The Australian Wine Research Institute

No. 156 June 2005 Technical Review

Registered by Australia Post PP 531629/00034 In this issue

Technical Review No. 156 June 2005 AWRI notes ...... 1 The Australian Wine Research Institute Seminar Series Celebrating 50 Years 1955-2005 ...... 1 Report of the 28th World Congress of the Office Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria ...... 3

Technical notes ...... 10 Identification of a new cork taint compound ...... 10 Effect of yeast strain on wine colour—results from 2003 vintage Shiraz trial conducted on a pilot winery scale ...... 15 Where do I send my samples? ...... 51

Current literature ...... 23 AWRI publications ...... 63 Conference calendar ...... 68 People and Positions ...... 69 Technical Review Editor: Catherine Daniel

Copyright: Reprints and quotations of articles published herein are permitted on condition that full credit is given to both The Australian Wine Research Institute Technical Review and the author/s, and that the date of publication and issue number are stated.

Acknowledgment: The production and distribution of Technical Review is partially financed by The Thomas Walter Hardy Trust Fund.

Published by The Australian Wine Research Institute ACN 007 558 296 ABN 83 007 558 296 PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064 Phone: +61 8 8303 6600 or Fax: +61 8 8303 6601 E-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 0816-0805 AWRI notes The Australian Wine Research Institute Seminar Series Celebrating 50 Years 1955-2005

The Australian Wine Research Institute’s 50th anniversary seminars will be held in 16 regions around Australia, and each will comprise nine 20 minute presentations selected from the following topics:

• The Australian Wine Research Institute—overview • Analysis of grape and wine tannins • Application of mass spectrometry • Better wine for better health • Development of flavour-active yeast • The genetics of olfaction and taste • Grape and wine analysis: chemometrics • Nitrogen in grapes and wine • Oenococcus oeni and MLF 1 • Preventing protein haze in bottled white wine • Transfer of taint from natural cork closures • Trends in the composition of Australian wine • Wine flavour • Accessing information from the AWRI • The Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation

Dates and venues for the seminars are shown on the next page.

Limited seating: pre-registration is required (attendance is free-of-charge). Contact: Rae Blair ph: 08 8303 6838, email: [email protected]

This seminar series has been made possible with funding from the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation, an R&D partnership of industry and the Australian government.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Region Date Venue Adelaide Tuesday, 14 June Plant Research Centre, Waite Precinct, Urrbrae, SA Renmark Wednesday, 15 June Renmark Hotel, Murray Avenue, Renmark, SA Wodonga Tuesday, 28 June La Trobe University, Wodonga, Vic Bendigo Wednesday, 29 June Bendigo Regional Institute of TAFE, Bendigo, Vic Melbourne Thursday, 30 June Crown Towers, Southbank, Melbourne, Vic Griffith Monday, 8 August Gemini Hotel, Banna Avenue, Griffith, NSW Hobart Tuesday, 23 August Moorilla Estate, 655 Main Road, Berriedale, Tas Launceston Wednesday, 24 August Venue TBC 2 Hunter Valley Monday, 12 September Hunter Valley Gardens, Broke Road, Pokolbin, NSW Canberra Tuesday, 13 September Venue TBC Cowra Wednesday, 14 September Venue TBC Coonawarra Thursday, 11 October Chardonnay Lodge, Riddoch Hwy, Coonawarra, SA Margaret River Tuesday, 22 November Emerald Hotel, Wallcliffe Road, Margaret River, WA Mount Barker Wednesday, 23 November Goundrey Wines, Muirs Hwy, Mt Barker, WA Swan Valley Friday, 25 November Sandalford Caversham Estate, Swan Valley, WA Toowoomba Tuesday, 29 November Venue TBC

Rae Blair Manager—Communication and Information Services

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Report of the 28th World Congress of the Office Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV); 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria

Plenary session: Wine and Health The overall theme of the first OIV plenary session Wine and Health was Wine and health—a global topic?, which was further sectioned into New findings on the beneficial effect of moderate wine consumption on health, Avoidance and reduction of health impairment due to wine consumption and Possibilities of informing consumers about the beneficial effect of moderate wine consumption on health.

Ten oral presentations were made. My presentation entitled The importance of background diet and disease-state on the potential cardioprotective and other health effects of wine, was the second of the 10 presented. Twenty-four poster presentations were also displayed from delegates and experts representing 15 countries. Nine of the 10 oral presentations were research-related and added to the pre-existing evidence of a beneficial role for the wine-derived phenolic compounds in consumer health. 3 The presentations addressed potential mechanisms to explain the observed cardio-protection ensuing from regular moderate wine consumption, such as the haemostatic or blood clotting changes, in both ‘normal’ subjects and those with Metabolic Syndrome. They also addressed the mechanisms of the individual phenolic compounds. The majority of the posters, however, addressed the viticultural and winemaking issues associated with grape/wine-derived phenolic compounds, especially for resveratrol.

Indeed, people world-wide have become increasingly interested in the potential health benefits of wine consumption since Renaud and de Lorgeril publicly discussed the J-shaped relationship between wine consumption and risk of, and death from, cardiovascular disease in 1992.

The following is a brief synopsis of these presentations and further details are provided in the Congress Proceedings.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 1. Potential cardioprotective properties of wine

1.1 Antioxidation Antioxidation has been traditionally purported as the primary cardioprotective mechanism of the wine-derived phenolic compounds, but mechanisms such as anti-blood clotting (anti-thrombotic) and the restoration or reversal of endothelial function appear now to be the more important mechanisms. Indeed, a presentation by Drouet (Bal dit Sollier et al. 2004) discussed that in ApoE lipoprotein knockout mice (a strain of mouse genetically engineered to develop atherosclerosis spontaneously), 31-day administration of alcohol beverages supplemented with wine-derived phenolic compounds (at a concentration mimicking that commonly observed in red wine) did not prevent the development of atherosclerotic lesions compared to administration of alcohol per se, but did, however, reduce thrombotic reactivity whereas alcohol per se did not. Thus, this presentation adds to the emerging evidence that the primary cardioprotective mechanism(s) of regular and moderate consumption of red wine is not an antioxidation-induced prevention of atherosclerosis.

4 1.2 Endothelial function The endothelium overlies the developing atherosclerotic lesion and a dysfunctional endothelium is a risk factor for the initiation and development of atherosclerosis and hypertension. It is often observed before any anatomical signs of atherosclerosis appear, such as accumulation of foam cells and fat in the intima of blood vessels. Endothelial dysfunction might result from a decreased production of endothelial nitric oxide (NO) or an inactivation of NO by oxidative free radicals, which are generated by the metabolism of dietary fat, and hence might be induced by a high-fat diet. Plant-derived phenolic compounds have been observed to modify or reverse the endothelial dysfunction by, for example, restoring or increasing the production of NO or by protecting against its degradation by superoxide anions (an oxidative free radical). This, in turn, restores the ability of the endothelium to relax with concomitant dilation of the blood vessels. Supplementation of a high-fat diet with red wine has been observed to reverse or prevent endothelial dysfuction (Cuevas et al. 2000). Indeed, red grape juice, wine and dealcoholised red wine have been observed to relax vascular endothelial smooth muscle, by inducing the synthesis and release of NO from endothelial cells by inducing or up-regulating NO synthase gene expression (eNOS).

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 A presentation by Schini-Kerth et al. (2004) showed that in vitro studies of porcine coronary artery endothelial cells suggest that wine-derived phenolic compounds induce the NO-mediated relaxation of coronary arteries by causing a redox sensitive activation of the P13 kinase/Akt pathway and subsequent phosphorylation of endothelial NO synthase. Buxaderas (2004) presented that in vivo the increased production of NO by wine-derived phenolic compounds results from modification of the NO-cyclic guanosine-3',5'-monophospate (cyclic GMP) pathway and not by protecting against its degradation by superoxide anions.

1.3 Haemostatic effects A presentation by Van Velden (Mansvelt et al. 2004) added to the human clinical data demonstrating that the daily consumption of a moderate amount of red wine promotes anti-thrombotic effects even after six weeks. For example, in a six-week cross-over study of 20 subjects on a Mediterranean diet, a phase of which included moderate wine consumption, compared to baseline, the following haemostatic parameters influencing coagulation were modified: platelet aggregation increased as did platelet reactivity expressed as collagen lag time; and the plasma concentration of fibrinogen and factors 5 VII and VIII decreased. Factor VII is a vitamin K-dependent plasma clotting factor that complexes with a tissue factor to form a pro-coagulant enzyme which initiates clot formation, and factor VIII is a glycoprotein that acts as a cofactor in blood coagulation. The coagulation effects of wine consumption were generally additive to that of the diet.

1.4 Other effects The plasma concentration of particular wine-derived phenolic compounds during the post-absorptive phase (up to 2 µM) also does not support a direct antioxidant role of these wine-derived phenolic compounds in plasma. Hence, it has been advanced that the cardioprotective effects of the wine-derived phenolic compounds in preventing atherosclerosis might include those exerted on membrane receptors, signaling pathways, transcription factors and gene expression. The current challenge is to look for these effects exerted mainly at a submicromolar concentration, which is the biologically or physiologically relevant concentration. Attention has recently been focused on angiotensin II (AngII), which is the main peptide hormone in the rennin-angiotensin system. AngII exhibits both vasoconstrictory and pro-inflammatory properties and is thus considered as a potent pro-atherogenic agent. For example, in addition to regulating

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 blood pressure and circulating volume, AngII also induces the growth of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), that is, hypertrophy, by stimulating the G protein-coupled

angiotensin type 1 (AT1) receptor in VSMC, which activates the multiple protein kinase pathway leading to VSMC protein synthesis. On vascular injury, the hypertrophied VSMC migrate, which may result in a ruptured plaque and myocardial infarction. Thus an increased plasma concentration of AngII is considered to contribute to the development of diseases characterised by VSMC growth, such as hypertension, and atherosclerosis and restenosis after vascular injury. In vitro (test tube), several phenolic compounds appear to inhibit or suppress the AngII-induced growth of VSMC.

Léger et al. (2004) presented a paper showing that AngII increased the respiratory burst (a cell-mediated, pro-oxidant event) and the CD36 (an oxidized-LDL uptake-mediating receptor) mRNA expression in a model of macrophages (THP-1), both effects contributing to the formation of the atherosclerotic lesion. A sub-micromolar concentration of gallic acid and its metabolites was observed, however, to prevent both effects. They had previously shown that the AP-1 transcriptional activity was

6 significantly inhibited at a similar concentration in THP-1. The involvement of AP-1 in atherosclerosis-featuring processes is well known.

2. A role for moderate wine consumption in Metabolic Syndrome subjects, including diabetics Blood fat disturbance in combination with high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes often occur together in susceptible individuals, and is referred to as the ‘metabolic syndrome’. The blood fat disturbance relates to being overweight or obese (BMI greater than 30 kg/m2), especially in individuals who store their fat in the abdominal area. An excess of toxic free fatty acids in the blood stream might cause or contribute to the insulin resistance/sensitivity and impaired insulin function observed with this syndrome, which generally eventually develops into type 2 diabetes mellitus. These obese individuals are thus at increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 It is well known that the high daily consumption of fruits and vegetables, which typically contain a high concentration of phenolic compounds, is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (Grundy 1986, Block 1992, Block et al. 1992). Van Velden et al. (2004) demonstrated that an increased daily intake of fruits and vegetables also modifies risk factors for cardiovascular disease in subjects with Metabolic Syndrome. Interestingly, there was no further reduction in risk factors when red wine was added to the diet. That moderate red wine consumption, irrespective of diet, reduces risk factors for cardiovascular disease in subjects with Metabolic Syndrome was, however, the gist of a presentation by Leighton et al. (2004). Risk factors studied were the plasma concentration of triglyceride (fat) and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, as well as endothelial function and blood pressure. A J-shaped relationship has previously been observed between both the amount and frequency of alcohol consumption and the fasting plasma concentration of triglyceride (Dixon et al. 2002).

Moderate red wine consumption also reduces other risk factors for cardiovascular disease in insulin-resistant fructose-fed rats feeding—fructose produces the symptoms of Metabolic Syndrome in rats. Insulin resistance means that target tissues are more 7 resistant to the effects of insulin. Cardiovascular risk factors associated with insulin resistance include hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy (enlargement of the heart), an increased production of oxidative free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the heart, and an increased expression of the heart ROS-producing enzyme, NADPH oxidase. Al-Awwadi et al. (2004a) have previously shown that wine-derived phenolic compounds per se are able to prevent hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy and the production of ROS by the heart, but without significantly improving insulin resistance. In the research results presented by Teissedre (Al-Awwadi et al 2004b) it was shown that different classes of phenolic compounds, however, can have different effects on the cardiovascular risk factors associated with insulin resistance. For example, the consumption by the insulin resistant fructose-fed rats of a purified extract of anthocyanins (grape skin phenolic compounds) prevented hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, and the overproduction of ROS; a purified extract of procyanidins (grape seed phenolic compounds) prevented insulin resistance and the overproduction of ROS but had only minor effects on hypertension and hypertrophy; while an extract of total grape seed phenolic compounds prevented hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, and the overproduction of ROS.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 While this data supports the other observations that the moderate consumption of wine reduces risk factors for cardiovascular disease in both normal individuals and those with Metabolic Syndrome, it also implies that the consumption of a wine containing all classes of phenolic compounds might provide the best cardioprotection.

3. Pharmacokinetics of phenolic compounds To have any direct antioxidative or haemostatic effects, ingested phenolic compounds and/or their active metabolites have to be absorbed into the blood stream. There is, however, little data to date on the bioavailability of the different wine-derived phenolic compounds in animals and humans. It has been proposed that phenolic compounds that are present as soluble forms in wine, should be more bioavailable than those forms in fruits and vegetables that are present as polymeric, insoluble or tightly bound and compartmentalised forms (Soleas et al. 1997). For example, the flavanol, flavonol and hydroxycinnamic acid classes of phenolic compounds appear to be absorbed. A presentation by Mattivi et al. (2004) suggested that the anthocyanin class of phenolic compounds is also absorbed. Absorption of anthocyanins from the stomach was rapid

8 and distribution to tissues such as the liver, kidneys and brain (across the blood brain barrier) was also rapid—within 10 minutes. The data presented also suggested that the absorbed anthocyanins are relatively rapidly metabolised.

This presentation on the bioavailability of wine-derived anthocyanins indicates a need for further research on the pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution and metabolism) of anthocyanins and on the other classes of phenolic compounds to determine whether it is the metabolites and not the free forms observed in grapes and wine that have antioxidant and/or haemostatic cardioprotective effects.

Creina Stockley Health and Regulatory Information Manager

References

Al-Awwadi, N.; Bornet, A.; Azay, J.; Araiz, C.; Delbosc, S.; Cristol, J.P.; Linck, N.; Cros, G.; Teissedre P.L. Red wine polyphenols prevent blood pressure and cardiac hypertrophy in hypertensive rats. CII-VINSAN 03. 2004-5, IIéme session Groupe Vin et Santé, OIV; 24 March 2004.

