡ʂoj t͡ʃondaj panzaj ʂoːj sataːj Shina, Gurez akaːj baːj ʈ͡ʂoiː ʈ͡ʂodiː panzuliː ʂoːj sataːj Shughni ji ðiːsat jiːw ji ðiːsat ðəjyːn ji ðiːsat haraːj ji ðiːsat t͡savoːr ji ðiːsat piːnt͡s ji ðiːsat χoːɣ ji ðiːsat wuːvd Torwali agaːʃ duwaːʃ ʈ͡ʂeːʃ t͡ʃataʃ pĩːʃ ʂeːʃ sataːʃ Ushojo agaːʃ doaːʃ ʈ͡ʂiːʃ t͡ʃadaʃ pĩːʃ ʂiːʃ sataːʃ Uzbek, Afgh won bər won jekːi won wut͡ʃ won turt won beːʃ won ɑlte won jetːi Waigali jaːʃ baːʃ trynʃ t͡ʃadiʃ pat͡ʃiʃ ʂenʃ sataːs Wakhi, Afgh ðas jiːw ðas buːj ðas təruːj ðas t͡səbɨːr ðas paːnt͡s ðas ʃaːd ðas ɨːb Wakhi, Pak ðas jiːw ðas buːj ðas tʰruːj ðas t͡səbɨːr ðas paːnz ðaɕaːð ðas hub Yidgha les ju les loħ les ʃiroiː les t͡ʃːiːr les pãːd͡ʒ les uχʂo les aːvdo

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Ashkun aʃʈaːjs wusu wiʃi wiʃaː at͡ʃ wiʃaː duː wiʃaː trə wiʃaː t͡sətaː Balti t͡ɕubgijad t͡ɕurgu ŋiɕuː hr̥t͡saq t͡ɕik hr̥t͡saq ŋis hr̥t͡saq χsum hr̥t͡sa bʑiː Bateri aʈʰaeːʃ ũːbi(ː)ʃ biːʃ jaku biːʃ duːju biːʃ ʈ͡ʂaju biːʃ t͡suːru biːʃ Brokskat aːʃtũːʃ kund͡ʒa biʒa biʒi ek biʒi dy biʒi træ biʒi t͡ʃoːr Burushaski, Hunza turma altambo turma hun t͡ɕo altʰer altʰer han altʰer alto altʰer usko altʰer walto Burushaski, Nagar turma altambo turma hun t͡ɕo altʰar altʰar han altʰar altat͡s altʰar usko altʰar walto Dameli aʂʈaːʃ uneːʃ biʃiː biʃi oː ek biʃi oː duː biʃi oː traː biʃi oː t͡ʃoːr Dari, Darwoz aʒdaː niːzdaː biːst biːstə jaːk biːstə dəː biːstə seː biːstə t͡ʃɑːr Gawarbati, Afgh aʂʈaːs aniʃ iʃi iʃo jak iʃo du iʃo ɬe iʃo t͡sur Gawarbati, Pak aʂʈaːs iniʃ iʃi iʃo jak iʃo du iʃo ɬe iʃo t͡sur Gawri aʈ͡ʂaː anbiʃ biʃ aːk teː biʃ duː teː biʃ ɬɑː teː biʃ t͡ʃor teː biʃ Gojri, Afgh aʈʰaːra uniː biː eːkte biː duːte biː trɛːte biː t͡ʃaːrte biː Gojri, Pak aʈʰaːra uniː biː ikiː baːj trəbiː t͡ʃəbiː Hindko aʈʰaːrãː unːiː biːs ikiːs baːhiːs treːj t͡ɕawiː Indus Kohistani aʈʰaːleʃ aːmbiːʃ biːʃ ekue biːʃ due biːʃ ʈ͡ʂaːe biːʃ t͡sawrue biːʃ Ishkashimi had͡ʒdaː nəzdaː biːst biːstə jaːk biːstə duː biːstə seː biːstə t͡ʃɑːr Kalasha daɕ ʑe ãːʂʈa daɕ ʑe noːa biːɕiː biːɕiː ʑe ek biːɕiː ʑe duː biːɕiː ʑe treː biːɕiː ʑe t͡ɕaw Kalkoti eʂʈaː(ʔ)ʃ anbiː(ʔ)ʃ biːʃ ak teː biːʃ duː teː biːʃ t(ʰ)raː teː biːʃ t͡ʃʰor teː biːʃ Kamviri ɑːʃtit͡s neːt͡s wit͡si wit͡sa eː wit͡sa duj wit͡sa treː wit͡sa ʃtɑː Kashmiri, Ind ardah kunwuh wuh akwuh zɨtoːwuh troːwuh t͡soːwuh Kashmiri, Pak aɽdah konwuh wuh akwuh zətawuh triwuh t͡suwuh Kati, Eastern ʂʈit͡s nat͡s wat͡səː wat͡səː ew wat͡səː duj wat͡səː təra wat͡səː ʃtawɑː Kati, Western stiːt͡s naːt͡s wat͡səː wat͡sɑː ew wat͡sɑː djuː wat͡sɑː tra wat͡sɑː ʃtwɑː Khowar d͡ʒoʃ oʃʈ d͡ʒoʃ niof biʃir biʃir i biʃir d͡ʒu biʃir troj biʃir t͡ʃoːr Kohistani Shina ãʂʈaːẽ ukniː biː biho ek biho duː biho ʈ͡ʂeː biho t͡ɕaːr Kundal Shahi ãɕʈaːi jakoːi biː Kyrgyz on segiz on toquz d͡ʒigirma d͡ʒigirma bir d͡ʒigirma eki d͡ʒigirma yt͡ʃ d͡ʒigirma tørt Ladakhi t͡ʃokgjat t͡ʃurgu ŋiʃu ŋiʃu st͡saqʃik ŋiʃu st͡saqŋis ŋiʃu st͡saqsuŋ ŋiʃu st͡saqʒi Munji juː o ɑːʃcɛ juː o nɛw lə o sifɛr lə o juː lə o lə lə o çiraj lə o t͡ʃəfiːr Pahari-Pothwari aʈʰaːrãː unːĩː viː Palula aʂʈoːʃ aɳabʰiːʃ bʰiːʃ bʰiʃeː aːk bʰiʃeː duː bʰiʃeː troː bʰiʃeː t͡ʃuːr Parachi haʃtos nams ʁoʃt ʁoʃt u ʒu ʁoʃt u diː ʁoʃt u ʃiː ʁoʃt u t͡ʃoːr Pashai, Alasai aʂʈiː naiː west westu iː westu doː westu tra westu t͡ʃaːr Pashai, Alingar aʃʈuː nahuː wəst wəst iː wist duː wistu heː wistu t͡ʃaːr Pashai, Alishang aːʃʈiː nawiː wast wastu iː wastu doː wastu tra wastu t͡ʃoːr Pashai, Amla aʃʈu nau west west oː iː west oː doː west oː ɬe west oː t͡ʃaːr Pashai, Aret aʃʈiju nawijaw weːst weːst me iː weːst me duː weːst me trəː weːst me t͡ʃoːr Pashai, Chalas aʃʈiw nawiw wist wista bi je wista bi du wista bi ɬə wista bi t͡sor Pashai, Korangal aʃʈiːw nawiːw wist je bi wist du bi wist ɬe bi wist t͡soːre bi wist Pashai, Sanjan aʃʈiː nawiː wəst wəstə iː wəstə do wəstə tra wəstə t͡ʃur Pashai, Shemal aʃʈiju nawiju wist wistə je wistə duː wistə ɬeː wistə t͡soːr Pashto, Afgh atələs nuləs ʃəl jawiʃt dwawiʃt drəwiʃt t͡salorwiʃt Pashto, Ind atəlas nurlas ʃəl jawiʃ dwiʃ diriʃ t͡saleːrwiʃ Pashto, Pak atələs nuləs ʃəl jawiʃ dwawiʃ diriʃ t͡saliːriʃ Prasun aʃliz naːləz zu ikeːʒ ileːʒ t͡ʃiʃeːʒ̥ t͡ʃu̥pːeːʒ Purik t͡ʃubgjad t͡ʃurguː ŋiʃuː ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡saq t͡ʃik ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡saq ŋis ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡saq sum ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡sa d͡ʒbjiː Roshani ad͡ʒda nuːnzda biːst biːstə jaːk biːstə duː biːstə seː biːstə t͡ʃoːr Sanglechi hɑːtdɑːs nawdɑːs wiːʃt wiʃtə wɑːk wiʃtə dəːw wiʃtə roːj wiʃtə t͡safuːr Sawi aʃtijɑːʃ uːɽiʃ biʃ jakɑːn biʃ duwɑːn biʃ ɬɑːwɑːn biʃ t͡ʃuːrɑːn biʃ Shina, Gilgit ãʂʈaːj koniː biː biːga ek biːga duː biːga t͡ʃe biːga t͡ʃaːr Shina, Gurez aʃʈaːj kuniː biː/biːiː biːgi ek biːgi dũː biːgi ʈ͡ʂeː biːgi t͡ʃaːr Shughni ji ðiːsat waxt ji ðiːsat noːw ðə ðiːs ðə ðiːsat jiːw ðə ðiːsat ðəjyːn ðə ðiːsat haraːj ðə ðiːsat t͡savoːr Torwali aʈʰaːʃ ambiʃ biʃ ek o biʃ du o biʃ ʈ͡ʂa o biʃ t͡ʃaw o biʃ Ushojo aʈʰaːʃ ẽɽ biː biː ega biː duːga biː ʈ͡ʂiː ga biː t͡ʃaːr ga biː Uzbek, Afgh won sakːiz won toqːuz jegirma jegirma bər jegirma jekːi jegirma wut͡ʃ jegirma turt Waigali iʃʈaːʃ iʃi wiʃi wiʃije ewi wiʃije dyːi wiʃije treːi wiʃije t͡ʃataːi Wakhi, Afgh ðas aːt ðas naw bist iː bistet jiːw iː bistet buːj iː bistet təruːj iː bistet t͡səbɨːr Wakhi, Pak ðas hat ðas naw wist wiste jiːw wiste buːj wiste tʰruːj wiste t͡səbɨːr Yidgha les aːht͡ʃo les now usto ustoju usto loħ usto ʃiroiː usto t͡ʃːiːr

