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Preface 03 Input Stage 24- Basic Coverage in setting up the SIGA 25 1. Social and Economic Stage 1. Geophysical System 25 Impact of Disasters 05 Stage 2. Socio-Economic System 39 Stage 3. Use of Land The Cycle: disasters-poverty and 57 Stage 4. Lifelines and Basic Services 60 environmental degradation 06 Stage 5. Processing Stage 64 Evolution of the Conceptual Framework An Exercise for the Preparation of the SIGA 83 Regarding Disasters 07 The Kobe Summit 09 Post-Kobe Challenges 11 4. Use of space and satellite Economic and financial management for technology and new local reducing vulnerability at the municipal level 14 practices in risk management 2.What is the SIGA? 17 and vulnerability reduction 87

The SIGA Principles 18 Aims of the Methodological Guide 19 Appendices 97 Basic concepts 97 3.Phases in the Constuction of the SIGA 21 Threat, Risk, Vulnerability and Resilience 99 Prior Requirements 22 Source of Information 102 Municipal Organizational Chart Social and Economic Concepts 105 (Structure, Units, Committees) 22 Priorities of the Hyogo Links with other Institutions 23 Plan of Action for 2005-2015 114 General aims for the implementation of the SIGA 23 Definition of variables to be considered 24 Consideration of difficulties to be resolved 24 Bibliography 117

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [1] Acknowledgements

The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) wishes to acknowledge the contributions of:

Economist Marcos Adamson-Badilla, M.Sc., who was responsible for the summary of the World Confer- ences on Disaster Reduction, the incorporation of economic aspects and indicators, and the revision, Edition: Gastón Bouchard, Alicia Iglesias (IDRC) updating and editing of the original version. Design: Diseño Básico Cover picture: Federico Gutiérrez Geographer Gabriela Fernández and Agronomist Inside pictures: Federico Gutiérrez, AFP (page 11) Alvaro González, who were responsible for the first version of the document and the formulation of the May 2008 modules.

[2], PREFACE

Over the years, the International Development America and the Caribbean, within the framework for the reduction of factors that exacerbate the Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada has been sup- of the former Environmental Management Secre- poverty-disaster-environmental degradation rela- porting the incorporation of information systems tariat (EMS) of IDRC. tion, by strengthening local management capaci- for urban environmental decision-making in mu- ties in order to increase local resilience to natural nicipalities throughout Latin America and the Ca- Based on the application of geographic informa- disasters. ribbean. This research conducted by the Faculty tion systems (GIS) fundamentals, this manual de- of Science of the University of the Republic of scribes the steps to be taken and the materials With this publication, IDRC contributes to the im- Uruguay, was initially conceived for the purpose to be used to set up an information system that plementation of the tenets and goals set forth in of managing new events posing urban environ- allows municipal technical experts and decision the Kobe World Conference on Disaster Reduction mental risks. Within this context, the research makers to identify, diagnose and map vulnerabil- (VVCDR), Japan, 2005, aimed at providing com- outcomes were enhanced with the production of ity and risk areas in a given municipal territory, by munities with greater resilience to face natural a tool to support integrated risk and urban vulner- building simple indicators that help monitor the disasters. ability management in case of natural disasters, evolution of these events. the so-called Integrated Municipal Environmental Management System (Sistema Integrado para la This version of the SIGA manual incorporates Gestión Ambiental Municipal - SIGA, in Spanish). the economic factor into local risk management planning, which allows decision makers to define SIGA was intended for local use and is geared to municipal priorities and availability of resources facilitate the advisory task of municipal technical and thus enhance planning processes relative to experts, decision makers, members of civil soci- Investment in Prevention and Mitigation at the ety and land use planners. This tool is based on a Municipal level (IPM M in Spanish). It also makes it methodological integrated management approach possible to identify opportunities to complement that incorporates social and environmental fac- strategies relative to social investment, vulner- tors to the basic physical variables that describe ability and risk reduction and, finally, also enhance the territory under study. participatory processes relative to education and dissemination. Accordingly, SIGA represents a In this manual, the authors of the tool have syn- pre-investment endeavour in terms of municipal thesized the learning provided by SIGA users prevention and mitigation. themselves, as well as the results of the knowledge exchanged during different face-to-face and As part of the core activities of the Urban Poverty International Development Research Centre - Canada. distance training courses carried out for munici- and Environment Programme (UPE) of IDRC, this Walter Ubal Giordano, Senior Programme Specialist. pal experts in the different sub-regions of Latin manual is a contribution to advancing the process May 2008 _ 9 ...1

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". 1. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF DISASTERS

Chart 1. Number of disasters/year in LAC (1970-2002) Tablet. Losses (thousands of US$ 1998), number of people affected and deaths by type of disaster, 35 LAC countries (1970 - 2002)

30 Consequences 25 Cause

Losses $ , Deaths Disasters affect over 200 million people a year. 20 Landslides The economic losses they generate not only delay 7.011 25.608 4.640 15 the development process, but also use up limited Volcanic Eruptions 1.599.975 677.096 22.836 resources which could otherwise be used for so- 10 Floods 2.551.821 15.322.202 37.254 cial priorities such as the relief of poverty and the Droughts improvement of the health conditions and educa- 5 1.693.627 5.290.527 41 tion of the populations concerned. o 1I1111111111111111111111111111111 Earthquakes and tremors 13.340.558 7.446.000 47.357 IN CO o Hurricanes and storms 11.398.848 21.534.796 33.568 CO o For example, it was found that the population af- 0, o TOTAL fected in 28 countries of the Latin America and 30.591.839 50.296 229 145.696 the Caribbean region (LAC) (1972-99) was over 150 million people; with over 100 thousand dead Graph 2. Losses according to type of disaster, Graph 1. Break-down of disasters in LAC 1970-2002 and over 12 million victims (M. Adamson, 2003). LAC:1970-2002 Chart 1 shows the upward trend in the number of 7% 5% disasters per year which have affected the region 31% 0% 5% 37% 8% every year. If this increase of 4% per year is main- 6% tained, in only fifteen years the area will undergo the same number of disasters which affected it 38% over a thirty-year period. 11% 8% 44%

Hydrometeoroloqical disasters (Graph 1) are the Landslides Volcanic Eruptions 0 Landslides Volcanic Eruptions most frequent type of disasters in LAC: in first Floods Droughts Floods Droughts place, floods (38%), followed by hurricanes and Earthquakes and tremors Hurricanes and storms Earthquakes and tremors e Hurricanes and storms storms (31%); and in third place, earthquakes and tremors (11%). Source: Produced by M. Adamson, CIESA 2003 from CRED Source: M. Adamson, CIESA for ACS (2003). (2003).

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA IS) Disasters represent an external blow to the econ- greater intensity and dynamism. Therefore, sci- omy, depreciating infrastructure, leading to losses The Cycle: entific and technological research of the threats in the production of goods and services, altering disasters-poverty and (causes, characteristics, frequency, intensity, pe- relative prices within the economy and the expec- environmental degradation riodicity and probability or risk of occurrence) is tations of investors, and affecting the markets in very important for the progress of prevention and Revealingly for LAC, it has been found that, regard- areas such as real estate, tourism and transport, mitigation of disaster impact. all of which results in a heavy burden for sustain- ing the effect of disasters on people, hurricanes and storms are responsible for 40% of the people able human development. All in all, in economic terms, disasters generate an affected (Graph 3), followed by floods (30%), and important depreciation of physical capital (cumula- The effect of the disasters will vary according droughts, which are responsible for 10% of the af- tive processes of investment efforts, for example, to type (earthquake, landslide, flood, hurricane, fected people. Earthquakes only account for 14% in infrastructure); of human capital (cumulative pro- etc.)', physical, economic and social conditions (for of the effects. cesses of investment in health, education and oppor- example, the pattern for use of natural resources, tunities for human development which are degraded distribution of income and poverty, investment in Overall, hydrometeorological events cause close to through loss of life and impact on people) and a de- prevention and mitigation in the area) and, in gen- 86% of the social impact of disasters, which is very preciation of natural capital (environmental quality eral, the vulnerability of society in the face of such serious, since a large proportion of the population and natural resources accumulation). events. affected is poor or very poor. It is a well-known fact that the poorer settlements and villages of mu- Graph 3. Break-down of total number of people affected by type of disaster:1970-2002 The dimensions of yearly worldwide socio-economic nicipalities are located on river banks and on mid- losses due to disasters are huge. By the year 2000, watercourses; generally in degraded river basins, as well as in coastal areas where natural barriers major disasters exceeded 80 thousand trillion dollars 1% 0% 11% and it is estimated that if the present trend contin- (mangrove swamps, wetlands, etc.) have been over- ues, by 2050 they will represent over 100 thousand exploited, and in urban areas with little rain collec- 43.4p 15% lives lost per year (Munich Ree, 2000). tion and sanitary infrastructure. This is due to the fact that these lands are less expensive. Thus, a di- 1 In economic terms, an For example, during the last three decades, 28 saster-poverty-deterioration of natural resources external impact refers to 30% cycle is established, which feeds itself and increas- the presence of an event, countries in LAC (Table 1) lost over 30.5 billion dol- Landslides Volcanic Eruptions of a geo-physical type, for lars (1998 constants). Just over 43% (Graph 2) of es the vulnerability of these municipalities. Floods Droughts Earthquakes and Tremors Hurricanes and Storms example, which is exog- these losses were caused by earthquakes; 37% by enous to the system, and hurricanes and storms, and 8.5% by floods. If the evolution of economic losses in the region which will impact on the is analyzed over time, it is found that these losses system depending on its Source: Elaborated by M Adamson de CIESA, for AEC, 2003 using CRED (2003). structure. are cyclical (op.cit.). This may reflect periods of

[6] The impact of disasters, measured in total losses, reflect the relative size of disasters with respect to This UPE-IDRC initiative is in accordance with pro- offers an indicator of the absolute size of the dam- the economic system. gress made within the conceptual framework of risk age. However, this information says little about Analogously, at the municipal level, indicators may management and vulnerability reduction, result- the relative importance of the disaster and of the be designed to show the absolute and relative size ing from summit meetings, which have stimulated economic system's capacity to respond to this im- of the economic impact of disasters, such as to- the evolution, systematization and integration of pact. tal losses in the municipality, losses by sector as a knowledge, sound practices and the development percentage of the sectorial production in the mu- of methodologies in this field. Within this concep- Table 2 shows the accumulated absolute value of nicipality, etc. tual development, two periods stand out: before the losses from disasters in Central America, and and after the World Conference at Yokohama and its relationship to some economic variables. For The availability of municipal social condition in- the major challenges faced after Kobe. example, these losses account for close to half of dicators (absolute and relative) is also important. the foreign debt in Central America. Thus, it has These indicators (of social and economic impact) World Conference on Disaster Reduc- been argued (M. Adamson, 2003) that disasters and their integration with threat and risk indica- limit or held back the development possibilities tors offer an overview of the municipality's vulner- tion: "A Safer World in the 21st Centu- of the region. In this area, disasters account for ability in the face of disasters. If indicators of the ry" over 80% of exporting capacity. These indicators economic profitability of investment in prevention Held in Yokohama (Japan) in 1994. One of its aims and mitigation are added, the capacity (resilience) was to carry out a revision of progress achieved in or degree of adaptability of the municipality may the first half of what is known as the "International be evaluated. Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction" (IDNDR). Table 2. Disasters and economic impact The Conference congregated over 2000 partici- indicators pants, close to150 Member States from the United Nations System and partners of IDNDR and its In- Category I %of losses per disaster A. Evolution of the Concep- ternational Framework of Action.

Disasters* I 9.794 1 100% tual Framework Regarding External Dept 20.087 I 49% Disasters

Internal Dept 11.892 1 82% Due to the profound social and economic impact of

Exports 11.716 1. 84% disasters, the international community has made e/ Constant 1998 dollars, so relationships are higher. increasing efforts to search for analysis outlines and answers in order to minimize these impacts Source: M. Adamson, CIESA, 2003, using data from CMCA. Constant 1998 US dollars and to promote societies with ever-increasing ca- Source: M. Adamson. CIESA. 2003, with data from CM CA. pacity to adapt in their response to disasters.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA 171 The debate and the Plan of Action were based on ten The Conference made substantial contributions principles, which may be summarized as follows: within the conceptual framework, as well as recom- risk reduction management approaches with mendations for disaster preparedness, which paved a strong integration of social science ele- the way in that area for the second half of the nine- ments. ties and the early years of the new millennium. Risk identification and assessment. The recognition of the need for public policies and strategies aimed at risk reduction: Disaster prevention and disaster preparedness. As a result of a brief summary of documents', and more than a decade after the Conference in Yoko- there was a transition from methods centred It is acknowledged that policies and their plan- hama, we have identified two large groups of re- on preparedness for emergencies to a grow- ning include, as an integral element, prevention sults and contributions: ing focus on vulnerability and risk reduction, of disasters and preparedness (on a national, The valuable legacy of its structured framework with a marked evolution towards regional and regional and local scale, and among countries). of ideas, and local approaches, with the emergence of the demand for plural and participatory focuses Fostering the capacity to prevent, reduce its level of influence on pragmatic issues. (ISDR, 2006). This is evident in a large num- and mitigate disasters. ber of countries and is manifested by the The role of early warning, timely dissemination The following box summarizes the main contribu- reformation of juridical frameworks and the of information and means of communication. tions: proliferation of national plans centred on prevention and mitigation. Prevention is more effective if it is participatory. Scientific and technological progess is an interesting incorporation in the identification Educating beneficiaries on vulnerability Box 1. Substantial Contributions of the Yo- of threats and the undestanding of events, as reduction. kohama Conference a practical contributing factor for vulnerabil- International technological cooperation. Progress within the framework of ideas, ity reduction. range and complexity of vulnerability reduc- Virtuous circles: environmental protection In the first half of 2000, an official and public tion of (physical, economic and environmen- and sustainable development; poverty al- undestanding was declared, which stimulated tal): a proliferation of common terminology leviation and prevention. a growing demand for a significantly stronger was generated with reference to risk reduc- commitment to reducing vulnerability. It is the States'responsibility to protect tion, recognized frameworks and applica- their societies from disasters, and Devel- tions, which led to management of disasters oped Countries (DC) are urged to coop- from an integral perspective. This produced, 2 See, for example, United erate with the Less Developed Countries in the following decade, a diversification of Nations document A/CONF. 206/ L, 2005.