Al-Awwadi, N.; Bornet, A.; Delbosc, S.; Cristol, J.P.; Auger, C.; Rouanet, J.M.; Cros, G.; Teissedre P.L. Skins and seeds grape polyphenolic extracts (anthocyanins, procyanidins and oligomers) reduce oxidative stress and NADPH oxidase activation in insulin-resistance-induced cardiac hypertrophy and cardiovascular complications in the fructose-fed rat. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0407; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Bal dit Sollier, C.; Soulat, T.; Philippe, C.; Berge, N.; Brezillon, C.; Rabot, S.; Drouet, L. Prevention of wine consumption on thrombosis but not on atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0406; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Buxaderas, S. Effect in the aorta of phenolic compounds and of the dealcolated wine. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0404; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Cuevas, A.M.; Guasch, V.; Castillo, O.; Irribarra, V.; Mizon, C.; San Martin, A.; Strobel, P.; Perez, D.; Germain, A.M.; Leighton, F. (2000) A high-fat diet induces and red wine counteracts endothelial dysfunction in human volunteers. Lipids 35(2):143-148.

Dixon, J.B.; Dixon, M.E.; O’Brien, P.E. (2002) Reduced plasma homocysteine in obese red wine consumers: a potential contributor to reduced cardiovascular risk status. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 56(7):608-614.

Léger, C.; Carbonneau, M.; Fouret, G.; Bizerra, V.; Cristol, J. Polyphenols in atherosclerosis: from the antioxidant properties to the cell-modulating functions. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0405; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Leighton F.; Serrano V.; Pérez D.; Strobel P.; Castillo O.; Soto M.; Martinez C.; Vasquez L.; Godoy I. Antioxidant status and oxidative stress in the metabolic syndrome, effect of moderate red wine consumption. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0408; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Mansvelt, E.P.G.; Van Velden, D.P.; Fourie, E.; Rossouw, M.H.; Wolmarans, P.; van Rensburg, S.J.; 9 Smuts, C.M.; Nel, D.G. Platelet and haemostatic changes after a Mediterranean-like diet complemented with red wine. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0409; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Mattivi, F.; Vrhovsek, U.; Vanzo, A.; Passamonti, S. Gastric absorption and distribution in liver, kidney and brain of grape anthocyanins. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0410; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Ndiaye, M.; Chataigneau, T.; Chataigneau, M.; Schini-Kerth, V. Red wine polyphenols induce endothelium-dependent relaxation of the porcine coronary artery: role of the P13-kinase/AKT pathway. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, oral presentation #0403; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

Soleas, G.J.; Tomlinson, G.; Diamandis, E.P.; Goldberg, D.M. (1997d) Relative contributions of polyphenolic constituents to the antioxidant status of wines: development of a predictive model. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45(10):3995-4003.

Van Velden, D.P.; Mansvelt, E.P.G.; Wolmarans, P.; Fouries, E.; Nel, D.G.; Marais, A.D.; Blackhurst, D.M. The influence of a Mediterranean-like diet with and without red wine on the criteria related to the Metabolic Syndrome. Proceedings of the 29th World congress of the vine and wine, poster presentation; 4-9 July 2004; Vienna, Austria.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Technical notes

Identification of a new cork taint compound

Cork taint continues to cause significant loss of quality in bottled wine. Consequently, most Australian wineries invest considerable time and money on quality assessments of corks, and only accept corks that meet the requirements of their quality control procedures. Duncan (1995) has given an account of the quality control procedures developed at Southcorp Wines for closures together with a listing of cork taints and their possible origin. TCA was considered to be the main cause of cork taint, a view consistent with that of most other authors.

One of the taints described by Duncan (1995) was referred to as ‘fungal must’. This character was considered to be distinct from the taint caused by TCA. The ability of the winery panelists to distinguish ‘fungal must’ from other forms of cork taint was confirmed by gas chromatography/odour (GC/O) assessments of extracts from corks 10 that had been assessed as affected by ‘fungal must’. These extracts invariably gave a discrete, intensely musty, odorous zone in the GC/aromagram that did not correspond to TCA or any other previously described compound associated with cork taint. However, no peak could be detected in this region of the chromatogram and, for more than ten years, the causative agent remained unknown.

In order to identify the compound responsible for ‘fungal must’ cork taint, it was necessary to prepare highly concentrated extracts of contaminated corks for analysis. Accordingly, steam distillation of 140 contaminated corks was chosen as the first step in the isolation and concentration process. This process reduced the quantity of silicone and paraffin components originating from the cork coatings in the final extracts. Pentane extracts of the steam distillate were then concentrated and analysed, and although several peaks could now be seen in the region of the chromatogram where the ‘fungal must’ aroma eluted, none corresponded to compounds that could be responsible for this aroma. The causative agent remained ‘hidden’ under these peaks in the chromatograms.

During this phase of our investigations we also identified, for the first time in cork, two spiroethers (Simpson et al. 2004). However, these compounds only displayed weak aromas at the concentration found in the extracts. Spiroethers have been identified in the bark of certain angiosperm trees and they are important in the insect communication

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 of several coniferophagous bark beetles. The bark beetles are able to distinguish between host and non-host trees by the presence of these compounds and the males of certain species of beetle synthesise these compounds, which are used to repel rival males.

Next, we trapped the ‘fungal must’ material, which eluted from the GC column, in water and determined its chemical properties, based on the effect on aroma. Mustiness was retained in the presence of potassium hydroxide, sodium borohydride and copper sulphate, but was lost on addition to phosphoric acid. These tests indicated that the compound was basic, and was not an aldehyde, ketone or thiol.

Knowing that the ‘fungal must’ compound was likely to be basic, the acid soluble components were isolated from a second steam distillation of 140 contaminated corks. This approach provided the means for removal of all the acidic and most of the neutral components, and gave considerable concentration of the ‘fungal must’ compound. This time, a new peak with a retention time corresponding to the ‘fungal must’ taint was obtained on the GC column. The peak contained only one component, with a mass spectrum that indicated that it was a dimethylmethoxypyrazine. 11

Mottram et al. (1984) had reported 2-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyrazine (MDMP) as an intensely musty-smelling bacterial metabolite some 20 years earlier. We, therefore, synthesised this compound and confirmed its identity as the cause of ‘fungal must’ taint (Simpson et al. 2004).

Sensory properties of 2-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyrazine (MDMP) Using a panel of 33 judges from the AWRI, a group aroma threshold of MDMP in a neutral white wine was determined to be 2.1 ng/L. The most common descriptors used by the judges were ‘dirty’, ‘dusty’, ‘musty’ and ‘mouldy’. A few assessors also described the higher concentrations as ‘chocolate’ or ‘coffee’. The group aroma threshold of MDMP compares closely with that of TCA, which has an aroma threshold in wine of 1–4 ng/L and is recognised as one of the most potent taint compounds affecting a wide range of foods and beverages. Among the panel, some judges appeared to be particularly sensitive to this compound and were able to detect it in the white wine at a concentration below 1 ng/L. Others were relatively insensitive to MDMP and could only detect it above 10 ng/L.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Analysis of MDMP in cork soaks and commercial wines Several corks from a batch assessed as having a high incidence of ‘fungal must’ were each separately soaked in 100 mL of white wine over 48 hours. Those wines that exhibited a musty taint were then analysed for MDMP using a deuterium-labelled analogue synthesised in our laboratory as an internal standard. MDMP was detected in all wine soaks which exhibited a ‘fungal must’ taint. The concentration ranged from 20–60 ng/L, well above the sensory detection threshold. As there was no MDMP in the wine prior to soaking, this showed that it had come from the corks. Subsequently, two bottles of commercial wine thought to be affected by cork taint were analysed, this time for both TCA and MDMP. One wine contained similar concentrations of MDMP and TCA (10 and 8 ng/L, respectively) while the other contained a higher concentration of MDMP (42 ng/L). This was likely to have masked any TCA, which was present at its threshold concentration of 2 ng/L.

Co-occurrence of MDMP with TCA in wine corks Among the types of cork taint described by Duncan (1995), the frequency of the sensory

12 detection of TCA alone by soaking trials of over 150 000 wine corks was 1.06%, while for FM (i.e. MDMP) alone the incidence was 0.82% (Simpson et al. 2005). The incidence of taint where both TCA and FM were recognisable in the same cork soak was 0.19%, corresponding to about 9% of the total TCA and FM taint (Simpson et al. 2005). Almost certainly, there would have been corks containing both TCA and MDMP but with one of the taints not recognised because of its lower concentration. Consequently, the proportion of corks containing instrumentally detectable quantities of both of these two compounds together was likely to have been higher. As indicated above, TCA and MDMP have been shown to co-occur in some bottled wines.

The co-occurrence of several other musty compounds in cork samples has also been described by Amon et al. (1989). Three or more of the taint compounds were detected together by GC/O assessment of the extracts of wines (57%) and associated corks (73%), although the contribution of the individual compounds to taint was uncertain. Active growth of mixed microflora occurring at particular sites on the corkwood, concentration of metabolites by movement of water or moisture, or storage of cork slabs on the ground and aerial contamination of the more exposed slabs might explain the tendency of taint compounds to occur together in the corks.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Origin of MDMP The first report of MDMP, by Mottram et al (1984), described this compound as being responsible for an obnoxious ‘musty, foul drains, or sour dishcloths’ odour present in certain machine cutting emulsions used in engineering workshops. They isolated an aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium which, when grown, gave MDMP as the only major component of the volatile fraction isolated from the culture broth. Mottram et al. (1984) were not, however, able to characterise the organism with known bacterial species. Certain bacteria (Pseudomonas spp.) are known to produce pyrazine off-odours and a mould (Aspergillus flavus) produces compounds in the same chemical class.

MDMP, together with 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, has also been identified in coffee (Czerny and Grosch 2000), where it was described as having an ‘earthy’ aroma. It was shown to be important to the aroma of both raw and roasted coffee and to possess an intense odour; its odour threshold in water was determined as 0.4 ng/L. These authors also suggested that the two methoxypyrazines they detected in raw coffee had a bacterial origin.

13 However, the origin of MDMP might not necessarily be bacterial. It has been recognised for many years that certain aroma-intense microbial metabolites occurring in foods and beverages can be produced by different types of microflora. For example, geosmin can be produced by Actinomycetes (bacteria) (Gerber and Lechevalier 1965), cyanobacteria (Safferman et al. 1967) and a number of Penicillium spp. (moulds) (Larsen and Frisvad 1995). Davis et al. (1981) isolated the microflora from wine corks imported into Australia and showed that numerous moulds, bacteria and yeast were present on the corks but the metabolites produced by these microorganisms were not investigated.

Mottram et al. (1984) concluded that MDMP was likely to be a relatively common cause of off-odour in the environment. However, there has been no further report of MDMP as a cause of off-odour in the published literature since then, and only the one report of its occurrence in a food product (Czerny and Grosch 2000). Perhaps this is because of the difficulty in analysing for this compound and the exceedingly low concentration at which it can cause an off-odour. Now that we have developed improved techniques to synthesise and analyse MDMP, this might lead to more reports of this compound being a cause of off-odour in the environment.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Importance of MDMP as a cause of cork taint There is little doubt that TCA remains the most important cause of cork taint in wines. The importance of MDMP is less clear, although the data of Southcorp Wines indicates that it might make a significant contribution to cork taint. Solubility considerations suggest that the impact of MDMP to the aroma of cork soaks, compared to that of TCA, is likely to be exaggerated by the conditions of the soaking trials. However, as indicated above, the detection of MDMP in bottled wine by sensory means might not be obvious if it co-occurs with TCA. Only by instrumental analysis of a large number of commercial wines will the importance of MDMP to cork taint become clearer.

References

Amon, J.M.; Vandepeer, J.M.; Simpson, R.F. (1989) Compounds responsible for cork taint in wine. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind. J. 4(1): 62-69 (AWRI publication #337)

Czerny. M.; Grosch, W. (2000) Potent odorants of raw Arabica coffee. Their changes during roasting. J. Agric. Food Chem. 48: 868-872.

Davis, C. R.; Fleet, G. H.; Lee, T. H. (1981) The microflora of wine corks. Aust. Grapegrower Winemaker 14 208; 42, 44.

Duncan, B. Closure quality control at Southcorp Wines. (1995) Proceedings ASVO Oenology Seminar Corks and Closures, Leske, P.A.; Eglington, J.M., eds. Adelaide, SA: Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology; 29-30.

Gerber, N. N.; Lechevalier, H. A. (1965) Geosmin, an earthy-smelling substance isolated from Actinomycetes. Appl. Microbiol. 13; 935-938.

Larsen, T. O.; Frisvad, J. C. (1995) Characterization of volatile metabolites from 47 Penicillium taxa. Mycol. Res. 99; 1153-1166.

Mottram, D.S.; Patterson, R.L.S.; Warrilow, E. (1984) 2,6-Dimethyl-3-methoxypyrazine: a microbiologically-produced compound with an obnoxious musty odour. Chem. Ind. 448-449.

Safferman, R. S.; Rosen, A. A.; Mashni, C. I.; Morris, M. E. (1967) Earthy-smelling substance from a blue-green alga. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1; 429-430.

Simpson, R.F.; Capone, D.L.; Sefton, M.A. (2004) Isolation and identification of 2-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, a potent musty compound from wine corks. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52: 5425-5430 (AWRI publication #789).

Simpson, R.F.; Capone, D.L.; Duncan, B.C.; Sefton, M.A. Incidence and nature of ‘fungal must’ taint in wine corks. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind J. 20(1): 26–31; 2005 (AWRI publication #826).

Bob Simpson Dimi Capone Mark Sefton Chemist Principal Research Chemist

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Effect of yeast strain on wine colour—results from 2003 vintage Shiraz trial conducted on a pilot winery scale

Introduction The key element to red winemaking resides with the quality of fruit, and there is a close link between wine colour and wine quality (AWRI publication #127; AWRI publication #703). The colour of young red wine is largely determined by its phenolic composition, particularly the red coloured monomeric anthocyanins, which are extracted from the grapes into the wine during maceration and fermentation on skins. Several factors influence the colour properties of the anthocyanins, especially wine

pH and sulfur dioxide (SO2) content. Changes in pH affect the red/purple colour balance, and at lower pH, higher concentrations of the red coloured forms of anthocyanins are

present, whilst free SO2 results in bleaching of anthocyanins (Mazza, 1995). During fermentation and as the wine ages, the anthocyanins form more stable pigments by reactions with fermentation metabolites, and by combining with each other and with other phenolic compounds. Thus, only a small proportion of monomeric anthocyanins that have been extracted from skins during fermentation can be detected 15 in aged red wines, even though the colour intensity is little changed (AWRI publication #151; AWRI publication #686). There are two types of anthocyanin-derived pigments that are important for wine colour: polymeric pigments, which are a heterogenous group of macromolecules formed by the condensation of anthocyanins with other grape-derived polyphenols, such as tannins; and pyranoanthocyanins and vitisins, which are anthocyanins that have combined with vinylphenols or carbonyls, such as acetaldehyde (AWRI publication #40; Fulcrand et al., 1998; AWRI publication #678;

AWRI publication #725). Both types of wine pigments are less affected by pH and SO2 than the monomeric anthocyanins.

