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Analysis and Enhancement of the Legal Framework – the Need for Action in the Light of Current Developments of Antarctic Tourism

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Analysis and Enhancement of the Legal Framework – the Need for Action in the Light of Current Developments of Antarctic Tourism TEXTE 06 /2016 Analysis and Enhancement of the Legal Framework – The Need for Action in the Light of Current Developments of Antarctic Tourism TEXTE 06/2016 Environmental Research of the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety Project No. (FKZ) 3713 87 100 Report No. (UBA-FB) 002170/E Analysis and Enhancement of the Legal Framework – The Need for Action in the Light of Current Developments of Antarctic Tourism by Prof. Dr. jur. Silja Vöneky, Daniel Wisehart Professor Dr. jur. Silja Vöneky, Freiburg i. Brsg., Germany On behalf of the German Environment Agency Imprint Publisher: Umweltbundesamt Wörlitzer Platz 1 06844 Dessau-Roßlau Tel: +49 340-2103-0 Fax: +49 340-2103-2285 [email protected] Internet: www.umweltbundesamt.de /umweltbundesamt.de /umweltbundesamt Study performed by: Professor Dr. jur. Silja Vöneky Stadtstr. 32 79104 Freiburg i. Brsg., Germany Study completed in: February 2015 Edited by: Section II 2.8 Protection of the Arctic and Antarctic Jaqueline Hilbert, Rita Fabris Publication as pdf: http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/analysis-enhancement-of-the-legal-framework-the ISSN 1862-4804 Dessau-Roßlau, January 2016 The Project underlying this report was supported with funding from the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear safety under project number FKZ 3713 87 100. The responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the author(s). Abstract The present study analyzes the legal framework of Antarctic tourism in the light of its factual develop- ment. The first part defines Antarctic tourism and identifies the objectives of the Antarctic Treaty system that are relevant for Antarctic tourism. The second part displays the factual development of Antarctic tourism in the last ten years. The third part spells out and analyzes the national and international norms that directly or indirectly apply to Antarctic tourism. These norms derive out of international law from various differing regimes – i.e. the Antarctic Treaty system, international environmental law and the law of the sea – but also from domestic law, implementing the international obligations arising under the Antarctic Treaty system. Hence, such domestic norms of a representative number of States are consi- dered. A particular focus will be laid on the German norms applicable to Antarctic tourism. Furthermore, the study also examines the norms of the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO), whose bylaws and guidelines apply to its member-companies. This multidimensional approach, compris- ing international, domestic and private norms, enables a complete picture of the normative framework of Antarctic tourism. The study thereby identifies in concreto existing gaps and shortcomings. It is shown that, despite the abundant number of hard and soft law stipulations, as well as domestic norms, Antarc- tic tourism still lacks a normative framework that would be suitable to restrict its localities and the num- bers of tourists. This is in conflict with the general object and purpose of the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty to establish a comprehensive system of environmental protection within the entire Antarctic Treaty area. In the fourth part, recommendations are presented on how the legal framework of Antarctic tourism could be improved, so that Antarctic tourism can be effectively managed and regu- lated today and in the future. Kurzbeschreibung Die vorliegende Studie analysiert die rechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen des Antarktistourismus im Lichte seiner faktischen Entwicklungen. Der erste Teil bestimmt den Begriff des Antarktistourismus und stellt die für den Antarktistourismus relevanten Vertragsziele des Antarktisvertragssystems dar. Der zweite Teil zeichnet die tatsächlichen Entwicklungen des Antarktistourismus der letzten zehn Jahre nach. Der dritte Teil legt die nationalen und völkerrechtlichen Normen dar, die direkt oder indirekt auf den Antarktis- tourismus anwendbar sind, und analysiert diese. Diese Normen entstammen unterschiedlichen völker- rechtlichen Regimen – wie dem Antarktisvertragssystem, dem Umweltvölkerrecht und dem Seevölker- recht – und den nationalen Rechtsordnungen, welche die völkerrechtlichen Vorschriften des Antarktis- vertragssystems implementieren. Daher werden nationale Normen einiger repräsentativer Vertragsstaa- ten betrachtet. Ein besonderer Fokus wird auf die in Deutschland geltenden nationalen Normen, die auf den Antarktistourismus anwendbar sind, gelegt. Zusätzlich werden die Normen der International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) analysiert, deren Satzung und Guidelines als Akte pri- vater Rechtsetzung die Mitgliedsunternehmen binden. Durch die damit mögliche Untersuchung im Mehrebenensystem ergibt sich ein umfassendes Bild der normativen Rahmenbedingungen des Antarktis- tourismus. Die Studie identifiziert dabei konkret die vorhandenen Lücken und Defizite. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass es, trotz der großen Anzahl völkervertraglicher, gewohnheitsrechtlicher und internationaler Soft Law Normen, sowie der bestehenden nationalen Regelungen, bis heute an einem normativen Rah- men fehlt, der geeignet wäre, die Anzahl der Antarktistouristen und Orte des Antarktistourismus einzu- grenzen. Dies steht im Widerspruch zum generellen Ziel und Zweck des Umweltschutzprotokolls zum Antarktisvertrag, einen umfassenden Umweltschutz im gesamten Antarktisgebiet zu etablieren. Im vier- ten Teil werden daher Möglichkeiten aufgezeigt, wie die Lücken geschlossen werden können und der Antarktistourismus heute und in Zukunft effektiv geregelt und gemanagt werden kann. iii Table of Contents Tables ............................................................................................................................................................................. vii List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................................. viii Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... xi Zusammenfassung ................................................................................................................................................... xviii 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Antarctic Tourism and the Antarctic Treaty system – grasping the normative problems posed by tourism ......................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1.1 Objectives of the Antarctic Treaty system ......................................................................................... 3 1.1.2 Tourism as a threat to the Antarctic environment ......................................................................... 4 1.1.3 Tourism as a threat to Antarctic research ........................................................................................ 6 1.1.4 Positive aspects of Antarctic tourism? ............................................................................................... 6 1.2 Antarctic tourism......................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.1 Definitions............................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 10 1.2.3 Types of Antarctic tourism................................................................................................................. 13 1.2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 21 2 Development of Antarctic tourism ................................................................................................................. 24 2.1 Data collection ........................................................................................................................................... 24 2.1.1 Objective................................................................................................................................................ 24 2.1.2 Method .................................................................................................................................................. 24 2.1.3 Data sources ......................................................................................................................................... 24 2.1.4 Summary: Overview of data and analysis of gaps ......................................................................... 28 2.2 Changes in Antarctic tourism ................................................................................................................. 29 2.2.1 Extent and form ................................................................................................................................... 29 2.2.2 Accidents and cases of non-compliance .......................................................................................... 30 2.2.3 Tourist operators ................................................................................................................................
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