[8] From Yokohama to Kobe: reduction in investing and the relationship with (2000) was significant in strengthening activities A Search to Overcome Deficiencies the environment and natural resources, are the regarding the reduction of the economic and so- World Conference on Disas- pillars on which the Hyogo Plan of Action is based: cial impact caused by disasters worldwide in this ter Reduction, Kobe, Hyogo, Significantly, ten years later, the basic principles of Japan. Pp 6-26 and United To increase the resilience of nations and communi- century. The Conference emphasized the relation- Nations General Assembly Yokohama were acknowledged as being currently ties in the face of disasters., Chart 2 summarizes ship which appears as a link between disasters Resolution 58/214. valid during the World Conference on Disaster Re- the objectives, the declaration, the priorities and and the eradication of poverty challenge. It reaf- 6 In accordance with duction held in Kobe (prefecture of Hyogo, Japan, the Plan of Action. firmed the results of the Johannesburg Summit, pertinent provisions of the January 2005)3 indicating the need for participatory sustainable Plan of Implementation of the Decisions of the World One of Kobe's main objectives was to complete the development plans'. Summit on Sustainable The evaluation of the Yokohama results, which was analysis of the Yokohama Strategy and its Plan of Development, held in Jo- carried out before the Kobe Conference, showed Action, in order to update the framework to guide hannesburg (South Africa), that if the strategies and actions for disaster reduc- disaster reduction in the 21st century. The aims from 26 August to 4 Sep- tember 2002. tion are not included in national plans, the impact of also returned to the provision regarding vulner- 7 Due to the great impact disasters will continue to limit the socio-economic ability reduction and risk evaluation contained in of the tidal wave which oc- development of countries. It was pointed out in Yo- the Plan of Implementation of the Decisions of the curred in the Indian Ocean kohama that it was important that these actions World Summit on Sustainable Development, to a on 26 December 2004. for reduction should succeed in improving national greater awareness of the significance of disaster Among other things, it capabilities and particular emphasis was laid on highlighted the fact that reduction policies', and to the availability and 3 Over 300 official mem- EWS centred on human the local scale (United Nations. A/CONF. 206/ L, quality of appropriate information on disasters. bers took part (countries beings are tools which aid 2005). and organizations with the achievement of a pre- The Conference established the following action their delegations); among ventive culture, as well as others, ministers, govern- evaluations regarding risk, priority for the next decade: "the considerable re- ment officials, Non-Gov- education and pro-active B. The Kobe Summit duction of loss caused by disasters, both in human ernmental Organizations approaches, which are in- lives and in social, economic and environmental (NG0s), mayors, represen- tegrated, multi-sectoral The deficient areas and main challenges of Yoko- losses in communities and countries". tatives from cooperation and forewarning of multiple hama' became the main subject and a priority for and financing agencies dangers. progress, promoted by the World Conference on and from technical and re- 8 Including national and A significant amount of time was devoted to de- Disaster Reduction in Kobe, Japan (2005). search institutions. local governments, f inan- bates on solutions which would integrate Early According to the UN cial institutions, regional Warning Systems (EWS) and public policies and agreement regarding the and international organiza- These deficiencies in governance and policies; eco- urban risks and on the incorporation of new tech- "Examination of the Yoko- tions, civil society, NG05, nomic and financial risk, knowledge, scientific and hama Strategy and Plan of volunteers, the private nological solutions for EWS.' The monitoring of the technological management; awareness and risk Action for a Safer World". sector and the scientif ic aims established in the Millennium Declaration United Nations, (2005). community, among others.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [91 Chart 2. World Conference on Disaster prow ti,, Kobe, Hyogo (Japan), ,()/),,

Objectives Declaration

- To conclude the analysis of the Yokohama Strategy and its - Recognizes the disaster-poverty relationship and sustainable development and the importance of sectorial Plan of Action to update the guiding frame for disaster re- paticipation. duction in the 21st century. - Calls for sensitization to, recognition of and political support for disaster risk reduction and the - To describe in detail specific activities to ensure completion of mobilization of resources. the pertinent provision on vulnerability, evaluation of risk and - Recognizes the importance of investiment in reducing vulnerability. conduct of activities in case of disaster. - Reiterates the reduction of risk in disasters as a primary objective in national policies. - To exchange best practices and experiences to encourage 4 to- disaster reduction in the search for sustaninable develop- - Demands the development of measurable indicators to evaluate advances in prevention and EWSs. ment and determine the deficiencies and problems. - Calls for the use of guidelines and clear priorities in order to take action consistent with the Jo- - To raise awareness of the importance of disaster reduc- hannnesburg Plan of Implementation, the Millenium Goals and the Kyogo Plan of Action. tion policies, for the purpose of facilitating and promoting their aplication; increasing the availability and reliability of proper information on disasters intended for the public and organization. Plan of Action

- State promotion of sustainable development and Strengthening tecnical and scientific capac- proper measures for disaster reduction. ity. - Legislative and institutional regulatory - Developing strategies and programs at the Priorities frameworks for risk reduction. sectorial level. Production of specific and measurable indi- - Establishing food security as a priority. cators. - To make sure disaster risk reduction is a national - Strengthening the capacities of institutions Source: Produced by M. Adam- and local priority, with a solid institutional aplica- - Knowing threats and factors of risk. providing services during emergencies. son using: tion base. - Updating information. - Mechanism for risk reduction insurance . World Conference on Natural In order to and reinsurance. Disasters Report, Kobe, Hyogo - To identify, evaluate and monitor disaster risks achieve them - Creating Early Warning Systems as risk indi- (Japan), 2005. and foster early warning. one must cators. - Participation of the private sector in pre- World Conference on Disaster vention activities. Reduction Declaration, Kobe, - To use knowledge, innovations and education to - Improving information systems. - Hyogo (Japan), 2005. create a security and resilience culture at every - Divulging knowledge of and information on Willingness of both authorities and commu- Action Plan for the World Con- level. threats and vulnerability factors. nities. ference on Disaster Reduction, - Reduce the underlying factors of risk. Strengthening communication networks. - Strengthening and promoting communica- Kobe, Hyogo (Japan), 2005. tion. . Strategy Test and Yokohama - Strengthen the preparation for times of disaster in Incorporation of disaster risk reduction in school Plan of Action for a sefer world, order to ensure a good response on every level. syllabi. Promotion of an emergency fund, among 2005. others.

DO] From the public policy point of view of, the Summit the local level. The appendix provides a summary highlighted the significant role the State must play of the main items of the Plan of Action. in protecting the population and its possessions in the face of danger. It reiterated the Yokohama pronouncement on the importance of promoting a C. Post-Kobe Challenges culture of disaster prevention and proposed that preventive strategies must become a central part The Summit achieved its purpose of offering a of each nation's public policies regarding risk re- conceptual framework to make progress in disas- duction. ter reduction in the new century. However, defi- 4 411AW: cient areas persist which represent significant op- The Summit granted a central role to the high po- portunities and complementarities, in which small tential perceived in the increase of local adapt- advances would generate notable benefits in vul- ability or resilience in the face of disasters, which nerability reduction, both at the national and local was classed as a "very solid investment", that is, level. Box 2 shows a summary of the main post- it is highly profitable in economic terms. Kobe challenges and opportunities.

All of the above resulted in a call for the adoption It is within the framework of this evolution in thought of adequate disaster reduction measures, aim- and under the influence of its principles that the 1 ing at an increase in the capabilities of develop- Integrated System for Municipal Environmental ing countries through technical and financial as- Management (SIGA) emerges as a tool which com- sistance, due to the fact that these countries are bines elements for municipal management of vul- the most vulnerable, via planning and bilateral, nerability reduction, through the identification of regional and international cooperation. threats and their risks interacting with the environment, populations and economic activities. The Hyogo Plan of Action approved for 2005-2015 urges the monitoring of the achievements based on the International Strategy for Disaster Reduc- tion (ISDR), and establishes the need to create indicators to monitor the progress of risk reduction activities. Defining the action priorities was a valuable contribution, as was also the extensive details of the Plan, which emphasizes actions at

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA Box 2. Post-Kobe challenges and opportunities

To position the vulnerability reduction and Local instruments. At the municipal level housing solutions, etc.) need to be con- resilience objective at the highest level on in particular, progress mut be made in the nected to measurable objectives and crite- the agenda and in the priorities of Treasury development of instruments, methodolo- ria for reducing vulnerability to disasters. and Public Finance institutions. It is in the gies and training processes which will allow At the local and at municipal level in par- Ministries of Finance that public investment the identification of the main threats and ticular this provides a vast area of opportu- is approved or rejected. Unfortunately, this risks, and the analysis of decision -making nities that has hardly been explored. is a point which has been ignored during processes regarding investment in vulner- Development of goals and quantitative vul- the last two decades. It is vital that na- ability reduction according to profitability, nerability reduction indicators as regards tional investment goals for prevention and which will allow the generation of this in- the achievements being sought; biannual mitigation be established, similar to those crease in local resilience. and five-yearly, at least. Without quantifi- established for education, health, etc. Development of local and municipal incen- able goals that can be monitored, verifying To achieve economic and financial sustain- tives, such as tax benefits to reward preven- success in meating these major challenges ability. This is a sine qua non for the build- tive investment practices in the activities is very difficult and unlikely, and so is the ing of local capacity (local resilience) to of various sectors in a municipality. These implementation of remedial action for fac- develop the significant actions described. are significant municipal financial actions ing them successfully. For example, National and Municipal Pre- in generating incentives to strengthen in- vention and Mitigation Investment Strate- vestment in prevention endogenously. gies must be established immediately, with Source: M. Adamson, 2007. Explicit link between social investment the support of endogenous economic and programmes and vulnerability reduction. financial instruments that will allow for one In order to make progress in breaking the thing, the self-financing of this investment, poverty -disasters- environmental degra- and for another, a more efficient transfer dation circle, national social investment of risk, both in terms of time and space. programmes (to reduce poverty, provide

D21 A

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [13] cial instruments for vulnerability reduction are of social investment (erroneously called social ex- D. Economic and financial non-existent or very few, such as those designed penses) is not aligned with the use of these funds management for reducing to promote Investment in Prevention and Mitiga- and vulnerability reduction priorities. It is usual vulnerability at the munic- tion. to find within municipalities, housing programs or school rebuilding projects, etc., located in high- 9 Adamson. Chap. VII. M. Adamson. CIESA for ACS. ipal level Insufficient financial management of funds and threat areas, even built in the very locations which Análisis de fondos nacionales A country's experience in economic and financial redeployment of resources. Much of these funds have previously been flooded. en América Latina y el Cari- management of disasters is a valuable model which is operated in a casual and ad-hoc manner, limited be, en Estudio de Factibilidad Financiero y Económico para must be considered when analyzing the possibili- to a simple current account with minimum finan- Erosion, corruption and loss of credibility. The con- un Fondo de Reconstruc- ties of prevention management and vulnerability cial engineering. cept of a great "emergency fund" has become worn, ción Post-Desastres. 2003. reduction in local governments in general. due on the one hand to few accountability processes ("Analysis of national funds in Their fragility makes them easy prey. As there is and limited participation of interested sectors; and Latin America and the Carib- on the other, to episodes of corruption and fraudu- bean, in a Financial and Eco- Below, a summary is given of the main deficiencies no diversity of economic and financial instruments nomic Feasibility Study for a in economic and financial management of disas- for the spatial and temporal distribution of risks, lent dealings encouraged by those same factors. Post-Disaster Reconstruction ter reduction found in LAC countries (Adamson, when faced with fiscal deficit, those in charge of These are often facilitated by the discretional and Fund. 2003). The study used 2003): public funds have chosen to redeploy accumu- prompt handling which is required for these resourc- a sample of 17 LAC countries. lated resources. This is done in order to cover es during times of disaster which have been declared lo When some of the sub- Limited quantities. Only half of the countries have other priorities during disaster-free periods, thus national emergencies. regions are analyzed, as in the case of Central Ameri- a formal financial facility or a fund which is struc- eliminating the principle of temporal distribution ca, existing funds are only tured as such.' of risk which allows for the accumulation of funds Lastly, limited financial sustainability of funds. sufficient to cover 0.1% through low-risk investments as a way to prepare Mainly due to the fact that a high proportion (al- of the reported economic Limited Size. Resources in these funds are only financially during less intense disaster periods. most 60%) of these funds operates on the basis losses, that is, they only of resource deviation, or with resources obtained cover a thousandth part sufficient to cover 2% of the economic losses.' of the damage caused. Non-existence of indicators for the evaluation of from communities or private sourcestherefore, Even in regions with more Concentration of Funds. The great majority of re- economic and social profitability performance there is no permanent or endogenous funding attractive funding in fi- sources available in those funds are concentrated of investments. In general, limited investment in process. In other words, the flow of resources is nancial terms, such as the in very few regions. prevention is not the result of prioritization on the not sustainable. G-3, reported funds only cover 4% of the economic basis of economic and social profitability indica- losses. Scarce Diversification. The limited financial fa- tors, either ex ante nor ex post. LAC countries are facing the greater part of post-di- 11 The 0-3's national funds cilities available, in over 90% of the cases, are saster situations (regarding both emergency assis- account for 97% of avail- restricted to post-disaster funds (dealing with Scarce integration between risk reduction man- tance and the minimal post reconstruction which is able funds in that region of emergencies or mitigation). Economic and finan- agement and social investment. The greater part carried out) with public resources (including debt), LAC.