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Ashkun wiʃaː punt͡s wiʃaː ʃu wiʃaː soːt wiʃaː oːʃt wiʃaː nu wiʃaː dos Balti hr̥t͡sa ʁaː hr̥t͡sa truk hr̥t͡sa bdun hr̥t͡sa bgijad hr̥t͡sa rguː χsumt͡ɕuː Bateri pãːzu biːʃ ʂu ju biːʃ saːtu biːʃ aːʈu biːʃ nuju biːʃ daʃu biːʃ Brokskat biʒi pũːʃ biʒi ʂa biʒi sat biʒi aːʃ biʒi ny biʒi daːʃ Burushaski, Hunza altʰer t͡sʰundo altʰer miɕindo altʰer tʰalo altʰer altambo altʰar hun t͡ɕo altʰer toːrumo Burushaski, Nagar altʰar t͡sʰundo altʰar miɕindo altʰar tʰalo altʰar altambo altʰar hun t͡ɕo altʰar toːrumo Dameli biʃi oː pãːt͡ʃ biʃi oː ʂo biʃi oː sat biʃi oː aʂ biʃi oː no biʃi oː daʃ Dari, Darwoz biːstə paːnd͡ʒ biːstə ʃaːʃ biːstə haːft biːstə haːʃt biːstə nəː siː Gawarbati, Afgh iʃo pant͡s iʃo ʂoː iʃo sat iʃo aʂʈ iʃo nu iʃo daʂ Gawarbati, Pak iʃo pant͡s iʃo ʂoː iʃo sat iʃo aʂʈ iʃo nuː iʃo daʂ Gawri pɑ̃d͡ʒ teː biʃ ʂo teː biʃ sɑːt teː biʃ aːʈ͡ʂ teː biʃ noːm teː biʃ daːʃ teː biʃ Gojri, Afgh paːnd͡ʒte biː t͡ʃʰeːte biː saːtte biː aːʈʰte biː nuːte biː triː Gojri, Pak pənd͡ʒiː t͡ʃʰəbiː staːiː aʈʰaːiː nətiː triː Hindko pand͡ʑiː t͡ɕʰaːbiː staːhiː aʈʰaːiː unatːiː triː Indus Kohistani pãːzue biːʃ ʂoe biːʃ saːtue biːʃ aːʈʰue biːʃ na(u)e biːʃ daʃue biːʃ Ishkashimi biːstə pand͡ʒ biːstə ʃaːʃ biːstə haːft biːstə haːʃt biːstə nə siː Kalasha biːɕiː ʑe poːnd͡ʑ biːɕiː ʑe ʂoː biːɕiː ʑe sat biːɕiː ʑe ãʂʈ biːɕiː ʑe noː biːɕiː ʑe daɕ Kalkoti paːnd͡ʒ teː biːʃ ʂo teː biːʃ saːt teː biːʃ eʂ teː biːʃ teː biːʃ nom deʃ teː biːʃ Kamviri wit͡sa puːt͡ʃ wit͡sa ʃuː wit͡sa soːt wit͡sa oːʃt wit͡sa nu wit͡sa dos Kashmiri, Ind pɨnt͡səh ʃatwuh satoːwuh aʈʰoːwuh kuntrɨh trɨh Kashmiri, Pak pɨːnt͡səh ʃetwuh sətɨwuh aʈʰəwuh kontrɨh trɨh Kati, Eastern wat͡səː put͡ʃ wat͡səː ʂu wat͡səː sut wat͡səː uʃt wat͡səː nuː wat͡səː dut͡s Kati, Western wat͡sɑː puːt͡ʃ wat͡sɑː ʂuː wat͡sɑː suːt wat͡sɑː oːʂt wat͡sɑː nuː wat͡sɑː duːt͡s Khowar biʃir põːt͡ʃ biʃir ʈ͡ʂʰoj biʃir sot biʃir oʃʈ biʃir niof biʃir d͡ʒoʃ Kohistani Shina biho poɕ biho ʂah biho sat biho ãʂ biho nãw biho daːe Kundal Shahi t͡ɕiːɕ Kyrgyz d͡ʒigirma beʃ d͡ʒigirma ɑltɯ d͡ʒigirma d͡ʒeti d͡ʒigirma segiz d͡ʒigirma toquz otos Ladakhi ŋiʃu st͡saŋa ŋiʃu st͡saqŋis ŋiʃu st͡saruk ŋiʃu st͡saqdun ŋiʃu st͡saqgjat ŋiʃu st͡sargu Munji lə o pɑːnd͡ʒ lə o ɑːχʃɛ lə o ɑːvdɛ lə o ɑːʃcɛ lə o nɛw çiraj o sifɛr Pahari-Pothwari Palula bʰiʃeː paːnd͡ʒ bʰiʃeː ʂo bʰiʃeː saːt bʰiʃeː aːʂʈ bʰiʃeː nuː bʰiʃeː daːʃ Parachi ʁoʃt u poːnd͡ʒ ʁoʃt u χiː ʁoʃt u hoːt ʁoʃt u oːʃt ʁoʃt u nu ʃos Pashai, Alasai westu paːnd͡ʒe westu ʂe westu saːte westu aːʂʈe westu naːwe siː Pashai, Alingar wistu pajnd͡ʒ wistu ʃeː wistu sat wistu aʃʈ wistu noː wistu deː Pashai, Alishang wastu paːnd͡ʒə wastu t͡ʃaː wastu saːtə wastu aːʃʈə wastu naːu wastu deː Pashai, Amla west oː pand͡ʒ west oː ʃeː west oː sat west oː haʃt west oː noː west oː deː Pashai, Aret weːst me paːnj weːst me t͡ʃəː weːst me saːt weːst me aːʃt weːst me naw weːst me daːe Pashai, Chalas wista bi paːjn wista bi t͡ʃə wista bi saːt wista bi aːʃ wista bi naːw wista bi daːj Pashai, Korangal paːjne bi wist t͡ʃe bi wist saːte bi wist aːʃe bi wist naːw bi wist daːje bi wist Pashai, Sanjan wəstə pɑːnd͡ʒe wəstə ʂe wəstə sɑːta wəstə ɑːʃta wəstə nɑːwa triju Pashai, Shemal wistə pɑːjn wistə t͡ʃə wistə saːt wistə aːʃt wistə naːw wistə daːj Pashto, Afgh pinzəwiʃt ʃpəgwiʃt wəwiʃt atəwiʃt nəhwiʃt deːrʃ Pashto, Ind pinziːʃ ʃpəgiːʃ wiːʃ atiːʃ jaw kam deːrʃ deːrʃ Pashto, Pak pinzəwiʃ ʃpəgiʃ wəiʃ atəwiʃ jawkam deːrʃ deːrʃ Prasun wət͡ʃːeːʒ wəʂːeːʒ sətːeːʒ astːeːʒ nuwːeːʒ ləz zeːʃ Purik ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡sa ʁa ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡sa truk ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡sa bdun ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡sa bgjad ŋiʃuː hr̥t͡sa rguː sumt͡ʃuː Roshani biːstə paːnd͡ʒ biːstə ʃaːʃ biːstə aːft biːstə aːʃt biːstə nuː siː Sanglechi wiʃtə poːnd͡z wiʃtə χɑːɽ wiʃtə hoːvd wiʃtə hɑːt wiʃtə nɑːw rəːs Sawi paːnd͡ʒɑːn biʃ ʂuwɑːn biʃ saːtɑːn biʃ aːʃɑːn biʃ nuwɑːn biʃ daʃɑːn biʃ Shina, Gilgit biːga põʃ biːga ʂa biːga sat biːga ãʂ biːga naw biːga daj Shina, Gurez biːgi poʃ biːgi ʂa biːgi satʰ biːgi aːʃʈ biːgi naw biːgi daj Shughni ðə ðiːsat piːnt͡s ðə ðiːsat χoːɣ ðə ðiːsat wuːvd ðə ðiːsat waxt ðə ðiːsat noːw haraj ðiːs Torwali pãː(d͡ʒ?/j)i o biʃ ʂoː o biʃ saːt o biʃ aːʈ o biʃ noːm o biʃ daʃ o biʃ Ushojo poːʃ ga biː ʂa ga biː saːt ga biː aːʈ ga biː naw ga biː daiː ga biː Uzbek, Afgh jegirma beːʃ jegirma ɑlte jegirma jetːi jegirma sakːiz jegirma toqːuz wotːuz Waigali wiʃije puːnt͡ʃi wiʃije ʂuːi wiʃije soːti wiʃije oːʂʈi wiʃije nuːi wiʃije doːʃ Wakhi, Afgh iː bistet paːnt͡s iː bistet ʃaːd iː bistet ɨːb iː bistet aːt iː bistet naw iː bistet ðas Wakhi, Pak wiste paːnz wiste ɕaːð wiste hub wiste hat wiste naw wiste ðas Yidgha usto pãːd͡ʒ usto uχʂo usto aːvdo usto aːht͡ʃo usto now usto les

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Ashkun wiʃaː t͡ʃenis wiʃaː baːjs wiʃaː trejs wiʃaː t͡sudis wiʃaː pat͡sejs Balti ŋiɕunah t͡ɕust͡ɕik ŋiɕunah t͡ɕuŋis ŋiɕunah t͡ɕuksum ŋiɕunah t͡ɕubʑiː ŋiɕunah t͡ɕuʁaː Bateri jaːʃu biːʃ duwaːʃu biːʃ t͡ʃiːʃu biːʃ t͡suda ʃu biːʃ pand͡ʒiːʃu biːʃ Brokskat biʒi quːdæʃ biʒi buːdæʃ biʒi trøbæʃ biʒi t͡ʃydæʃ biʒi pændæʃ Burushaski, Hunza altʰer turmahan altʰer turma alto altʰer turma usko altʰer turma walto altʰer turma t͡sʰundo Burushaski, Nagar altʰar turmahan altʰar turma alto altʰar turma usko altʰar turma walto altʰar turma t͡sʰundo Dameli biʃi oː jaːʃ biʃi oː baːʃ biʃi oː troːʃ biʃi oː t͡ʃandeːʃ biʃi oː pant͡ʃeːʃ Dari, Darwoz siːwə jaːk siːwə dəː siːwə seː siːwə t͡ʃɑːr siːwə paːnd͡ʒ Gawarbati, Afgh iʃo d͡ʒaːʂ iʃo baːʂ iʃo ɬawanʂ iʃo t͡sudaʂ iʃo pint͡ʃaʂ Gawarbati, Pak iʃo d͡ʒaːʂ iʃo baːʂ iʃo ɬawanʂ iʃo t͡sudaʂ iʃo pent͡ʃaʂ Gawri ikaː teː biʃ baː teː biʃ ɬoː teː biʃ t͡ʃuːn teː biʃ pãd͡ʒaː teː biʃ Gojri, Afgh eːkte triː duːte triː trɛːte triː t͡ʃaːrte triː paːnd͡ʒte triː Gojri, Pak ikətiː bətiː teːntiː t͡ʃoːntiː peːntiː Hindko katiː batiː teːntiː t͡ɕoːntiː peːntiː Indus Kohistani agaːlaʃue biːʃ duwaːlaʃue biːʃ ʈ͡ʂigoːlaʃue biːʃ t͡sanʃue biːʃ pãːz kam dubiʃ Ishkashimi siːwə jaːk siːwə duː siːwə seː siːwə t͡ʃɑːr siːwə paːnd͡ʒ Kalasha biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe eːka biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe duːa biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe treːa biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe t͡ɕawa biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe poːnd͡ʑa Kalkoti akaːʃ teː biːʃ baːʃ teː biːʃ treːʃ teː biːʃ t͡ʃandeːʃ teː biːʃ pand͡ʒeːʃ teː biːʃ Kamviri wit͡sa janit͡s wit͡sa dit͡s wit͡sa trit͡s wit͡sa ʃtrit͡s wit͡sa pɑt͡ʃit͡s Kashmiri, Ind aktrɨh dɔjtrɨh treː trɨh t͡sɔj trɨh pãːt͡s trɨh Kashmiri, Pak aktrɨh dojtrɨh tiː trɨh t͡soj trɨh pãːt͡s trɨh Kati, Eastern wat͡səː janit͡s wat͡səː dit͡s wat͡səː tərit͡s wat͡səː ʃturit͡s wat͡səː pət͡ʃit͡s Kati, Western wat͡sɑː janiːt͡s wat͡sɑː diːt͡s wat͡sɑː triːt͡s wat͡sɑː ʃtreːt͡s wat͡sɑː pət͡ʃiːt͡s Khowar biʃir d͡ʒoʃ i biʃir d͡ʒoʃ d͡ʒu biʃir d͡ʒoʃ troj biʃir d͡ʒoʃ t͡ʃoːr biʃir d͡ʒoʃ põːt͡ʃ Kohistani Shina biho akaːe biho baːe biho ʈ͡ʂoːe biho t͡ɕahundeː biho panzileː Kundal Shahi Kyrgyz otos bir otos eki otos yt͡ʃ otos tørt otos beʃ Ladakhi suŋt͡ʃu suŋt͡ʃu sokʃik suŋt͡ʃu sokŋis suŋt͡ʃu soksuŋ suŋt͡ʃu sokʒi/sobʒi Munji çiraj o juː çiraj o lə çiraj o çiraj çiraj o t͡ʃəfiːr çiraj o pɑːnd͡ʒ Pahari-Pothwari Palula bʰiʃeː akoːʃ bʰiʃeː boːʃ bʰiʃeː triːʃ bʰiʃeː t͡ʃandiːʃ bʰiʃeː pand͡ʒiːʃ Parachi ʃos u ʒu ʃos u diː ʃos u ʃiː ʃos u t͡ʃoːr ʃos u poːnd͡ʒ Pashai, Alasai siːwu iː siːwu doː siːwu tra siːwu t͡ʃaːr siːwu paːnd͡ʒe Pashai, Alingar wistu jaːe wistu duːwaːe wistu həwi wistu t͡ʃadeː wistu pand͡ʒuː Pashai, Alishang wastu ʒuiː wastu duiː wastu truiː wastu t͡ʃadeː wastu pand͡ʒiː Pashai, Amla west oː jaːe west oː duwaːe west oː ɬue west oː t͡ʃadeː west oː pand͡ʒu Pashai, Aret weːst me juːj weːst me duːj weːst me truj weːst me t͡ʃadaj weːst me paːnju Pashai, Chalas wista bi juwoːj wista bi duwoːj wista bi ɬəj wista bi t͡saːdaːj wista bi paːziw Pashai, Korangal juːje bi wist duːje bi wist ɬeje bi wist t͡saːdaje bi wist pant͡siːwe bi wist Pashai, Sanjan triju iː triju do triju tra triju t͡ʃur triju pɑːnd͡ʒe Pashai, Shemal wistə joːj wistə duwoj wistə ɬiː wistə t͡sandaːj wistə pa(n?)ziju Pashto, Afgh jawdeːrʃ dwadeːrʃ drədeːrʃ t͡saloːrdeːrʃ pinzədeːrʃ Pashto, Ind jawadeːrʃ dwaːdeːrʃ drejaːdeːrʃ t͡saloːradeːrʃ pinzaːdeːrʃ Pashto, Pak jawdeːrʃ dwadeːrʃ dreːdeːrʃ t͡saloːrdeːrʃ pinzədeːrʃ Prasun d͡ʒiz zeːʃ wiz zeːʃ t͡ʃiʃiz̥ zeːʃ t͡ʃu̥pluzeːʃ wəʃlizeːʃ Purik sumt͡ʃuː naː t͡ʃik sumt͡ʃuː naː ŋis sumt͡ʃuː naː sum sumt͡ʃuː naː d͡ʒbjiː sumt͡ʃuː naː ʁa Roshani siːwə jaːk siːwə do siːwə seː siːwə t͡ʃoːr siːwə paːnd͡ʒ Sanglechi rəsə wɑːk rəsə dəːw rəsə roːj rəsə t͡safuːr rəsə poːnd͡z Sawi jakɑːʃɑːn biʃ bɑːʃɑːn biʃ trojiʃɑːn biʃ t͡ʃadiʃɑːn biʃ pand͡ʒiʃɑːn biʃ Shina, Gilgit biːga akaːj biːga baːj biːga ʈ͡ʂoj biːga t͡ʃondaj biːga panzaj Shina, Gurez biːgi akaːj biːgi baːj biːgi ʈ͡ʂoiː biːgi ʈ͡ʂodiː biːgi panzuliː Shughni haraj ðiːsat jiːw haraj ðiːsat ðəjyːn haraj ðiːsat haraːj haraj ðiːsat t͡savoːr haraj ðiːsat piːnt͡s Torwali agaːʃ o biʃ duwaːʃ o biʃ ʈ͡ʂeːʃ o biʃ t͡ʃataʃ o biʃ pĩːʃ o biʃ Ushojo agaːʃ ga biː doaːʃ ga biː ʈ͡ʂiːʃ ga biː t͡ʃadaʃ ga biː pĩːʃ ga biː Uzbek, Afgh wotːuz bər wotːuz jekːi wotːuz wut͡ʃ wotːuz turt wotːuz beːʃ Waigali wiʃije jaːʃ wiʃije baːʃ wiʃije trynʃ wiʃije t͡ʃadiʃ wiʃije pat͡ʃiʃ Wakhi, Afgh iː bistet ðas jiːw iː bistet ðas buːj iː bistet ðas təruːj iː bistet ðas t͡səbɨːr iː bistet ðas paːnt͡s Wakhi, Pak wiste ðas jiːw wiste ðas buːj wiste ðas tʰruːj wiste ðas t͡səbɨːr wiste ðas paːnz Yidgha usto les ju usto les loħ usto les ʃiroiː usto les t͡ʃːiːr usto les pãːd͡ʒ

