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CULTURES of AID: CHINESE AID to CAMBODIA Kate Griffiths

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CULTURES of AID: CHINESE AID to CAMBODIA Kate Griffiths CULTURES OF AID: CHINESE AID TO CAMBODIA Kate Griffiths A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science School of Geosciences The University of Sydney 2011 Abstract Cambodia is one of the poorest countries in Southeast Asia. The United Nations Human Development Index ranks Cambodia as 137 out of 182 countries in terms of quality of life. Cambodia is also an aid dependent country, with nearly half its annual budget coming from aid. Since the Paris Peace Accords in 1991 and subsequent United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, OECD-DAC (Development Assistance Committee) (or 'traditional') donors have entered Cambodia in large numbers. These traditional donors allocate aid according to the OECD- DAC consensus. This consensus is based around international agreements such as the Millennium Development Goals, The Pahs Declaration on Aid Effectiveness and the Monterrey Consensus of the International Conference on Financing for Development. The traditional donors have, since the early 1990s, created and dominated the aid 'culture' in Cambodia. Recently, however, another donor has come to the fore in Cambodia, and that is China. China has strong historical, social and economic links with Cambodia that go back to ancient times. China has been disbursing aid to Cambodia since the 1950s. However, it has only been since 2006 that China has come to the fore as an aid donor, due in part to the large amount of aid it is currently pledging to Cambodia but also to the growing role China is playing on the wider global stage. China is now one of the largest donors to (as well as investors in) Cambodia. China, however, is often considered a 'rogue' donor by the traditional donors both at the global scale and within Cambodia, as China does not conform with DAC policy on aid and development. This leads to certain representations of China that do not always accord with the 'realities' of China's aid program. This thesis explores aid cultures in Cambodia, in particular the encounter between Chinese aid and western aid. Theoretically this thesis situates itself at the intersection between (post)development geography and cultural geography, drawing on ideas such as representation and encounter to understand how Chinese and western aid come together in the context of Cambodia. By doing so, this thesis fills a gap in the existing literature by looking at aid as a culture, and exploring China's aid from a [post]development/cultural geography viewpoint, rather than an economic or international relations stance. Arising from this theoretical stance come three primary research questions: How do those with different cultural sets come together in certain contexts, namely aid; what cultural encounters do we see in this mix between traditional donors and new donors; how do discourses around 'the other' play into aid dialogues in Cambodia? This thesis investigates these research questions through qualitative methods, including interviews, discourse analysis and participant observation. Analysis is undertaken of western aid to Cambodia, with a focus on the history and statistics of aid, aid coordination, development policy and critiques of traditional aid in order to highlight the existing aid culture in Cambodia. An analysis is then undertaken of China's aid to Cambodia, looking at the aid figures and aid structure before investigating representations of China's aid and looking at an indicative case study of one Chinese aid project in Cambodia. Finally the encounter between western aid and Chinese aid is analysed with particular reference to three types of western aid actors in Cambodia and how they encounter and represent China and its aid program. Through the above investigation, three main findings are arrived at: a) that a particularly western aid culture has been created in Cambodia, one which can be seen as a 'site of knowledge' for western aid; b] that Chinese aid is deliberately constructed and represented in certain ways by the West for its own purposes much as Said (1995] outlined in his work Orientalism regarding the relationship between the West and 'the other'; and c) whilst global aid discourses influence the encounter between China and the West in Cambodia, Cambodia itself is not a passive player in this encounter, using it for its own advantage by playing off China and the western donors against one another. Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been completed without the supervision, inspiration, cooperation and friendship of the following people and organisations: Phil Hirsch, John Connell, Bob Fisher, Nathan Wales, Anne Semple, AusAID, Cambodian Development Resource Institute (CDRI), Dan Montoya, Daravy Khiev, Dee Hickey, DFID, Fiona McKenzie, Gareth Edwards, JICA, Jo Gillespie, Lada Phadungkiati, Laurence Troy, Kevin Davies, Mattijs Smits, Ministry of Economic and Finance Cambodia, Natalia Scurrah, NGO Forum, Huy Nguyen Tuong, Olivia Dun, Oulavanh Keovilignavong, Oxfam, Paula Brown, Phalla Chem, People of Ou Touch and Tvi Khang Cheung villages, Raewyn Graham, Renee Fulton, Rotha Ken Serey, Senthil Kasiannan, SIDA, Soimart Rungmanee, Somatra Kim Sean, Sopheak Chann, Sophia Maalsen, Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP], Surin Onprom, Tubtim Tubtim, UNDP, USAID, Viliam Phraxayavong, Wora Sukraroek, WWF, Yayoi Lagerqvist, Zoe Wang, Paul Griffiths, Margot Edwards, Sue Tronser. Kate Griffiths 25 March 2011 Statement of originality The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I have not submitted this thesis, either in full or in part, for a degree at this, or any other institution. Kate Griffiths 25 March 2011 Table of contents Abstract Acknowledgements iii Statement of originality iv Table of contents V List of acronyms viii Notes to reader X Chapter One: Introduction 1 B a ck g ro u n d 1 Theory and objectives 3 Methodology and methods 4 Thesis structure 5 Chapter Two: Theorising Development and Culture 8 Development and post-development 8 A id 11 Representation and Encounter 16 Cultural Geography 16 Critical geopolitics 17 Representation 19 Encounters 21 Chapter 3: Chinese Aid and Development 24 China's development discourse 24 China's aid 29 Representations of China 35 S u m m a ry 4 0 Chapter Four: Cambodia, China and the World 41 H isto ry 41 Early Cambodia-China relationship 41 European contact 43 Independence, Isolation and 1991 44 Government, governance and politics 4 6 Economy, trade and investment 5 0 S u m m a ry 54 Chapter Five: Western Aid to Cambodia 55 Aid History 55 French colonisation: 1863-1953 55 The 'golden age': 1953-1975 56 The UNTAC period: 1992-1993 58 Aid as a culture 60 Aid coordination 63 Development policy 67 Critiques 69 S u m m a ry 72 Chapter Six: Chinese aid to Cambodia 74 History 74 Chinese aid post-1991 78 Aid figures: fact and fiction 79 Aid structure: Is China's aid different? 84 Case study: Kamchay Dam 87 China and the existing aid culture 93 Summary 94 Chapter Seven: Aid, Cambodia and the Cultural Encounter 96 The Aid Encounter in Cambodia 96 What is the encounter? 96 Bilateral donors 97 Multilateral donors 100 Non-government organisations 101 Why this encounter? 103 Theoretical insights - Development, Aid, Representation and Encounter 106 Development 106 Aid 108 Representation 110 Encounter 112 Summary 114 Chapter Eight: Conclusion 115 Summary of findings 115 Theoretical implications: China, representation and 'the other' 116 Limitations: Chinese voice, timeframe and gender 118 Further research 118 References 120 List of Figures/Tables Table 3.1: The Eight Principles for China's Aid to Third World Countries 30 Table 3.2: China in the western media 37 Figure 5.1: Total DAC aid disbursements to Cambodia 1991-2009 62 Figure 5.2: Overview of DAC aid to Cambodia 2006-2008 62 Table 5.3: Donor/Government meetings 64 Table 5.4: Technical Working Groups, Cambodia 66 Figure 6.1: Aid disbursements to Cambodia 1992-2010 81 Figure 6.2: China and DAC aid disbursements to Cambodia 2004-2010 81 Table 6.3: Chinese aid projects in Cambodia 2002-2010 82 Figure 6.4: Map of Kamchay Dam, Cambodia 88 Figure 6.5: Kamchay hydropower dam - Entrance sign 91 vii List of acronyms ADB Asian Development Bank AsDF Asian Development Fund ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AusAID Australian Agency for International Development BOT Build Operate Transfer BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, China CBNRM-LI Community Based Natural Resource Management Learning Institute CCC Cooperation Committee for Cambodia CDC Council for the Development of Cambodia CDCF Cambodia Development Cooperation Forum CEPA Culture and Environment Preservation Society CIB Cambodia Investment Board CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIVETS Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey, South Africa CMDG Cambodian Millennium Development Goals COMECON Council for Mutual Economic Assistance CPP Cambodian People’s Party CRDB Cambodian Rehabilitation and Development Board DAC Development Assistance Committee DFID UK Department for International Development DK Democratic Kampuchea EIS Environmental Impact Statement EU European Union EXIM Export-Import Bank FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDI Foreign Direct Investment GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDCC Government Donor Coordination Committee GDP Gross Domestic Product GMS Greater Mekong Strategy GNI Gross National Income GRUNK Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea ICORC International Committee of Reconstruction of Cambodia IFI International
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