[14] as well as with local and communal resources. It The IMPM has shown to have very high socio-eco- is evident that international donations and assis- nomic profitability, but in spite of this, there is a tance are becoming more and more limited.' significant delay in aligning development strategies and public and private IPM, mainly because of Municipal economic and financial management of the inexistence of profitability evaluation. prevention must incorporate these lessons in order to avoid repeating them on a local scale. It is Local governments base their financing on tax col- not the object of this manual to go into these mat- lection (on properties, for example) and on the col- ters in depth, but they do, however, help the SIGA lection of duties and rates (commercial, patents, mu- to become an effort which generates activities nicipal services, etc.). and results to effectively create greater capacity of adaptation or resilience in the face of disasters An efficiently managed IMPM will not only be highly in municipalities. profitable from the point of view of the economic valuation of the benefits generated by the popula- Investment in Municipal Prevention and Mitigation tion with relation to their cost, but it will also have (IMPM) then becomes a significant tool to aid the a multiplying effect on the value of land and goods process of increasing local capacity or resilience, in in the investment's area of influence. This will in view of the limited and intermittent resources being the end result in a better financial balance for the used. The potential of IMPM is increased due to the municipality 12 Countries are mainly few resources available to minimize post-impact, financing post-impact which do not cover more than 2% of the economic How can the municipality's threats, vulnerabilities by means of their own losses. and risks be determined? Where are they located resources from national and how are they related to population groups funds (25%), in the second place, through redeploy- Thus, if municipalities are not able to develop their and to productive activities? How can it be deter- ment of government funds own economic management capacity for disasters, mined which areas of the municipality require a (20%); local and commu- based on the use of economic instruments and greater IMPM? As will become apparent below, it nal resources (10%) and mechanisms endogenous to their local economic is precisely the justification and raison d'être of NGO support (5%), with activity, it will be very difficult, if not impossible, for the SIGA to find the answers to these and other international cooperation amounting to 16% and them to reduce their risk and vulnerability levels. questions. finally donations account- This is due to the fact that they will no longer be able ing for 13%. External loans to finance investment in a sustained way to achieve barely amount to 7%. (Ad- greater resilience. amson, M., CIESA, 2003, op cit.).

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sow 2. WHAT IS THE SIGA?

From the methodological point of view: it is a tool indicators regarding economic, social, and munici- extent on the location, society and economic sys- which uses an integrated approach for the identifi- pal finance profitability (tax collection and other tems in which the disaster takes place. cation and analysis of disaster threats, vulnerabili- income). The aim of all of the above is to provide ties and risks, as well as their inter-relationship, on technical nourishment for decision-making in IPM Because of this, the SIGA presents different units a municipal scale. processes in strategy planning for risk reduction of information: depending on the type of threat (hy- and vulnerability. This contributes to increasing the drometeorological, tectonic, technological); a geo- The SIGA incorporates the main factors which levels of resilience or adaptability and to reducing physical information unit, a social and economic in- determine the threats to which a municipality is economic and social loss in the municipality when formation unit, a unit on the use of land and another exposed (natural threats and those which result faced with disasters. on the infrastructure of lifelines and services. from or are exacerbated by the social and economic system); as well as existing links between From the point of view of a conceptual framework These units reflect a broad understanding of the risk of the threat materializing and municipali- on disasters: the SIGA is an attempt at capturing and terms, in which geophysical events, such as earth- ties' vulnerability. The above is closely related to systematizing essential aspects of the evolution and quakes, constitute disasters in as much as they social and economic factors. Among other possi- development of the conceptual framework achieved affect the economic and social systems located bilities, the SIGA allows the generation of thematic throughout several decades and summarized in the in a given territory. Furthermore, this interpreta- maps and reports which can be prepared from the Disaster Reduction Conferences (Yokohama and tion includes disasters resulting from the various analysis of SIGA information. Kobe). It introduces an integral conception which activities related to the economic system, such as seeks to reduce the impact of disasters and the im- production plans, the use of natural resources and From an economic viewpoint, the SIGA is a pre- provement of capabilities to increase communities' soil; or technological disasters such as leakages of investment in municipal prevention and mitigation capacity to adapt (resilience) at the municipal level. dangerous or contaminating chemicals. process, with the ultimate aim of strengthening more sustainable municipal development, with im- The SIGA introduces a balance between the techno- From the monitoring point of view: the SIGA of- proved knowledge regarding environmental sur- cratic aspect of the threat and the social aspect of fers a concrete tool in response to the Kobe appeal roundings being gained as the SIGA develops. It is vulnerability. The former is based on the identifica- for the development of measurable and related a pre-investment process, since it precedes invest- tion of threats and their measurement, supported indicators in terms of threats, risks and vulner- ment execution processes. by information provided by technology and scien- ability. It explicitly includes issues of poverty and tific findings which seek to improve understanding distribution, presented in the shape of thematic From the point of view of municipal decision mak- of extreme events. The vulnerability prevention maps, reports and analyses, as well as specific ers, once the SIGA has been designed and installed and reduction approach recognizes that the disas- variables of interest. in the municipality, it becomes a value added body ter problem is not rooted merely in the presence of of information, which will allow for the evaluation natural events, but also in the undesirable impacts As may be seen in Chart 3, the System does not of alternatives, easily complemented by the use of which must be minimized. It also depends to a large attempt to offer methodologies for the making

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [17] of decisions at the municipality level. These will Chart 3. SIGA Schematic Diagram depend on the internal priorities identified by the municipality in relation to the services and proj- Threats ects which it proposes to develop, and on the state of its economic resources (human, infrastructure, Hydrometeorolica Tectonic Technological processes and financial depending on the municipality's funds). However, the SIGA does have the Lifelines and Services capacity to show decision makers the overlapping Geophysical System Socio-Ecnonomic System Land Use areas in which, for example, actions on education, Urban Rural Road Network municipal infrastructure and vulnerability reduc- Altimetry Demography Water tion complement and reinforce each other. Hydric Basins Housing Residential Agriculture

1 L_ Energy Welfare and (Human) Public Livestock Geology A diagram of the basic SIGA principles and founda- Development tions for support is shown next. These principles Industrial Mining Sewerage Geomorphology Production and Investment correspond to those which upheld the knowledge Transport Commercial Forestry framework in Yokohama and Kobe, and seek to Hydric Network Loss due to Disasters make a pragmatic contribution to progress in pri- Parks Protected ority areas and regarding the challenges previ- Areas ously identified.

Compound Compound Thematic Thematic Thematic Thematic Socio- Maps by Maps by Maps by Maps by Geophysical Economic Variable Codes Variable Variables Variable The SIGA Principles Codes Planning for sustainability and increased resilience. The SIGA approach establishes general methodological foundations to obtain technical products Threats - Vulnerability - Risks and input that will nourish in a practical manner the j decision-making processes regarding investment Municipal planning in prevention and mitigation. Information Module

Decision Taking Process

[18] These inputs contribute to medium and long term of physical-natural environmental factors (geo- its generation and have access to information. In territorial management, in order to facilitate risk morphs, geology, hydrography, etc.) with social fac- consequence, it allows influence on decision-mak- reduction and vulnerability at the local level (in this tors (poverty, income distribution and other socio- ing, adapting to the realities and requirements of case, the municipal level) and thus increase resil- economic indicators) and institutional framework society, thus guaranteeing the transparency of ience. factors, in order to analyze the problem with a global municipal management. Furthermore, it promotes vision and detect the poverty-natural resources deg- wider circulation of information on the levels Territoriality. Situations involving risk and/or en- radation-disasters feedback cycles. of vulnerability of assets and, in general, on the vironmental disasters become apparent within whole system and the economic agents of the mu- a territory. A territory is the physical-temporal Integrality. The SIGA approach attempts to incor- nicipality. space in which inter-connections among diverse porate scientific-technical knowledge, popular wis- social actors, current cultural standards (pres- dom and the experience of the various actors and Continuity. The SIGA generation process takes ent-day, ancestral, and acquired) and the physical- social sectors (official organizations, civil society, time; its variables are dynamic, both temporally natural environment which they inhabit become the academic sector, enterprises), by means of the and spatially. Therefore, the SIGA anticipates con- apparent. inclusion of information in its database, in spite of tinuous information updating mechanisms through the varied origin of the information and the varying the Information Management Unit and communal Analytical and systemic vision. The environment spatial scales to be included. In this sense, the SIGA validation of these mechanisms by means of par- is composed of multiple variables and interactions. offers a tool which goes beyond the technocratic ticipatory workshops. It is a system and responds in a unique manner to and geophysical vision of disasters, including the external stimuli. In order to understand the envi- knowledge of social science. ronment's organic workings, analytical knowledge of the variables and their interactions is neces- Participation. In keeping with the above and tak- sary, so that the central elements required to re- ing into account the processes of decentralization duce vulnerability and its associated risks can be andin some casesthe consolidation of democra- Aims of the determined. The SIGA facilitates the incorporation cy in municipal management which is taking place Methodological Guide of advances in knowledge and spatial information in the region, the SIGA approach contemplates (aerial photography, satellite images and informa- and promotes the broadest participation of actors To initiate municipal technicians in the discussion tion derived from other spatial sensors) in order to and sectors involved in the search for solutions to and manufacture of the SIGA, for which the vari- achieve a better understanding of these interac- the problems involved in environmental manage- ous methodological phases proposed for setting tions and variables. ment of the territory. up the SIGA (collection, input, processing and creation of indicators) must be complied with. These Disaster-environment-poverty cycle. The SIGA Transparency. The product generated through phases are exhaustively described in the Manual system is based on the simultaneous incorporation the SIGA allows all social actors to participate in available on the Internet at www.idrc.ca/upe.

Methodological Gu de for the Construction of the SIGA [19] i 1 *%.,. 10 ' r \

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es 3. PHASES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SIGA

Chart 4. SIGA elaboration process

Prior Requirements

Planning

This Methodological Guide develops the different Promotion of investment in phases required for the implementation of the prevention and mitigation Management Unit General Objetives SIGA. The details are shown below: Design of municipal strategies for prevention and mitigation It is important to keep in mind that the SIGA is a Inventory methodological tool that generates products to Prevention incentives nourish the decision-making process, with the aim of reducing vulnerability and risk levels for the population, as well as for the municipality's Information and Education Decision INPUT STAGE assets. Taking Preliminary Stage Dissemination Workshops The decision-making process depends upon the - Specific Objectives Local Government's type of structure, local inter- - Activity Planning Printing and publication of est groups, the government's perspectives, and brochures - Task Assignment the municipality's complexity and the challenges it faces. Therefore, the making of decisions at the Educational Campaigns Input Stage Input Stage planning and execution level is complex. It is not Paper Option Digital Option the intention of the SIGA to put forward the naTve notion that the mere availability of its products will Participation, ratification make the planning process, even regarding pre- and updating vention and mitigation, take place spontaneously. PROCESSING Participatory communal As the above diagram shows, this manual does not workshops to identify deal with decision-making process methodology. threats and risks Products: That is in itself a planning and decision process Information updating Thematic Maps area which is beyond the scope of this manual. process Threats-Risks-Vulnerabilities

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [21] However, the decision-making process, in this case As the SIGA Elaboration Process Diagram shows Table. 3. Tentative Chart Model applied to vulnerability and risk reduction, can be di- (previous page) , other additional special interest vided into decisions on: areas may be added. Particularly significant is the focus the SIGA provides to generate decision-making processes regarding policy and strategy for the Personnel Number I Level of Staff Planning 'Education Specialty or Including evaluation and decision processes re- poorer or marginalized groups, so as to identify the skills garding the choice of investment in prevention important poverty-disasters-environmental degra- 1 dation relation. and mitigation; the design of strategies at the mu- Mayor nicipal level for the execution and development of these investments and related activities, as well as For illustrative purposes, examples are included at Secretary the design of economic incentives to encourage the end of this manual of how SIGA products may investment patterns among municipal actors en- be used to nourish this decision-making process Administrative dogenously (for example, in commercial, industrial using indicators. staff or domestic sectors, exchanging payment of mu- Technics nicipal rates for preventive investment). Prior Requirements Clerks Information and Education Otrhers This process takes a selection of SIGA products and The SIGA is planned with the capacity and flexibil- explains them in such a way that they will be under- ity to adapt to different municipal realities, making Equipment char Equipment Number Location acteristics stood according to the audience they are presented the necessary adjustments to allow for existing to (schools and other educational institutions, the levels of information, and the technological and Cartography general population, industrial managers, etc.). human resources available in each municipality. It is clear, however, that some minimal elements Computers are required for its installation, maintenance and Participation, validation and updating Machinery The development of decision-making processes regard- operation. Personnel ing the participatory validation and updating strategy Executive Units Number Assigned Field is of utmost importance for the continuity of the ser Municipal Organizational Chart (Struc- vices and the generation of effective SIGA products. To ture, Units, Committees) Environmental effect a pre-investment in the design of a SIGA may not To be familiar with the organizational structure of Unit be very profitable if the validation and updating effort the municipality, in order to identify the services Cadastral is not kept up, since it will no longer be up to date and related to environmental management in general, Registtry will not keep up with the dynamic nature of risk. and/or risk management in particular.

[22) Links with other Institutions To keep the system updated. Questions for IMU technicians to ask prior to the creation of the SIGA: Permits knowledge of the institutional status re- To define the general and specific aims of the garding competencies, human and technical re- SIGA. 1 Which are the permanent or more frequent sources available, experience and levels of coordi- To establish contacts with other governmental natural or social threats in the action area or nation with other departments of the municipality offices (other municipalities, ministries, head surroundings of my municipality? What is their itself and external institutions. offices) and with social actors (NG05, the aca- degree of intensity? demic sector and the business sector). Table 4. 2 Which social groups (age, sex, economic level, Institutions Units Information To advise the municipal government on subjects etc.) and locations (city neighborhoods, small Available directly related to threats, vulnerability, and en- towns, villages, hamlets, etc.) are affected? Central Government vironmental risk, as well as on the drawing up of 3 Which territories and infrastructures (road the territory's environmental regulatory plans, Departments network, electric power grid, sewer systems, if required. Municipalities etc.) are damaged when this (these) threat(s) It should be pointed out that the proposed IMU materialize(s)? AMUNIC/ AMNON has no power of decision nor does it act as an emergency committee or any similar body in 4 What resources (human, economic, technical) Universities are currently available to my municipality in or- critical situations. NGOs der to face these events?