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Ashkun wiʃaː ʃuɽis wiʃaː sətaːjs wiʃaː aʃʈaːjs wiʃaː wusu duːʃi Balti ŋiɕunah t͡ɕuruk ŋiɕunah t͡ɕubdun ŋiɕunah t͡ɕubgijad ŋiɕunah t͡ɕurguː ŋiɕuŋis Bateri ʂuweːʃu biːʃ sataeːʃu biːʃ aʈʰaeːʃu biːʃ jak kam dubiʃ dubiʃ Brokskat biʒi ʂøbæʃ biʒi satũːʃ biʒi aːʃtũːʃ biʒi kund͡ʒa dubuʒu Burushaski, Hunza altʰer turma miɕindo altʰer turma tʰalo altʰer turma altambo altʰer turma hun t͡ɕo alto altʰer Burushaski, Nagar altʰar turma miɕindo altʰar turma tʰalo altʰar turma altambo altʰar turma hun t͡ɕo alto altʰar Dameli biʃi oː ʂoweːʃ biʃi oː santaːʃ biʃi oː aʂʈaːʃ biʃi oː uneːʃ du biʃiː Dari, Darwoz siːwə ʃaːʃ siːwə haːft siːwə haːʃt siːwə nəː t͡ʃəl Gawarbati, Afgh iʃo ʂoɽaːs iʃo sataːs iʃo aʂʈaːs iʃo iniʃ dujʃi Gawarbati, Pak iʃo ʂoɽaːs iʃo sataːs iʃo aʂʈaːs ja kam duiʃi duiʃi Gawri ʂoːr teː biʃ sataː teː biʃ aʈ͡ʂaː teː biʃ aːk kam du biʃ du biʃ Gojri, Afgh t͡ʃʰeːte triː saːtte triː aːʈʰte triː nuːte triː t͡ʃɽiː Gojri, Pak t͡ʃʰətiː stətiː aʈʰətiː untaːliː t͡ʃaːliː Hindko t͡ɕʰatːiː seːntiː aʈʰatːiː untaːliː t͡ɕaːliː Indus Kohistani t͡sawr kam dubiʃ ʈ͡ʂaː kam dubiʃ duː kam dubiʃ ek kam dubiʃ dubiʃ Ishkashimi siːwə ʃaːʃ siːwə haːft siːwə haːʃt siːwə nə t͡ʃəl Kalasha biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe ʂoːa biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe saːta biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe ãːʂʈa biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ʑe noːa duː biːɕiː Kalkoti t͡ʃʰor kom du biʃ traː kom du biʃ duː kom du biʃ ak kom du biʃ du biʃ Kamviri wit͡sa ʃet͡s wit͡sa satit͡s wit͡sa ɑːʃtit͡s wit͡sa neːt͡s duj wit͡si Kashmiri, Ind ʃej trɨh sat trɨh ar trɨh kuntəːd͡ʒi t͡sadd͡ʒi Kashmiri, Pak ʃej trɨh satə trɨh aɽ trɨh kontɨd͡ʒih t͡sadd͡ʒih Kati, Eastern wat͡səː ʂat͡s wat͡səː sətit͡s wat͡səː ʂʈit͡s wat͡səː nat͡s duj wat͡səː Kati, Western wat͡sɑː ʂaːt͡s wat͡sɑː ʂʈiːt͡s wat͡sɑː stiːt͡s wat͡sɑː naːt͡s djuː wat͡səː Khowar biʃir d͡ʒoʃ ʈ͡ʂʰoj biʃir d͡ʒoʃ sot biʃir d͡ʒoʃ oʃʈ biʃir d͡ʒoʃ niof d͡ʒu biʃir Kohistani Shina biho ʂõːe biho sataːẽ biho ãʂʈaːẽ biho ukniː dibu Kundal Shahi t͡ɕopeːr Kyrgyz otos ɑltɯ otos d͡ʒeti otos segiz otos toquz qɯrq Ladakhi suŋt͡ʃu soŋa/soŋŋa suŋt͡ʃu soruk suŋt͡ʃu sokdun suŋt͡ʃu sorgjat suŋt͡ʃu sorgu Munji çiraj o ɑːχʃɛ çiraj o ɑːvdɛ çiraj o ɑːʃcɛ çiraj o nɛw t͡ʃəfiːr o sifɛr Pahari-Pothwari Palula bʰiʃeː ʂoɽiːʃ bʰiʃeː satoːʃ bʰiʃeː aʂʈoːʃ bʰiʃeː aɳabʰiːʃ dubʰiʃa Parachi ʃos u χiː ʃos u hoːt ʃos u oːʃt ʃos u nu t͡ʃel Pashai, Alasai siːwu ʂe siːwu saːte siːwu aːʂʈe siːwu naːwe t͡ʃehel Pashai, Alingar wistu ʃuːɽ wistu satuː wistu aʃʈuː wistu nahuː duːwija Pashai, Alishang wastu t͡ʃuiː wastu satiː wastu aːʃʈiː wastu nawiː deːo Pashai, Amla west oː ʃoːɽ west oː satu west oː aʃʈu west oː nau dəwija Pashai, Aret weːst me ʃiɽ weːst me satiju weːst me aʃʈiju weːst me nawijaw duwija Pashai, Chalas wista bi ʃuːɽ wista bi satiw wista bi aʃʈiw wista bi nawiw dijo Pashai, Korangal ʃuje bi wist satiːwe bi wist aʃʈiːwe bi wist nawiːwe bi wist dujo Pashai, Sanjan triju ʂe triju sɑːta triju ɑːʃta triju nɑːwa t͡ʃel Pashai, Shemal wistə səɽ wistə satiju wistə aʃʈiju wistə nawiju dijɑː Pashto, Afgh ʃpəgdeːrʃ wədeːrʃ atədeːrʃ nəhdeːrʃ t͡salweːxt Pashto, Ind ʃpəgadeːrʃ wuwaːdeːrʃ ataːdeːrʃ jaw kam t͡saleːχ t͡saleːχ Pashto, Pak ʃpəgdeːrʃ wədeːrʃ atədeːrʃ jawkam t͡salweːχ t͡salweːχ Prasun wəʂluzeːʃ sətːlizeːʃ aʃlizeːʃ naːlizeːʃ d͡ʒibəz(ḁ?) Purik sumt͡ʃuː naː truk sumt͡ʃuː naː rdun sumt͡ʃuː naː rgjad sumt͡ʃuː naː rguː ŋiʃuːŋis Roshani siːwə ʃaːʃ siːwə aːft siːwə aːʃt siːwə nuː t͡ʃel Sanglechi rəsə χɑːɽ rəsə hoːvd rəsə hɑːt rəsə nɑːw t͡ʃəːl Sawi ʂuɽaʃɑːn biʃ satijɑːʃɑːn biʃ aʃtijɑːʃɑːn biʃ uːɽiʃɑːn biʃ dubiʃa Shina, Gilgit biːga ʂoːj biːga sataːj biːga ãʂʈaːj biːga koniː dobio Shina, Gurez biːgi ʂoːj biːgi sataːj biːgi aʃʈaːj biːgi kuniː dibiju Shughni haraj ðiːsat χoːɣ haraj ðiːsat wuːvd haraj ðiːsat waxt haraj ðiːsat noːw t͡savoːr ðiːs Torwali ʂeːʃ o biʃ sataːʃ o biʃ aʈʰaːʃ o biʃ ambiʃ o biʃ dubiʃ Ushojo ʂiːʃ ga biː sataːʃ ga biː aʈʰaːʃ ga biː ẽɽbiː ga biː dubi Uzbek, Afgh wotːuz ɑlte wotːuz jetːi wotːuz sakːiz wotːuz toqːuz qirʁ Waigali wiʃije ʂenʃ wiʃije sataːs wiʃije iʃʈaːʃ dyːwiʃije nuːi dyːwiʃi Wakhi, Afgh iː bistet ðas ʃaːd iː bistet ðas ɨːb iː bistet ðas aːt iː bistet ðas naw buː bist Wakhi, Pak wiste ðaɕaːð wiste ðas hub wiste ðas hat wiste ðas naw buː wist Yidgha usto les uχʂo usto les aːvdo usto les aːht͡ʃo usto les now lewist

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Ashkun duːʃaː at͡ʃ duːʃaː duː duːʃaː trə duːʃaː t͡sətaː duːʃaː punt͡s Balti ŋiɕuŋisnah t͡ɕik ŋiɕuŋisnah ŋis ŋiɕuŋisnah χsum ŋiɕuŋisnah bʑiː ŋiɕuŋisnah ʁaː Bateri jaku dubiʃ du ju dubiʃ ʈ͡ʂaju dubiʃ t͡suːru dubiʃ pãːzu dubiʃ Brokskat dubuʒu ek dubuʒu dy dubuʒu træ dubuʒu t͡ʃoːr dubuʒu pũːʃ Burushaski, Hunza alto altʰer han alto altʰer alto alto altʰer usko alto altʰer walto alto altʰer t͡sʰundo Burushaski, Nagar altu altʰar han altu altʰar altat͡s altu altʰar usko altu altʰar walto altu altʰar t͡sʰundo Dameli du biʃi oː ek du biʃi oː duː du biʃi oː traː du biʃi oː t͡ʃoː du biʃi oː pãːt͡ʃ Dari, Darwoz t͡ʃələ jaːk t͡ʃələ dəː t͡ʃələ seː t͡ʃələ t͡ʃɑːr t͡ʃələ paːnd͡ʒ Gawarbati, Afgh dujʃo jak dujʃo du dujʃo ɬe dujʃo t͡sur dujʃo pant͡s Gawarbati, Pak duiʃo jak duiʃo du duiʃo ɬe duiʃo t͡sur duiʃo pant͡s Gawri aːk teː du biʃ duː teː du biʃ ɬɑː teː du biʃ t͡ʃor teː du biʃ pɑ̃d͡ʒ teː du biʃ Gojri, Afgh eːkte t͡ʃɽiː duːte t͡ʃɽiː trɛːte t͡ʃɽiː t͡ʃaːrte t͡ʃɽiː paːnd͡ʒte t͡ʃɽiː Gojri, Pak iktaːliː bətaːliː tətaːliː t͡ʃurtaːliː pend͡ʒtaːliː Hindko iktaːliː bitaːliː tirtaːliː t͡ɕortaːliː pãd͡ʑtaːliː Indus Kohistani ekue dubiʃ due dubiʃ ʈ͡ʂaːe dubiʃ t͡sawrue dubiʃ pãːzue dubiʃ Ishkashimi t͡ʃələ jaːk t͡ʃələ duː t͡ʃələ seː t͡ʃələ t͡ʃɑːr t͡ʃələ paːnd͡ʒ Kalasha duː biːɕiː ʑe ek duː biːɕiː ʑe duː duː biːɕiː ʑe treː duː biːɕiː ʑe t͡ɕaw duː biːɕiː ʑe poːnd͡ʑ Kalkoti ak teː du biʃ duː teː du biʃ traː teː du biʃ t͡ʃʰor teː du biʃ paːn(ʔd͡ʒ̊ ) teː du biʃ Kamviri duj wit͡sa eː duj wit͡sa duj duj wit͡sa treː duj wit͡sa ʃtɑː duj wit͡sa puːt͡ʃ Kashmiri, Ind aktəːd͡ʒi dɔjtəːd͡ʒi teːtəːd͡ʒi t͡sɔjtəːd͡ʒi pãːt͡stəːd͡ʒi Kashmiri, Pak aktɨd͡ʒih dojtɨd͡ʒih titɨd͡ʒih t͡sojtɨd͡ʒih pãːt͡s tɨd͡ʒih Kati, Eastern duj wat͡səː ew duj wat͡səː duj duj wat͡səː təra duj wat͡səː ʃtawɑː duj wat͡səː put͡ʃ Kati, Western djuː wat͡sɑː ew djuː wat͡sɑː djuː djuː wat͡sɑː tra djuː wat͡sɑː ʃtwɑː djuː wat͡sɑː puːt͡ʃ Khowar d͡ʒu biʃir i d͡ʒu biʃir d͡ʒu d͡ʒu biʃir troj d͡ʒu biʃir t͡ʃoːr d͡ʒu biʃir põːt͡ʃ Kohistani Shina dibugu ek dibugu duː dibugu ʈ͡ʂeː dibugu t͡ɕaːr dibugu poɕ Kundal Shahi Kyrgyz qɯrq bir qɯrq eki qɯrq yt͡ʃ qɯrq tørt qɯrq beʃ Ladakhi ʒibt͡ʃu ʒibt͡ʃu ʒibt͡ʃu ʒaqʃik ʒibt͡ʃu ʒaqŋis ʒibt͡ʃu ʒaqsuŋ Munji t͡ʃəfiːr o juː t͡ʃəfiːr o lə t͡ʃəfiːr o çiraj t͡ʃəfiːr o t͡ʃəfiːr t͡ʃəfiːr o pɑːnd͡ʒ Pahari-Pothwari Palula dubʰiʃeː aːk dubʰiʃeː duː dubʰiʃeː troː dubʰiʃeː t͡ʃuːr dubʰiʃeː paːnd͡ʒ Parachi t͡ʃel u ʒu t͡ʃel u diː t͡ʃel u ʃiː t͡ʃel u t͡ʃoːr t͡ʃel u poːnd͡ʒ Pashai, Alasai t͡ʃehelu iː t͡ʃehelu doː t͡ʃehelu tra t͡ʃehelu t͡ʃaːr t͡ʃehelu paːnd͡ʒe Pashai, Alingar duːwija iː duːwija də duːwija heː duːwija t͡ʃaːr duːwija pajnd͡ʒ Pashai, Alishang deːo iː deːo doː deːo tra deːo t͡ʃoːr deːo paːnd͡ʒə Pashai, Amla dəwija oː iː dəwija oː doː dəwija oː ɬe dəwija oː t͡ʃaːr dəwija oː pand͡ʒ Pashai, Aret duwija me iː duwija me duː duwija me trəː duwija me t͡ʃoːr duwija me paːnj Pashai, Chalas dija bi je dija bi du dija bi ɬə dija bi t͡sor dija bi paːjn Pashai, Korangal je bi dujo du bi dujo ɬe bi dujo t͡soːre bi dujo paːjne bi dujo Pashai, Sanjan t͡ʃele iː t͡ʃele do t͡ʃele tra t͡ʃele t͡ʃur t͡ʃele pɑːnd͡ʒe Pashai, Shemal dijɑː bi je dijɑː bi duː dijɑː bi ɬeː dijɑː bi t͡soːr dijɑː bi pɑːjn Pashto, Afgh jawt͡salweːxt dwat͡salweːxt drət͡salweːxt t͡saloːrt͡salweːxt pinzət͡salweːxt Pashto, Ind jawat͡saleːχ dwaːt͡saleːχ drejaːt͡saleːχ t͡saloːrat͡saleːχ pinzaːt͡saleːχ Pashto, Pak jawt͡salweːχ dwat͡salweːχ dreːt͡salweːχ t͡saloːrt͡salweːχ pinzət͡salweːχ Prasun ikiː d͡ʒibəz iliː d͡ʒibəz t͡ʃiʃiː̥ d͡ʒibəz t͡ʃu̥pu d͡ʒibəz wut͡ʃ d͡ʒibəz Purik ŋiʃuːŋis naː t͡ʃik ŋiʃuːŋis naː ŋis ŋiʃuːŋis naː sum ŋiʃuːŋis naː d͡ʒbjiː ŋiʃuːŋis naː ʁa Roshani t͡ʃelə jaːk t͡ʃelə duː t͡ʃelə seː t͡ʃelə t͡ʃoːr t͡ʃelə paːnd͡ʒ Sanglechi t͡ʃələ wɑːk t͡ʃələ dəːw t͡ʃələ roːj t͡ʃələ t͡safuːr t͡ʃələ poːnd͡z Sawi jakɑːn dubiʃa duwɑːn dubiʃa ɬɑːwɑːn dubiʃa t͡ʃuːrɑːn dubiʃa paːnd͡ʒɑːn dubiʃa Shina, Gilgit dobioga ek dobioga duː dobioga t͡ʃe dobioga t͡ʃaːr dobioga põʃ Shina, Gurez dibijugi ek dibijugi dũː dibijugi ʈ͡ʂeː dibijugi t͡ʃaːr dibijugi poʃ Shughni t͡savoːr ðiːsat jiːw t͡savoːr ðiːsat ðəjyːn t͡savoːr ðiːsat haraːj t͡savoːr ðiːsat t͡savoːr t͡savoːr ðiːsat piːnt͡s Torwali ek o dubiʃ du o dubiʃ ʈ͡ʂaː o dubiʃ t͡ʃaw o dubiʃ pãː(j)i o dubiʃ Ushojo ega dubi duːga dubi ʈ͡ʂiː ga dubi t͡ʃaːr ga dubi poːʃ ga dubi Uzbek, Afgh qirʁu bər qirʁu jekːi qirʁu wut͡ʃ qirʁu turt qirʁu beːʃ Waigali dyːwiʃije ewi dyːwiʃije dyːi dyːwiʃije treːi dyːwiʃije t͡ʃataː dyːwiʃije puːnt͡ʃ Wakhi, Afgh buː bistet jiːw buː bistet buːj buː bistet təruːj buː bistet t͡səbɨːr buː bistet paːnt͡s Wakhi, Pak buː wiste jiːw buː wiste buːj buː wiste tʰruːj buː wiste t͡səbɨːr buː wiste paːnz Yidgha lewisto ju lewisto loħ lewisto ʃiroiː lewisto t͡ʃːiːr lewisto pãːd͡ʒ