The phenolic components, anthocyanins and tannins, that contribute to red wine colour are predominantly located in the skin of the grapes. The liberation of these phenolic components is initiated during crushing and is further assisted by the physical and chemical processes that occur during fermentation. The alcohol formed during fermentation and several yeast-derived metabolites, including acetaldehyde and pyruvic acid, also interact with anthocyanins and tannins to form more complex coloured components, such as pyranoanthocyanins and pigmented polymers (Romero and Bakker, 1999). Thus, red wine colour is influenced not only by grape variety, viticultural management practices and geographical growing location, but also by the yeast and fermentation parameters, such as temperature, pH, cap-skin-wine contact management and duration of fermentation.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 The interaction of yeast with pigmented phenolic compounds, and hence the impact on wine colour, is not well understood. Current research suggests several mechanisms, including adsorption of pigments to the yeast cell, reaction with yeast metabolites and enzymatic modifications. Recent work with Saccharomyces bayanus (AWRI 1375 and AWRI 1176), undertaken at the AWRI, has shown that yeast can markedly affect the colour of young red wine and this effect persists with ageing (AWRI publication #758; AWRI publication #782). However, little is known about the ability of commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains to influence wine colour. The AWRI Wine Microbiology Team has undertaken a collaborative project with Lallemand to investigate this topic. A laboratory microscale (1 kg must) method, that had been developed to facilitate the rapid screening of commercial yeast for red winemaking properties, was evaluated by comparing the colour and chemical composition of (Cabernet Sauvignon) wines made on a pilot scale (750 kg) in the University of Adelaide Hickinbotham Roseworthy Wine Science Laboratory. Three yeast strains were then selected from a group of 17 commercial Lallemand Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine yeast using the microscale method with Shiraz must. Winemaking properties of these three yeast strains 16 were then evaluated on a pilot scale using Shiraz grapes, obtained from the Hardy Wine Company’s Banrock Station vineyard, in 2003. The concentrations of phenolics were measured in the wines and sensory properties determined by methods developed by the AWRI Tannin and Sensory Teams.

Development and evaluation of a microscale fermentation methodology for screening red winemaking properties of yeast strains Based on the method developed by Dr Patrick Iland, we have developed a microscale fermentation system that typically uses one kg of grape berries. The microscale fermentation method is robust. There is little variation between replicates for the typical fermentation parameters, wine colour and phenolics composition. The method also facilitates a more convenient and rapid way to screen numerous commercial wine yeast strains in red grape musts. Furthermore, under appropriate conditions this microscale fermentation system produces wines with colour properties and phenolic content comparable to those produced in rotary fermentors on a pilot scale in the Hickinbotham Roseworthy Wine Science Laboratory (Figure 1). A Cabernet Sauvignon must, prepared from grapes harvested from Orlando’s Padthaway vineyard, was used in conjunction with Lalvin EC1118. The Cabernet Sauvignon wine colour density was comparable between the 1-kg and 750-kg ferments (average 17.6 absorbance units [AU] in the 1-kg ferments compared to 17.0 AU in the 750-kg ferments). Congruent with the wine colour, the total anthocyanin concentration and data for total phenolics of both wines were remarkably similar given the very large difference in scale.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Figure 1. Comparison of colour and phenolics profile of Cabernet Sauvignon (Padthaway, 2002) wines, at four weeks post alcoholic fermentation, prepared either on microscale (1 kg) or pilot scale (750 kg) using Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain Lalvin EC1118 to induce alcoholic fermentation. Colour density, total anthocyanins and total phenolics were determined spectrophotometrically (AWRI publication #51; Iland et al., 2000).

Seventeen commercial S. cerevisiae strains from Lallemand were screened for their effect on the colour of young Shiraz wine (Figure 2) (AWRI publication #804). There was a wide range of colour density (6.8-11.0 AU) in the four week old Shiraz wines which varied by up to 38%. On the basis of wine colour density, the 17 yeast 17 strains could be divided into three statistically distinct groups, easily distinguishable by eye, and which appear to be consistent with industry observations. Those wines with the highest wine colour density generally had the lowest wine hue. Thus, brownness was not a contributing factor to the high depth of colour. The phenolic content of the wines, including malvidin-3-glucoside (the major anthocyanin in grapes), pigmented polymers and tannins, reflected the depth of wine colour. Those wines with higher colour density also exhibited higher malvidin-3-glucoside and pigmented polymer concentration. Based on these data, three yeast strains were selected to trial on pilot scale: one strain each, from the lowest (Lalvin 71B), middle (Lalvin EC1118) and highest (Lalvin BM45) colour property groups. The aim of this project was to confirm the effect of yeast strain, selected by evaluation of young red wine made by 1 kg microscale trial, on the chemical, phenolic, sensory and ageing properties of wine prepared on pilot scale (750 kg).

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Figure 2. Wine colour density, at four to six weeks post alcoholic fermentation, of wines prepared with Shiraz fruit (Clare Valley, 2000) and 17 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains on microscale (1kg of fruit). The three yeast strains selected for the pilot scale trial are highlighted.

18 2003 Vintage trial—pilot scale (750 kg) winemaking Shiraz grapes, sourced during the 2003 vintage (Riverland) and harvested at ~ 22ºBrix, were crushed and distributed into six 750 kg capacity rotary fermentors and inoculated with the three yeast strains to produce duplicate yeast treatments. Twelve x 400 kg picking bins were randomised in order to minimise heterogeneity of the six musts. Alcoholic fermentation proceeded uniformly, with all three yeast strains achieving residual sugar concentrations of < 0.3 g/L within 8–9 days. All wines had a similar alcohol content, with a mean of 12.17%. Following alcoholic fermentation, the wines were inoculated with Lalvin EQ54 for malolactic fermentation (MLF) which completed within 40 days. These wines were stabilised, bottled with ROTE closures and cellared for approximately eight months at which time chemical and sensory analyses were undertaken.

At the completion of alcoholic fermentation, and again after eight months storage, the colour and phenolics composition of the wines were determined (Figure 3). The colour density of the wines, after the fermentation and ageing, were significantly different between the ‘low’-colour and ‘high’-colour yeast treatments. This corroborated our earlier findings with the microscale methodology trials (AWRI publication #804). During ageing, the colour density of the eight month old wines made with the ‘high’-colour yeast increased while the colour of the wines made with the ‘low’-colour and ‘medium’-colour yeast decreased (Figure 3). In young wines (10 days post alcoholic

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 fermentation), both the monomeric pigments and pigmented polymers were highest for the ‘high’-colour yeast strain and lowest for the ‘low’-colour yeast strain. In the bottle aged wines (eight months post alcoholic fermentation) the monomeric pigments had decreased, whereas the pigmented polymers had increased and remained highest for the ‘high’-colour yeast strain. This confirms the importance of pigmented polymers to colour density in aged wine.

Figure 3. Colour and phenolic composition of Shiraz must and wines determined immediately and at eight months after the completion of alcoholic fermentation. Three Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains with different 19 ‘colour’ properties (‘low’ – white; ‘medium’ – grey; ‘high’ – black) were used for vinification. ND – not determined

A sensory analysis of these wines was undertaken at eight months post alcoholic fermentation. Difference testing (triangle test) of the three sets of wines showed significant differences between each treatment. Descriptive analysis of the wines was undertaken using a trained panel. Ten sensory attributes were rated as significantly different between the three yeast strains (Figure 4). The wine prepared with the ‘high’ colour yeast showed a relatively high visual ‘colour intensity’ and ‘purple hue’, overall higher intensity of a number of aroma attributes (‘red berries’, ‘caramel’, ‘spice’, ‘mint’), exhibited more ‘fruit flavour intensity’ and ‘persistence’ and had reduced ‘bitterness’, compared to the other two strains (Figure 4). The sensory appearance results were congruent with the spectral wine colour density data (Figure 3).

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Figure 4. Mean ratings of sensory attributes of Shiraz wines determined at eight months post alcoholic fermentation. Three Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains with different ‘colour’ properties (‘low’ – dotted line; 20 ‘medium’ – dashed line; ‘high’ – solid line) were used for vinification.

Summary The results to date show that yeast characterised by a laboratory microscale vinification methodology can affect the colour properties of wine made on a larger scale in a generally similar way. Differences in colour density of wines made with ‘low’ and ‘high’ colour yeasts, which had been subjected to MLF and then stored in bottle, were still highly evident at eight months after fermentation. Analysis of the concentration of wine phenolics, the pigmented polymers and polymeric phenols, suggests a chemical basis for their colour properties as a result of the yeast treatment. Further investigation could provide an understanding of the mechanism by which some yeast strains can enhance wine colour. Several flavour and mouth-feel attributes were also modified by yeast strain showing that the interaction of yeast with red grape-derived components can change other sensory attributes of wine in addition to colour properties. The microscale method should find application, not only for yeast evaluation, but for investigating fermentation treatments as an expeditious means for optimising red winemaking and wine flavour properties.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Yeast strains that enhance the content of anthocyanins and other desirable phenolic compounds and favourable colour reactions during alcoholic fermentation might be useful for improving the colour and flavour of red wine, especially those made from musts with low phenolic content. An understanding of the mechanism(s) involved in the interaction between yeast and phenolics might also facilitate the development of an improved red wine yeast.

Acknowledgments This collaborative research project was co-funded by Lallemand and the GWRDC, and Lallemand is thanked for supporting the Technical Assistant position. The success of this project was made possible by the cooperation between the AWRI Research Teams, Biosciences, Flavour Chemistry, Sensory and Tannin, and the Hickinbotham Roseworthy Wine Science Laboratory (Stephen Clarke and Chris Day). The authors are appreciative of the support shown for this project by the previous Director of the AWRI, Professor Peter Høj, and for the generous supply of Shiraz grapes by the Hardy Wine Company, and Ben Vagnarelli and his staff for coordinating the specific machine harvesting requirements for pilot scale winemaking. 21

Eveline Bartowsky Simon Dillon Paul Henschke Research Microbiologist Research Assistant Principal Research Presently, Microbiologist Microbiologist The Yalumba Wine Company

References

Bartowsky, E.J.; Dillon, S.J.; Ortiz-Julien, A.; Dumont, A.; Markides, A,J.; Høj, P.B.; Herderich, M.; Pretorius, I.S.; Henschke, P.A. (2004) The potential of Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine yeast to improve red wine colour. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 490: 83–85 (AWRI publication #804).

Eglinton, J.; Henschke, P.; Høj, P.; Pretorius, I. (2003) Winemaking properties and potential of Saccharomyces bayanus wine yeast—harnessing the untapped potential of yeast biodiversity. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind. J. 18(6): 16–19 (AWRI publication #758).

Eglinton, J.; Griesser, M.; Henschke, P.A.; Kwiatkowski, M.J.; Parker, M.; Herderich, M. (2004) Yeast-mediated formation of pigmented polymers in red wine. Waterhouse; A.L.; Kennedy, J.A. (eds.) Red wine color: Revealing the mysteries. ACS Symposium Series 886: Oxford University Press: 7–21 (AWRI publication #782).

Fulcrand, H.; Benabdeljalil, C.; Rigaud, J.; Cheynier, V.; Moutounet, M. (1998) A new class of wine pigments generated by reaction between pyruvic acid and grape anthocyanins. Phytochemistry 47: 1401–1407.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Gishen, M.; Iland, P.G.; Dambergs, R.G.; Esler, M.B.; Francis, I.L.; Kambouris, A.; Johnstone, R.S.; Høj, P.B. (2002) Objective measures of grape and wine quality. Blair, R.J.; Williams, P.; Høj, P.B. Proceedings of the eleventh Australian wine industry technical conference; 7–11 October 2001; Adelaide, SA: 188–194 (AWRI publication #703).

Håkansson, A.E.; Pardon, K.; Hayasaka, Y.; de Sa, M.; Herderich, M. (2003) Structures and colour properties of new red wine pigments. Tetrahedron Lett. 44: 4887–4891 (AWRI publication #725).

Hayasaka, Y.; Asenstorfer, R.E. (2002) Screening for potential pigments derived from anthocyanins in red wine using nanoelectrospray tandem mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50: 756–761 (AWRI publication $#678).

Iland, P.; Ewart, A.; Sitters, J.; Markides, A.; Bruer, N. (2000) Techniques for chemical analysis and quality monitoring during winemaking. Patrick Iland Wine Promotions, Adelaide, Australia.

Mazza, G. (1995) Anthocyanins in grapes and grape products. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutrit. 35: 341–371.

Peng, Z.K.; Iland, P.G.; Oberholster, A.; Sefton, M.A.; Waters, E.J. (2002) Analysis of pigmented polymers in red wine by reverse phase HPLC. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 8: 70–75 (AWRI publication #686).

Romero, C.; Bakker, J. (1999) Interactions between grape anthocyanins and pyruvic acid, with effect of pH and acid concentration on anthocyanin composition and color in model systems. J. Agric. Food Chem. 22 47: 3130–3139.

Somers, T.C. (1966) Wine tannins—isolation of condensed flavonoid pigments by gel- filtration Nature 209: 368-370 (AWRI publication #40).

Somers, T.C.; Evans, M.E. (1974) Wine quality: correlations with colour density and anthocyanin equilibria in a group of young red wines. J. Sci. Food Agric. 25: 1369-1379 AWRI publication #127).

Somers, T.C.; Evans, M.E. (1977) Spectral evaluation of young red wines: anthocyanin equilibria, total phenolics,

free and molecular SO2, chemical age. J. Sci. Food Agric. 28: 279-287 AWRI publication #151).

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Current literature 23

Copies of all articles listed in this section are available for private study on request from the Institute. Please use the request form provided in the centre pages of this issue. Currently a service charge of $A7.00 per request is applicable, plus a supply charge of 10¢ per page, plus postage will apply (inclusive of GST).

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Viticulture

General

156.01 Contribution of dimethyl sulfide to the aroma of Syrah and Grenache Noir wines and estimation of its potential in grapes of these varieties. Segurel, M.A.; Razungles, A.J.; Riou, C.; Salles, M.; Baumes, R.L. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52: 7084–7093; 2004.

The contribution of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) to the aroma of Syrah and Grenache Noir wines from the Rhone Valley of France was investigated by sensory analysis, and its levels in these wines were measured. The potential DMS in the corresponding grapes and wines, susceptible to release during wine aging, was evaluated. Free DMS and potential DMS assessed by a heat–alkaline treatment were measured in grape juices and wines by SPME-GC-MS using methods previously reported and slightly modified. A relationship between potential DMS from grapes and the total DMS levels in wine was demonstrated. Furthermore, a linear regression between the ratio of free DMS 24 levels to these total DMS levels in wine and time of storage was found. Free and potential DMS levels in grapes and wines depended on grape variety, vintage, and vine location. DMS imparted a noticeable and complex contribution to the aroma of the wines investigated, depending on the mode of sensory perception used, either before or after glass swirling. It significantly enhanced the fruity notes of the wines, and additional truffle and black olive notes.