Social Groups 5 How does my municipality organize itself when General aims of the implementation of faced with these events? Is there usually coor- Others the SIGA dination with neighboring municipalities or with other administrative levels (for example: Minis- The general aims of the implementation of the Information Management Unit (ImU) tries)? SIGA methodology should be established by the The Information Management Unit will comprise Information Management Unit in each municipal- 6 Is there coordination with local social organiza- technicians and administrators related to each ity, keeping in mind the nature of the threat(s) and tions? If there is, how is it carried out? municipal thematic area (technicians, managers). the vulnerable population potentially affected. The tasks it carries out are the following: 7 What information must I have access to in view of the threat(s) indicated? It is advisable to define short, medium and long IMU Duties: term objectives. It is also necessary to establish To gather and process the information required goals linked to each objective, to monitor the pro- For example, in the case of floods: rainfall re- to generate the SIGA. cess's progress and to evaluate its fulfillment. cords, soil characteristics, use of soil, records of

methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [231 similar events, number of victims and affected At the technical level, if indispensable human re- people, risk perception on the part of the popu- sources are lacking. Input Stage lation which may be potentially affected, etc. At the economic level, if a minimum budget is not assigned for the pre-investment required to de- Chart 5. Input Stage 8 How and where can I obtain this information? velop and activate the SIGA operation. If necessary, can my municipality generate it? Stage 1 - Geophysical System How? Internal difficulties are related to the SIGA meth- Hydric Network odology itself. Its implementation will seek to Altimetry - Contour lines overcome obstacles such as Basing boundaries Definition of variables to be considered Geology The time required for the manual input of infor- The variables to be considered will depend upon Geomorphology mation. the double threat-vulnerability elements in each Precipitations and temperature Incompatibility of scale in the maps available, municipal situation. Variables should be chosen for the case of manual input; or lack of informa- which, in limited numbers, best define these ele- Stage 2 - Socio-Economic System tion on a municipal scale. ments. Social Variables The choice of the appropriate software, taking into account cost of access, its capacity to handle viii)Economic Variables Social Vulnerability Index Consideration of difficulties to be re- information and the operators' level of training. solved Stage 3 - Land Use These difficulties may be external or internal to Municipal, urban and rural land use the municipality. Stage 4 - Lifelines and Services External difficulties are of various origins: Drinking water supply, light and waste disposal network At the political level, if the decision makers are not Basic public services willing to implement the SIGA, or if other priori- tiesbe they national or municipalare given pre- Stage 5 - Processing cedence. At the administrative level, if there is insufficient xiii)Production of simple and complex indicators coordination among municipal offices related to environmental matters. xiv) Environmental Risk Maps

[24] Basic Coverage in setting up Stage 1. Geophysical System the SIGA Initial coverage. The Departmental Boundary is Stage 1. Geophysical System digitalized in it. In this firstGeophysicalstage, information about the A general poligon is drawn with the boundary: municipal territory is compiled, produced and entered: Departmental River basins and hydric networks (watercourses), land Municipal elevations (height of terrain), geology and soil. The system of coordinates is used by the na- This first unit allows the identification of areas fre- tional geographic service (cartographic coordi- quently exposed to intense natural events, such as: nates: X, Y, Z) floods, landslides and earthquakes, among others. It is necessary to work with the same system of coordinates on all maps, this allows the cross- National Boundary ing of different coverages.

(riviratsrm,ro,co...,1111t;..ar4 MUM / 1,01,)

-.141.111!ir 'Off

'11111,411. "Ni4Fomtpii.,.1,46 tor -

Municipal Boundary The municipal coverage will be used as a Digitalization of poligon with the limit: frame for future coverage. national, departmental and municipal.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [25] Stage 1 - Geophysical Basic Materials - Topographic map on a scale of 1/50,000, produced by the Geographical Service on paper and digitally (scanned)

Basic data collection, production and in- Geophysical System put: Step 1 - Hydric Network. Minimum information required: relief, Copy (digitize) the hydric network from the topo- Altimetry hydric network, geology and/or soil, geographic map (Military Geographical Service, scale morphology. 1/50,000). Each variable allows a thematic map to Hydric Basin be created Paso 1- Hydric network Paso 2 - Altimetry Geology Paso 3 - Hydric Basins Paso 4 - Geology and/or Soils Paso 5 - Geomorphology Geomorphology

Cross-referencing of information is car- Hydric Basin ried out according to external threats (climatic, sismic), to determine natural risk areas. Thematic Compound Paso 6 - Temperature and Precipitations Hydric courses are carved into the territory, Maps by Geophysical forming a Hydric Network. All of the territory Variable Codes that drains towards the same point is called a Hydric Basin. In order to analyse a basin, watercourses are organized in order of impor- Threat-Vulnerability-Risks tance, according to their position in relation Maps to the main watercourse. Observe the drawing and look for hydric networks in the topographic chart.

(26) Watercourses originate in high areas (hills, moun- Fig. 2. Digitalization of the Hydric Network, using information from the 1:50.000 topographic tains, etc.) and as they descend into the valley, they chart of a hydric basin Río San Pedro. Municipio de Condega. Departamentode Estelí, Nicaragua are joined by spring originated courses, making up larger watercourses known as hydric networks or drainage networks. Leyenda

Red Nance On topographic maps, watercourses are symbol- o ized by means of blue dotted lines ( ) for creeks and intermittent streams or blue unbroken lines 2 for streams and rivers (---). Cuem.oncInca.

Digitization. Springs are drawn first, with the line mode tool. República de Nicaragua

Digitization of the Hydric Network. Lines are drawn. Watercourse springs are drawn first, using the topographic map as a model. As shown in the picture, at the end of each river section, the program creates an associated table, to which the technician adds new fields in the shape of columns. 0.8 0.8 kilómetros Fuente: Municiplo de Condega. Departamento de Well- Nicaragua (2000)

Associated Table to the Hydric Network coverage, Atributos de Redbidrica.shp 137101 to which fields (columns) are added with relevant 5/Ate Id Ovisqt. Lem*/ WEI 4t*._ Pain P7E1 Avkl information. Pc44.ine 101 I 1 612.6586021 612.7 ao-, Polyline 101 1 2024.203965 I 940 720 2024.2j 220 10.9 1 ...I

PoIvLoe 1021 2 1113.283403 860 1 720 1113.31 140 12.6i vi ,71" P1 Table 5.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [27] ID - A field the program creates automatically. It is recommended that a code be used (ID - with a code of 100).

Order of Classification The segments of the course are classified in order of Chart 7. importance. From the springs to the first tributary, Segment Slope Gradient (%) = the courses are classified as class 1. When two seg- Altimetric Dif.(M_Ht - min_HWIength of segment x100 ments of an equal Class come together, the down- river segment is coded using a higher classification Fig. 3. Digitalization of the hydric network, using information from the1:50.000 topographic map of (Class 2). The Network is thus built up in order of a hydric basin. Río San Pedro. Municipio de Condega. Department° de Estelí, Nicaragua. importance. Normally, watercourses are Class 4 or - A.-,,,,,-.4.,-*_:-V.-2,1-4411-1.'--47.1"-4-7.411,-.,-i-*---/ 17/11/.. N 5. These segments are permanent in nature, whilst 1,,,-.---E,e'l ' ' , - ....," !, ...ik -iii r .,,,, . .. the Class 1 courses are intermittent (sporadic). a 1 ..,..$ . ,:...j..,,: ,..,.. .. ,,, Leyenda . i ..... A .....y...... ,.....,,,,,,, , , .., ,. . . .,..-,, , . Red hid. .."-'..aioilie., :,,. t Maximum Elevation of Springs - Max_ Elev L. 9 0 ..,..-,,ii . * -', _' -.,'. This information is obtained from topographic charts, a .. ,r.. ,... .-wir -1f. ; iv U__,4, .. UN....---2=-, ,s-sc , ,..o, it : - I''' ' 2 simply by reading the contour line which crosses it. .4"./', ,,,, ,Ne%¡-:11. , v.; - ) I .4./ 3 .,,,,,_, . C \Ate... 0 ..1 r-1, , , , ° 1 21 4 .., 10, ,''''. , k e , ...S.,: rt 11 iy ,ilk ill ., 1 ;4, pn il,_...,.....4,..._,-...,...... i,, ,..,,,,,,,:,,,,,,,,,j,i,;i--,,...... Minimum Elevation of Springs - Min_ Elev 0.1..,...:.4. 4,i)i C4.1.110.n. ./7 I t V.--55"klai;:y; Ix This information is obtained from topographic maps, ,,, . %. E. OW . - simply by reading the contour line which crosses it. N.--... 6 `-,- - ///,'? ' \I 4 1 I /.:; República de Nicaragua Z..... \ f * . '-' 'r .^.....--' Length of the watercourse l _ SFi1 k .. . .1: II Real distance covered by the watercourse. This lr--- - operation is carried out by means of a program , it, 50 kic .. 111117._ Nla. ' e,-.131.," - . , command (automatic distance calculation). , .. ..Z 1. .,'.5iLL..--. \-4 ' A\k'' " ' .-1-:- - % % ' , I it., hc4-',441 * .,' iif. ...,_:;: ,:._ _ ::_.:..).t."7.;, 7:4,;:7'._-_,--_7 4,,,,r1.020.i,hax___ E,,,4,:fit..4,,,,,f..-.,..,;__,,:,,,,iiv. Slope (%) _ ...... % . 80 0 80 180. kdOrnetros The longitudinal slope gradient of the watercourse !"11 ilitro is calculated in segments. This information allows 0.8 o 0.8 kilómetros Fuente, Municiplo de Condegn. watercourses to be classified. Doprtamento do Esioll- Nicaragua (2000)

[281 Information about maximum and minimum elevations and length of watercourses is obtained from the topographic map, in order to complete the information and calculate slopes.

It is recommended that the table be built up gradually in an orderly manner, for each hydric network. This makes it possible to check the digitization process, correct errors and avoid infor- a mation gaps. xa I fa -

Table 6.

At r Ibutos de Redhidrica.shp 2171131 ' . Jr -4.. A -.1"-- ,...--' , ---TG 111=11 Io nl 17307 0/0:01 121 Awe' Pok4jne 101 1 612.659602 0 o siz 0.0 -ikt*t. Poi,tine 1011 ii-- .4.20. 940 720 2024.2 Poktine 102 2 1111283407 860 720 11113 140,egf

is,. 4e 4/ Calculadora de campos

Campos T ipo Scicitua,- lipej a Newer° [0 ;den r cadeo. C Fecha - ¡Am mini

(1)d_Allj [Pe). [Di_Alt)/ [dean) 10( .1." Canceled

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [29] Classification of watercourse slopes by segment INN Slope % Slope Type AA Ar _AI ._ILL_z_J IL (field = slopetype) 1103 695131 0- 2 Very slight 1277 ¶8717 In order to classify river slopes, it is only neces- 0292 3120 2-4 Slight 23823 sary to consult two tables in the manual: 2923 954071 21380 2593 721029 35387 2621139 10-03 3050 3 4-8 Moderate 891635 1:1 US 9 Hydric Network, 7 291059 1420 0337.12 9,30 760 Contours. 262969 940 720 8-12 Steep 95 217573 MO / 348 11502e 920 50 604557 1040 11 MO ha. With the watercourses classified in order of im- 12-16 Very steep 1003 5/0-.T 541609259 720 haft portance and of slope, the first characteristic of izaj.iijj=NOD 336155021 the territory is obtained. Steep changes in slope Over 16 Sheer f1873 are areas likely to suffer mud flow and landslides; particularly if the soil is claylike and with steep Table 7 and 8. slopes. ' r, ''

404 , -

r O Ft'

Figure 4. Landslide on steep hillside. Salta, Argentina. Colin, Thomas 2007.

[30] Step 2. Altimetry. Copy the contours from Why is it useful to cover contour lines? To determine altimetric levels. the topographic map. To separate hydrographic basins, so that rainfall Basic input for a thematic map of the main geo- Contours are lines of equal height. Height is sym- divisions may be identified. morphs, with the aid of aerial photographs. bolized on topographic maps by means of dark and To calculate the gradient of watercourses and light-toned sepia lines. Dark contour lines, known hillsides. as "master" or "main" lines, every 100 meters and "common" or "secondary" contours every 20 me- As an input for a 3-dimensional model, if the ap- ters. propriate program is available.

Digitization 42 At. 1,4 3., Is begun along the closed contours repre- Woo Edai6n 1.b4 Comm V4014.4 senting higher areas. Use of the polygon t fall m1119 Eour51 Eraiwsg NIA 13 5441 420 .44.ccoonadolo or the line tool is recommended. I feil

U A1.1.81o.oir 41 4 When closing the contour polygon, the program Ay 1 m- -4,11deotattar rts441 de ah;11-EJ creates an associated table, to which new fields 1000 1100 (columns) containing the spot height of the ter- 1200 1 1020 rain may be added manually. 1101 960 This coverage takes up a great deal of digitization 980 10401 time, so it is suggested that negotiations with a 1060 Bat similar state organization should be undertaken in 1120 1140.i Curva cerrada order to obtain it. 1160 1180 1220 Correction of digitization errors. 1240 1080 1 1040 1060 I ..4(0)11 I ID. Automatic Identification o lail opr Spot Height. The elevation of a contour, number o 900 o 900 _ of vertical metres above sea level; this information o Soo oP o wo is obtained from the topographic map. Master or 9titil . Air main contours every 100 meters. Contours are digitized from the topographic map. Figure 5.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [31] Step 3. River Basins. Fig. 3. River Basins Draw the separation of the River Basins, using the watershed lines, with the help of the contours from the topographic map (scale:1/50,000).