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Ashkun duːʃaː ʃu duːʃaː soːt duːʃaː oːʃt duːʃaː nu duːʃaː dos Balti ŋiɕuŋisnah truk ŋiɕuŋisnah bdun ŋiɕuŋisnah bgijad ŋiɕuŋisnah rguː ʁaːpʰt͡ɕuː Bateri ʂu ju dubiʃ saːtu dubiʃ aːʈu dubiʃ nuju dubiʃ daʃu dubiʃ Brokskat dubuʒu ʂa dubuʒu sat dubuʒu aːʃ/ãːʃ dubuʒu ny pʰinaːŋ ʈrabuʒu Burushaski, Hunza alto altʰer miɕindo alto altʰer tʰalo alto altʰer altambo alto altʰer hun t͡ɕo alto altʰer toːrumo Burushaski, Nagar altu altʰar miɕindo altu altʰar tʰalo altu altʰar altambo altu altʰar hun t͡ɕo altu altʰar toːrumo Dameli du biʃi oː ʂo du biʃi oː sat du biʃi oː aʂ du biʃi oː no du biʃi oː daʃ Dari, Darwoz t͡ʃələ ʃaːʃ t͡ʃələ haːft t͡ʃələ haːʃt t͡ʃələ nəː pind͡ʒɑː Gawarbati, Afgh dujʃo ʂoː dujʃo sat dujʃo aʂʈ dujʃo nu dujʃo daʂ Gawarbati, Pak duiʃo ʂoː duiʃo sat duiʃo aʂʈ duiʃo nuː duiʃo daʂ Gawri ʂo teː du biʃ saːt teː du biʃ aːʈ͡ʂ teː du biʃ noːm teː du biʃ daːʃ teː du biʃ Gojri, Afgh t͡ʃʰeːte t͡ʃɽiː saːtte t͡ʃɽiː aːʈʰte t͡ʃɽiː nuːte t͡ʃɽiː daːte t͡ʃɽiː Gojri, Pak t͡ʃʰetaːliː səntaːliː aʈʰtaːliː unuwand͡ʒa pənd͡ʒaː Hindko t͡ɕʰataːliː santaːliː aʈʰtaːliː unt͡ɕaːs pãd͡ʑaːs Indus Kohistani ʂoe dubiʃ saːtue dubiʃ aːʈʰue dubiʃ na(u)e dubiʃ daʃue dubiʃ Ishkashimi t͡ʃələ ʃaːʃ t͡ʃələ haːft t͡ʃələ haːʃt t͡ʃələ nuː pind͡ʒɑː Kalasha duː biːɕiː ʑe ʂoː duː biːɕiː ʑe sat duː biːɕiː ʑe ãʂʈ duː biːɕiː ʑe noː duː biːɕiː ʑe daɕ Kalkoti ʂo teː du biʃ saːt teː du biʃ eʂ teː du biʃ nom teː du biʃ deʃ teː du biʃ Kamviri duj wit͡sa ʃuː duj wit͡sa soːt duj wit͡sa oːʃt duj wit͡sa nu duj wit͡sa dut͡s Kashmiri, Ind ʃeːtəːd͡ʒi sattəːd͡ʒih artəːd͡ʒih kunwanzah pant͡sah Kashmiri, Pak ʃej tɨd͡ʒih sat tɨd͡ʒih aɽ tɨd͡ʒih konwanzah pãːt͡sah Kati, Eastern duj wat͡səː ʂu duj wat͡səː sut duj wat͡səː uʃt duj wat͡səː nuː duj wat͡səː dut͡s Kati, Western djuː wat͡sɑː ʂuː djuː wat͡sɑː suːt djuː wat͡sɑː oːʂt djuː wat͡sɑː nuː djuː wat͡sɑː duːt͡s Khowar d͡ʒu biʃir ʈ͡ʂʰoj d͡ʒu biʃir sot d͡ʒu biʃir oʃʈ d͡ʒu biʃir niof d͡ʒu biʃir d͡ʒoʃ Kohistani Shina dibugu ʂah dibugu sat dibugu ãʂ dibugu nãw dibugu daːe Kundal Shahi Kyrgyz qɯrq ɑltɯ qɯrq d͡ʒeti qɯrq segiz qɯrq toquz elik Ladakhi ʒibt͡ʃu ʒaqʒi ʒibt͡ʃu ʒaŋa ʒibt͡ʃu ʒaruk ʒibt͡ʃu ʒaqdun ʒibt͡ʃu ʒargjat Munji t͡ʃəfiːr o ɑːχʃɛ t͡ʃəfiːr o ɑːvdɛ t͡ʃəfiːr o ɑːʃcɛ t͡ʃəfiːr o nɛw pɑːnd͡ʒ o sifɛr Pahari-Pothwari Palula dubʰiʃeː ʂo dubʰiʃeː saːt dubʰiʃeː aːʂʈ dubʰiʃeː nuː dubʰiʃeː daːʃ Parachi t͡ʃel u χiː t͡ʃel u hoːt t͡ʃel u oːʃt t͡ʃel u nu pend͡ʒɑː Pashai, Alasai t͡ʃehelu ʂe t͡ʃehelu saːte t͡ʃehelu aːʂʈe t͡ʃehelu naːwe pind͡ʒɑ Pashai, Alingar duːwija ʃeː duːwija sat duːwija aʃʈ duːwija noː duːwija deː Pashai, Alishang deːo t͡ʃaː deːo saːtə deːo aːʃʈə deːo naːu deːo deː Pashai, Amla dəwija oː ʃeː dəwija oː sat dəwija oː haʃt dəwija oː noː dəwija oː deː Pashai, Aret duwija me t͡ʃəː duwija me saːt duwija me aːʃt duwija me naw duwija me daːe Pashai, Chalas dija bi t͡ʃə dija bi saːt dija bi aːʃ dija bi naːw dija bi daːj Pashai, Korangal t͡ʃe bi dujo saːte bi dujo aːʃe bi dujo naːw bi dujo daːje bi dujo Pashai, Sanjan t͡ʃele ʂe t͡ʃele sɑːta t͡ʃele ɑːʃta t͡ʃele nɑːwa pend͡ʒɑː Pashai, Shemal dijɑː bi t͡ʃə dijɑː bi saːt dijɑː bi aːʃt dijɑː bi naːw dijɑː bi daːj Pashto, Afgh ʃpagt͡salweːxt wət͡salweːxt atət͡salweːxt naht͡salweːxt panzoːs Pashto, Ind ʃpəgat͡saleːχ wuwaːt͡saleːχ ataːt͡saleːχ jaw kam panzoːs panzoːs Pashto, Pak ʃpagt͡salweːχ wət͡salweːχ atət͡salweːχ jawkam panzoːs panzoːs Prasun wuʂ d͡ʒibəz sət d͡ʒibəz aːst d͡ʒibəz nu d͡ʒibəz ləːz d͡ʒibəz Purik ŋiʃuːŋis naː truk ŋiʃuːŋis naː rdun ŋiʃuːŋis naː rgijad ŋiʃuːŋis naː rguː ʁabt͡ʃuː Roshani t͡ʃelə ʃaːʃ t͡ʃelə aːft t͡ʃelə aːʃt t͡ʃelə nuː pind͡ʒoː Sanglechi t͡ʃələ χɑːɽ t͡ʃələ hoːvd t͡ʃələ hɑːt t͡ʃələ nɑːw pand͡ʒaːj Sawi ʂuwɑːn dubiʃa saːtɑːn dubiʃa aːʃɑːn dubiʃa nuwɑːn dubiʃa daʃɑːn dubiʃa Shina, Gilgit dobioga ʂa dobioga sat dobioga ãʂ dobioga naw dobioga daj Shina, Gurez dibijugi ʂa dibijugi satʰ dibijugi aːʃʈ dibijugi naw dibijugi daji Shughni t͡savoːr ðiːsat χoːɣ t͡savoːr ðiːsat wuːvd t͡savoːr ðiːsat waxt t͡savoːr ðiːsat noːw piːnt͡s ðiːs Torwali ʂoː o dubiʃ saːt o dubiʃ aːɽ o dubiʃ noːm o dubiʃ daʃ o biʃ Ushojo ʂa ga dubi saːt ga dubi aːʈ ga dubi naw ga dubi dai ga dubi/pat͡ʃaːs Uzbek, Afgh qirʁu ɑlte qirʁu jetːi qirʁu sakːiz qirʁu toqːuz elːig Waigali dyːwiʃije ʂuː dyːwiʃije soːt dyːwiʃije oːʂʈ dyːwiʃije nuː dyːwiʃije doːʃ Wakhi, Afgh buː bistet ʃaːd buː bistet ɨːb buː bistet aːt buː bistet naw buː bistet ðas Wakhi, Pak buː wiste ɕaːð buː wiste hub buː wiste hat buː wiste naw buː wiste ðas Yidgha lewisto uχʂo lewisto aːvdo lewisto aːht͡ʃo lewisto now lewisto les