© Reprinted with permission from Contribution of dimethyl sulfide to the aroma of Syrah and Grenache Noir wines and estimation of its potential in grapes of these varieties. Segurel, M.A.; Razungles, A.J.; Riou, C.; Salles, M.; Baumes, R.L. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52: 7084–7093; 2004. Copyright 2004 American Chemical Society.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 156.02 Effect of organic farming practices on the level of latent polyphenol oxidase in grapes. Núñez-Delicado, E.; Sánchez-Ferrer, A.; García-Carmona, F.F.; López-Nicolás, J.M. J. Food Sci. 70: C74–C78; 2005.

The levels of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) in organic as compared with conventional Monastrell grapes were examined in this study. The enzyme was partially purified using the Triton X-114 method, and in both cases it was obtained in a latent state, being activated by different methods (acid shocking, detergents, and proteases). PPO purified from both organic and conventional Monastrell grapes had the same isoenzymatic form, appearing as the same single band in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. However, diphenolase activity of activated PPO in organic grapes was 2 times higher than in conventional grapes, independent of the activation method used. Moreover, the proteolytic activation method, using trypsin, was the most effective for this latent PPO.

© Reproduced with permission from Effect of organic farming practices on the level of latent polyphenol oxidase in grapes. Núñez-Delicado, E.; Sánchez-Ferrer, A.; García-Carmona, F.F.; López-Nicolás, J.M. 25 J. Food Sci. 70: C74–C78; 2005. Copyright 2005 Institute of Food Technologists.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Vine propagation and improvement

156.03 Traditional and innovative grapevine breeding. Regner, F.; Hack, R.; Eisenheld, C. Bull. OIV 77: 811–819; 2005.

The national list of classified grapevine cultivars contains new hybrid grape varieties in addition to traditional varieties. Most cultivars are specific and autochtonous[sic] in Central Europe. Genetic improvement activities were numerous in the past and contributed to the huge spectrum of different grapevines. Results of the national breeding activities range from the rootstock Kober 5BB to the main red wine varieties Zweigelt and Blauburger. The increase of Zweigelt vineyards indicate that growers prefer the advantages of cultivars over names and labels. Recently released cultivars Roesler and Ráthay will become important tools for modern viticulture. The advantage with regards to grape production is based on their behaviour to organic production modes. Selecting grapevine genotypes varies according to climate, soil and vinification. Genetic improvement is thus always influenced by local factors. Beside new hybrid varieties, old and minor cultivars, also true genetic resource vines will be evaluated for 26 their agronomical traits and wine quality. Future genetic improvement activities are mainly driven by the improvement of product quality. Genetic markers have become a very efficient breeding tool enabling the identification of unknown cultivars, hybridization and assisted selection with markers.

© Reproduced with permission from Traditional and innovative grapevine breeding. Regner, F.; Hack, R.; Eisenheld, C. Bull. OIV 77: 811–819; 2005. Copyright 2005 Office International de la Vigne et du Vin.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 153.04 The prospection, conservation and evaluation of vine clones in France. Lacombe, T.; Boursiquot, J.M.; Audeguin, L. Bull. OIV 77 799–809; 2005.

(French) In France, the scientific bases as well as the methodology and techniques used for clonal selection were developed by the INRA from the beginning of the 1950’s onwards. The ENTAV was created in 1962 to implement these selection programs and to conserve and produce the selected material. After the first 20 years spent in obtaining the “first generation” of approved clones, preserving and promoting natural genetic diversity became a priority towards the end of the 1980s.

In France, there are 233 varieties of vine clones in the official catalogue and form part of the concerns of the ENTAV and the INRA. Indeed, 60 of them are cultivated to a significant degree (> 1000 ha) and help the economic development of the vitivinicultural industry, while 70 varieties do not yet have an approved clone and about one hundred do not yet have a conservatory. 27 This presentation discusses the development in prospective work and evaluates the conservatories established to date (the types and varieties involved). The role of the INRA and the ENTAV in heading the national network of curators is detailed in order to explain the operation of the system and to underline the wealth of the French heritage. The network is based on local technical institutions that help collect, preserve and evaluate the clones in line with a national protocol.

Similarly, since 1998, the evaluation of clones in order to approve them or specify their aptitudes after approval, must be carried out according to a protocol approved by the CTPS (Permanent Technical Selection Committee), which specifies the methods to be used from follow-up through to tasting.

To promote the know-how acquired during the work carried out over the last 40 years, the ENTAV-INRA® trademark was created in 1995. Approved clones are now distributed under this trademark and the resulting income is used to fund new clone conservation and selection programs.

© Reproduced with permission from The prospection, conservation and evaluation of vine clones in France. Lacombe, T.; Boursiquot, J.M.; Audeguin, L. Bull. OIV 77 799–809; 2005. Copyright 2005 Office International de la Vigne et du Vin.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 153.05 Somatic embryogenesis of Vitis vinifera L. (cv. Sugraone) from stigma and style culture. Morgana, C.; Di Lorenzo, R.; Carimi, F. Vitis 43: 169–173; 2004.

Somatic embryo and plant regeneration were induced from [a] stigma and style culture of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Sugraone). To obtain somatic embryogenesis, explants were cultured on Nitsch and Nitsch basal medium (NN) supplemented with 88 mM sucrose and various combinations of the auxin β-naphthoxyacetic acid (NOA, 0–10 µM) and the cytokinin 6-benzylaminopurine (BA, 0–9 µM). Growth regulators (BA and NOA) in the culture medium were essential for induction of somatic embryogenesis since explants incubated on hormone-free medium never regenerated somatic embryos. Usually, the regenerated somatic embryos become visible as small white globular structures on the surface of the callus 3–4 months after culture initiation. The best embryogenic response (27%) was obtained when stigma and style explants were cultured on NN medium supplemented with 5 µM NOA and 9 µM BA. Somatic embryos developed into plantlets when transferred to a hormone-free semisolid

28 NN medium. 35% of primary somatic embryos showed secondary embryogenesis.

© Reproduced with permission from Somatic embryogenesis of Vitis vinifera L. (cv. Sugraone) from stigma and style culture. Morgana, C.; Di Lorenzo, R.; Carimi, F. Vitis 43: 169–173; 2004. Copyright 2004 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

156.06 Large-scale production of somatic embryos as a source of hypocotyl explants for Vitis vinifera micrografting. Torres-Viñals, M.; Sabaté-Casaseca, S.; Aktouche, N.; Grenan, S.; Lopez, G.; Porta-Falguera, M.; Torregrosa, L. Vitis 43: 163–168; 2004.

To the standard methods currently used to make grapevine virus-free, apex micrografting on hypocotyls of somatic embryos is proposed as an alternative procedure. The study defines optimal conditions to produce hypocotyl fragments suitable for micrografting. Interruption of the process by storage of tissues or embryos at low temperature (+ 4°C) was assessed at different stages and for durations up to 6 months. Best procedure to produce somatic embryos were: long-term maintenance of embryogenic cultures on C1 medium (5 µM 2.4-D + 1 µM BAP, solidified with 4 g•l-1 agar and 4 g•l-1 Phytagel); differentiation of embryogenic callus for 2 months on C2 medium (5 µM NOA + 1 µM

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 BAP, gelling agents same as above); transfer of single embryos on plant growth regulator-free medium for 2–3 weeks for germination. At different steps of the process, embryogenic tissues or differentiated embryos can be stored for up to 180 d for some cultivars. Micrografting assays were performed with various types of embryo and with apices from several V. vinifera cultivars. White to slightly coloured hypocotyls, excised from embryos germinated in darkness, gave best results for micrografting, while hypocotyl shape had little influence. For all genotypes tested the success rate ranged from 18 to 30%.

© Reproduced with permission from Large-scale production of somatic embryos as a source of hypocotyl explants for Vitis vinifera micrografting. Torres-Viñals, M.; Sabaté-Casaseca, S.; Aktouche, N.; Grenan, S.; Lopez, G.; Porta-Falguera, M.; Torregrosa, L. Vitis 43: 163–168; 2004. Copyright 2004 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

29

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Pests and diseases

156.07 A rapid method of screening grapevine cultivars for susceptibility to eutypa dieback. Sosnowski, M.; Lardner, R.; Wicks, T.; Scott, E. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker (493): 14–16; 2005.

Eutypa dieback is caused by Eutypa lata and is a major grapevine disease that occurs worldwide. This article outlines results to date on a bioassay that induces foliar symptoms of the disease within eight months of inoculation with E. lata. The aim is to develop a diagnostic tool to facilitate early detection of Eutypa dieback. (SJB)

© Reproduced with permission from A rapid method of screening grapevine cultivars for susceptibility to eutypa dieback. Sosnowski, M.; Lardner, R.; Wicks, T.; Scott, E. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker (493): 14–16; 2005. Copyright 2005 Ryan Publications.

156.08 Influence of the fungus control strategy in the vineyard on the presence of Ochratoxin A in the wine. Mínguez, S.; Cantus, J.M.; Pons, A.; 30 Margot, P.; Cabanes, F.X.; Masque, C.; Accensi, F.; Elorduy, X.; Giralt, L.L.; Vilavella, M.; Rico, S.; Domingo, C.; Blasco, M.; Capdevila, J. Bull. OIV 77: 821–831; 2004.

For two years, different plant protection strategies have been studied to know the influence of them on the levels of Aspergillus fungi and in the consequent contamination of Ochratoxin A (OTA) in the wine[sic].

The different factors have been studied: with and without fungicides applications, different types of plant protection products, with different numbers of applications and in different timing, studying the effects of the complementary protection against grape berry moth[sic].

The results shown different levels of the presence of OTA and we can draw conclusions about the prevention and drastic reduction of the OTA levels in the wines[sic].

It has been controlled the presence of attacks of Aspergillus and Botrytis fungi in the different treatments and studied the contamination by OTA in the conventional vinifications[sic].

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Also it has been studied the degree of correlation between different parameters that are characteristic of harvest or are classical tracers of the health of this one as well as the presence of Ochratoxin A in musts and wines[sic].

© Reproduced with permission from Influence of the fungus control strategy in the vineyard on the presence of Ochratoxin A in the wine. Mínguez, S.; Cantus, J.M.; Pons, A.; Margot, P.; Cabanes, F.X.; Masque, C.; Accensi, F.; Elorduy, X.; Giralt, L.L.; Vilavella, M.; Rico, S.; Domingo, C.; Blasco, M.; Capdevila, J. Bull. OIV 77: 821–831; 2004. Copyright 2004 Office International de la Vigne et du Vin.

156.09 Presence of stolbur phytoplasma in Cixiidae in Hungarian vineyards. Palermo, S.; Elekes, M.; Botti, S.; Ember, I.; Alma, A.; Orosz, A.; Bertaccini, A.; Kölber, M. Vitis 43: 201–203; 2004.

Bois Noir (16SrXII-A) phytoplasmas were identified in three viticultural areas of Hungary in 18% of Hyalesthes obsoletus, and in an asymptomatic nettle sample. The cixiid Reptalus panzeri was found to be infected with 16SrXII-A and with 16SrIII (X-disease) phytoplasmas. The latter pathogen was also detected in symptomatic wild Cirsium spp. and Convolvolus collected inside Bois Noir-infected and R. panzeri-infested vineyards. 31

© Reproduced with permission from Presence of stolbur phytoplasma in Cixiidae in Hungarian vineyards. Palermo, S.; Elekes, M.; Botti, S.; Ember, I.; Alma, A.; Orosz, A.; Bertaccini, A.; Kölber, M. Vitis 43: 201–203; 2004. Copyright 2004 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

156.10 Molecular characterisation of grapevine yellows associated phytoplasmas of the stolbur-group based on RFLP-analysis of non-ribosomal DNA. Langer, M.; Maixner, M. Vitis 43: 191–199; 2004.

Grapevines, alternative host plants, and vectors from different viticultural areas of Germany were surveyed for the presence of stolbur-group phytoplasmas that are associated with grapevine yellows. Isolates from these field samples and periwinkle isolates of stolbur were characterised by RFLP-analysis of non-ribosomal DNA fragments using a combination of 6 polymorphic primer-enzyme combinations. Three of the 5 different restriction profiles that could be distinguished were found in grapevine and other field samples of plants and insects. A previously unknown isolate was detected in grapevine, vectors and the newly identified herbaceous host Calystegia sepium. The further analysis of the phylogenetic relationship between the 5 RFLP groups revealed a close relationship between two of the isolates associated with grapevine yellows which were also found in the two Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis and Calystegia sepium. The third isolate which was detected in grapevine and

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 stinging nettle Urtica dioica is more closely related to a periwinkle isolate obtained from Lavandula officinalis than to the other two grapevine yellows isolates. Based on the data of the field survey a specific association of the three isolates to different alternative host plants is discussed.

© Reproduced with permission from Molecular characterisation of grapevine yellows associated phytoplasmas of the stolbur-group based on RFLP-analysis of non-ribosomal DNA. Langer, M.; Maixner, M. Vitis 43: 191–199; 2004. Copyright 2004 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

156.11 First record of a plasmodiophorid parasite in grapevine. Huber, L.; Hammes, M.; Eisenbeis, G.; Pöder, R.; Kirchmair, M. Vitis 43: 187–189; 2004.

In the context of an interdisciplinary project on grape pests and pathogens in Rheingau (Germany), the fine root system of grafted rootstocks has been screened for pathogenic fungi associated with root galls induced by grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch)). In several insect-induced galls, masses of resting spores of a plasmodiophorid 32 could be seen. An additional selective screening revealed the occurrence of the plasmodiophorid parasite also in samples of gall-free rootlets: cortical cells of small necrotic areas were crowded with resting spores or other developmental stages of its life cycle. According to current taxonomic concepts, this plasmodiophorid could be identified as a member of the genus Sorosphaera Schroeter, resembling S. veronicae Schroeter. This is the first record of a plasmodiophorid parasite in grapevine.

© Reproduced with permission from First record of a plasmodiophorid parasite in grapevine. Huber, L.; Hammes, M.; Eisenbeis, G.; Pöder, R.; Kirchmair, M. Vitis 43: 187–189; 2004. Copyright 2004 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Nutrition, soil and water

156.12 Intra-row vineyard spacing and soil management. Long-term field trial results with Cv. Pignoletto. Intrieri, C.; Filippetti, I.; Lia, G.; Colucci, E.; Poni, S. Pract. Winery/Vineyard 26(5): 76–87; 2005.

Italian researchers studied the effects of vineyard floor management strategies and vine row spacing on vine growth, yield and grape composition. The results of this five year study are discussed. (SJB)

© Reproduced with permission from Intra-row vineyard spacing and soil management. Long-term field trial results with Cv. Pignoletto. Intrieri, C.; Filippetti, I.; Lia, G.; Colucci, E.; Poni, S. Pract. Winery/Vineyard 26(5): 76–87; 2005. Copyright 2005 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

156.13 Effects of cover crops on grapevines, yield, juice composition, soil microbial ecology, and gopher activity. Ingels, C.A.; Scow, K.M.; Whisson, D.A.; Drenovsky, R.E. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 56: 19–29; 2005.

Abstract available from website [http://www.asev.org/Home.htm] 33

156.14 Effect of soil moisture availability on Merlot: from leaf water potential to grape composition. Sivilotti, P.; Bonetto, C.; Paladin, M.; Peterlunger, E. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 56: 9–18; 2005.