Basins, sub-basins or micro-basins may be identified, according to the hydric network determined Leyenda by the watercourses. 17.1 Cuenca Helrica River Basins do not necessarily follow adMinistrative Red Hidnca boundaries, so it is imperative for the environmental management of the territory to work in conjunction 2 with other municipalities inhabiting the basin. 3

Headwater basins are fragile areas, steeply sloped, an Pi.", and thus susceptible to erosion. Furthermore, low mar areas are naturally prone to flooding and outflows of mud...... _...tvTo°,- Nwor

Digitization ...._ -N-..... A polygon is created to cover the more '--.1.-,_ elevated areas of the terrain. ,16,.. t .,..m.z_.---...,.....-.2...... , In order to find the basin's boundaries, the draw- p-e _n11----7-\-- ing must cover the higher parts of the terrain. The --V5E-relt lealt,', .11141 closed contours are the elevated areas, where , -.. ,nr rtc - - 1- rainfall drains away in every direction; the centre i 1.Erk, if) of the contour is therefore taken as the boundary. Fuente: Municipalidad de Quito (2005)

[32] Study the picture above. Detail of the basin bound- ing calculation of surface runoff, infiltration and ary outline, with contour lines. permeability, as well as water conservation status, when information about the use of land (urban and Division of the territory into river basins facilitates rural) is added. the analysis of the water system's behavior, allow-

Fig. 7. Detail of the tracing in a hydric basin San Pedro River. Municipality Condega, Departament of Estelf, Nicaragua.

Leyenda

Red o

2 3

dercashenc. s.o

Limit basin República de Nicaragua

BO 0 SO 160 kilemetoos

0.6 0 0.6 kilómetros Fuente- Municipio de Condega Departamento de Este', fshcaragua (2000)

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [33] Fig. 8. Data to be obtained from basins, sub-basins and Atributos de Cuencashidrices.shp 1111=2:111111=11.=.11120/111Mr21" micro-basins Minimum height San Pedro 66! 1140 500 48506 11 5 ' of the basin ID Identification code: 300 Area This is automatically calculated by the program. Perimeter This is automatically calculated by the program. Name Name of the basin according to name of main watercourse Maximum Elevation - MaxEl Maximum Basin Elevation, the highest point of the watershed. Obtained from the topographic map. Maximum Length Minimum Elevation - MínEl of the basin Minimum Basin Elevation coincides with the height at the mouth of the main watercourse. Obtained from the topographic map. Maximum Length - MaxLen Maximum distance between headwaters and mouth of the watershed. Measured on the topographic map. Mean Slope of Basin Difference of elevation between maximum and minimum Maximum Height elevation of the basin, divided by maximum length.

Table 9. Basin Slope (W) = Height Dif. (MaxEl - MinEIVIength of basin x 100 Area Perimeter MaxEl MinEl Max Len Average ID Area (Km2) (Km) (meters) (meters) (meters) Slope (%) This coverage provides knowledge of the basins and sub-basins which are most susceptible to erosion, 300 San Pedro 6.6 13.135 1140 580 4859.6 11.5 i landslides and avalanches.

[34] Step 4. Geology It is important to construct the polygons and complete the table columns with information about the Input of existing geological information. Use of rocks and the degree of alteration which can be the geological map (scale: 1/100,000) is recom- concluded from the map's descriptive report. mended.

Generally, the geological map is produced by state Fig. 9. Geological Formations and Faults institutions. For example, in Nicaragua, it was pro- Municipality of Condeqa, Estelí, Nicaragua duced by INETER. Usually, existing information is on a national scale (1/1,000,000; 1/500,000; 1/200,000). It should be pointed out that there is Leyenda N probably no detailed information on municipali- = r7, Red hidgic a ties, but it is still possible to obtain an approxima- 0 tion of the municipal geological reality which may l 2 be improved upon with the contributions of other 3 institutions (academic or ministerial). 4

Formación Geológica Basic Materials Grupo Coyol Geological map (scale:1/100,000 or 1/200,000) GNP* Coyol Super,, produced by a geological institution, on paper Gruoa Matagalpa .n.estvo de. lhoorno and digitally (scanned). Seam+. rt. A111, On

Digitization República de Nicaragua Use of the polygon tool ,the line tool or the dot tool is recommended.

Geological maps situate the main geological formations in the region. Reference to the predomi- nant type of rock (igneous, sedimentary and meta- 6 o morphic) is made in the captions. These maps also 6 kilómetros Fuente: Mureopoo de Condega provide information about volcanoes and faults. Departamento de Estelt- NIcaragua (2000)

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [35] Faults When faults are located in urban areas, it is essen- Volcanoes The line tool is used to digitize this coverage. Spe- tial for the drawing up of regulations that building cial coverage is produced. An associated table is permit restrictions for public buildings (schools, Description of the volcanic structures (cones, created in which performance (active, passive) is hospitals, etc.) be anticipated. chimneys) and their activity, as well as the loca- registered. tion of monitoring stations.

Maintaining direct contact and requesting support Figure 10. from the organization responsible for disaster pre- - Atributos de Falla.shp IN El El vention is recommended, since they will have the 11.4se Ti ReA....wzwee ilk7 LI Deieceiw information and technical personnel required. : P011,141he 1 Falla geologica supuesta Normal 1 N 25E -1 -+ Polyline , 21 Falla geológica supuesta Normal T T-N25NAI Polyliner 3 i Falla geologica supuesta 4 Normal I Fotograf fa aetea Step 4. Soil. II' N25E 51 Falla geológica supuesta Normal P*1-ine 4 61 Falla supuesta Normal Éste-Oeste Fot ogr al fa aerea Input information from existing Soil map. It is pos- PolyirmL 7 Falla geolégica supuesta Normal Este-Oeste Fotografíe asea sible that this map will have been produced by the PolyUree !.1 Falla 9eol6gica supuesta 'Normal Norte-Sur Fotograf fa aerea Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, 91 Falla geológica supuesta Normal Norte-Sur I Fotografía aerea Poktine or by soil management offices of the countries in P0Kihe 01 Falla geológica supuesta Normal Este-Oeste question. The basic soil map may be at a1/100,000 scale.

Basic Materials - Soil map (scale:1/100,000 or 1/200,000) produced by a geological institu- Geological Fault tion, on paper and digitally (scanned).

In this example, the soil map was produced by INETER and the land registry office. It should be pointed out that it does not contain detailed information for the municipality, but provides an approximate idea of the territory. As with the geological map, there is probably no map in existence with greater detail (1/50,000). Knowing the Fallas geologicas del Municipio de Esteli, Nicaragua structure and properties of the soil will permit the detection of the more fragile areas of the terrain, with the greatest risk of landslides and erosion. Fig.12. Types of soils Municipality of Condega, Department of Estelí, Nicaragua

Digitization The polygon mode is recommended . I

No Oats

Red hldrica 8O A 'b 2 60 A° V/ Bi es- 3 4 50 A A ; ,Alfisotes 40Ag¡(VÁYAV4a -' A clay load spti'cla\() República de Nicaragua clay loam 30Asandy 20 IIAVAVAivAvA ) slit loam 0, 10 IrA 461117-A. so0o co4,o f.1 .0 0 percent sand 6 o 6 kilómetros Fuente: Munlapio de Condega. 80 0 80 160 866rnetros Departamento de Eaten- Nicaragua (2000) Chart showing the percentages of clay, silt, and sand in the baxic textural casses.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA (37) Step 5. Geomorphology Basic Materials. Topographic map on a scale of 1/50,000 produced by the Geographical Service on paper and digitally (scanned).

Fig.13. Major qeoforms. San Pedro River Basin Municipality of Condega, Department of Estelí, Nicaragua

Leyenda ' lama Va. N Er Red hidn. 33T orle 0) A o The geo-morphological map is created by the municipal technician, who uses a topographic map 2 34.9r- 3 and photo-interpretation if there are aerial photo- t Iiork 9 L graphs available. The method is not exact. Infor- Geomorfologia mation may be adjusted by means of field trips and P,ancw interviews with local inhabitants. venaert Cóncava ...me come].

Table 10. Four basic types of slope, combining concavity ks and convexity (Troeh, 1965) 4T,-4 República de Nicaragua Slopes with convex radii and Class I 1 concave outline Slopes with concave radii and Class II concave outline . 41k 1 ''. T4Ir#bos- Ilivej jr., 4 '1-'-- Slopes with convex radii and Class ro .411' convex outline .:"?.4.1.1111r1SPA-41 $0 0 ea 160 lulemeu. 1 kilómetros 1O Fuente: Munidgo de Condega. Slopes with concave radii and Departamento de Este!, Nicaragua (2000) Class IV convex outline

(38) Stage 2 Step 1. Census coverage and codes Chart 8. Socio-Economic System In most countries there is an institution which is Socio-economic System responsible for population statistics. For example, These units include demographic, housing, wel- in Nicaragua, the INEC (Spanish acronym of the fare and human development information, as well National Statistics and Census Institute) produces as information about economic and production Demography a special collection of maps used to design Popu- loss. As in previous units, they also require the use lation Censuses. It divides the country into Cen- of variables to estimate the status of each of these sal Units (departments, municipalities, districts, sectors Housing neighbourhoods, communities), each identified by its own censal code. Example: 0401001002003 - this code is assigned to a block Welfare and (Human) located in the city of Este'', in the municipality and depart- Sub-stage 2.1 - Demography and Health Development ment of the same name. Fig.14 and Table 11.

Demography Processing of censal data: For greater analytical conve- Production and Invesment nience, it is recommended to deal with these two aspects simultaneously, although they Population could aslo be dealt with sepa- Loss caused by disasters rately. Minimum information required: Sex, Age population numbers (sex, age Groups... groups), health coverage. Thematic Socio-economic Step 1 - Censal cartography Maps by Compound and codes. Depart- Munici- Censal District Neigh- Commu- Rates... Variable Codes ment pality Code Censal borhoods nities Step 2 - Demographic informa- Municipal tion (population by sex, age 001 001 groups, density, health cover- Maraua Managua (01) 0101 001 Health age) 002 002 Threat-Vulnerability-Risks Step 3 - Other possible demo- 001 001 001 graphic and health indicators. Maps ... 002 002 Estelf Estelf Access 0401 ...... 003 (04) (01) ...... Chart 9. 999 999 999 I

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [39) Censal information may be obtained directly from formation at that level, in this as well as in other SIGA Sub-stage 2.1 Demography and Health !NEC. Censal maps are added to the SIGA, and a table units. is produced with matching codes. Basic materials - Censal information in digi- Working with Data Each municipality chooses the territorial scale to tal format (electronic spreadsheets) with the work with (neighborhoods, segments or districts), and Digitization corresponding censal codes. Maps with neigh- the census information is then included. The choice of Existing databases are pasted. See pasted borhood, segment and district boundaries. scale is strongly determined by the availability of in- tables in ArcView.

Input of available censal data on paper. Charts Echo° Elk. labia Carve Vent.. An. are produced by copying data by variable and pro- El CI El ri ENC!1 El IA cessed independently. In this variables unit, the 6 der-- 103 se1eccionadois LIEILJ Censal Unit must be kept very firmly in mind. It may 1/141 1,1Z j Ate;ti.4 es de Code eds....she el ,4n R=1 be a District (less detail, easy access); a neighbor- o 4 106 CO2 hood/community (medium degree of detail and ROM o 4 106 013 fokoon o 4 accessibility); or a city block or quadrant (greater 1,1011114 o 106 P44014 106 detail, access limited by cost and volume of infor- P41044 o 4 I god orri Polito 4 103 mation). Availability of data at the Censal Unit level 1,41141 D 4 KG o 181 depends on the national statistics institutions; for PdY0z4, o 1 105 example, in the case of rates, they are generally Poipoon o 1 le -P 4 100 estimated by district. It is also possible to request P4114.1 4 1011 101 the statistics and census institution to prepare data 1441910 1011 4 1011 based on census information. 7'4CM 103 4,4944 100 SmIes ... P4417114 o 4 /0? PO44,4 o 4 1 111 Eolls o 100 001 modes" Pak,. 0 4 107 Pdvs4. o IW C. de. es n, _Po1P34.1 o 110 o 110 ge P44/9", o 110 I fol 4/1 C nves no. iee

j Conrnakp Red Neighborhood Limited Figure 15.