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Ashkun treʃi treʃaː dos t͡sətaːʃi t͡sətaːʃaː dos punt͡ʃi Balti ŋiɕuχsum ŋiɕuχsumnah pʰt͡ɕuː ŋiɕubʑiː ŋiɕubʑinah pʰt͡ɕuː bgijaː Bateri ʈ͡ʂah biʃ daʃu ʈ͡ʂah biʃ t͡suːr biʃ daʃu t͡suːr biʃ ʃal Brokskat ʈrabuʒu pʰinaːŋ t͡ʃaːrbuʒu t͡ʃaːrbuʒu t͡ʃaːrbuʒu daʃ ʃoː Burushaski, Hunza iski altʰer iski altʰer toːrumo walti altʰer walti altʰer toːrumo Burushaski, Nagar iski altʰar iski altʰar toːrumo walti altʰar walti altʰar toːrumo Dameli traː biʃiː traː biʃi oː daʃ t͡ʃoːr biʃiː t͡ʃoːr biʃi oː daʃ pãːt͡ʃ biʃiː Dari, Darwoz ʃaːst aftɑːd aʃtɑːd nawad sad Gawarbati, Afgh ɬejʃi ɬejʃo daʂ / saːtiʃi t͡surʃi t͡surʃo daʂ pan(t͡s)ʃi Gawarbati, Pak ɬeiʃi ɬeiʃo daʂ t͡surʃi t͡surʃo daʂ paĩʃi Gawri ɬɑ biʃ daːʃ teː ɬɑ biʃ t͡ʃoːr biʃ daːʃ teː t͡ʃoːr biʃ pɑ̃d͡ʒ biʃ Gojri, Afgh trɛː biː daːte trɛː biː t͡ʃaːr biː daːte t͡ʃaːr biː suː Gojri, Pak saʈ sətər asiː nəweː soː Hindko saʈʰ satər (?) asiː naweː soː Indus Kohistani ʈ͡ʂabiʃ daʃue ʈ͡ʂabiʃ t͡sawr biʃ daʃue t͡sawr biʃ ʃal Ishkashimi ʃaːst aftɑːd aʃtɑːd nawad sad Kalasha treː biːɕiː treː biːɕiː ʑe daɕ t͡ɕaw biːɕiː t͡ɕaw biːɕiː ʑe daɕ ek ɕor Kalkoti trabiʃ deʃ teː trabiʃ t͡ʃʰor biʃ deʃ teː t͡ʃʰor biʃ paːnd͡ʒ biʃ Kamviri treː wit͡si treː wit͡sa dut͡s ʃtɑː wit͡si ʃtɑː wit͡sa dut͡s put͡si Kashmiri, Ind ʃʲeːʈʰ satatʰ ʃiːtʰ namat(ʰ?) hatʰ Kashmiri, Pak ʃeːʈʰ satatʰ ʃiːtʰ namatʰ hatʰ Kati, Eastern tərat͡səː tərat͡səː dut͡s ʃtawɑːt͡səː ʃtawɑːt͡səː dut͡s pud͡ʒiwat͡səː Kati, Western tra wat͡səː tra wat͡sɑː dut͡s ʃtwɑː wat͡sɑː ʃtwɑː wat͡səː duːt͡s pud͡ʒi wat͡səː Khowar troj biʃir troj biʃir d͡ʒoʃ t͡ʃoːr biʃir t͡ʃoːr biʃir d͡ʒoʃ põːt͡ʃ biʃir/ʃoːr Kohistani Shina ʈ͡ʂobiju ʈ͡ʂobijuga daːe t͡ɕarbiju t͡ɕarbijuga daːe ɕal Kundal Shahi ɕad Kyrgyz ɑltɯmɯʃ d͡ʒetimiʃ segzen toqzon d͡ʒyz Ladakhi ʒibt͡ʃu ʒargu ŋapt͡ʃu ʈukt͡ʃu dunt͡ʃu gjart͡ʃu Munji ɑːχʃe o sifɛr ɑːvde o sifɛr ɑːʃce o sifɛr new o sifer juː o lə siferiː Pahari-Pothwari Palula troː bʰiʃa troː bʰiʃeː daːʃ t͡ʃuːr bʰiʃa t͡ʃuːr bʰiʃeː daːʃ paːnd͡ʒ bʰiʃa Parachi ʃast haftɑːd haʃtɑːd nawad sad Pashai, Alasai ʃast aftaːd aʃtaːd nawad ʃaːi Pashai, Alingar heːwija heːwija deː t͡ʃaːrwija t͡ʃaːrwija deː pajnd͡ʒuwija Pashai, Alishang traewo traewo deː t͡ʃoːriju t͡ʃoːriju deː iː sad Pashai, Amla ɬewija ɬewija oː deː t͡ʃaːrwija t͡ʃaːrwija oː deː pand͡ʒuwija Pashai, Aret trewija trewija me daːe t͡ʃoːrwija t͡ʃoːrwija me daːe faːnjuwija Pashai, Chalas ɬəjo ɬəja bi daːj t͡soːrijo t͡soːrija bi daːj paːjnijo Pashai, Korangal ɬəjo daːj bi ɬəjo t͡soːrijo daːj bi t͡soːrijo paːjnijo Pashai, Sanjan ʃaːst haːftɑːd haːʃtɑːd nawad sad Pashai, Shemal ɬejɑː ɬejɑː bi daːj t͡soːrijɑː t͡soːrijɑː bi daːj paːnijɑː Pashto, Afgh ʃpeːtə awijaː atijaː nawi səl Pashto, Ind ʃpeːtə lasa ʃpeːtə atijaː lasa atijaː səl Pashto, Pak ʃpeːtə awijaː atijaː t͡saloːr nimi ʃəleː səl Prasun t͡ʃiʃegzu̥ t͡ʃiʃegzaː̥ ləːz t͡ʃu̥p(ʷ?)egzu t͡ʃu̥p(ʷ?)egzaː ləːz wət͡ʃegzu Purik trukt͡ʃuː rdunt͡ʃuː ŋiʃuː d͡ʒbjiː ŋiʃuː d͡ʒbjiː naːzt͡ʃuː rgjaː Roshani ʃaːst aftoːd aʃtoːd nawad jaːk sad, sad Sanglechi ʂaːst aftaːd aʂtaːd nawad sad Sawi ɬɑːbiʃa daʃɑːn ɬɑːbiʃa t͡ʃuːrbiʃa daʃɑːn t͡ʃuːrbiʃa paːnd͡ʒbiʃa Shina, Gilgit ʈ͡ʂabio ʈ͡ʂabioga daj t͡ʃarbio t͡ʃarbioga daj ʃal Shina, Gurez ʈ͡ʂeːbiju ʈ͡ʂeːbijugi daji t͡ʃarbi t͡ʃarbigi daji ʃal Shughni χoːɣ ðiːs wuːvd ðiːs waxt ðiːs noːw ðiːs ðiːs ðiːs Torwali ʈ͡ʂabiʃ daʃ o ʈ͡ʂabiʃ t͡ʃawbiʃ daʃ o t͡ʃawbiʃ pãːjbiʃ Ushojo ʈ͡ʂibi dai ga ʈ͡ʂibi t͡ʃarbi dai ga t͡ʃarbi saw/poːʃ bi Uzbek, Afgh ɑlmiʃ jetmiʃ seksen tuχsen juz Waigali treːwiʃi treːwiʃije doːʃ t͡ʃataːwiʃi t͡ʃataːwiʃije doːʃ punt͡ʃwiʃi Wakhi, Afgh təruː bist təruː bistet ðas t͡səbɨːr bist t͡səbɨːr bistet ðas iː sad Wakhi, Pak tʰruː wist tʰruː wiste ðas t͡səbɨːr wist t͡səbɨːr wiste ðas sad Yidgha ʃiroiː ist ʃiroiːjistuː les t͡ʃːiːrwist t͡ʃːiːrwistuː les ʃoːr

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Ashkun punt͡ʃaː dos punt͡ʃaː wiʃi dusawa az(ə)rə Balti bgijanah pʰt͡ɕuː bgijanah ŋiɕuː ŋibgijaː stõːt͡ɕik Bateri daʃ reː ʃal ʂu biʃ duː ʃal zir/zar Brokskat ʃoː ʁadaʃ ʃoː ʁobiʒa dyʃa stoŋ Burushaski, Hunza tʰa tʰake altʰer alto tʰa hazaːr Burushaski, Nagar (hik) tʰa tʰake altʰar altu tʰa hazaːr Dameli pãːt͡ʃ biʃi oː daʃ ʂo biʃiː duː sawah zir Dari, Darwoz jaːk sadə daː jaːk sadə biːst də sad azɑːr Gawarbati, Afgh pan(t͡s)ʃo daʂ ʂojʃi du sawa daʂ pan(t͡s)ʃi Gawarbati, Pak paĩʃo daʂ ʂoiʃi daiʃi, du sawa zar/hazaːr Gawri daːʃ teː pɑ̃d͡ʒ biʃ ʂo biʃ daːʃ biʃ zir Gojri, Afgh eːk suːte da eːk suːte biː duː suː zər Gojri, Pak eːk soː das eːk soː biː doː soː həzaːr Hindko hek soː daː hek soː biː doː soː hek hazaːr Indus Kohistani daʃue ʃal ʂo biʃ duː ʃal zir Ishkashimi jaːk sadə daː jaːk sadə biːst də sad jaːk hazɑːr Kalasha ek ɕor ʑe daɕ ek ɕor ʑe biːɕiː duː ɕor ek hazaːr Kalkoti deʃ teː paːnd͡ʒ biʃ ʂo biʃ du so zir Kamviri put͡sa dut͡s ʃuː wit͡si dut͡si eː aːzər Kashmiri, Ind akʰhatʰ dah akʰhatʰ wuh zɨ hatʰ saːs Kashmiri, Pak akʰhatʰ tə dah akʰhatʰ tə wuh zɨhatʰ saːs Kati, Eastern pud͡ʒiwat͡səː dut͡s ʂuwat͡səː dut͡suwat͡səː puχta azɑːr Kati, Western pud͡ʒi wat͡sɑː dut͡s ʂuː wat͡səː [djuː sat] hazɑːr Khowar põːt͡ʃ biʃir d͡ʒoʃ ʈ͡ʂʰoj biʃir d͡ʒu ʃoːr hazaːr Kohistani Shina ɕalga daːe ɕalga biː duː ɕal zir Kundal Shahi jokʰ ɕad dʰaj jokʰ ɕad biː duːi ɕad jokʰ hazaːr Kyrgyz bir d͡ʒyz on bir d͡ʒyz d͡ʒigirma eki d͡ʒyz miŋ Ladakhi gupt͡ʃu gja gjanaŋst͡ʃu gjanaŋ ŋiʃu Munji juː o juː o juː sifer juː o lə o juː sifer lə o lə siferiː juː o çiraj siferiː Pahari-Pothwari Palula paːnd͡ʒ bʰiʃeː daːʃ ʂo bʰiʃa duː sawa zir Parachi jak sad u ʒu jak sad u ʁoʃt dosad hazɑːr Pashai, Alasai jak sadu daːje jak sadu west do sad iː hazaːr Pashai, Alingar pajnd͡ʒuwija deː ʃuwija də saw iː hazaːr Pashai, Alishang iː sadu deː iː sadu wast doː sad iː azaːr Pashai, Amla pand͡ʒuwija oː deː ʃewija doː sad iː azaːr Pashai, Aret faːnjuwija meː daːe faːnjuwija meː weːst daːewija zər Pashai, Chalas paːjnija bi daːj paːjnija bi wist daːjijo zər Pashai, Korangal daːj bi paːjnijo wiste bi paːjnijo du sawa zər Pashai, Sanjan iː sadu da iː sadu wəst do sad iː hazɑːr Pashai, Shemal paːnijɑː bi daːj t͡ʃejɑː bi daːj duː saw azɑːr Pashto, Afgh jaw səl las jaw səl ʃəl dwa sawa zər Pashto, Ind jaw səl las jaw səl ʃəl dwasawa zər Pashto, Pak ləs də paːsa səl ʃəl də paːsa səl dwa sawa zər Prasun wət͡ʃegzaː ləːz wət͡ʃegzaː zu li wət͡ʃegzu azaːr Purik rgjaː naːzt͡ʃuː rgjaː naː ŋiʃuː ŋibgjaː stõːt͡ʃik Roshani jaːk sadə daː jaːk sadə biːst du sad jaːk azoːr, azoːr Sanglechi wɑːk sadə wɑːk wɑːk sadə wiːʃt du sad wɑːk azaːr Sawi daʃɑːn paːnd͡ʒbiʃa ʂubiʃa du sawa zər Shina, Gilgit ʃalga daj ʃalga biː duːʃal hazaːr Shina, Gurez ek ʃal daji ek ʃal biːiː dũːʃal saːs Shughni ðiːs ðiːsat ðiːs ðiːs ðiːsat ðə ðiːs dəsaːd azoːr Torwali daʃ o pãːjbiʃ biʃ o pãːjbiʃ/ ʂoːbiʃ du so zar Ushojo dai ga poːʃ bi ʂa bi duːsaw/dai bi zar Uzbek, Afgh bər juzu won bər juzu won jegirma jekː juz bər ming Waigali punt͡ʃwiʃije doːʃi punt͡ʃwiʃije wiʃi dyːwiʃiːje wiʃi (?) eː azaːr Wakhi, Afgh iː sadet ðas iː sadet bist buː sad iː azɑːr Wakhi, Pak jiː sadet ðas jiː sadet wist buː sad hazoːr Yidgha ju ʃoːruː les ju ʃoːruː usto loħ ʃoːr hazaːr

70 Appendix IV: Kinship Terms

Language father mother parents son daughter

Ashkun daj aɽaj aɽaw daj zagə zu Balti áta áŋo áta áŋo bûː boŋó Bateri mʰal mʰijaːl mʰali mʰijaːl puːʈ͡ʂ dʰiː Brokskat boː aːj pʰæmæ bjøː muleː Burushaski, Hunza aːu ami aːu ami eːi aːi Burushaski, Nagar aɰa mahma aɰa mahma ají áji Dameli dadi jiː jiː dadi put ʒu Dari, Darwoz bɑːba uːma χuːnawɑːda bat͡ʃa daχtar Gawarbati, Afgh baːp d͡ʒaːj d͡ʒaːj aw baːp puʂ zu Gawarbati, Pak baːp d͡ʒaːj d͡ʒaːj baːp puɬ zu Gawri bob jaj jaj teː bob puɬ duːj Gojri, Afgh baːp maː maː baːp puːt dʰiː Gojri, Pak baːp mãː mãː baːp bat͡ɕu tiːi Hindko peː maː maː peː potar tihiː Indus Kohistani abaː jaː jaː abaː puːʈ͡ʂ dʰiː Ishkashimi tɑː, tɑːt nɑːn kata nɑːn zuːs uduχt Kalasha daːda aːja daːda ʒe aːja / nantat putr t͡ʃʰu Kalkoti bʰa(ʔ)b/b̥, mʰaːl jeh, mʰeːl jeh teː bʰab pʰuː pʰeː, diː Kamviri toːt nuː nuː toːt aːɽiː d͡ʒuk Kashmiri, Ind moːl moːd͡ʒ moːlmoːd͡ʒ net͡ʃu kuːr Kashmiri, Pak moːl mɨːd͡ʒ moːltɨmɨːd͡ʒ nit͡ʃo koːɽ Kati, Eastern tɑː nuː nuːtɑːt məɽə d͡ʒuk Kati, Western tɑː nu nutɑːt je pitrə je d͡ʒuk Khowar tat nan nantat ʒaw ʒuːr Kohistani Shina bubâː, babâː mã̌ː mã̌ː mǎːlu̥ puʈ͡ʂ dǐː Kundal Shahi maːl meːl meːl maːl kuɽʰ kiɽʰ Kyrgyz ɑta ene oʁlu bɑla qɯz Ladakhi aba ama pʰama put͡sa pomo Munji tɑːt nənə mɑːmə puːr kəncikə Pahari-Pothwari peoː beː, maː maː, peoː putər tiː Palula bâːbu, mʰâːlu jêːji, mʰêːli jéje bâːbu (?) putr dʰǐː Parachi bɑːw mɑː mɑː wo bɑːw poʃ dot Pashai, Alasai baːw aːjə aːjə u baːw puːtr wijə Pashai, Alingar bwɑː ɑːi ɑːi ɑw bwɑː uwejɑː oːɖək Pashai, Alishang baːwa, daːda, aːʁa baːbo aːi pujtər, pətreːm weːm Pashai, Amla daːdaː aːi aːi aw daːdaː pulim oːj Pashai, Aret bəːw oːj oːj bəːw putrəm wɑːm (?) Pashai, Chalas baːw aːi aːi aw baːw pʰuːləm wom Pashai, Korangal babɑː aːi aːi aw babɑː pʰuləm wɑːm Pashai, Sanjan bɑːbɑː ɑːiː uːjaw buː puːtər d͡ʒɑːnd͡ʒigə Pashai, Shemal bɑːw aːi aːi bɑːw puləm wɑːm Pashto, Afgh plaːr moːr waːlidejn zoːi lur Pashto, Ind plaːr moːr moːra plaːr zweː lur Pashto, Pak plaːr moːr moːr o plaːr zuːje lur Prasun jej nan jenan pijə liʃt Purik ata ama ata ama buːt͡sʰaː bomo Roshani pe moː naːn pot͡s rezen Sanglechi taːt naːn taːt, naːn zɑːt wədəʁd Sawi baːbu jeːj jeːj baːbu puɬ diː Shina, Gilgit baːbo, maːlo, bap aːd͡ʒi, maː mamaːle poʈ͡ʂ diː Shina, Gurez maːlu̥ maː maː maːlu̥ baːl mulaj Shughni taːt naːn t͡ʃiːd d͡ʒamaːt pot͡s reziːn Torwali baːp jeːj jeːj o baːp poː dʰuː Ushojo daːdaː, maːlo, daːd͡ʒiː abaj, maːliː maːlo ga maːliː pʰoː, puʈ͡ʂ, bat͡ʃuː pʰuwiː, diː Uzbek, Afgh ɑːta ɑːna ɑːta ɑːna wuʁul qiz Waigali tati jej jej tati zaga d͡ʒy Wakhi, Afgh tat nan tat nan pətər ðəɣd Wakhi, Pak tat nan tat nan petər ðeɣd Yidgha tat niːno nan taːti puːr luʁdo Language father’s father father’s mother mother’s father mother’s mother