Abstract available from website [http://www.asev.org/Home.htm]

156.15 Response of cv. Bobal to timing of deficit irrigation in Requena, Spain: water relations, yield, and wine quality. Salón, J.L.; Chirivella, C.; Castel, J.R. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 56: 1–8; 2005.

Abstract available from website [http://www.asev.org/Home.htm]

156.16 Influence of water deficit stress on leaf area development and transpiration of Sangiovese grapevines grown in pots. Bindi, M.; Bellesi, S.; Orlandini, S.; Fibbi, L.; Moriondo, M.; Sinclair, T. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 56: 68–72; 2005.

Abstract available from website [http://www.asev.org/Home.htm]

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 156.17 Nematodes of the genus Longidorus in the vine growing regions of Austria—morphometry and distribution of the species. Tiefenbrunner, A.; Tiefenbrunner, W. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 186–197; 2004.

(German) Soil samples were taken from the vine growing regions of Austria to analyze the occurence[sic] of nematodes of the genus Longidorus. 50% of the samples were from the rhizosphere of grapevine, the others were mostly taken from fallow and arable land. Additional samples were taken from the soil of riparian forests. Nine species of the genus Longidorus were recognized: L. arthensis, L. attenuatus, L. elongatus, L. euonymus, L. poessneckensis, L. intermedius, L. juvenilis, L. leptocephalus, L. macrosoma and L. raskii. Four species are vectors for different viruses. According to our own observations and with regard to literature seven species are associated with the rhizosphere of grape. The geographical distribution of the Longidorus species and their morphometry are described and discussed. It is suggested to change the identification code (CHEN et al., 1997) for L. elongatus.

34 © Reproduced with permission from Nematodes of the genus Longidorus in the vine growing regions of Austria— morphometry and distribution of the species. Tiefenbrunner, A.; Tiefenbrunner, W. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 186–197; 2004. Copyright 2004 Höhere Bundeslehranstalt und Bundesamt für Wein- und Obstbau mit Institut für Bienenkunde, Wiener.

156.18 Effect of different N fertilization of vine on the tryptophan, free and total indole-3-acetic acid concentrations. Linsenmeier, A.; Löhnertz, O.; Schubert, S. Vitis 43: 157–162; 2004.

The compound responsible for UTA (untypical ageing off-flavour) in wines is o-AAP (o-amino acetophenone). It is formed from IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), triggered by sulfurylation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different N fertilizer supply on this precursor in must and wine, making use of a long-term nitrogen fertilization experiment. Trp (Tryptophan) as well as free and conjugated IAA were determined in musts and wines produced from grapevines supplied with 0, 30, 60, 90 or 150 kg N ha-1 year-1. IAA concentrations in musts and wines varied highly over years (1994–1999), wines containing about half of the total IAA of musts. The IAA concentration in must was positively correlated with the concentration of amino acids in must, however, nitrogen supply did not have any effect, neither on Trp nor on IAA concentrations.

© Reproduced with permission from Effect of different N fertilization of vine on the tryptophan, free and total indole-3-acetic acid concentrations. Linsenmeier, A.; Löhnertz, O.; Schubert, S. Vitis 43: 157–162; 2004. Copyright 2004 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen. Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Vineyard canopy management

156.19 Empirical models for leaf area estimation of the grapevine cv. Jaen. Lopes, C.M.; Andrade, I.; Pedroso, V.; Martins, S. Ciência Téc. Vitiv. 19: 61–75; 2004.

(Portuguese) Empirical models for non-destructive estimation of grapevine leaf area of the red variety Jaen are presented. Primary leaf area per shoot is estimated by a model using two variables: a calculated variable, obtained from the average of the largest and smallest primary leaf area multiplied by the number of primary leaves, and the area of the smallest primary leaf. For lateral leaf area per shoot another model using the same type of calculated variable plus the area of the largest lateral leaf is also presented. The good predicting capability show[sic] that the presented models can predict, using a non-destructive, simple and accurate method, primary and lateral grapevine leaf area per shoot in any growth stage. The simplicity, easiness and low cost of measuring the field variables needed make the models a powerful tool for vine researchers, consultants and even for advanced growers allowing a more frequent 35 evaluation of vine leaf area.

© Reproduced with permission from Empirical models for leaf area estimation of the grapevine cv. Jaen. Lopes, C.M.; Andrade, I.; Pedroso, V.; Martins, S. Ciência Téc. Vitiv. 19: 61–75; 2004. Copyright 2004 Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Oenology

General

156.20 Spectrophotometric investigations of wines treated with “Aropur systems”. Klima, H.; Geissler, A.; Idl, E.; Redl, G. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 198–204; 2004.

(German) Aropur systems for the harmonization of wines are offered by the company C.D.W Litterst - Biophysikalische Technik. Controversial reports gave cause to investigate different wines, which had been treated with such systems, by means of spectrophotometry. 20 different wines were selected and pumped through Aropur systems, bottled and stored together with untreated references at 4°C. The extinctions E(λ) of the single wines and their references were measured with the spectrophotometer Perkin Elmer Lambda 19 using the measuring software UV-Winlab within the range of 200 nm and 1300 nm with a resolution of 1 nm and saved as ASCII files. In addition both for each wine and its control variant ten samples were taken from the bottles and 36 measured repetitively. The results of these measurements available as ASCII data were loaded into the analysis and diagram software program ORIGIN™, for each wine and its control variant the average extinction E(λ) was determined and plotted against the wavelength λ. From the spectrophotometric point of view seven wines seemed very likely to be different, five samples seemed to be possibly different and eight samples probably not different.

© Reproduced with permission from Spectrophotometric investigations of wines treated with “Aropur systems”. Klima, H.; Geissler, A.; Idl, E.; Redl, G. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 198–204; 2004. Copyright 2004 Höhere Bundeslehranstalt und Bundesamt für Wein- und Obstbau mit Institut für Bienenkunde, Wiener.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Highlights this issue

The Australian Wine Research Institute Seminar Series Celebrating 50 Years 1955-2005 (see page1)

Identification of a new cork taint compound (see page 10)

Effect of yeast strain on wine colour—results from 2003 vintage Shiraz trial conducted on a pilot winery scale (see page 15)

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Technical Review No.156 June 2005 156.21 The musts of 2004. Tusseau, D. Vigneron Champenois 126(2): 56–58, 60, 62–64, 66–68, 70–79; 2005.

(French) This annually updated article provides the mean composition of musts from the most recent vintage in Champagne (2004). Data for the vintages 1995 to 2003 are provided for comparison, and for the first time the data are presented graphically. Data are provided for the variables “probable alcohol”, total acidity, ratio of sugars to acid, pH, tartaric and malic acids, potassium, calcium, ammonia and “total nitrogen”, and gluconic acid. Large vintage variability for many of these variables is apparent from the data presented. (PWG).

156.22 Making a clean sweep—are you sanitation manager or winemaker? You’re both. Payette, T. Vineyard Winery Manage. 31(1): 73–74, 76–77; 2005.

This article provides a practical review of winery cleaning and sanitation procedures, and the mode of action and use of a wide range of cleaning agents is discussed. (PWG). 37 © Reproduced with permission from Making a clean sweep—are you sanitation manager or winemaker? You’re both. Payette, T. Vineyard Winery Manage. 31(1): 73–74, 76–77; 2005. Copyright 2005 Vineyard and Winery Services, Inc.

156.23 Development of activated carbon using vine shoots (Vitis vinifera) and its use for wine treatment. Corcho-Corral, B.; Olivares-Marín, M.; Valdes-Sánchez, E.; Fernández-González, C.; Macías-García, A.; Gómez-Serrano, V. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 644–650; 2005.

An abundant and low-cost agricultural waste such as vine shoots (Vitis vinifera) (VS), which is generated by the annual pruning of vineyards, has been used as raw material in the preparation of powder activated carbon (AC) with a view to develop a new fining agent for white wines. A commercial activated carbon, S5X-Agrovin, was used for comparison purposes. From VS size-reduced pieces, AC was prepared using

phosphoric acid as activating agent. The concentration of the H3PO4 solution, the impregnation temperature, and the carbonization conditions were controlled.

The carbons were texturally characterized by gas adsorption (N2, -196 °C), mercury porosimetry, and density measurements. FT-IR spectroscopy was used in the analysis of the surface functional groups and structures of the carbons. Three varieties of white wine (i.e., cv. Cayetana, cv. Macabeo, and cv. Sauvignon Blanc) were treated with the activated carbons. Color changes were monitored by UV-vis spectrometry.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Significant differences in the degree of uptake of polyphenols were observed depending on the wine variety and on the method of preparation of activated carbon. The carbon

prepared by first impregnation of VS with the 60 vol% H3PO4 solution at 50 °C and by then carbonization of the resultant product at 400 °C for 2 h presents a higher ability to discolor the white wines. The action of this carbon is comparable to that shown by the commercial product. Both carbons possess a well-developed porosity in the macropore range.

© Reprinted with permission from Development of activated carbon using vine shoots (Vitis vinifera) and its use for wine treatment. Corcho-Corral, B.; Olivares-Marín, M.; Valdes-Sánchez, E.; Fernández-González, C.; Macías-García, A.; Gómez-Serrano, V. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 644–650; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

156.24 Fungicide dissipation curves in winemaking processes with and without maceration step. Fernández, M.J.; Oliva, J.; Barba, A.; Cámara, M.A. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 804–811; 2005.

The evolution of residual levels of four fungicides (cyprodinil, fludioxonil, pyrimethanil, 38 and quinoxyfen) during the elaboration of three types of wine with maceration (traditional red wine, carbonic maceration red wine, and red wine of long maceration and prefermentation at low temperature) and two types of wine without maceration (rosé and white) has been studied. The disappearance curves of each fungicide have been analyzed during the period of each winemaking process (21 days) and during the different enological steps involved in the elaborations. The residual levels of fludioxonil reduce most quickly during the winemaking processes without maceration, whereas the decrease in levels of pyrimethanil was the slowest in practically all cases (with and without maceration). During carbonic maceration winemaking, the decay constant of cyprodinil was greater than that of the other pesticides in all assays (time and steps).

© Reprinted with permission from Fungicide dissipation curves in winemaking processes with and without maceration step. Fernández, M.J.; Oliva, J.; Barba, A.; Cámara, M.A. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 804–811; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 156.25 Possibilities and limitations of wine authentication using stable isotope ratio analysis and traceability. Part 2: Wines from Hungary, Croatia, and other European countries. Christoph, N.; Barátossy, G.; Kubanovic, V.; Kozina, B.; Rossmann, A.; Schlicht, C.; Voerkelius, S. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 144–158; 2004.

Information on the viticultural regions of Hungary and Croatia, as well as the main administrative instruments of traceability in official wine control in these and other countries of the European Union are summarized. Stable isotope ratio analysis (SIRA) of ethanol and water in authentic Hungarian wines (1997 to 2001) and Croatian wines (1999 to 2001) was performed by SNIF-NMR® (2H-NMR), δ13C-, δ18O-isotope ratio

mass spectrometry (IRMS). The mean values of the (D/H)I-ratio of ethanol in Hungarian wines are within a range of 100 to 101.3 ppm, more significant differences between δ13 the years were observed for (D/H)II-ratios (124.9 to 128.4 ppm) and C-values (-26 to -27.9 ‰ V-PDB) of ethanol, and the δ18O-values of wine-water (-2.4 to +2.8 ‰ V-SMOW). In Croatian wines, most significant differences of all stable isotope ratios are detected between wines from the continental and the coastal region. The influence 39 of the extremely hot and dry climate in the year 2000 in the southern parts of the Adriatic coast probably had caused extreme δ18O-values up to +9 ‰ V-SMOW in δ13 water and C-values up to -23.1 ‰ V-PDB, (D/H)I-ratio up to 107.8 ppm, and

(D/H)II-values up to 134 ppm in ethanol. In 2001 relatively low (D/H)II-values and δ18O-values are found in single wines from the coastal region of Croatia, which were caused by regional high precipitation of up to 190 mm within four weeks before grape harvest. By means of two wine samples from two European countries, the proof of

adulterations by addition of water and chaptalization with mixtures of C3- and

C4-sugars is shown, using correlations of multielement stable isotope data from the EU Wine Databank and from commercial references as well as ‘cut-off’-values which are totally outside any natural range.

© Reproduced with permission from Possibilities and limitations of wine authentication using stable isotope ratio analysis and traceability. Part 2: Wines from Hungary, Croatia, and other European countries. Christoph, N.; Barátossy, G.; Kubanovic, V.; Kozina, B.; Rossmann, A.; Schlicht, C.; Voerkelius, S. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 144–158; 2004. Copyright 2004 Höhere Bundeslehranstalt und Bundesamt für Wein- und Obstbau mit Institut für Bienenkunde, Wiener.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 156.26 The influence of oakwood on aroma profile and sensory characteristics of white wine. Flak, W.; Tscheik, G.; Krizan, R.; Spanitz, F.; Weiss, G. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 133–143; 2004.

(German) On the basis of selected aroma compounds, which are typical for the original wine composition or wood contact, the influence of oakwood on the analytic characteristic of white wine is investigated by means of GC/MS and SPME. The treatment of grape must or wine with differently heavily toasted wood chips like barrique aging causes a specific change of the aroma structure. In particular a transfer or an increase of the compounds furfural, p-ethylphenol, guiaicol[sic], eugenol, vanillin, and the wood lactone is to observe. The colour values of the samples, which were measured by tristimulus measurements, increase only a little with increasing duration of the wood contact, brightness conditions remain almost unchanged. By means of a sensory evaluation the effects of colour as well as the intensity of the wood tone of the samples were analyzed. The appropriate ratings corresponded with analytical findings. With respect to additional questions a direct confrontation and a qualitative ranking of

40 experimental wines and commercial wines by means of a ranking method was carried out.

© Reproduced with permission from The influence of oakwood on aroma profile and sensory characteristics of white wine. Flak, W.; Tscheik, G.; Krizan, R.; Spanitz, F.; Weiss, G. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 54: 133–143; 2004. Copyright 2004 Höhere Bundeslehranstalt und Bundesamt für Wein- und Obstbau mit Institut für Bienenkunde, Wiener.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 156.27 Technological application of a yeast industrial derivative to tartaric and protein stabilization of white wines. Comuzzo, P.; Tat, L.; Battistutta, F.; Tasso, A.; Zironi, R. Sci. Aliments 24: 371–382; 2004.

(French) Polysaccharides play an important role in wine stability, due to their ability to take part in colloidal equilibrium; addition of yeast derivative products are a novel rapid way to enrich colloidal structure of white wines and to increase their stability. Different amounts of an industrial formulate made by thermal lysis of yeast cell walls, and their effects on tartaric and protein stability were evaluated for three white wines, fifteen days and ten months after bottling. The lysate had some good stabilizing properties in the short period, but it determined a loss in stability of wines in long storage conditions (both tartaric and protein); this effect was strongly affected by dosage. A possible explanation could be linked to interactions between colloidal particles determining an increase in their size during storage time; the consequent precipitation phenomena could determine a loss in stabilizing factors of wines during bottle storage; this effect seemed to be emphasized by the added lysate.