1401 As may be observed below, the health variable has Demographic Variables to be Used Operations to be Carried Out been included within the group of variables typify- ing the demographic situation. This may be conve- POPULATION (See appendix) nient when it is desirable to relate the state of the population's health directly, as shown in the follow- Number of inhabitants (urban-rural areas) Population density (inhabitants/area) ing table. Number of inhabitants by sex Men/Women ratio (%) (No of men/No of women x 100) Data generated by statistics and census institutions may usually be acquired and used as basic informa- Number of inhabitants by age group tion in municipal management. For example, INEC Age groups/total population considered (district, - Nicaragua has some information available on their (children 0 to 12 years, adults 13 to 65, older adults neighbourhood/community, city block) website and other information for sale at http:// over 65) No of children / total inhabitants x 100 www.inec.qob.ni/productoscostos.htm. In Costa Rica, the website is http://www.inec.go.cr, in Bolivia, No of adults / total inhabitants x 100 http://www.ine.gov.bo, and so on. No of older adults / total inhabitants x 100

HEALTH No of inhabitants with access to medical care (state Access to health coverage by type of service social security) ¡Total population considered x 100 (public, private coverage, no coverage) No of inhabitants without access to medical care / Total population considered x 100

RATES

Demographic Dynamics

Birth rate (by sex) Fertility

Mortality (by age and sex)

Table 12.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [41] Production of Tables Arc., (,IS 3.7 EichetoEckitm labia Lamm yedana Ayyda Important. Tables may be prepared outside the LtaJ u jL ci A II SIGA, if information is available on paper or if it is der--"r5 selecaceladat digitized on electronic spreadsheets. Averages or Relacionar proportional rates are calculated and finally, they estekapr Zon

may be organized in ranges. Nu_e_lvo Abt I [ Meld, I 'Aosde6cdesç Depart- % Chil- Atrit0:4 de Codcensdes Ud_censal ment dren % Adult % Aged L f At obut os de art amentos.. ND 5e11.dbl x Managua 1 36 60,8 3,2 neektexen netarlasmr-Te Vifti N Von4ny N AC. 7-11.1 Marv. 137403 Poksion 0 Haft i i 6674261 706599 94.5 127652 2 Masaya 39,6 57 3,4 Leto 2 Malaya 315630 1573441 159236 995 19139 P*97n 4 EON( 3 Gum& I 191927 959251 96102 917 12399 3 Granada 40,4 55,8 3,8 Pci91co Nueva Sere* 1 Es* 214339 106379 108379 982 12470 Polygon 5 Chnandsndsg, 5 Chntindgs 439996 219731 220255 998 27303 Pc417.1 Jidep 6 Lan 395251 196576 199675 989 23249 4 Este!' 38,9 57,8 3,3 Pc4g4n O Chinan- Lago Managua 42,3 54,3 3,4 Pak. 0 Oif4M 5 dega Poblon o o Maw.. 6 León 39,6 56,9 3,6 3 O Cm= Table14. Population data from latest Census -Distribution by Pokdon o Department- Taken from INEC, Nicaragua. 2001. Peke= 2 Mare Figu. 16. Distribution of Children Population by Department. Id_censal Department No population No men No women % men/women 1 Managua 1374025 667426 706599 94,5 Preparation of basic demographic maps 2 Masaya 315630 157394 158236 99,5 Maps containing the municipal boundaries are pre- 3 Granada 191927 95825 96102 99,7 pared, including associated tables. It is essential to include a column containing the censal codes 4 Esteli 214339 106379 108379 98,2 corresponding to departments, municipalities, 5 Chinandega 439986 219731 220255 99,8 districts (censal sections), neighborhoods (cen- 6 León 395251 196576 198675 98,9 sal segments) and communities, so that the data may be geographically identifiable. Data copied from IN C-Nicaragua. Processed Data

(42) Production of other demographic indicators A.Qualitative codification, in which a number can An example is shown below of qualitative codifica- be assigned to codify a condition, for example, tion. Later the production of simple quantitative In general, it is useful to produce other indicators 1 if the variable is inferior to the mean, 2 if it is indicators will be studied in depth and several ex- related to the demographic situation and reflect equal and 3 if it is greater than the mean. amples will be given. them on a map. There are two possible ways of Table 15. doing this: B. Quantitative codification, in which the indicator may be specific to a single variable or com- Some Demographic Category Value posed of more than one variable. Indices Construction (code) Neighbourhood Low: below average density/Average city 1 Fig. 17. Distribution of Children below 15 years of age in Municipality of Quito density Medium: equal to Neighbourhood den- 2 sity/District density average Block density/Neigh- High: above average 3 --- bourhood density Leyenda Low: below average `Yo de niños Relationship according

Relationship by age Low: below average group Medium: equal to 2 Children/Adults average Children + older 3 adults/Adults High: above average Area Metropolitana de Quito

Relationship by age group Low: below average

Population without medi- Medium: equal to cal coverage / Population average Fuente: Municipalidad de Quito (2005) with coverage 2 o 2 4 kilómetros o High: above average

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [43] S E S Possible Results Table 15 shows the possible combinations when demographic 1111-1112-1113-1121-112 2-112 3-1131-1132-1133-1211-1212 - variables are inter-related: density, sex, ages and health. 2 2 2 1213-12 21-12 22-12 2 3-12 31-12 3 2-12 3 3-1311-1312-1313 - 1321-1322-1323-1331-1332-1333

1 1 Demographic Information table 2111-2112-2113-2121-2122-2123-2131-2132-2123-2211- 2 2 2 2 2212-2213-2221-2222-2223-2231-2232-2233-2311- Each column corresponds to a variable (density, sex, age 3 3 3 2312-2 313-2 321-2 322-232 3-2331-2 332-2333 group, health coverage). In this example, the spatial distri- 1 1 1 3111-3112-3113-3121-3121-312 3-3131-3132-313 3-3211- 3 2 2 2 3212-3213-32 21-32 2 2-3 2 2 3-32 31-32 32-32 3 3-3 311- bution of these variables is analyzed for each quadrant in 3 3 3 3312-3313-3321-3322-3323-3331-3332-3333 the city.

, Mr t, glo de I Itif eneAlee.sho C _J Ed ideo s hp co NOMIIIIIENIOMIBEEEN=211MIMIEM 11,1 IFIM MAO .ff Saw With this information, a summary of the demographic situ- 1-11 36 39 13 0 4 2 100 007 1 2 1 3121 3 7 308.404 ation is generated using the previously codified variables, --- 100 003 I 3 _ 1 1 311 6 40 4.433 allinal1011= (according to the result of the addition of codification 1, 2 Polygon 0 4 ME 1 00 038 3 1 3 1313 8 Us ourbno s hp 0 4 100 006 3 3 131 3 8 and 3, displayed in the column "Total"). MI PoBrn I,: 000077 1 3 2 1 111 7 Po _umO 3 1 1311 Dprtam onto, shp 2 T 100 003 11111 3 F 1 1321 7 In this example, the larger the result of the addition (closest to 0 4 100 003 1 2 1222 8 DepsLarnntos.Imp . 12), the greater the social interest of the block (that is, denser, 0 11 cci.o ---44 al 003 1 3 123Z 9 Nloavapuallslco.11, P 0 4 003 1 E 3 2 1332 9 with a greater proportion of children and adults and a smaller *eon 0 100 003 1 3 3 2 1332 9 _J C Ales shp rate of access to safety). In that sense, it is identified as a Po 0: NM 100 004 1 3 33 1 333 10 . , o 4 2 108 OW 2 1 1 2 1.12 6 relatively vulnerable group of inhabitants, from the demo- lef Vulnetabidies4 den, P41." 0 4 1 100 005 2 1 1 3 2113 7 graphic point of view. It must be kept in mind that this does 1. 4. Bala Pon 0 4UMW 100 003 2 2 1 1 2211 6 6.13. Media PoçB Mr] 4MU 100 003 2 2 1 2 2212 7 not mean that in absolute terms there are more inhabitants r77 0 12. Alta j] "g&C. U J WU LOW t 1 4 1J 2213 8 nor more children or older people living in the quadrant. ifj Esher...se, 0 4 2 109 007 2 2 1 2213 8 P49?! .!.. 0 4 3 1 00 003 2 2221- 7 Oaby2.t1/ Pa lmon 0 4 3 100 OD I 2 2221 7 The map on the next page provides information on the social 1. Paton 0 4 3 100 003 2 i 2 2222 8 _J Refehidrioe.shp and economic vulnerability of those quadrants, in particular, /V P.47.11 0 4 2 108 007 2 2232 9 Potj, 4 1 100 007 MEW 2233 10 their density, age groups by sex and access to medical social Suelos hp PoteWl 0 2 109 007 2233 10 Alfis sits security. Ente r,. Pon 0 4 2 108 007 2 3 1 1 2311 7 4 2 Molks o Is s RAW 0 108 007 2 3 1 1 2311 7 11111=111 4 1 100 1.1118 oleo Pc419" . 0 ...._ 003 Mail 1 3 3113 2 108 007 11/11/.111 -2 3 -'5i-ii 9 __/ C ontlega.s hp !AV" -6 P456." o 4 3 100 003 110111.111111 1 3131 e f_plypp_el,. 0 4_____ 3 100 003 3 3 1 3131 Cueneashldrloas.shs Potmon 0 i 3 100 003 3 1 3 2 3132 Polygon 0 431 ---1-0-6. 003 .--3J 1 3 i 3132 9 i

[44] Sub-stage 2.2.Housinq Figure 18. Map of the demographic situation for the city of Estelí, by city block.

Step 1. Housing information. ArcView GIS 3.2 Ecier3n Vista Iena 51811cos Yenta,. Ayucle PolyGeom 60 1.4JCIN IA2W at Chart 10. Sub-stage 2.2. Housing Ercale 1:17135

Eltim Step 1 - Information about - ' J Edades hp ' A Housing o 0 VEZUM1/121 -, . la= housing: at least, number N. 3, 300 1213 7 of dwellings; a description e. = 39 .9 .40.4 .... . migassa 1311 6 of materials and current N. 40.4 42.3 a II 1111E1111111113 1313 9 Quantity condition would be very ...I Ua our b ano.s hp ormwomp 1313 8 desirable. I ON , 13 21 7 ... . imminsil il 101111E1111111 1321 7 J DprUmenlos.shi, I .1 - .1 . Material = WEB= 1321 7 1322 9 J Departmentes.knp r 'I MIMI= Step 2 - Other possible .. I ;I MU MU 1323 9 information about materi- _.I Mom. 0121..1, 3 1 NIB NB 1332 9 State als, condition of dwelling, 111E11111M 1332 9 ownership status, size and __I Cal.,* NENIENIE 1333 10, 2112 6 access to services. /V I t Ownership 51,1 V0.1.0101440 .. L I 01111011111] 2113 7 ID t - 4. BA, , - =MIND 2211 e NE (11 4. ....is III118111111111110 2212 7 El 9. 12 Ala 11 ..j =mu= 2213 9 Size in sq. mts. Walk. pa 919 111113.11=1 2213 9 11111111111111110 2221 7 J 4aby2.111 . 11INEME111110 2221 7 ! 2222 e R4dhldrIoa.shp e I 1NEMIIIIS Access to Services J ]MfIMI111113 2232 9 /V q /11111181111113INI 2233 10 J Su4los est.13 hp l] 2233 10 = Alln el. I inopilm= 2311 7 gm Entlsoies t =I 1.1o14oles . 2311 7 ---i 3113 e Variables are introduced in exactly the same way as 3.31 Molts 11111=111113 1 14 3111111111111111111 3123 9 .....I Con4egarshp in the case of "demography". As it has already been El 15 111111111IMWEI ------ï131 --e- 3131 e o IIKIIMIIIMI explained, greater geographical detail is linked to J ...ono as hickisas .s hs immulams 3132 9 1 3 2 3132 9 greater cost of information (district; neighborhood/ CI do I Curv/sAhp J gli 1 community; quadrant) or city blocks. I Oeologlm lateLshp .1_1 A d Il

methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA (45) Censuses record valuable information related to Housing Variables to be Used Operations to be Carried Out Demographic Variables to be Used housing at the Censal Unit level; in particular, their number, sometimes their condition (good, medium, QUANTITY Access to services poor), and ownership status (owned, rented, bor- (minimum level of data) No households per censal unit rowed). Another significant source of information Water on housing is provided by income and expenditure MATERIALS Good water (BAGUA) surveys which these entities carry out, although Poor water, rural area (MRGUA) Concrete No concrete huseholds/total households x usually the spatial resolution of these surveys is of Wood 100 Poor water, urban area (MUAGUA) a far more aggregate nature than in the case of a Tin, cardboard No wood huseholds/total households x 100 census. Mixed No tin and carboard households/total house- Sanitation holds x 100 Latrine Toilet connected to sewage (CONAGNE) Step 2. Other possible information on housing. CONDITION No good households/total households x 100. Good Walls (BPARED) Toilet not connected to sewage (SIN- No poor households/total households x 100 ACNE) In the case of "housing", there is detailed infor- Poor Walls (M PARED) No owned households/total households x 100 Gerbage Collection services mation available in the records of municipalities. Good flooring (BPISO) No rented huseholds/total households x 100 Although they may be outdated, they provide valu- Poor flooring (MPISO) Total sq.mts/total households x 100 Access to electric light able information about the size in square metres Good roof (BTECHO) Public Lighting of houses, types of building materials and access Poor roof (MTECHO) to services (municipal services, at least). Total sq. mts. Poor huseholds/total Others OWNERSHIP The following provides an example of possible households x 100 Access to hydrants Owned variables to include. Rented No households with water/total house- Let As before, these variables may be used in a similar holds x 100 manner to previous cases. Lent and others No households with electricity/total households x 100 SIZE Average size house Average size good house Etc. Average size poor house Table 15.

[46] Step 3. Other indicators of possible interest Other Demographic and Housing Indices Categories Value

It may be necessary to produce other demogra- Neighbourhood density/Average city density Low: Below average 1 phic and housing indicators and/or to relate them. Neighbourhood density/District density Medium: Equal to average 2 In these cases, the qualitative method can also be Block density/Neighbourhood density High: Above average 3 used (greater than, lesser than, equal to a datum, for example) and classification can be carried out Low: Below average 1 in the same three categories. Later, the indicators Relationship by gender (women/men) Medium: Equal to average 2 are coded numerically (low - 1; medium - 2; high High: Above average 3 - 3), as previously explained. An example is given Relationship by age group Low: Below average 1 in Table 16. Children/Adults Medium: Equal to average 2

Many of the opportunities to create variables de- Children + people of age/ Adults High: Above average 3 pendonce againon the availability of informa- Low: Below average 1 tion or on the budget available for obtaining this Relationship Medium: Equal to average 2 information in the field. Population without medical insurance/Population with insurance High: Above average 3

Low: Below average 1 Relationship Medium: Equal to average 2 Bad quality housing/Good quality housing High: Above average 3

Low: Below average 1 Housing with/without water Medium: Equal to average 2 High: Above average 3

Low: Below average 1

Housing with/without electricity Medium: Equal to average 2 High: Above average 3 Categories Code Low Minimum: 7 Maps according to compound variables Medium Medium: 14 Table 16 High Maximum: 21