Ashkun awndaj mit͡ʃaɽaj awndaj mit͡ʃaɽaj Balti apôː apîː apôː apîː Bateri doː daː doː daː Brokskat duːdo dædeː duːdo dædeː Burushaski, Hunza daːdo apiː daːdo apiː Burushaski, Nagar daːdo, api bej api daːdo api Dameli baloː dadi, bap baloː jiː, jaj baloː dadi, bap baloː jiː, jaj Dari, Darwoz bɑːbiː bəbiː bɑːbiː bəbiː Gawarbati, Afgh buɖa buɖi baːp buɖa d͡ʒaːjani d͡ʒaːj Gawarbati, Pak buɖa buɖi buɖa buɖi Gawri dɑːd deːd mɑːm meːm Gojri, Afgh daːduː daːdiː naːnuː naːniː Gojri, Pak daːdoː daːdiː naːnoː naːniː Hindko daːdaː daːdiː nãːɽãː nãːɽĩː Indus Kohistani gʰũː abaː, zar abaː gʰajaː, zer jaː gʰũː abaː gʰajaː, zer jaː Ishkashimi tɑːi kata nɑːni kata mən nɑːn nɑː tɑː, tɑːi kata mən nɑːn nɑː nɑːn, nɑːni kata Kalasha wawa awa wawa awa Kalkoti leːg baːn* daː(ʔ)d̥/daːd deː(ʔ)d̥/deːd maː(ʔ)m̥ /maːm Kamviri woː wajiː toːt poːru wajiː nuː poːru wajiː Kashmiri, Ind bɨɖi bab naːnʲ maːd͡ʒi bɨɖi bab maːd͡ʒi naːnʲ Kashmiri, Pak baːbɨ deːd nãːɲɨ/nãːj? Kati, Eastern altɑːtiː stə tɑːtəs aːli nuː susus puːru wɑː nuː stə tɑːtəs puːru waj/wɑː nuː stə wajs ɻ ɻ ɻ Kati, Western wɑːw wajiː nu aː tɑːtus wɑːw nu aː nu us wajiː Khowar bap waw bap waw Kohistani Shina dâːdu̥ dadí dâːdu̥ dadí Kundal Shahi daːdʰ deːd naːɽãː naːɽĩː Kyrgyz t͡ʃoŋ ɑta t͡ʃoŋ ene taj ɑta taj ene Ladakhi meme abi meme abi Munji pɑːp mɑːmə pɑːp mɑːmə Pahari-Pothwari daːda daːdi naːna naːni Palula dôːdo dêːdi môːmo mêːmi Parachi kaʈa bɑːw kaʈa mɑː kaʈa bɑːw kaʈa mɑː Pashai, Alasai awlaː baːbaː awliː aːji buɖaː buɖiː Pashai, Alingar bɽiːn bwɑː bɽən ɑːi bɽiːn bwɑː bɽən ɑːi Pashai, Alishang baːba, baːwa, bəɖən baːwa bəɖənlaːi? bəɖən baːwa aːkane bəɖənlaːi? Pashai, Amla baːbaː baːiː baːbaː baːiː Pashai, Aret bəːwəs bɑːbeː gaɽeːam bɑːbeːam gaɽeːam Pashai, Chalas gaːɽ baːw gaːɽ aːi aːi bohoː gaːɽ baːw aːi bohoː gaːɽ aːi Pashai, Korangal bluw(?) babɑː bluwiː(?) aːi bluw babɑː bluwiː aːi Pashai, Sanjan ɑːwluː buː ɑːwliː ɑːiː ɑːwluː buː ɑːwliː ɑːiː Pashai, Shemal gaɽ bɑːw gaɽ aːi aːi bɑːw gaɽ aːi aːi bɑːw gaɽ aːi Pashto, Afgh baːbaː adəkoː, anaː baːbaː adəkoː, anaː Pashto, Ind nikə njaː nikə njaː Pashto, Pak daːdaː deːdeː daːdaː deːdeː Prasun waːw ʒiːʃt waːw ʒiːʃt Purik apo apiː apo apiː Roshani buːb naːn buːb naːn Sanglechi taːt taːt naːn naːn taːt taːt naːn naːn Sawi gaːna baːbu gaːni jeːj gaːnu baːbu gaːni jeːj Shina, Gilgit daːdo dadiː daːdo dadiː Shina, Gurez daːdu̥ dadiː daːdu̥ dadiː Shughni boːb muːm, katanaːn boːb muːm Torwali daːd dɛːd maːm mɛːm Ushojo daːduː dijaːdiː mam mijaːmiː Uzbek, Afgh ɑːta buːwa, bɑːbɑː ɑːta mɑːmɑː ɑːta buːwa ɑːna mɑːmɑː Waigali guɽuwaː gãɽej guɽuwaː gãɽej Wakhi, Afgh pup mum pup mum Wakhi, Pak pup mum pup mum Yidgha pap maːmo pap maːmo

72 Language son’s son son’s daughter daughter’s son daughter’s daughter

Ashkun nuə nut nuə nut Balti t͡sʰôː t͡sʰáŋo t͡sʰôː t͡sʰáŋo Bateri poːʐ poeːʐ poːʐ poeːʐ Brokskat poːʈo pøːʈi poːʈo pøːʈi Burushaski, Hunza aːmis aːmis aːmis aːmis Burushaski, Nagar aːmis aːmis aːmis bej aːmis bo Dameli nawaːsah nawaːsi nawaːsah nawaːsi Dari, Darwoz nuwasa χɑːrzɑː χɑːrzɑː daχtari χɑːr Gawarbati, Afgh nawaːsa puʂana zu zuwana puʂ zuwani zu Gawarbati, Pak nawaːsa, namaːsa namaːsi, nawaːsi nawaːsa, namaːsa nawaːsi, namaːsi Gawri poːɬ peːɬ nosaj nosaj Gojri, Afgh nasjuː nusai doːtʰoː duːtʰiː Gojri, Pak poːtro poːtri poːtro poːtri Hindko poːtraː poːtriː dʰeːtraː dʰeːtriː Indus Kohistani poːʐ puː(i)ʐ poːʐ puːʐ Ishkashimi nəvis nəvis, mən zuːs nɑː uduχt nəvis, uduχt nɑː zuːs nəvis, uduχt nɑː uduχt Kalasha nawaw nawaːlik moaso iʃpoʃi Kalkoti meː(ʔ)m̥ /meːm poːtʰ, nuseː peːtʰ, nuseː duːr Kamviri aːɽiː poːru nawiː peːtrəs stə d͡ʒuk, nut d͡ʒuk poːru nawoː d͡ʒuk stə d͡ʒuk, nut Kashmiri, Ind zur zur zur zur Kashmiri, Pak poːtor poːtɨr djuːtor djuːtɨr Kati, Eastern nawɑ d͡ʒuk pɑːr nawɑ d͡ʒuk mərə nawɑ d͡ʒuk stə d͡ʒuk, nut Kati, Western nuwɑːk, nuwɑːka puwat͡s [pɛs] nutuk, puwat͡s nuwɑːka d͡ʒuk nutuka d͡ʒuk Khowar noweːs noweːs noweːs/ d͡ʒameːli noweːs/d͡ʒameːli Kohistani Shina pôːʈ͡ʂu̥ pôːʈ͡ʂi̥ pôːʈ͡ʂu̥ pôːʈ͡ʂi̥ Kundal Shahi poːtər peː tir deːhoːɽ deːheːɽʰ Kyrgyz nibire nibire d͡ʒen t͡ʃibire Ladakhi t͡sʰaʁo t͡sʰamo t͡sʰaʁo t͡sʰamo Munji naweːs naweːsə naweːs naweːsə Pahari-Pothwari poːtra poːtri doːtra doːtri Palula pûːtro pûːtri dʰjûːɽo dʰjûːɽi Parachi nawɑː nawɑː nawɑː nawɑː Pashai, Alasai nawaːi nətiː nawaːi nətiː Pashai, Alingar masɑːm masɑːmiː masijɑːm masijɑːmiː Pashai, Alishang nawaːem natiːm nawaːem natiːm Pashai, Amla nawaːi nadi nawaːi nadi Pashai, Aret nawɑːsum nɑːsijum nawɑːsum nɑːsijum Pashai, Chalas nusum nusijim waːstəm pʰulə, nusum waːstəm waː, nusijim Pashai, Korangal masej masej masej masej Pashai, Sanjan nawəj nati nawəj nati Pashai, Shemal nɑːwajeːm nɑːsijem nɑːwajeːm nɑːsijem Pashto, Afgh lmaseː lmasej lmaseː lmasej Pashto, Ind naseː nasaj naseː nasaj Pashto, Pak nwaseː nwasej nwaseː nwasej Prasun nəwə nəti nəwə nəti Purik t͡sʰoː t͡sʰamo t͡sʰoː t͡sʰamo Roshani nabuːs nabiːs nabuːs nabiːs Sanglechi nəvəs nəvəs, wədəʁd wədəʁdzɑːt wədəʁd Sawi nawɑːsu nawɑːsi nawɑːsu nawɑːsi Shina, Gilgit poːʈ͡ʂo poːʈ͡ʂi poːʈ͡ʂo poːʈ͡ʂi Shina, Gurez poːʈ͡ʂu̥ poːʈ͡ʂi̥ poːʈ͡ʂu̥ poːʈ͡ʂi̥ Shughni neboːs nebeːs neboːs nebeːs Torwali nuːsaiː nuːsiː nuːsaiː nuːsiː Ushojo nuːsaːj nuːsaj nuːsaːj nuːsaj Uzbek, Afgh wuʁul niːwara qiz niːwara bat͡ʃa niːwara qiz niːwara Waigali nawa( ?)ː [nɐʋãː] nut nut nut Wakhi, Afgh nəpɨs nəpɨs nəpɨs ðəɣd zəman Wakhi, Pak nəpɨs nəpɨs nəpɨs nəpɨs Yidgha nuwis nuwiso nuwis nuwiso

73 Language father’s brother mother’s brother mother’s sister father’s sister

Ashkun paːj daj maw paːj aɽaj nani Balti (not recorded) môːmo, d͡ʑã́mo mat͡ɕúŋ nêːneː Bateri piʈ͡ʂijuː mam, maːma͡ẽ maːseː pʰaː Brokskat boː muːmo? aːj peːpeː Burushaski, Hunza t͡ʃaːt͡ʃaː, d͡ʒoːʈ aɰa nanaː χaːlaː nanaː Burushaski, Nagar aɰa eːʈ͡ʂu nana mahma muʈ͡ʂu nana Dameli pitri, kaːkaː mam nan pʰaːpi Dari, Darwoz aka, amak taʁɑːi χɑːla hama Gawarbati, Afgh baːbana blaː ja moːmaː d͡ʒaːjani sasi baːbana sasi Gawarbati, Pak kakaː, dad mumaː maːʃaj pipi Gawri piɬi moː(ʔ)ʈ meː(ʔ)ʃ peːp Gojri, Afgh pitijuː maːwɽoː muːsiː pʰupiː Gojri, Pak t͡ɕaːt͡ɕu maːmoː moːsiː pʰupʰi Hindko t͡ʃaːt͡ʃaː maːmaː maːsiː pʰupiː Indus Kohistani pit͡ʃaː mamaː mapʰiː pʰaːej Ishkashimi bət͡ʃiː χələk χuːla ama Kalasha moːa moːa naːna naːna Kalkoti diːr likiʈ pʰeːp log moːl lukuʈ bʰab Kamviri kaːʂtoːt, d͡ʒeʂtoːt mam gilə nuː poːru d͡ʒeɽnu kaːʂtinu kaːʂti nu d͡ʒeɽnu(?) toːt poːru Kashmiri, Ind petɨr maːm maːs pɔpʰ Kashmiri, Pak pitɨr maːm maːs pɔpʰ Kati, Eastern mad͡ʒimtɑː mam mad͡ʒmiː nuː susus mad͡ʒmiː nuː tɑːtiː susus Kati, Western mad͡ʒimtɑː mam naniː naniː Khowar mik mik bet͡ʃ bet͡ʃ Kohistani Shina piʈ͡ʂí mahúl máfi̥ pʰîːpi̥ Kundal Shahi pitri moːl meːs faːj Kyrgyz t͡ʃoŋ ɑba tɑʁɑ taj ed͡ʒe t͡ʃoŋ inim Ladakhi agu aʒəŋ mat͡ʃuŋ ane Munji bɑːj bɑːj kəkə kəkə Pahari-Pothwari t͡ɕaːt͡ɕa maːwãː maːsiː buboː, puːhaː Palula pitrí mamǎː mêːʃi pʰêːpi Parachi kɑːkɑː taʁɑːiː χɑːla ʕama Pashai, Alasai mambuː maːmaː maːmbiː maːmbiː Pashai, Alingar kɑːkɑː mɑːmɑː, mɑːwu mɑːmoː mɑːmoː Pashai, Alishang kaːka maːma χaːla maːnbi, ama Pashai, Amla kaːkaː baːwu maːmaː maːmaː Pashai, Aret kaːgɑː maik [mæ͡ɪk] maːmeːam maːmeːam Pashai, Chalas baːwas la meːk, aːis la aːis sawaː, kaːniʃtiː aːi baːwas sawaː, mumik Pashai, Korangal dɑːdɑː mɑːmɑː aːi kaniʃʈiː aːi (?) Pashai, Sanjan mambuː mawluː mɑːm biː ɑːmə Pashai, Shemal bɑːwəs la moːləm aːis sawa bɑːwəs sawa Pashto, Afgh kaːkaː maːmaː χaːla ama, amakəj Pashto, Ind trə maːmaː maːʃuː troːr Pashto, Pak trə maːmaː maːsiː troːr Prasun banjej meːljej banan banan Purik baːt͡seː aːd͡ʒaŋ amaːt͡seː neːneː Roshani doː χoːlek vet͡s, moːdjak vet͡s Sanglechi bət͡ʃiː χuːlək χuːlaj amaj Sawi bowɽi mamaː mɑːʃi pɑːpi Shina, Gilgit piʈ͡ʂaː maːm pʰapiː Shina, Gurez babaː muːmũ̥ maːsi̥ pʰiːpʰi̥ Shughni amak χoːlak χoːlaː amaː Torwali piʐiː maːmaː mɛːʃ paːpo Ushojo t͡ʃaːt͡ʃaː, piʈ͡ʂiː maːmaː, moːl maːʃoː paːpo Uzbek, Afgh ɑːwa taʁa χɑːla ama/ɦama Waigali kynʃtyː tati meːl jej pipiː Wakhi, Afgh bət͡ʃ nan vərɨt nan xɨj vɑt͡ʃ Wakhi, Pak bet͡ʃ bet͡ʃ vot͡ʃ vot͡ʃ Yidgha baːij baːij koːkoː koːkoː