© Reproduced with permission from Technological application of a yeast industrial derivative to tartaric and 41 protein stabilization of white wines. Comuzzo, P.; Tat, L.; Battistutta, F.; Tasso, A.; Zironi, R. Sci. Aliments 24: 371–382; 2004. Copyright 2004 Lavoisier.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Juice and wine handling

156.28 Reduction of 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol concentration in red wines using reverse osmosis and adsorption. Ugarte, P.; Agosin, E.; Bordeu, E.; Villalobos, J.I. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 56: 30–36; 2005.

Abstract available from website [http://www.asev.org/Home.htm]

42

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Microbiology

156.29 Influence of the timing of nitrogen additions during synthetic grape must fermentations on fermentation kinetics and nitrogen consumption. Beltran, G.; Esteve-Zarzoso, B.; Rozès, N.; Mas, A.; Guillamón, J.M. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 996–1002; 2005.

Nitrogen deficiencies in grape musts are one of the main causes of stuck or sluggish wine fermentations. In the present study, we have supplemented nitrogen-deficient fermentations with a mixture of ammonium and amino acids at various stages throughout the alcoholic fermentation. The timing of the nitrogen additions influenced the biomass yield, the fermentation performance, the patterns of ammonium and amino acid consumption, and the production of secondary metabolites. These nitrogen additions induced a nitrogen-repressed situation in the cells, and this situation determined which nitrogen sources were selected. Glutamine and tryptophan were the main amino acids consumed in all the fermentations. Ammonium is the preferred nitrogen source for biomass production but was hardly consumed when it was added in the final stages of 43 the fermentation. The higher ammonium consumption in some fermentations correlated with a greater synthesis of glycerol, acetate, and acetaldehyde but with a lower synthesis of higher alcohols.

© Reprinted with permission from Influence of the timing of nitrogen additions during synthetic grape must fermentations on fermentation kinetics and nitrogen consumption. Beltran, G.; Esteve-Zarzoso, B.; Rozès, N.; Mas, A.; Guillamón, J.M. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 996–1002; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 156.30 Study of some Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for winemaking after preadaptation at low temperatures. Llauradó, J.M.; Rozès, N.; Constantí, M.; Mas, A. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1003–1011; 2005.

Low-temperature fermentations (13 °C) are considered to improve wine aromatic profiles. However, because the risk of stuck and sluggish fermentations is high, these fermentations are not common. The aim of this paper was to analyze the effect of different preadaptation protocols in two commercial wine strains on the fermentation and some wine parameters. Preadaptation is understood to be the process between the rehydration of active dry yeast and the inoculation. In this study, it consisted of preparing a fermentation starter (addition of yeast grown at 25 °C) or inocula preadapted at low temperatures (as before, but grown at a fermentation temperature of 13 or 17 °C). These results were compared with those of rehydrated active dry yeast, and a commercial “cryotolerant” yeast was used as a reference. General fermentation kinetic parameters, yeast imposition, nitrogen consumption, and main wine products were analyzed. The results showed that the preadaptation of a yeast could improve the fermentation

44 performance, although this improvement was strain-dependent. Low-temperature fermentations also had some general effects: reduction of acetic acid and fusel alcohol production and increased concentrations of glycerol. When the yeast performed better in fermentation because of preadaptation, nitrogen consumption was faster and the wine’s “negative” attributes (acetic acid, fusel alcohols) were significantly reduced. Thus, in some strains, preadaptation could be an effective mechanism for improving low-temperature fermentation, which also significantly reduces detrimental wine attributes.

© Reprinted with permission from Study of some Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for winemaking after preadaptation at low temperatures. Llauradó, J.M.; Rozès, N.; Constantí, M.; Mas, A. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1003–1011; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 156.31 Potential application of a glucose-transport-deficient mutant of Schizosaccharomyces pombe for removing gluconic acid from grape must. Peinado, R.A.; Moreno, J.J.; Medina, M.; Mauricio, J.C. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1017–1021; 2005.

Musts from rotten grapes typically contain high levels of gluconic acid, which can raise severe problems in winemaking processes. In this work, the ability of the glucose-transport-deficient mutant YGS-5 of Schizosaccharomyces pombe to completely or partly remove gluconic acid from a synthetic glucose-containing medium and the potential use of this yeast strain for the same purpose in musts and wines were examined. Surprisingly, the S. pombe YGS-5 strain successfully removed 93% of the initial gluconic acid (2.5 gL-1) and 80% of the initial malic acid (1.0 gL-1) within 30 h after inoculation. Also, the yeast strain produced no volatile compounds other than those obtained in fermentations conducted with the wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. S. pombe YGS-5 could thus be used to remove gluconic acid present in musts from rotten grapes. On the basis of these results, various ways of using S. pombe YGS-5 to treat musts containing gluconic acid in order to solve the problems due to the high gluconic acid 45 concentrations in botrytized grape must are proposed.

© Reprinted with permission from Potential application of a glucose-transport-deficient mutant of Schizosaccharomyces pombe for removing gluconic acid from grape must. Peinado, R.A.; Moreno, J.J.; Medina, M.; Mauricio, J.C. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1017–1021; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

156.32 Avoiding fermentation problems: the latest developments in yeasts, nutrients and other wine-related chemicals and materials. Franson, P. Vineyard Winery Manage. 31(1): 78–80, 82–83; 2005.

This article provides a succinct review of the role of nutrients during fermentation, including the use of nutrient supplements for yeast and malolactic bacteria. (PWG).

© Reproduced with permission from Avoiding fermentation problems: the latest developments in yeasts, nutrients and other wine-related chemicals and materials. Franson, P. Vineyard Winery Manage. 31(1): 78–80, 82–83; 2005. Copyright 2005 Vineyard and Winery Services, Inc.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Analysis and composition

156.33 Biogenic amines in wines from three Spanish regions. Landete, J.M.; Ferrer, S.; Polo, L.; Pardo, I. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1119–1124; 2005.

One hundred and sixty-three wines from La Rioja, Utiel-Requena, and Tarragona were analyzed to determine if there were any differences in the concentrations of six biogenic amines that are found in these three regions. The influence of grape variety, type of vinification, wine pH, malolactic fermentation, and storage in bottle on biogenic amine concentrations was studied. Results show important differences in putrescine and histamine concentrations among regions, varieties of grape, and type of wine; differences were less appreciable for the remaining biogenic amines studied. Low pH prevented biogenic amine formation. Malolactic fermentation and short storage periods in bottle (3–6 months) showed increases in histamine concentration, whereas longer periods of storage led to a general decrease in histamine. Several strains of lactic acid bacteria were isolated in this work, and their ability to form biogenic amines was assayed in 46 synthetic media, grape must, and wine. Grape varieties, different types of winemaking, pH, and lactic acid bacteria may be responsible for the differences observed in the biogenic amine concentrations of the wines analyzed.

© Reprinted with permission from Biogenic amines in wines from three Spanish regions. Landete, J.M.; Ferrer, S.; Polo, L.; Pardo, I. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1119–1124; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 156.34 Sugar contents of Brandy de Jerez during its aging. Martínez Montero, C.; del Carmen Rodríguez Dodero, M.; Guillén Sánchez, D.A.; Barroso, C.G. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1058–1064; 2005.

Brandy de Jerez is aged in American oak casks according to the traditional dynamic system (Soleras y Criaderas) and sometimes additionally by the static system (Añadas). The experimental arrangement used here for the analytical monitoring of brandy aging consisted of 15 casks, 12 of which were set up for aging by the dynamic system, which is well established in the denomination of origin area, whereas the other 3 contained the same brandy but aged according to the static system. This paper studies the kinetics of sugar extraction from oak wood to distillate, as well as the possible correlations between the sugar contents in brandy and its age or the commercial type it belongs to (Solera, Solera Reserva, or Solera Gran Reserva). High-performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection was used as the analytical tool to measure the concentrations of glucose, fructose, arabinose, galactose, and xylose, the presence of which in brandy has previously been described. 47

© Reprinted with permission from Sugar contents of Brandy de Jerez during its aging. Martínez Montero, C.; del Carmen Rodríguez Dodero, M.; Guillén Sánchez, D.A.; Barroso, C.G. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 1058–1064; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Wine and health

156.35 Predicting drunk driving: contribution of alcohol use and related problems, traffic behaviour, personality and platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity. Eensoo, D.; Paaver, M.; Harro, M.; Harro, J. Alcohol Alcohol. 40: 140–146; 2005.

Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for traffic accidents as it impairs the reaction time of drivers and their ability to accurately estimate risks. Information on the amount and pattern of alcohol consumption, alcohol-related problems and personality traits as well as blood samples, was collected from 203 drink drivers and 211 control individuals. A combination of behavioural, biological and personality factors appears to influence the risk of drink driving (CSS).

156.36 Drinking patterns and perspectives on alcohol policy: results from two Ontario surveys. Giesbrecht, N.; Ialomiteanu, A.; Anglin, L. Alcohol Alcohol. 40: 132–139; 2005. 48 This paper examines whether attitudes to public health policy on alcohol are influenced by an individual’s amount and pattern of alcohol consumption. The paper concludes that government health policies that have made alcohol more available, increase alcohol consumption in young adult males (CSS).

156.37 Alcohol consumption and midlife cognitive change in the British 1946 birth cohort study. Richards, M.; Hardy, R.; Wadsworth, M.E.J. Alcohol Alcohol. 40: 112–117; 2005.

Epidemiological studies suggest that moderate alcohol consumption can improve cognitive function in non-demented elderly individuals. A survey study was conducted in 903 men and 861 women enrolled in the UK MRC National Survey of Health and Development. After controlling for confounding variables such as education, general health and habits, alcohol consumption was observed to be associated with slower memory decline in men regardless of amount. It was also observed to be associated with a more rapid decline in psychomotor function in women, particularly as alcohol consumption increased (CSS).

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 156.38 A daily glass of red wine: does it affect markers of inflammation? Retterstol, L.; Berge, K.E.; Braaten, Ø.; Eikvar, L.; Pedersen, T.R.; Sandvik, L. Alcohol Alcohol. 40: 102–105; 2005.

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease. A randomised controlled cross-over study in 87 non-smoking healthy individuals was undertaken to assess whether the regular consumption of a moderate amount (150 mL/day) of red wine reduced the level of the inflammatory markers, serum C-reactive protein and plasma fibrinogen. The results showed that red wine consumption did not reduce the level of serum C-reactive protein but did, albeit marginally, reduce the level of plasma fibrinogen (CSS).

156.39 Reducing the global burden of hazardous alcohol use: a comparative cost-effectiveness analysis. Chisholm, D.; Rehm, J.; van Ommeren, M.; Monteiro, M. J. Stud. Alcohol 65: 782–793; 2004.

This paper discusses the global burden of excessive or heavy alcohol consumption and potential policies to reduce heavy consumption (CSS). 49 156.40 Estimated blood alcohol concentration correlation with self-reported negative consequences among college students using alcohol. Turner, J.C.; Bauerle, J.; Shu, J. J. Stud. Alcohol 65: 741–749; 2004.

A study was undertaken in college students to determine whether estimated blood alcohol concentration is an accurate index of alcohol-induced intoxication, impairment, and hence health and social negative consequences (CSS).

156.41 New developments in prevention and early intervention for alcohol abuse in youths. Stewart, S.H.; Conrod, P.J.; Marlatt, G.A.; Comeau, M.N.; Thush, C.; Krank, M. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 29: 278–286; 2005.

Summary of a Canadian symposium on strategies to prevent or reduce alcohol abuse in youth and young adults (CSS).

156.42 Treatment with yeast to reduce the concentration of ochratoxin A in red wine. Garcia Moruno, E.; Sanlorenzo, C.; Boccaccino, B.; Di Stefano, R. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 56: 73–76; 2005.

Abstract available from website [http://www.asev.org/Home.htm]

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Environmental health

156.43 Temple Bruer: living life to an organic philosophy. Anon. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker (493): 34–35; 2005.

As part of this year’s annual Environmental Management feature, Grapegrower & Winemaker asked David and Barbara Bruer of Temple Bruer wines, for a snapshot of how organic farming practices form part of the daily vineyard life at the Langhorne Creek vineyard, vine nursery and winery.

© Reproduced with permission from Temple Bruer: living life to an organic philosophy. Anon. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker (493): 34–35; 2005. Copyright 2005 Ryan Publications.

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Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Where do I send my samples?

What criteria do you use when you decide which testing organisation to use? Who do you recommend? These are questions that we are often asked, but the answer to this is not at all simple and is more difficult than might appear at first glance. There are many laboratories offering a range of services to the wine industry. At first thought, the best solution might be to use the local laboratory for all of your needs. However, you should consider carefully if this is always the best choice and whether there are any special issues that need to be considered. When should I use a different laboratory?

Cost of analyses. When comparing services, cost is usually the first factor that is considered. Many laboratories offer very competitively priced services, particularly if you are simply after a routine enzymatic test or a range of process tests. For these services, the local laboratory (in many cases the nearest winery) offers a very reasonable option.

The Analytical Service of The Australian Wine Research Institute regularly evaluates 51 its prices against those of its competitors. On this measure we can confidently say that most of our charges are very competitive. While some of our services are more expensive than those of our competitors, we believe the quality and accuracy of the testing offered by the Analytical Service far exceeds that of our competitors.

Nonetheless, we have had clients wishing to use a competitor’s laboratory. It is not our role to recommend laboratories, but based on feedback from clients and our own experience it is wise to determine exactly what services you will get for your money. There might be a number of hidden extra charges that are often only discovered once the bill is received. Firstly, for levy payers, the price the Analytical Service quotes includes freight and GST and all the prices listed under the Analytical Services section of the AWRI website are inclusive of these charges. This price is simply for the provision of the analytical test results. Some of our competitors list prices on the web that are GST exclusive, which might make them seem less expensive. In many instances, the cost of freight is not included and many laboratories also have a minimum service fee.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 To further confuse the issue, some analyses, such as elemental analyses (in particular metals), might be quoted as, say, $9 for a particular metal. Why, then, is the Analytical Service so expensive? Well, these labs usually have a separate charge for sample preparation (e.g. fee approx. $27.50), and might also charge a reporting fee (e.g. $25), all of which are GST exclusive. Suddenly, the ‘cheap’ analysis is not such good value.

Sample preparation fees are very common when metal analyses are requested, because a ‘common’ procedure might be used to prepare the samples for a series of elemental determinations. So, if you want 10 element determinations from one sample, then one sample preparation fee is charged plus the analysis cost for each element. If you send your sample in the analysing laboratory’s supplied sample (or specimen) containers then that might also be an extra cost. Other occasions where specific containers are recommended might include grape colour or environmental analyses.

Some laboratories have very hefty minimum invoice fees, with the most expensive that we have encountered being $250 plus GST. It is more typical for general analytical laboratories to have minimum invoice charges in the range of $30–$75. Other hidden 52 fees might include batching fees, sample container costs, freight costs, and even a quoting fee for standard analyses.