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [471 Sub-stage 2.3. Welfare and Human Development This unit has been included in answer to the imperative need to determine the principal inter-con- Chart 11. Sub-stage 2.3. Welfare and Human Development nections in the reinforcement of the poverty-disasters-environmental degradation cycle, according to the Kobe Summit recommendation. Its careful structuring provides ample potential for contrib- Welfare and human Although information about welfare and human uting to the reduction of the vulnerability of the development development of the population is highly relevant, inhabitants of a municipality and the generation because it is economic information obtained of greater resilience. from economic indicators, it cannot always be obtained in the desired spatial detail. In gen- Step 1. Data verification. Go to the statistics and Income eral, National Statistics and Census Institutes census institution, analyze the availability of in- calculate several of these indicators. To do this, dicators on human welfare and development and they regularly carry out income and household their geographic coverage. It is more and more expenditure surveys, censuses, etc. This infor- usual to find these indicators at district levels and Distribution mation is available for use, in accordance with it will be difficult to find them at the level of neigh- the institution's data policies. These indicators bourhoods or communities. If you cannot find also appear in research carried out for university them, you may still consult the statistics bureaus graduation papers. to analyze the possibility of calculating them, in Poverty particular if income and expenditure survey information, or census information, is available. Step 1. Data verification. Determine availability of information on welfare and human devel- Step 2. Minimum information required. Average Education opment. A minimum of information regarding income (preferably per capita, per household). income and poverty is required. The income per capita median may be used, a fig- Step 2. Selection of indicators to be used accord- ure which is less affected by extremes of informa- ing to quality and availability. tion and the number of households. Compound Indicators of Human Development Step 3. Production of composite indicators. However, income data does not say much about its distribution, and therefore it is recommended that the Gini coefficient be used. This is calculated on the basis of accumulation by quintiles according to the

[48] amount of income received. This indicator is also cal- household, number of households (Tot Hog - [To- This information table, as explained above in the culated by statistics and census institutions. tal households]); proportion of poor individuals "demography" section, can be produced separate- (FGT [0]); severity of poverty (FGT [2], where ly and later be linked to the rest of the data. The It is useful to know in which areas of municipalities values close to zero indicate fewer poor areas procedure for incorporating information is exactly there is a lower concentration of income. However, and values close to one indicate extremely poor the same as before, explained above in detail in these data do not say much about the number of areas); polarization (P, where values close to zero the "demography" unit. However, unlike previous poor individuals in the area. In order to overcome indicate a better distribution and values close to cases, we would like to show an additional alterna- this, it is important to analyze poverty indicators. one show a marked separation between the poor tive presentation, in which two indicators and their It is recommended that at least an indicator and the upper classes; that is, the middle class is values are shown jointly. showing the poverty rate should be available. disappearing). Table 17 also shows the literacy rate in the districts of that municipality. It is also advisable to search statistics and census institutions for availability of other indicators show- Table 17. ing other characteristics of poverty, such as the pov- Base_mapasxis erty gap index, which shows the extent of poverty Amicrosart Excel Archivo (FGT [1]); the severity of poverty index, which shows 11.3 fdción Vei Insert. ronnato Herianiienlas Data Ventana 2 Esaiha un, how serious the poverty situation is (FGT [2]); the -I :310 «1ml AI% cQSAlm- polarization index (P, which shows whether society X Afabetismo is showing signs of polarizing into a very poor class A I 01 S and a very rich class). bliddle income Number Polarization PROVINCE CANTON (income per DISTRICT Homes lude FGT_Or, FGT:2 Literacy Poverty levels have been strongly linked to levels capita monthly( of education. It is therefore important to have ac- 2 SAN JOSE SAN ICEE !CARMEN 1 cess to information on education. At least, infor- 1312 19311142 0,372 I,699 11,12% 1 3,033 3 SANJOSE SAN IOSEiCATEDRAL._ 4-471-85.868,14 0,3913 6,0394 f, 11,65% 1 mation about the numbers of literate and illiterate 13277 ; 4 SAN JOSE SAN 10SE 'HATI11.0 13951 59.312,i5 i 0,355 11,31Y% 1,37% 44M4 people in the population is required (provided by j 5 SANJOSE SAN 10SE 'HOSPITAL 6.317 I 58.960,U 0,419 t 16,33% 1.. 2,44% 19679 population censuses). 6 SAN JOSE SAN ICSE IMATA REDONDA 1159 152611,15 1 0,432 3979_1_1 0,46% 8.069 1

7 SAN JOSE SAN ICU !MERCED 1 3994 7229,7 71 1 0,415 11i% 1 1,25% j 11244 I JOSE As an example, the following table, drawn up for 8 SAN SAN JOSE iPAVAS 19458 I 69152,70 0 514 I 16,13% 591372 the Municipality of the Central Canton in the Prov- 9 SAN JOSE SAN loe! ;SAN KO. DE DOS RIOS 633121_416113011,607i___96,371 ince of San José (Costa Rica), shows information lo SAN JOSE SAN ¡OSE :SAN SEBASTIAN JJL4 1,15% 35012 about per capita income indicators (Yperc) per 11 SAN JOSE sAN JosE IURUCA 6257 6432442 .12;7 t 220:35, 3,32% 1.19210 12 SAN JOSE 1 SAN IOSE ; ZAFOTE 6323 911)73,19 1 Tii1 4.95% i 0.53% 17755 i

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [49] Four maps are presented next: Fig.19. Municipality of San Jose: Per capita income and average number of households by district

Figure 19 shows per capita income per household and number of households. This information has Pe tapaa intonio pe tiliOn0 oaf KW 4111k*q USUCA Coy of San Job@ been colored according to level of income (divided 000 e 182 ISO (2) PAVAN 110 000 to 150800 (1) into five categories, according to the poverty rate, 06 000 e 10.000 (2) from 1% to close to 23% of poor people in the 00 000 to 05 000 (2) 50 000 e 00 000 M district). Furthermore, a circle has been superim- MERCK) MATA REDONDA CARMEN posed, the diameter of which indicates the number kW *abbe* by bieloo1 ay of San JO of households, according to three scales. This ap- HOSPITAL CATEDRAL now proach is similar to that used in the "demography" HATILLO 111 lO 000 section, except that it explicitly provides the indi- 2 000 cator value as additional information. 1APOTt SAN SENASTIAN 110 Figure 20 shows the rate and severity of poverty. SAN FCC, DE DOS RIOS This facilitates locating the areas containing the greatest rates of poor households and analyzing their spatial coincidence with those that suffer from Fig. 20. Municipality of San Jose: Literacy rate by district more severe or deeper poverty. It must be kept in mind that it is not necessarily the districts with a Laoraoy pe ditto oar 0002 larger proportion of poor individuals that show the City of Sin JO* greatest depth of poverty. 0,0000 lo 0 0744 D 0,0744 10 0.002 0,002 to 0,0075 Figure 21 shows per capita income per household 0.01375 lo 0.0027 and polarization. The high values of P (greater MERCED 0,0027 lo 0.0020 than 0.5) indicate significant levels of class polar- MATA REDONDA ization and are a potential source of social conflict HOSPITA (Gradín and Del Río, [2001]).

SAN SEDASTa 1o 3

MI133

[50] Fig. 21. Municipality of San Jose: Average per capita income and index by district polarization Figure 22 shows the literacy rates per district in each municipality. A joint analysis of the four maps shows that the two districts with the great- URUCA RE cape income per distnct. year 2002 est rate of poverty are also those with the great- City of San Jose est concentration of severe poverty and lowest PAVAS 150 800 to 152.700 (2) 110 000 to 150,800 (1) literacy rates. MERCED 85,800 lo 110,000 (2) CARMEN 60,800 to 85.800 (2) MATA REDONDA 58.000 to 80.800 (4) This group of maps offers a detailed overview of the welfare level situation in these districts, and, HOSPITAL India Polansetion per district year 2002 CATEDRAL City of San Jose therefore, their levels of social vulnerability. ,57

HATILLO I0,2850,285 ZAPOTE 0,057

SAN SEBASTIAN O I 5 Muai SAN CO. DE DOS RIOS

Fig. 22. Municipality of San Jose: Proportion of poor and severity of poverty index by district

URUCA Proportion of poor cestnct, year 2002 City of San Jo 0.0115 to 0,040 PAVAS 0.040 to 0,101 0,101 to 0,161 -I 0,161 to 0,223 MERCED MATA REDONDA CARMEN 0,223 to 0,224 Index severity of poverty Source: Produced by M. Adamson, 2007, based on data from: HOSPITAL (Moots City of San Jose CATEDRAL Ramos Esquivel, Carmona Villalobos and Sánchez Matarrita, 0,0094 (2005). Dimensión espacial de la pobreza, desigualdad y po- ZAPOTE 4,03400,01? larización en Costa Rica incorporando el principio de la línea ,034 SAN SEBASTIAN de ingreso, período 200-2001. Costa Rica University: School HATILLO of Economics, Directed Research Seminar. ) in 3 ".".'7711:= Costa Rica National Statistics and Census Institute (INEC). SAN FCO, DE DOS RIOS "Desinventar" database, produced by the social studies network ("La Red") for the prevention of disasters in Latin America.

Methodological Guide tor the Construction of the SIGA [51] A. Composite Indicators of Human Development A long and healthy life: As measured by life expec- UNDP offices in different countries and statistics tancy at birth; and census institutions have initiated the estimate Measures taken to improve welfare and human Education: As measured by the adult literacy rate and of this indicator, not only at the country level, but development have become popular in the last few school enrolment; and also at the municipal and sub-regional levels. They years. For example, the United Nations Develop- A decent standard of living: As measured by GDP per are also developing other indicator estimates in- ment Program (UNDP) has produced a wide range capita (adjusted to purchasing power parity in USD). cluding poverty, gender, etc. of welfare and human development indicators. 'Particularly noteworthy is the Human Develop- This indicator acknowledges that human develop- Under this heading, it is advisable simply to check ment Index (HDI), a three-dimensional synoptic ment does not only depend on monetary income, on the availability of HDI and other welfare indica- measurement of human development: but also on opportunities, access to education and tors in the detail required by the municipality, and/ the opportunity to enjoy a long and healthy life. or to evaluate the budget available for their calculation. The mechanism for the production of indicators is simple. Variables are chosen according to the measurement aim sought through the use of COMPONENT Long and Decent Standard the indicator (input). Education Healthy Life of Living An index is calculated which, following the UNDP INDICATOR Life expectancy at Adult literacy Gross School GDP per capita birth rate Enrolment (GSE) (PPP en USS) method, is just a proportion of two subtractions. In the numerator, the minimum value observed for the variable is subtracted from the variable. The denominator shows the difference between the Taza de Indice de la alfabetización TBM maximum and minimum values observed for that deadultos variable at that geographic scale. That is:

Education Index X. - min(X) COMPONENT Life expectancy GDP Index Index - x100 INDEX index max(X)- min(X)

Once this index has been calculated for each of the variables at the desired geographic level, one can simply proceed to calculate the weighted average. For a detailed example, see the Section on Compos- Human Development ite Vulnerability Indicators in Stage 5. Chart 12. Index (H Dl)

(521 Sub-stage 2.4. Production and Employment "building" heading. In this sense, municipalities of the infrastructure's underlying risk, which (in usually grant building permits, whether for hous- some cases) it could be interesting to monitor as Investment: Investment data prepared by each ing or commercial and industrial infrastructure, preemptive measures are taken to increase resil- country's Central Bank are aggregate, or, at best, and thus more detailed information in this field is ience. taken by State or Province. Therefore, informa- available to them. The number of square meters tion regarding annual investment per Censal Unit built is a good indicator of investment and levels In general, engineering and architectural schools is usually not available. On the other hand, one of of economic activity. Adding this information to and guilds know the estimated cost of construc- the main components of investment is under the the SIGA will allow the municipality to have an idea tion per square metre in these fields. Using that parameter, the municipality may estimate the rough value of building investment by areas of in- Table 18. Sub-stage 24. Production and Employment terest.

The municipality's productive activities and em- Production and Employment ployment are closely linked to threats, risk and Table 19. Production and Employment vulnerability. This module has been designed Variables seeking to maximize information that is available to the municipality itself. Building sq.mts. Value of Building Cost/sq.mts. Investment (sq. mts.) Step 1. Review of economic and employment information in databases. Municipalities have a Sq.mts. dwellings wide range of information on economic activities x$ / m2 built. since it concedes permits, patents, tax collection, Productive Activity etc.

Step 2. Selection of the information to be used Sq.mts. commercial and construction of at least the following mod- x$ / m2 Employment ules: investment (sq. mts.), levels of economic infrastructure built activity, employment and land value. Sq.mts. highways, roads and others x$ / m2 Land Value built

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [531 Productive Activities. Investment Table 21. Land Value Variables is recommended that at least the following Information for this unit is obtained from the It Local Currency Foreign Currency should be included: number of commercial estab- statistics and census institution and is generally lishments, types of operating licences granted available in censal unit detail. It is recommended for productive activities and location. This infor- that at least the "Economically Active Population Price/hectare Price ($) /hectare mation is significant when it comes to obtaining (EAP)" variable be used. The geographically ref- agricultural agricultural geographical references for the productive areas erenced employment variable is used to identify by activity, with the aim of designing preventive the centers with the largest concentrations of em- or mitigating strategies for the impact on produc- ployed population, and to design preventive and PrIceisg.mt, Urban Price ($) /sq.mt. tive and working locations, both in relation to eco- mitigation strategies for the productive locations nomic loss and loss of life. It is suggested that the which warrant them. Price/sq.mt. Commercial Price ($) /sq.mt. following variables be included: Land Value Table 20. Employment Variables One of the indicators which best illustrates a The price of property in different situations may Name Acronym municipality's level of economic activity is the reflect the threats and the level of social vulner- price of land. This is a vital parameter in this unit. Economically Active Population ability (poverty, delinquency, etc.). However, when per censal unit EAP Municipalities have recently included the design information on threats does not flow adequately, of economic valuation platforms for the Price of prices may not incorporate that information, which Open Unemployment Rate OUR land, with a great deal of geographic detail and may lead private investors to carry out transac- characteristics. These databases could be linked tions (buying land, for example) which they might Unemployment Rate UR to the SIGA. not otherwise have done.

Productive Activity Variables It is recommended that the price of the square me- Municipal rates Premises ter be included, in the local currency as well as in The dynamics of municipal income collection says Number of Business Premises Density a foreign currency (euros or US dollars, in order a lot about the economic situation of the munici- 1. Commercial by type (restaurants and to eliminate the effect of internal inflation and to bars, shops, malls). pality. For this reason, it is very useful to refer- provide an adequate indicator of the real value of ence the income geographically, in particular in 2. Services (banking, health, legal, Number of the land). The variables recommended are shown order to determine the possible impact of a spe- accounting, security, entertainment premises/ in the chart below: cific event on the financial situation of a municipal- and recreation, etc.) sq.mt. ity, to give an example. 3. Industry (by type of product, agro food, building).