74 Language brother’s son brother’s daughter sister’s son sister’s daughter

Ashkun daj pɽa daj zu piʃi piʃi Balti pʰǒːneː buː, kakîː buː, t͡sʰôː pʰǒːneː boŋó, kakîː boŋó, t͡sʰáŋo t͡sʰôː t͡sʰáŋo Bateri ɖ͡ʐoʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐʰaːdiː χoreː sazuj Brokskat sazoː sazøj sazoː sazøj Burushaski, Hunza asaːʁun asaːʁun asaːʁun asaːʁun Burushaski, Nagar aʈ͡ʂu iji aʈ͡ʂu eji asaːʁun asaːʁun Dameli braːsãː put braːsai ʒu iʂpaʂi iʂpaʂi Dari, Darwoz bat͡ʃai aka daχtari aka χɑːrzɑː χɑːrzɑː Gawarbati, Afgh dadana puʂ dadana zu saseːna puʂ saseːna zu Gawarbati, Pak blaːuɬ zu peːʃi peːʃi Gawri d͡ʒauːɬ d͡ʒɑːduːj χoːraj χoːrieːr Gojri, Afgh bitid͡ʒijuː bitid͡ʒiː χurijuː χurajiː Gojri, Pak paːtriːjo paːtriːi paːnd͡ʑo paːnd͡ʑi Hindko patrijaː patrijiː (?) paːnd͡ʒaː paːnd͡ʒiː Indus Kohistani ʐʰaliːʈ͡ʂ ʐʰaːdiː χoraj sazuj Ishkashimi vru zuːs vru uduχt iχɑː zuːs iχɑː uduχt Kalasha putr t͡ʃʰuː moaso iʃpoʃi Kalkoti leːg meːʃ drʰuːt drʰiːt, draːdi χoreː Kamviri orth: bɻaː guːɽ, audio: bɻoː ɻu bɻoː d͡ʒi ʃap ʃi ʃap ʃi Kashmiri, Ind baːbtʰɨr baːwzɨ bentʰɨr benzɨ Kashmiri, Pak baːbtʰɨr baːwɨz bintʰɨr binɨz Kati, Eastern bɻɑː mərə bɻɑː d͡ʒuk susə məɽə susə d͡ʒuk Kati, Western bɻatrə, bɻoʃe puwat͡s bɻod͡ʒi [bɹɔʒi], bɻoʃe d͡ʒuk susa puwat͡s susa d͡ʒuk Khowar noweːs noweːs noweːs noweːs Kohistani Shina hurúʈ͡ʂ huruʈ͡ʂẽ̂ːj sazuː sazúj Kundal Shahi jaːl puːtər jaːl dʰiː sazʰuːɽʰ sazʰiːɽʰ Kyrgyz inim inim d͡ʒen d͡ʒen Ladakhi t͡sʰaʁo t͡sʰamo t͡sʰaʁo t͡sʰamo Munji vreːriː vreːriːʁə χəriː χəriːʁə Pahari-Pothwari patriːjaː patriː pəɳiːjaː pəɳejiː Palula bʰrapútr bʰra(u)dʰǐː bʰeɳipútr bʰeɳdʰǐː Parachi bija ʁuɽuk bija ʁuɽuk χiː ʁuɽuk χiː ʁuɽuk Pashai, Alasai lawuːtr laːi wijə nawaːi nətiː Pashai, Alingar laeːstam oːjeː laeːstam oːjə saeːstam oːjeː saeːstam oːjə Pashai, Alishang laːwu trəm laːweːm seːaseme pətər, nawaːem seːaseme weːa, natiːm Pashai, Amla laːwləm laːwjəm nawaːi nadi Pashai, Aret laːestam laːestam oːja nawɑːsa nawɑːsi Pashai, Chalas laːstəm pʰulə laːstəm wa xoːraja, sawaːstəm pʰulə nosim, sawaːstəm wa Pashai, Korangal wuraːrə wurijeːrə χarijɑː χurzəm Pashai, Sanjan bɽɑːw tuːr χuwɑːr dɑːduː χuwɑːr dɑːduː χuwɑːr dɑːduː Pashai, Shemal laːstəm pulə laːstəm wa susastəm pulə sawastəm wa Pashto, Afgh wraːrə wreːrə χureːje χurzə Pashto, Ind rwaːrə rweːra χureː χurza Pashto, Pak wrarə wreːra χwrəje χwərzə Prasun pijə liʃt ʂupʂi ʂupʂi Purik t͡sʰoː t͡sʰamoː t͡sʰoː t͡sʰamo Roshani χiːr, χiːr but͡s χiːr, χiːr bit͡s χiːr, jaχ pot͡s χiːr, jaχ rezen Sanglechi vruːd zəman vruːd zəman ɑːχɑːj zəman ɑːχɑːj wədəʁd Sawi brɑːwupuɬ brɑːwudiː beːɳipuɬ beːɳidiː Shina, Gilgit puʈ͡ʂ diː sawowo sawoj Shina, Gurez ɖ͡ʐawoː baːl ɖ͡ʐawiː mulaj saːzuː saːzuj Shughni vroːd pot͡s vroːd reziːn jaχ pot͡s jaχ reziːn Torwali bʰawuːʂ bʰaːduː χoːraiː χoːriː Ushojo ʐʰawloː ʐʰawliː χoraːj χorzu Uzbek, Afgh jini nu wuʁli jini ni qizi siŋgilu wuʁli siŋgili qizi Waigali braː zaga paʃi paʃi paʃi Wakhi, Afgh vərɨt pətər vərɨt ðəɣd xɨj pətər xɨj ðəɣd Wakhi, Pak χerjan χerjan χerjan χerjan Yidgha nuwis nuwiso nuwis nuwiso

75 Language wife’s father wife’s mother husband’s father husband’s mother

Ashkun ʃibusu ʃiboːs ʃibusu ʃiboːs Balti zg(i)jukpʰôː zg(i)jukmôː zg(i)jukpʰôː zg(i)jukmôː Bateri ʃoːr ʂaːʂ ʃoːr ʂaːʂ Brokskat ʃøːʂ ʃaʂ ʃøːʂ ʃaʂ Burushaski, Hunza aːskir aːskus aːskir aːskus Burushaski, Nagar aːskir aːs kus aːskir aːs kus Dameli paʃuːr ʒaʂʈaːli paʃuːr preːʃ Dari, Darwoz χəsər χəʃ dumɑː taʁɑːji χɑːla Gawarbati, Afgh gaːwra gaːiri gaːwra gaːiri Gawarbati, Pak gawra gaːiri gaːura gajri Gawri ʃuʃur t͡ʃiʃ ʃuʃur t͡ʃiʃ Gojri, Afgh suːruː sasuː suːruː sasuː Gojri, Pak soːroː sas soːroː sas Hindko soːraː sas soːraː sas Indus Kohistani ʃawr iʈ͡ʂoːʂ ʃawr iʈ͡ʂoːʂ Ishkashimi χəsər χəʃ χəsər, tɑː nɑː mɑːl χəʃ, mɑːl nɑː nɑːn Kalasha iʃpaːʃur d͡ʒeʂʈaːli iʃpaːʃur ispres Kalkoti ʃoːr iːr peʂ ʃoːr Kamviri t͡su ɻ ʈ͡ʂut͡ʃ t͡su ɻ ʈ͡ʂut͡ʃ Kashmiri, Ind həhərɨ bab haʃ həhərɨ bab haʃ Kashmiri, Pak hehɔr haʃ hehɔr haʃ Kati, Eastern siju ɻ ʈ͡ʂut͡ʃ siju ɻ ʈ͡ʂut͡ʃ Kati, Western t͡sət͡siɻu ʈ͡ʂuːt͡ʃ t͡sət͡siɻu (audio: χuʃnaː) ʈ͡ʂuːt͡ʃ Khowar iʃpaʃuːr iʃpeʃi iʃpaʃuːr iʃpeʃi Kohistani Shina t͡ɕêː bubâː t͡ɕêː mã̌ː bubâː mã̌ː Kundal Shahi ɕeːr ɕaɕ ɕeːr ɕaɕ Kyrgyz qɑj nɑta qɑj nine qɑj nɑta qɑj nine Ladakhi aba ama aba ama Munji χusur χuʃə χusur χuʃə Pahari-Pothwari soːra sas soːra sas Palula ʃûːr preʂ ʃûːr preʂ Parachi χusur χoʃ χusur χoʃ Pashai, Alasai ʃəjiːr ʃəjruː ʃəjiːr ʃəjruː Pashai, Alingar sansərɑː sansəriː sansərɑː sansəriː Pashai, Alishang ʃeːriːm ʃeːriːm ʃeːreːm ʃeʃriː, ʃeːreːm Pashai, Amla ʃeːruːm ʃeːruːm ʃeːruːm ʃeːrim Pashai, Aret ʃeːrim ʃeːrim ʃenʃuːrɑː ʃenʃuːrim Pashai, Chalas ʃəʃuːroː, ɬijastəm baːwa ʃəʃuːriː, ɬijastəm oːja ʃəʃuːroː, poːzəstəm baːwa ʃəʃuːriː, poːzəstəm oːja Pashai, Korangal ʃəʃurɑː ʃəʃuriː ʃəʃuroː ʃəʃuriː Pashai, Sanjan ʃəjiːr ʃəjruː ʃəjiːr ʃəjruː Pashai, Shemal ʃeːrəm ʃanʃurijeːm ʃeːrəm ʃanʃurijeːm Pashto, Afgh χusər χwaːxeː χusər χwaːxeː Pashto, Ind sqər χwaːχeː sqər χwaːχeː Pashto, Pak sχər χwaːχeː sχər χwaːχeː Prasun t͡ʃid͡ʒu suːtnan jej nan Purik ata ama ata ama Roshani χasur χoʂ χasur χoʂ Sanglechi χəsər χoːʂ χəsər χoːʂ Sawi ʃuːrə praʂ ʃuːrə praʂ Shina, Gilgit ʃawr ʃaʂ ʃawr ʃaʂ Shina, Gurez ʃaːjru̥ (spelled: ʃaːrijuː) ʃaʂ ʃaːjru̥ ʃaʂ Shughni χesor χiːx χesor χiːx Torwali ʃiːjo paʃ ʃiːjo paʃ Ushojo ʃawar paʃ ʃawar paʃ Uzbek, Afgh qajn ɑːta qajn ɑːna qajn ɑːta qajn ɑːna Waigali puʃyːr t͡soːdər puʃyːr t͡soːdər Wakhi, Afgh xurs xaʂ xurs xaʂ Wakhi, Pak xurs xaʂ xurs xaʂ Yidgha χusur χuʂo χusur χuʂo

76 Language brother’s wife (male brother’s wife (female sister’s husband (male sister’s husband ego) ego) ego) (female ego)