It is also highly desirable when considering cost, to determine if the analysis can be conducted in a timeframe suitable to you. Some laboratories are keen to keep their large clients happy and the turnaround time (i.e. time from receipt of samples to delivering results) can be quite long for non-corporate clients. Where it is possible to perform an analysis in a tight time frame, surcharges are not uncommon. In particularly urgent circumstances, a 100% surcharge might be added. At the Analytical Service we try and avoid charging urgent fees. However, if we need to reschedule analyses a 30% surcharge is applied. It should also be noted that irrespective of the urgency, some analyses can not be turned around in very short time frames. Examples of these are sterility testing, where we need to wait for the growth of viable micro-organisms (dead cells might be present) or certain environmental analyses such as a BOD14. The latter test is for biological oxygen demand (BOD). This is measured over 14 days. Truncating the test to fewer days can not be offered and would be quite misleading. The kinetics of the biological process varies because not all important nutrients are consumed at the same rate.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Analytical checklist for charges • Is there a minimum invoice charge?

• Do your prices include GST?

• How many samples are you sending (a discount may apply)?

• Is there a batching fee, reporting fee or other charges?

• Is the price of freight included in these charges? If so, what are the terms for accessing the freight?

• Is there a sample preparation fee and is this applicable to each element or agrochemical?

• Does your laboratory have experience in testing wine, grape or marc samples?

• What is/are the limit(s) of reporting and limits of detection? What range of 53 agrochemicals are covered by your tests?

• When a sampling container is recommended, is this included in the price of the analysis?

• What is the Turnaround Time (or Target Response Time) applicable to this test?

• If an urgent result is requested, how much extra will I be charged?

Most laboratories will, at times, sub-contract work to ‘outside’ laboratories. As part of our quality system, we have evaluated some of these laboratories and a checklist resembling that outlined above is undertaken. When an accredited laboratory sub-contracts work, it should advise clients that it is doing so.

It should be noted that as the testing requirements become more complex and non-standard reports are requested, there are other charges that apply. For work performed for legal, insurance and Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) studies, there are reporting fees, and due to the extended reporting, record-keeping and quality requirements, additional charges are applied.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Quality of analytical testing A less commonly considered aspect of testing is the quality of the analytical results required. The Analytical Service is accredited by the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA). This is the national body that is responsible for ensuring certain internationally recognised technical quality standards are met. It is affiliated with other international bodies that help to ensure that results from tests performed here are accepted in our export markets.

This does not mean that some of the smaller laboratories do not offer good services. While there are many small laboratories which are not NATA accredited, many participate in the proficiency testing of the Inter Winery Assessment Group (IWAG). This is a convenient and useful way to check that these laboratories get the ‘right’ results. For many of the tests provided by these laboratories, their results will be more than adequate.

However, when it comes to performing export analyses and many of the ‘due diligence’ tests, such as agrochemical screening, ochratoxin A and ethyl carbamate analyses, 54 there is a great advantage in using an accredited laboratory. Increasingly, multi-residue analyses are requested as part of the HACCP requirements. If your wine is not for export, then using an accredited laboratory might not be necessary. However, if you are contemplating exporting your product, then you might find that the test results from a non-accredited laboratory might not be accepted. Laboratories which are accredited can be found by searching the NATA website [http://www.nata.asn.au/] These laboratories are required to comply with an internationally accepted technical quality standard referred to as ISO/IEC 17025. NATA also run a number of proficiency tests on accredited laboratories, depending on the accreditation of the laboratory. These are not optional and satisfactory performance is needed to retain accreditation.

Apart from these proficiency testing programs, the Analytical Service participates in overseas testing programs run by FAPAS (UK) and DAPS (UK). We have also participated in the Lab Excell (France) testing ring for TCA (cork taint) analysis. As a way of validating any sub-contracted services we offer to our clients, spiked or previously analysed samples are submitted for analysis to check the performance of these laboratories. While we can not check all samples, these testing programs enable us to use these service providers with an increased level of confidence.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 The Analytical Service recently achieved accreditation for GLP testing. This new and very demanding test can be used to test chemicals for registration (through the APVMA) and the results are accepted internationally. We have chosen to limit the scope of our GLP accreditation to wine and grapes.

Compliance with the quality standards outlined above ensures that the Analytical Service offers the best possible service to the wine industry. The services we offer are listed on our web page and in our scope of NATA accreditations.

With regard to NATA accreditation, it is important to note that the test method only is accredited as being suitable for a particular analysis. Any interpretation given is not endorsed. Consequently, a NATA endorsed report cannot contain comments about the meaning of the results, but may include measurement uncertainty and an MRL if applicable. A separate note can be attached if an explanation is offered, but this has no official endorsement associated with it.

Quality checklist 55 • What are my quality requirements? Is the local laboratory suitable for my needs?

• Is the testing to meet ‘Due Diligence’ for a local or for an international client?

• Does the multi-residue testing contain all agrochemicals registered for use on grapes?

• Is the laboratory NATA accredited?

• If so, what is the accreditation number?

• Do they participate in proficiency studies, such as IWAG? Can they give evidence of proficiency in wine or grape samples?

• Do they participate in international proficiency studies?

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Sampling Sampling is an area which needs to be carefully addressed. If you are not sure about the requirements for a particular test, please ask! It is not possible to address all those requirements here, but there are many factors to be considered to ensure the results you get are useful and accurate.

For example, if you are concerned about TCA in a sample, avoid using plastic or synthetic materials because the taint is absorbed into these materials. When grapes are sent for a quality assessment, try to get a representative sample. Any retained sample should ideally be taken from the same location, with the same exposure to sun, wind and moisture. When samples are sent, remember that once frozen, potassium and tartaric acid will precipitate (as potassium tartrate), so the samples will not be suitable for a potassium determination. If the season is hot, or if you are remote from a laboratory, make sure there are sufficient ice packs (or their equivalent) to cool the samples.

Alcohol for labelling is one area where there can be difficulties. We now routinely retain a sample for at least one year after analysis. Bottles on different pallets filled 56 where the lines have not been adequately flushed, or where seemingly minor changes to the blend have been made, have and do create problems. Wine in a tank is seldom perfectly homogeneous. Samples taken from different positions in the tank can yield slightly different results, with the most consistent results being taken from the centre of the tank and not, for example, from the surface.

Even after taking all these factors into account, there will always be an element of uncertainty associated with each measurement.

If you are sending samples (particularly juice) for sterility testing, make sure you do not overfill the bottle. The bottle should be not more than half full and packed with a cool pack or ice in a sealed ziplock™ bag. We have received samples that have exploded when the shipment was opened. and this creates a potential hazard for staff.

Whenever a sample is packed frozen, and particularly if ice is present, the purchase order should be kept separate from the samples, as condensation or leakage from the samples can cause the labels to fall off, or the ink to dissolve. When this happens, it is impossible to identify the sample and if the purchase order is damaged, we might be unable to identify the sender.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Sampling checklist • How much sample is required?

• How should the sample be submitted?

• What shipping conditions can be used?

• Do I need to freeze/cool the samples? Is the purchase order safe?

• What sort of containers can be used? Are there special precautions needed?

• How much sample can be placed in the container?

• Have you retained a sample and a copy of the purchase order?

The average client will not have concern for all the sampling issues that can arise. However, in the event of a fire, during shipping problems and where significant other events occur, an insurance assessor or other consultant will generally be required. 57 Depending on the scale of the problem a sampling plan, often detailed by a statistician, will be needed.

Labelling your samples One of your most important tasks as a client is to label your samples clearly, with a unique number, and with your contact details. If you have received a quote, the quotation reference is also needed.

Retaining samples for re-analysis, or verification at a second laboratory There are occasions when samples go astray, or are damaged during shipping. For this reason, it is recommended that samples are retained by the client. Where possible, check with the laboratory to see if the sample has been received. If not, you should contact the freight/shipping agent, quoting the consignment note number to determine the status of your shipment. This is very important during the summer months, as even samples shipped with ice packs can degrade very quickly.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Shipping checklist • Is a purchase order enclosed? Have you kept a copy of the consignment note and purchase order?

• Is the reporting address identified?

• If the billing address is different, has this been recorded?

• Is a ‘Chain of custody’ form required? If so, has it been included?

• Do I need to freeze/cool the samples prior to shipment?

• What sort of containers can be used? Are there special precautions needed?

By keeping a copy of the consignment note and the purchase order, you have a record of when the sample was sent and you are able to track your shipment. It also allows you to confirm that your instructions have been followed, and when the bill is received 58 that it matches your request.

Legal considerations There are many instances when sending a sample for analysis with a simple purchase order is not sufficient. This has nothing to do with the Analytical Service requirements or with NATA accreditation. It pertains to those rare occasions when you might be involved in a legal action or an insurance claim.

To ensure you do not jeopardise any legal action or insurance claims, particular care must be taken with documenting all events leading up to the sample submission.

When you do finally send a sample for analysis, you will need to send a ‘Chain of Custody’, also sometimes referred to a ‘sample acknowledgement’ form. This is simply a record of transfer of your sample to the testing laboratory. On this form, you will record the sample description and all identifying details. Once this is received by the testing laboratory, the sample is inspected to determine that there has been no tampering with the shipment or the sample container(s) within. This is signed and returned to the client. Generally, a statement about the sample is included to indicate that that sample is suitable for testing.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Where there has been a problem with overspray, the time of any overspray should be noted in a diary, the wind direction, appearance of plants at the time of the incident, as well as pictures of any affected plants at the time of exposure and once any effects from the overspray become evident. The opinion of an expert is also recommended. To test grapes for chemical overspray, a representative sample of contaminated and non-contaminated material should be taken and frozen, paying particular attention to retaining an extra sample should additional testing be required. Check with the testing laboratory for their sampling requirements and suggestions they might have on preserving the samples in transit. In addition to carefully labelling the samples, you should contact the laboratory testing the samples to advise them of the testing required, and send your sample with a ‘chain of custody’ or ‘sample acknowledgement’ form. It is also useful to apply a tamper-evident seal across an opening lid to confirm that no unauthorised access has occurred once the sample is received by the laboratory. At all stages make sure you retain the paperwork to ensure an “auditable trail” can be established and that all reasonable actions have been taken to ensure the integrity of the samples. A similar course of action is required for protein profiling of wine or juice. 59

If you are involved in litigation, you also need to be aware of the limitations of the laboratory and if expert opinions are required in court, whether any staff will be made available for you. It cannot be assumed that staff will be available to comment in court on a particular issue and many labs make reference to this issue in their terms and conditions.

The laboratory chosen must be advised if the work might be used in a legal or insurance claim. Irrespective of which laboratory you use, the NATA requirements are that records are held for three years. This can be a very real problem if you have not advised the laboratory, because all of the records to support the final report need to be saved. This includes staff training records and other evidence of proficiency, original worksheets and chain of custody (sample acknowledgement) forms. In many instances, court cases might occur years after the original analysis was performed. For legal purposes it is necessary to hold records for at least seven years. We also perform GLP studies according to the OECD guidelines and for these samples, records are held for the lifetime of the product or formulation.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 This information is only meant to be indicative of the issues you might need to consider if legal action is being contemplated and these recommendations do not replace the advice of your legal counsel. You are strongly advised to seek expert assistance on insurance or potentially litigious claims.

Finally, when submitting samples, ensure the samples do not present a hazard to either the couriers or freight company, or the staff at your analytical laboratory. We have received samples which have exploded on opening the shipping container. Not only is the sample destroyed and the analysis can not be completed, but unstable packages can rupture samples from other clients. Injury or damage from the sender’s samples risks claims for compensation.

Why are the costs of some analyses so high? While the major cost for most analyses is labour, some analyses can only be performed using highly sophisticated and expensive equipment.

For example, the list price for a GC/MS with a headspace SPME autosampler is about 60 $180,000. This is a device that is used to measure 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol (“Brett” compounds), TCA at ng/L levels (parts per trillion) and other aroma chemicals. The device allows us to reduce some of the labour input, but most importantly can be run overnight or unattended for the entire weekend. The deuterium labelled compounds used as internal standards are also very expensive.

Another instrument that is quite expensive is the LC/MS, which is, in fact, two instruments: namely a liquid chromatograph used to separate the components of the mixture, which is coupled to a mass spectrometer that measures the mass of the parent ion and any product ion(s). A typical routine analytical LC/MS is about $330,000–$420,000. This price is dependent on the exchange rate, and the exact configuration, but it is clearly not practical to have a machine which is left unused. This type of device is used by the Analytical Service. For the detection of brines containing rhodamine, we use the LC/MS and an in-house developed methodology, where we can detect contamination of <0.005% brine in wine. Rhodamine is not approved for use in wine and under the Australian Food Standards its presence would render the product ‘not fit for sale’.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Why has the Analytical Service gone down this path of using such expensive equipment? The answer is quite simple. Most of the wine-producing nations, the wine industry customers and government regulators in export markets have been looking at assurances about the quality of the products they purchase. The European Community has become ‘very green’ having withdrawn a huge number of approvals for agrochemical use. Not surprisingly, with the dramatic decrease in agrochemical use permitted there, EC Governments are ensuring compliance with the maximum residue limits on a whole range of imported products. They are looking at levels of all sorts of artificial colouring agents as well. Recently, the UK banned products containing traces of Sudan red which had been a colouring agent from old raw material stocks being used in a new product. In the past, Japan has banned barley shipments from Australia because a non-approved dye was found in food grade barley. It was suspected to have arisen from traces of feedlot barley (which is marked) which had not been cleaned from the hold of exporting vessels. Clearly, we need to be able to test to an equivalent level to ensure we are able to verify the purity of our products.

What are the services that the Analytical Service does not offer? 61 The Analytical Service is not funded by the GWRDC. The surplus generated from the Analytical Service is used to fund new equipment and services and where possible, provide limited support for in-house research programs.

On many occasions, the Analytical Service has been asked to provide information and testing services or support outside of our scope of operation.

We are not accredited as providers of “standards” and we are unable to provide certified alcohol or other standards.

We are not the industry or export regulator. Export approval is provided by the AWBC. We are not able to waive or vary the export requirements.

While we have provided information related to contaminants present in wine such as the relevant parts of various food standards, we are not able to offer legal advice on the course of action that must be taken.

We are able to provide limited information on methods and test results in relation to wine produced from grapes, and grapes only. We are unable to offer comment on the results and testing procedures provided by other laboratories.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 We provide limited assistance for physical testing of bottles and closures. For example, we do not have calibrated devices to measure bottle diameters. Performing testing without a validated method or using uncalibrated equipment would not only jeopardise our accreditation, but also leave the results open to challenge in any legal claim and therefore constitutes an unacceptable risk. We hope this will be of assistance when selecting a laboratory.

Our Health and Regulatory Information Manager, Ms Creina Stockley, has been involved in identifying the export requirements of foreign markets but in some instances we have not received any feedback, so we are not always able to provide that information. If you do export to a new market which has unexpected exporting requirements, please advise us so we can add the information to our database. This will enable us to provide further information to the wine industry.

Peter Eichinger Manager—Analytical Service

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Technical Review No.156 June 2005 AWRI publications

823 Smith, P.A.; Herderich, M.J.; Pretorius, I.S. Unravelling the mysteries of red wine tannins—from tannin measurements in Australian vineyards to spit bucket chemistry. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind. J. 20(1): 18, 20–24; 2005.