Ashkun bɽaː istri bɽaː istri aːj mi aːj mi Balti kakîː namâː, pʰǒːneː na- mĩːmwêː namâː, kakîː áɕeː jodpí kakâː, strĩːmó áɕeː jodpí kakâː, núŋo mâː, kakâː lah jodpí áɕeː namâː, kakâː lah jodpí jodpí maqpá jodpí mĩːmó áɕeː Bateri ɖ͡ʐʰaːzeː ɖ͡ʐʰaːzeː saːrũː saːrũː Brokskat ʒara ʒara baːjo, ʐuʐoː qakeː, sas Burushaski, Hunza bʰaːbiː bʰaːbiː arik kaːkoː Burushaski, Nagar ujum kaːku juːs ujum kaːku juːs arik arik Dameli braːʒei ʒaːmili ʐami saːraːnah Dari, Darwoz janga janga ʃuji χɑːr bɑːd͡ʒa Gawarbati, Afgh blaː jana maʃi naːni saseːna hirew saseːna hirewana maʃi Gawarbati, Pak nanaːni nanaːni ʐami ʐami Gawri d͡ʒɑːd͡ʒɑ d͡ʒɑːd͡ʒɑ d͡ʒamɑːɬ sɑːrɑːn Gojri, Afgh bʰaːbiː bʰaːbiː buɳʰajiː buɳʰajiː Gojri, Pak paːbʰiː paːbʰiː paɳiːjo paɳiːjo Hindko baːbiː (?) baːbiː pɽijaː pɽijaː Indus Kohistani ʐʰaːzaj ʐʰaːzaj bʰajaː χawan ʐʰaːzaj Ishkashimi vru kuːt͡ʃ janga kuːt͡ʃ, janga kuːt͡ʃ iχɑː mɑːl kuːt͡ʃ nɑː iχɑː mɑːl nɑː vru kuːt͡ʃ Kalasha weːwaj pred͡ʒaj d͡ʒamow Kalkoti d͡ʒaːmaːt draːd͡ʒeː Kamviri moːt͡ʃiːz bɻoːs ʃtriːz bɻoːs ʃtriːz suzus moːt͡ʃiːz ʃtriːstu suzus moːt͡ʃiːz Kashmiri, Ind bəjkaːkənʲ bəjkaːkənʲ beːmɨ beːmɨ Kashmiri, Pak bəj kaːkãj bəj kaːkãj beːmɨ Kati, Eastern bɻɑː ʃtəriːs bɻɑː ʃtəriːs ʒami ʒami Kati, Western bɻoʃa ʃtriːs ʒamiʃe ʃtriːs ʒamiː bɑːd͡ʒa Khowar briʒaju briʒaju gomit gomit Kohistani Shina d͡ʑaʐáh d͡ʑaʐáh sazêː χawán Kundal Shahi keːqin (keːkin?) nenaːɽʰ soːzsãː gʰarwaːl bʰĩɽ jə Kyrgyz d͡ʒiŋe keliŋ d͡ʒizde d͡ʒizde Ladakhi at͡ʃe at͡ʃe kaʁa Munji zəniːjə zəniːjə zamɑːj zamɑːj Pahari-Pothwari paːwiː (Pothwari) pard͡ʑaːiː (Punjabi) pəɳijaː pəɳijaː Palula bʰraːd͡ʒáj bʰraːd͡ʒáj ʐamí saːrôːɳo Parachi janga [janɟa] janga [janɟa] jɑːzna jɑːzna Pashai, Alasai laːd͡ʒaː laːd͡ʒaː daːdaː daːdaː Pashai, Alingar wəreːndɑːrə, laeːstam wəreːndɑːrə, saeːstam d͡ʒɑːmajɑː saeːstam pɑːnd͡ʒə zajbiː laːestə zajbiː Pashai, Alishang wərindar, laːd͡ʒeːm, laː laːd͡ʒeːm d͡ʒaːmiːm ʃeːreːm, maʃtamebaw maːʃeːm Pashai, Amla ʃinək ʃinək d͡ʒaːmaːi d͡ʒaːmaːi Pashai, Aret ʃenegam ʃenegam pɑːeːreːm pɑːeːreːm Pashai, Chalas ʃinik, la səm ɬikja ʃinik zoːmom, sawaːstəm ʃiwuɽuk poːzə Pashai, Korangal ʃənik ʃənik zum zum Pashai, Sanjan jənguː jənguː d͡ʒɑːmɑː d͡ʒɑːmɑː Pashai, Shemal ʃənigeːm laːstəm ɬika zomɑːm pɑːrijeːm Pashto, Afgh wrindaːrə wrindaːrə awxeː awxeː Pashto, Ind rwandaːr rwandaːr aχweː aχweː Pashto, Pak baːbiː baːbiː oːχeː oːχeː Prasun weːja wəsti weːja wəsti imi imi Purik at͡ʃʰeː at͡ʃʰeː kaːkaː kaːkaː Roshani χajan χajan χasert͡s χasert͡s Sanglechi vruːd koːt͡ʃ juːd zəmoːd juːd Sawi brɑːd͡ʒaj diri ɬeɽiː awχaj Shina, Gilgit d͡ʒaʐeː d͡ʒaʐeː ʃariː ʃariː Shina, Gurez bʰaːbʰiː bʰaːbʰiː d͡ʒiːd͡ʒaː d͡ʒiːd͡ʒaː Shughni χejyːn χejyːn χesiːrt͡s χesiːrt͡s Torwali bʰejeːj bʰejeːj d͡ʒamaːʂ saraːn Ushojo bad͡ʒʰaj bad͡ʒʰaj d͡ʒamaːʈ͡ʂoː, saraːn saraːn Uzbek, Afgh jaŋga jaŋga izna bɑːd͡ʒa Waigali ɻuk ɻuk waːwej ɻuk Wakhi, Afgh bakʂt kənd vərɨt kənd χəsirz bɑd͡ʒa Wakhi, Pak xɨj xɨj χəserz χəserz Yidgha zinjo zinjo rown rown

77 Language husband’s brother husband’s sister wife’s brother wife’s sister

Ashkun kəɽis kəɽis aːj mi ʃiːja Balti aɕí pubí kakâː, aɕí pubí pʰǒːno aɕí pubí áɕeː, aɕí pubí strĩːmó skutpáh namôːbi áɕeː, namôːbi núŋo Bateri kẽːʈ za͡ẽl saːrũː saːrãː Brokskat baːjo, ʐuʐoː qakeː, sas ʃæʒiri sas, qakeː Burushaski, Hunza deːwər, kaːkoː aʈ͡ʂoː arik d͡ʒɑmaːt mu muʈ͡ʂoː Burushaski, Nagar haːlum uːlus/awlus haːlum uʈ͡ʂu/aʈ͡ʂu arik aːwus mu muʈ͡ʂu Dameli deːr deːr iʃtri ʐami saːraːni Dari, Darwoz iːwar jana χəsəri majdak qajsangəl Gawarbati, Afgh hirewana blaː ja hirewana sasi maʃeːna blaː ja maʃeːna sasi Gawarbati, Pak deːr zaːmili ʐami saːraːni Gawri daː(ʔ)r d͡ʒemiɬ ʃɑːʃur sɑːreːn Gojri, Afgh deːwər d͡ʒaɳaki biheɳ saːɽoː saːɽiː Gojri, Pak deːr draːɳiː saːloː saːliː Hindko deːr drãːɽĩː saːlaː saːliː Indus Kohistani kẽːʈʰah kẽːʈʰaĩː gʰarijãː ʐʰaː gʰarĩː bʰijũː Ishkashimi eːwar mɑːl nɑː iχɑː χəsər zuːs kuːt͡ʃ nɑː iχɑː Kalasha dijoːr d͡ʒoːmi weːwaj pred͡ʒaj Kalkoti iːr peʂ daːr/dæːr d͡ʒeːmel ʃa͡ir/ʃajir Kamviri moːt͡ʃi ɻbɻoː moːt͡ʃiːz suzus ʒami ʃtriːz suzus Kashmiri, Ind druj zaːm həhər saːl Kashmiri, Pak drɨj zaːm hahar saːl Kati, Eastern mɑːt͡ʃi bɻɑː mɑːt͡ʃiː sus ʒami ʒami Kati, Western mɑːt͡ʃis bɻɑːs mɑːt͡ʃis susus ʒamiʃe ʒamis ʃtrija susus Khowar gomit briʒaju gomit briʒaju Kohistani Shina lewár d͡ʑaʐáh t͡ɕêː ʐâː t͡ɕêː sas Kundal Shahi deːr dirẽːɽ(ʰ?) saːlʰ seːlʰ Kyrgyz qɑj nɑʁɑ bɑldɯz quda qɑj nit͡ʃe Ladakhi kaʁa at͡ʃe kaʁa at͡ʃe Munji jiː nənə χusur buːrə χijeːʁnə Pahari-Pothwari deːr nanaːɽ saːlaː saːliː Palula dîːr d͡ʒʰeːmilí wîːwaj saːrêːɳi Parachi hiːwar nanuː χusur bura χɑːʃna Pashai, Alasai deːruː d͡ʒaːmiː iʃpaːriː səjɑːniː Pashai, Alingar leːwar pɑːnd͡ʒəstam sajeː pijɑːriː sajɑːniː Pashai, Alishang deːrewam d͡ʒaːmeːm iʃpaːɽiːm sajaːniːm Pashai, Amla dərəw d͡ʒaːmijaː paːiːriː sijaːniː Pashai, Aret dərwiː d͡ʒɑːmijɑː faːriː awər blɑːm, awər saːwom Pashai, Chalas ʃiwuɽuk zuzumi ʃiwuɽuk ʃiwuɽik Pashai, Korangal (leːwar) poːzstəm sawa (ɑːwχaj) χina Pashai, Sanjan diːruː d͡ʒɑːmiː iʃpɑːriː sajɑːniː Pashai, Shemal pɑːnzstəm la deːra zuzumijeːm poːriː ʃijɑːɽik Pashto, Afgh leːwər nəndroːr awxeː xina Pashto, Ind livar undroːr awχeː χina Pashto, Pak leːwər ndroːr də χəzi wroːr χina Prasun wijə siwus imi wəsti siwus Purik nunu numu nunu numu Roshani χasert͡s χajan χasert͡s χajan Sanglechi teːw wəneːn χəsər braj qajsangal Sawi dîrə d͡ʒɑːmiliː awχaj sarɑːɳi Shina, Gilgit saːla saroːni Shina, Gurez d͡ʒaʈʰoː d͡ʒaʈʰiː saːroːɽu̥ saːroːɽi̥ Shughni χesiːrt͡s χesiːrt͡s χesiːrt͡s χejyːn Torwali deː d͡ʒɛːmeːl ʃɛːjo seːrɛːn Ushojo diːru d͡ʒamiːliː ʃijaːʃoː χinaː Uzbek, Afgh qajn ɑːʁa qajn siŋgil qajn ɑːʁa qajn siŋgil Waigali deʃʈə ɻuk waːwej ɻuk Wakhi, Afgh bakʂt ðaj xɨj χəsirz qajsangɨl Wakhi, Pak lol nun lol xɨj Yidgha rown χujaʁno rown χujaʁno

78 Appendix V: Features

Language numeral numeral parents grandparents grandchildren bases composition Ashkun vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Kamviri vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF≠FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Kati, Eastern vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF≠FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Kati, Western vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Prasun vigesimal n+10/n+20 father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Waigali vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM other

Balti vigesimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Ladakhi decimal 10+n/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Purik vigesimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Bateri vigesimal n+10/n+20 father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Gawri vigesimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM other Indus Kohistani vigesimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Torwali vigesimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=DS/SD=DD Brokskat vigesimal n+10/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Kalkoti vigesimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF≠MF≠FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Kohistani Shina vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Kundal Shahi decimal ? mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Palula vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Sawi vigesimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Shina, Gilgit vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Shina, Gurez vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Ushojo vigesimal n+10/n+20 father+mother FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=DS=SD=DD Burushaski, Hunza vigesimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS=SD=DD Burushaski, Nagar vigesimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=SD/DS≠DD Dameli vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Gawarbati, Afgh vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF≠FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Gawarbati, Pak vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Dari, Darwoz decimal n+10/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM other Ishkashimi decimal n+10/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS=SD=DD Munji decimal 10+n/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Parachi decimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS=SD=DD Pashto, Afgh decimal n+10/n+20 other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashto, Ind decimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashto, Pak decimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Roshani decimal n+10/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Sanglechi decimal n+10/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=SD/DS≠DD Shughni decimal 10+n/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Wakhi, Afgh vigesimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM other Wakhi, Pak vigesimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS=SD=DD Yidgha vigesimal 10+n/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Gojri, Afgh decimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Gojri, Pak decimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=DS/SD=DD Hindko decimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Pahari-Pothwari ? ? mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Kalasha vigesimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM=MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Khowar vigesimal 10+n/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS=SD=DD Kashmiri, Ind decimal n+10/n+20 father+mother FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=DS=SD=DD Kashmiri, Pak decimal n+10/n+20 father+mother ? SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Kyrgyz decimal 10+n/20+n other FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=SD/DS≠DD Uzbek, Afgh decimal 10+n/20+n father+mother FF=MF/FM≠MM other Pashai, Alasai decimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashai, Alingar vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS≠DS≠SD≠DD Pashai, Alishang vigesimal n+10/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashai, Amla vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashai, Aret vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashai, Chalas vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashai, Korangal vigesimal n+10/n+20 mother+father FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS=SD=DD Pashai, Sanjan decimal n+10/20+n other FF=MF/FM=MM SS=DS/SD=DD Pashai, Shemal vigesimal n+10/20+n mother+father FF≠MF/FM≠MM SS=DS/SD=DD Language parents’ siblings sibling’ children parents-in-law siblings’ partner partner’s sibling Ashkun F=FB≠MB/M=MZ≠FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD two-way split two-way split three-way split Kamviri F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD two-way split four-way split three-way split Kati, Eastern F=FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split two-way split three-way split Kati, Western F=FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split four-way split three-way split Prasun F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD four-way split two-way split four-way split Waigali F=FB≠MB/M=MZ≠FZ other two-way split other three-way split Balti ? BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Ladakhi F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split two-way split two-way split Purik F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split two-way split two-way split Bateri F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Gawri F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split three-way split four-way split Indus Kohistani F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split other four-way split Torwali F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split three-way split four-way split Brokskat F=FB≠MB/M=MZ≠FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split three-way split three-way split Kalkoti F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split ? four-way split Kohistani Shina F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD four-way split two-way split four-way split Kundal Shahi F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD two-way split four-way split four-way split Palula F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split three-way split four-way split Sawi F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split ? four-way split Shina, Gilgit F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split ? Shina, Gurez F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Ushojo F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Burushaski, Hunza F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=BD=ZS=ZD two-way split three-way split four-way split Burushaski, Nagar F=FB≠MB/M=MZ≠FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Dameli F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD three-way split four-way split four-way split Gawarbati, Afgh F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split four-way split two-way split Gawarbati, Pak F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Dari, Darwoz F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD/ZS=ZD four-way split three-way split four-way split Ishkashimi F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split four-way split four-way split Munji F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Parachi F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=BD=ZS=ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Pashto, Afgh F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Pashto, Ind F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Pashto, Pak F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Roshani F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=BD=ZS=ZD two-way split two-way split two-way split Sanglechi F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ other two-way split three-way split four-way split Shughni F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split two-way split other Wakhi, Afgh F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split four-way split four-way split Wakhi, Pak F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=BD=ZS=ZD two-way split two-way split three-way split Yidgha F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split two-way split two-way split Gojri, Afgh F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Gojri, Pak F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Hindko F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Pahari-Pothwari F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split three-way split four-way split Kalasha F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD three-way split ? four-way split Khowar F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=BD=ZS=ZD two-way split two-way split two-way split Kashmiri, Ind F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Kashmiri, Pak F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Kyrgyz F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ other two-way split three-way split four-way split Uzbek, Afgh F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split three-way split two-way split Pashai, Alasai F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Pashai, Alingar F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split three-way split four-way split Pashai, Alishang F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split four-way split four-way split Pashai, Amla F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Pashai, Aret F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD three-way split two-way split four-way split Pashai, Chalas F≠FB=MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split three-way split three-way split Pashai, Korangal F≠FB≠MB/M=MZ=FZ BS≠BD≠ZS≠ZD two-way split two-way split four-way split Pashai, Sanjan F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ≠FZ other two-way split two-way split four-way split Pashai, Shemal F≠FB≠MB/M≠MZ=FZ BS=ZS/BD=ZD two-way split four-way split four-way split

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