This article discusses the nature of tannins, tannins and quality specifications, phenolic maturity and green tannins. Lastly, it gives a comprehensive overview of grape and wine tannin analysis. (SJB)

© Reproduced with permission from Smith, P.A.; Herderich, M.J.; Pretorius, I.S. Unravelling the mysteries of red wine tannins—from tannin measurements in Australian vineyards to spit bucket chemistry. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind. J. 20(1): 18, 20–24; 2005. Copyright 2005 Winetitles.

824 du Toit, W.J.; Pretorius, I.S.; Lonvaud-Funel, A. The effect of sulphur dioxide and oxygen on the viability and culturability of a strain of Acetobacter pasteurianus and a strain of Brettanomyces bruxellensis isolated from wine. J. Appl. Microbiol. 98: 862–871; 2005. 63

Aims: The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of free molecular and bound forms of sulphur dioxide and oxygen on the viability and culturability of a selected strain of Acetobacter pasteurianus and a selected strain of Brettanomyces bruxellensis in wine.

Methods and Results: Acetic acid bacteria and Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts associated with wine spoilage were isolated from bottled commercial red wines. One bacterium, A. pasteurianus strain A8, and one yeast, B. bruxellensis strain B3a, were selected for further study. The resistance to sulphur dioxide and the effect of oxygen addition on these two selected strains were determined by using plating and epifluorescence techniques for monitoring cell viability in wine. Acetobacter pasteurianus A8 was more resistant to sulphur dioxide than B. bruxellensis B3a, with the latter being rapidly affected by a short exposure time to free molecular form of sulphur dioxide. As expected, neither of these microbial strains was affected by the bound form of sulphur dioxide. The addition of oxygen negated the difference observed between plate and epifluorescence counts for A. pasteurianus A8 during storage, while it stimulated growth of B. bruxellensis B3a.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Conclusions: Acetobacter pasteurianus A8 can survive under anaerobic conditions in wine in the presence of sulphur dioxide. Brettanomyces bruxellensis B3a is more sensitive to sulphur dioxide than A. pasteurianus A8, but can grow in the presence of oxygen. Care should be taken to exclude oxygen from contact with wine when it is being transferred or moved.

Significance and Impact of the Study: Wine spoilage can be avoided by preventing growth of undesirable acetic acid bacteria and Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts through the effective use of sulphur dioxide and the management of oxygen throughout the winemaking process.

© Reproduced with permission from du Toit, W.J.; Pretorius, I.S.; Lonvaud-Funel, A. The effect of sulphur dioxide and oxygen on the viability and culturability of a strain of Acetobacter pasteurianus and a strain of Brettanomyces bruxellensis isolated from wine. J. Appl. Microbiol. 98: 862–871; 2005. Copyright 2005 The Society for Applied Microbiology.

825 Cozzolino, D.; Murray, I. Analysis of animal by-products. Al-Amoodi, L.; Roberts, C.A.; Workman, J.; Reeves, J.B. (eds.) 64 Near-infrared spectroscopy in agriculture. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America: 647–662. (Agronomy Monograph; 44) 2004.

The use of rapid methods to measure the composition of foods and agricultural commodities increases efficiency and decreases quality control costs by introducing analysis into management and decision processes. The raw materials used to manufacture compound feeds are variable both in composition and in nutritional quality, as a result of multiple factors. This variability is most important to the feed industry, where a uniform and consistent product is required. Analytical control is essential to assess raw materials, products, and by-products, as well as to optimize the manufacturing process itself. During the past 20 yr[sic] a new spectroscopic evaluation of natural organic materials has emerged that offers a rapid and accurate means of testing food. The principle of near-infrared (NIR) reflectance spectroscopy is that light of wavelength 1100 to 2500 nm, reflected off powdered solids, contains compositional information that can be unraveled by a computer to report multiple analyses almost instantaneously. Near-infrared spectroscopy provides simultaneous, rapid, and nondestructive quantitation of major components in many organic substances. The technique is applicable to many foods and agricultural commodities and is widely used in the cereal,

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 oilseed, dairy, and meat processing industries. Near-infrared spectroscopy has been used to predict chemical composition of forages with high accuracy, but until recently, it had not been widely used for concentrates, compound feeds, and by-products. The scope of this chapter includes information related with the applications of NIR reflectance spectroscopy to the analysis of meat and fish by-products.

© Reproduced with permission from Cozzolino, D.; Murray, I. Analysis of animal by-products. Al-Amoodi, L.; Roberts, C.A.; Workman, J.; Reeves, J.B. (eds.) Near-infrared spectroscopy in agriculture. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America: 647–662. (Agronomy Monograph; 44) 2004. Copyright 2004 American Society of Agronomy Inc.

826 Simpson, R.F.; Capone, D.L.; Duncan, B.C.; Sefton, M.A. Incidence and nature of ‘fungal must’ taint in wine corks. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind J. 20(1): 26–31; 2005.

Cork taint continues to cause significant loss of quality of bottled wine and damage to the image and, at times, financial status of a winery that has the misfortune to experience a major incidence of ‘corked’ wine. Consequently, most Australian wineries invest considerable time and money on quality assessments of corks, and only accept corks 65 that meet the requirements of their quality control procedures.

An account of the quality control procedures developed at Southcorp Wines for closures has been presented by one of us (Duncan 1995), and included a listing of cork taints and their possible origin. Only the taints observed in natural corks will be considered in this article. Other taints, limited to agglomerate and sparkling wine closures, largely result from glues, plastics and treatments given to these closures.

One of the taints described as ‘fungal must’ (FM)/ ‘aldehydic’ /coffee/acrid/nutty taint has been investigated recently; and the compound responsible has now been identified as a methoxypyrazine (Simpson et al. 2004). This article describes this new cork taint compound, presents data on the incidence of FM taint observed during the Southcorp Wines closure assessments of more than 145,000 corks over nine years and demonstrates that FM could be a significant cause of cork taint, second only to 2,4,6-trichloroanisole.

© Reproduced with permission from Simpson, R.F.; Capone, D.L.; Duncan, B.C.; Sefton, M.A. Incidence and nature of ‘fungal must’ taint in wine corks. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind J. 20(1): 26–31; 2005. Copyright 2005 Winetitles.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 827 Fate of pesticides during the winemaking process in relation to malolactic fermentation. Ruediger, G.A.; Pardon, K.H.; Sas, A.N.; Godden, P.W.; Pollnitz, A.P. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 3023–3026; 2005.

The effect of red wine malolactic fermentation on the fate of seven fungicides (carbendazim, chlorothalonil, fenarimol, metalaxyl, oxadixyl, procymidone, and triadimenol) and three insecticides (carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, and dicofol) was investigated. After malolactic fermentation using Oenococcus oeni, which simulated common Australian enological conditions, the concentrations of the active compounds chlorpyrifos and dicofol were the most significantly reduced, whereas the concentrations of chlorothalonil and procymidone diminished only slightly. The effect of these pesticides on the activity of the bacteria was also studied. Dicofol had a major inhibitory effect on the catabolism of malic acid, whereas chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos, and fenarimol had only a minor effect.

© Reprinted with permission from Fate of pesticides during the winemaking process in relation to malolactic 66 fermentation. Ruediger, G.A.; Pardon, K.H.; Sas, A.N.; Godden, P.W.; Pollnitz, A.P. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53: 3023–3026; 2005. Copyright 2005 American Chemical Society.

828 Cozzolino, D.; Smyth, H.E.; Lattey, K.A.; Cynkar, W.; Janik, L.; Dambergs, R.G.; Francis, I.L.; Gishen, M. Relationship between sensory analysis and near infrared spectroscopy in Australian Riesling and Chardonnay wines. Anal. Chimica Acta 341–348; 2005.

The aim of this work was to investigate the relationship between sensory analysis and visible and near infrared spectroscopy in two Australian white wine varieties (namely unwooded Chardonnay and Riesling). A total of 120 samples (2 varieties × 3 replicates × 20 commercial labels) were scanned in transmission mode in the visible and near infrared range (400–2500 nm). For the purposes of this study four aroma descriptors generated from a sensory descriptive analysis study: estery, honey, passionfruit, lemon-citrus and two palate properties: overall flavour and sweetness were selected for investigation. Calibration models between sensory properties and spectra were developed using partial least squares regression (PLS1 and PLS2) with cross validation.

The correlation coefficients (Rcal) were greater than 0.70 for estery, lemon and honey, and less than 0.50 for passionfruit, overall flavour and sweetness in both calibration

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 and cross validation. Therefore, this work demonstrates that some relationships between sensory data and both visible and near infrared spectra exists to assess sensory properties in the white wine varieties. Further work will be carried out with a larger set of data including additional sensory properties in different white wine varieties in order to validate the method.

© Reproduced with permission from Cozzolino, D.; Smyth, H.E.; Lattey, K.A.; Cynkar, W.; Janik, L.; Dambergs, R.G.; Francis, I.L.; Gishen, M. Relationship between sensory analysis and near infrared spectroscopy in Australian Riesling and Chardonnay wines. Anal. Chimica Acta 341–348; 2005. Copyright 2005 Elsevier Science.

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June 2005 Technical Review No.156 Conference calendar

17–19 June 2005 The Good Food and Wine Show—Melbourne, Melbourne Exhibition and Convention Centre. Info: Australian Exhibition Services Pty Ltd, ph: 61 3 9261 45900, fax: 61 3 9261 4545, email: [email protected]

6–9 July 2005 Second Annual International Wine Marketing Symposium, Sonoma State University, Sonoma County, California. Info: Wine Business Program, School of Business Economics, Sonoma State University, Ph: 707 664 2260, Fax: 707 664 3317, Email:[email protected]

15–18 July 2005 INTERWINE CHINA 2005 (China International Wine, Brewery and Beverage Processing Technology & Equipment Trade Fair), Guangzhou City Convention & Exhibition Centre, Guangzhou, China. Info: Athena Wu, Project Manager, Canton Universal Fair Group Ltd, ph: 86 20 876 39852, 86 20 877 46095, fax: 86 20 877 46096, 86 20 876 39807, mob: 86 13 318 889865, email: [email protected], website: www.faircanton.c 68

29 July 2005 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology seminar on Transforming Flowers to Fruit, Mildura Arts Centre, Mildura, VIC. By video conference to Margaret River, WA and Applethorpe Research Station, Qld. Info: The Secretariat, Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology, ph: 61 8 8303 6607, fax: 61 8 8303 6803, email: [email protected]

13–17 August 2005 GESCO XIVth International Symposium on Viticulture, Geisenheim, Germany. Info: Congress Secretariat, GESCO Fachgebiet Weinbau, Forschungsanstalt Geisenheim, D-65366 Geisenheim, ph: (49) 6722 502151, fax: (49) 6722 502140, email: [email protected], website: www.GESCO2005.forschungsanstalt-Geisenheim.de

5–9 September 2005 12th Australian HACCP Conference Series, Menzies Hotel, Sydney, NSW. Info: Advancing Food Safety Pty Ltd, email: [email protected]

6 October 2005 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology seminar on Advances in Tannin and Tannin Management, Adelaide Convention Centre, Adelaide, SA. By video conference to Margaret River, WA and TAFE Division of Swinburne University of Technology, VIC. Info: The Secretariat, Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology, ph: 61 8 8303 6607, fax: 61 8 8303 6803, email: [email protected]

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 People and positions

Department of Food Science and Technology ACADEMIC POSITION ANNOUNCEMENT Assistant Professor, Tenure-track

Position: The Department of Food Science and Technology invites applications for a tenure-track Assistant Professor position in ENOLOGY. This is a full-time, 12-month appointment with a monthly appointment percent of 1.00 FTE. Salary is competitive, and benefits package includes several options for health/dental/life insurance, retirement, and tuition reduction program (some restrictions may apply). 69

Department: The primary mission of the OSU Department of Food Science and Technology is to serve food technologists, food processors and the citizens of Oregon, the region, nation and the world through research, education and outreach activities. The department has approximately 74 undergraduate majors and 31 graduate majors. The faculty includes 17 members. The collegial character of our faculty encourages collaborative research and teaching.

College: The College of Agricultural Sciences is responsible for undergraduate and graduate education, research and outreach. Research and outreach missions are supported in part by funding provided from state and federal sources for the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station and the Cooperative Extension Service. The College has around 1500 students and graduate students comprise about 20% of the student body. The College has over 250 faculty located on campus, at the Cascades and Eastern Oregon University Campus, in almost every county Extension office in the state and at 11 branch research stations. The College serves a diverse clientele through its research and research activities.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 University OSU is one of only two American universities to hold the Land & Community: Grant, Sea Grant, Sun Grant, and Space Grant designation and is a Carnegie Doctoral/Research-Extensive university. OSU is located in Corvallis, a Community of 53,000 people situated in the Willamette Valley between Portland and Eugene. Ocean beaches, lakes, rivers, forests, high desert, the rugged Cascade and Coast Ranges, and the urban amenities of the Portland metropolitan area are all within a 100-mile drive of Corvallis. Approximately 15,700 undergraduate and 3,400 graduate students are enrolled at OSU, including 2,600 U.S. students of color and 950 international students.

The university has an institution-wide commitment to diversity, multiculturalism, and community. We actively engage in recruiting and retaining a diverse workforce and student body that includes members of historically underrepresented groups. We strive to build and sustain a welcoming and supportive campus environment. OSU

70 provides outstanding leadership opportunities for people interested in promoting and enhancing diversity, nurturing creativity, and building community.

Responsibilities: Candidate will establish a recognized wine fermentation research program that is industrially relevant and will focus on practices to optimize wine quality and stability. Develop and implement an enology Extension outreach program that will assist the rapidly growing Oregon wine industry with solving commercial production problems. The candidate is expected to work in close collaboration with the industry and to provide leadership in promoting Oregon winemaking and viticulture. Participate in teaching courses in wine production and wine sensory analysis and advising students in identifying career opportunities.

Technical Review No.156 June 2005 Qualifications: Required: Candidates must have a Ph.D. degree in Food Science, Enology, Chemistry, Chemical Engineering or related disciplines; demonstrated capability to develop a pertinent research program, which emphasized the relationship of wine science principles to wine processing, finishing and packaging; an interest in teaching and working with undergraduates and graduate students in the laboratory environment; demonstrated ability to work as a team member; effective and professional communication skills.

Preferred: Prior experience in the wine industry or post-doctoral research and a demonstrable commitment to promoting and enhancing diversity.

Application: For full consideration apply by July 15, 2005. Send your curriculum vitae, a cover letter explaining your interest in this position and full contact information for 4 references to: Dr. Mark. A. Daeschel, Search Committee Chair, 100 Wiegand Hall, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331 71

Applications can be emailed to: [email protected] or faxed to: 541-737-1877

Oregon State University is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.

June 2005 Technical Review No.156 The Technical Review is published bimonthly by The Australian Wine Research Institute. It is available free of charge to winemakers paying a levy under the Wine Grapes Levy Act, however, other interested organizations and individuals may subscribe to Technical Review.

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No. 156 June 2005 Technical Review

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