[541 Sub-stage 2.5. Loss due to Disasters the goal for the next decade established at Kobe, The Network (La Redrs "Desinventar" database of "reducing economic and social losses", it is sug- facilitates an online review of information, avail- This data unit completes the socio-economic gested that municipalities obtain, in the greatest able at http://www.desinventar.org/desinventar. group. Generally speaking, this information is very geographical detail possibleat leastthe informa- html, which may be used by the municipalities as scattered and has not been compiled or central- tion shown in the following chart: ized. This is why the chart on page 33 identifies initial input for updating through the Management Unit. it by means of a red dotted line surrounding it, to As in the previous case, using value/sq.mt. parameters as a starting point, as well as the per- indicate that information gaps exist. According to centage of affected square meters to calculate a value which is indicative of the effects of damage, Table 22. Losses due to Disasters the procedure is simply as shown below: People Affected lnfraestructure Affected Evaluation of economic losses Number Number Percentage Initial value of loss = rn2 affected X percentage of loss X cost/m2. Number of dwellings affected

Number of buildings This information is processed in the same way as affected before, and may be reflected on maps. Next, is an Number of deaths by type Estimated value of losses Highways and roads af- example for the Municipality of San José, Costa of event (flood, landslide, fected in sq. mts. Estimated value of crops Rica, which includes a map of the Economically earthquake, etc.). Active Population (EAP), together with the Open Drinking water pipes af- Percentage Estimated value of dwellings Number of victims by type Unemployment Rate (OUR); a map showing invest- fected in sq. mts. affected ment in square meters (hypothetical), a map of of event. Estimated value of infra- average households affected by flood and flood Bridges affected in sq. structure Number of injured by type victims (as a percentage in a 30-year series). mts. of event. Estimated value roads Constructions affected in sq. mts.

Hectares affected by type of crop

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [55] Fig. 23. Municipality of San José: Fig. 24. Average housing affected by flood and Fig. 25. Municipality of San José: EAP and unemployment rate by district total damnified Municipality of San José Map Hypothetical Insvestment (m2)

URUCA o URUCA lad talrt 112.1t3 AT/V) MERCED [MERCED CARMEN mitIFErNok IDONDA' CARMEN MERCED CARMEN . MATA REDONDA CMCI3A1 - HOSPITAL CATEDRAL elf ORAL HOSPITAL CATED , NATIT HATILOL . E 55' N DATA_ 55 N 55' N ZA'OS M:0-14 -I-9' [SAN SEBASTIAN M73101152 SAN SEBASTI SAN EGO. trAf,Stia SAN KO. DE DOS RIO DE DCIVEi DE DOS RIOS

1.6 3 II 3

Mks 1Mes 13 hkes

EAP District by year 2002 Average Homes Affected by Flooding Map hypothetical investment in construction (mi) City of San José Districts, City of San José Districts, City of San José

0 1.500 to 4200 Do to 0,83 8.000 to 8.000 D 4.200 to 8.600 0,83 to 2,28 6.000 to 8.000 III 8.600 to 18.000 III 2,28 to 2,63 5.000 to 6.000 18.030 to 30.200 2,63 lo 9 III 3.000 to 5.000 III 30.200 to 30.300 9 to 9 0 800 tO 3.000

Open unemployment rate Sinistrés by Flood, 30 years City of San José Districts, City of San José I 0,0057 24 0,0285 4120

0,057 240

(561 Stage 3. Use of Land Chart 13. Stage 3. Land Use

Step 1 - Cartographic Foundation Land Use The aim of this module is to carry out a detailed inventory of the uses of land, of natural resource con- Processing of cadastral information, pho- servation and/or to identify the alterations which tointerpretation, fieldtrips. imply a risk to life within the municipality. Urban Rural

At this stage, two groups of land uses can be dis- Residential Agriculture Minimum information required: tinguished: urban and rural. sketch of localities according to predomi- Public Livestock nant use, both in urban and in rural areas. For rural areas, maps are drawn up on a scale of 1/50,000, but if the municipality considers it nec- Industrial Mining Step 1 essary, it is possible to work on a cadastral scale. Cartographic Foundation 1/50,000 and/or cadastral maps for urban For towns and cities, it is recommended that data Commercial Forestry on a scale of 1/5,000 be obtained and generated. centres. Parks Protected Areas Step 2 Step 2- Use of Urban Land Urban land use Search for and compilation of information related Step 3 to the subject, at the level of the municipality, the Thematic Maps Rural land use (agriculture, livestock, min- neighborhood and the city block. by Variable ing)

When putting this database together, it is recommended that the Land Registry Bureau's database be used. It would be advisable for information ma- trices to be structured by subject (housing, com- Threat-Vulnerability-Risks mercial buildings, industrial buildings, etc.). Maps

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [57) Urban Activity Value by Step 3- Use of rural land Type of Use Tenure use Code Activity Living space Owned Dwellings 8000 Living space and commercial- Rented Fig. 23. Using soil Shelters Lent Municipality of Condega, Department of Estelf, Nicaragua Uninhabited Edificios State-owned -Commercial Services Public ir Leyonekt (education, health, Private to** Altvtiostis transport) Health, recreationa Lao ottki41 *tit) **leg %till, , Manufacturers Alleteeetedei rdedede (food, clothing) MIII bet*. de dalelie Tanneries Ned.. de ed. Slaughterhourses Ow** 4le 0..ete Tobacco industry Woo400 woo.. dee Industrias Coffee processing plants Pharmaceutical doe.* kildeeedo ide Wide industry 9000 deed. leldeNdde Bete Abler% Paint, chemicals Textiles gee., Wee.. bap toe.% Pork products dead. 110ektee Wide Service stations doe*. neiie Metallurgic industry eeo, %were Cement works Building materials plants telt we". CrItrai POO.. Supermarkets CAA.% snumet Food and clothing stores PetIn ten Miscellaneous Nett tee %Went Comercial General stores f --_,,, Stalls heedueeletedet Public and private 1 Fibre transport - \ \ 1.-13" \ 1 iiik W(esIteveis eNuelwa Distributors 0 7 ItIldrnetros Grocery stores frotodo Mono,. do CoodotO Municipal markets , Dopodot000lo do Mk** Moo"). 0000) Green Parks Spaces Squares 10000 Sports fields Table 23. Use of Urban Land.

[58] National production data, regarding volume and Rural use Code Heading Type location, are produced by the Ministry of Agricul- ContaminationEffectsgenerated ture, Livestock and Forestry or similar institutions Vegetable gardens Vegetables in each country. It is helpful if that institution pro- Cooperatives vides the relevant maps and information for the Agriculture Corn municipality. If this is not possible, the municipal- Traditional crops (_K Beans ity itself can generate its own information from Commercial crops Coffee its micro-regions, administrative divisions and Sugar cane communities, through the representatives of state Tobacco Rice institutions or agencies. The information can also be obtained with the support of various Non-Gov- Livestock Extensive Large livestock ernmental Organizations. Finally, it is possible to Intensive Small livestock carry out field trips to verify, update and/or create the necessary information. Mining Metals (Iron) Building (sand, clay) IIII Energy Semi precious Others Forestry Coniferous and Latifoliate Forest L., Mist forest Others Protected Mountain Areas Wetlands Coastal areas

Energy plants Hydroelectric dams Sub-stations Geothermal and thermal stations

Dumps Municipal Illegal Table 24. Use of Rural Land

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [59] Stage 4. Lifelines and Basic Services Stage 4 - Lifelines and Basic Services It is important to include all the information that can be generated at the local level. Processing of municipal, cadastral and censal Lifelines and Services information, and information supplied by State institutions and organizations connected with the municipality. Together with verification Road Network and updating via field trips.

Water Step 1 - Access routes (roads, highways, bridges, etc.) Step 2 - Water supply and sanitation net- Energy works.

Paso 3 - Energy Sewerage Paso 4 - Health (hospitals, outpatient clinics, health centres, health posts)

Transport Step 5 - Education Step 6- Transport

Thematic Map by Variable

Threat-Vulnerability-Risks Maps

Figure 24.

1601 Setp 1 Order of Importance Condition Surface Category Evacuation Capacity Access Routes. Main highway In good shape, Asphalt There is a nomenclature which refers to catego- Secondary roads in poor shape. ries of roads: hard surface highways, secondary Cobbles Passable in all kinds of High, highways, roads passable in all kinds of weather, Ballast weather medium unimproved roads, lanes, narrow paths. SI Macadam Unimproved roads and low. Lanes Order of importance of the roads: Types of road in the Narrow paths municipality. Bridges Concrete, wood, mix, Condition: State of road's upkeep (permanently metal, etc. updated). Table 24 Surface category: Material used in its construction. Evacuation capacity: Feasibility of using the road Services System Type of material Type of service Quality of service as an evacuation route. Drinking water [5] Wells, pipes, PVC, metal, con- Continuous, networks. crete, etc. sheduled, oc- casional Sewer System Step 2 Good, Water supply network and sanitation Rain water Pipes, canals PVC, metal, concrete, etc. fair, Services: Type of water supply network and sani- bad. tation. Septic tanks Individual or Concrete, covered, Permanent or troughs collective lined, uncovered. System: Description of the system used to provide the service. rn Materials: Type of material used to build the sup- Latrines Individual or Wood, metal, collective concrete, blocks, Permanent ply system. fiberglass, plastic.

Type of service: Continuity of service. Oxidation tanks Collective Concrete, covered, Service quality: Quality of the service and quality lined, uncovered of the water. Table 25

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA f611 Type of System Step 3 Services System Type of Material Type of Services Maintenance location Electric Power Household Local, Service: Type of power grid. electric municipal power lines networks Cables, pylons, Permanent, Continuous, System: Description of the system used to provide wooden, concrete or temporary, shceduled, oc- metal nonexistent casional the service. High Local, Materials: Type of materials used to build the pow- voltage municipal High hazard lines networks er grid. Low hazard Maintenance: Service maintenance schedule. High and Local, Transformers, low voltage 15 municipal cables and Type of service: Continuity of electrical service. stations networks infrastructure Location of system: Threat - hazard - due to prox- imity to the grid. Table 26.

Type of Service Care capacity Accountable to Human resources Physical resources

Hospitals Provide Public, mixed Doctors, Collective wards, private care at the 3 or private male and fe- wards, isolation wards, Step 4 levels male nurses, intensive care wards, nursing aux- operating theatres, labo- Health (hospitals, outpatient clinics, Outpatient iliaries, ad- ratories, ambulances, health centers, health posts) clinics ministrators, lighting, drinking water, cleaning sewage, offices, garbage Service class: Existing health services. personnel, disposal, crematoria, Health care capacity: Type of health care provided by Health Primary and maintenance. sanitary facilities, access the health centre (care level). centers secondary Accountable to: Organization responsible for maintaining the health service. Health posts Doctors, Outpatient areas, offices, Human resources: Human resources available at nurses, sanitary facilities, access nursing health centre. auxiliaries Infrastructure: Physical resources available to the Base Primary houses health service.

Table 27.

(62i Step 5 Student Type of Physical Type of Service Accountable to Human resources Education Population Building resources Service class: Existing educational services. Pre-school Student population: Number of students. Number of class- Accountable to: Organization responsible for rooms, courts, Primary Teachers, profes maintaining the educational service. Adobe, wood, gyms, laboratories, sors, directors, Number of children, concrete, tiles, chapels, coffee Building type: Materials used in the buildings. Public, mixed or assistant directors Secondary adolescents and zinc, floor (mud, shops, storerooms, Human resources: Human resources available at private administrators, young people concrete, ceramic, lighting, drinking educational centre. cleaning personnel, etc.) water, sewage, maintenance Infrastructure: Physical resources available to the Technical garbage disposal, educational service. access

University Important note: This information facilitates the preparation of emergency plans. Table 28

Transport Frequency Accountable to Coverage Physical resources System

Defined Fixed shedules Step 6 Routes Transport Roofed, open air, lit, Transport system Local and long distance trans- Specified unlit, with signs, without port. stops signs, maintenance, cleaning Frequency: Timetables. Public, mixed or private Efficient, fair, poor Accountable to: Organization in charge of providing the service. Roofed, drinking water, sanitary facilities, sew- Coverage Quality of service. age, lighting, sufficient Physical resources: Available infrastructure. Terminus space, parking, offices and commercial areas, maintenance, cleaning, access.

Table 29

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [63] Stage 5 A-Production of Indicators Hydric Network Design Processing Stage For the Geophysical System's Characteristics, Id_red (network id): Topological code. five variables considered fundamental in the Hierarchical classification: Stralher's hierarchical definition of the geophysical system are used: classification system. hydric network, elevation measurements, ba- Cod_Jer (Hierarchy code): Number assigned to sins, geology, geo-morphology. each order. Water volume: Characteristics of water volume (permanent or intermittent). Indicators. Indicators code by attribute Cartographic Product Cod_cau (water volume code): Number assigned ac-

Geophysical indicators code . Cross-referencing between the- cording to volume size. matic geophysical maps Attributes: Description according to performance in the face of heavy rainfall threat. Production of natural threat map Threat indicators code . Net- Hier- Water Water Attri- Code_At- thydrometeorological, volcanic, work_ cal clas- archy volume volume butes trib_ earthquakes? ID sification code code11 network_

Cross-referencing between the- . 3000 1'. line 1 intermittent 22 torrential 113 matic maps and socio-economic Cross-referencing between socio- database economic thematic maps 3001 2" line 2 permanent 32 slope 221 PROCESSING STAGE 3002 3. line 3 permanent plains 325 Vulnerability indicators code Production of vulnerability map Table 31. Cod_attrib (Attribute code): Number assigned.

Topograph- Spot height Altimetric level Attributes Height_code Land use code Land use map ical_ID (meters)

14 100 100-500 low 1

23 500 501-1000 medium 2 Lifelines and services code Lifelines and services map 35 1000 1001-2000 high 3

396 2000 2001-3000 very high 4 Environmental risk indicators code Environmental risk map production Municipal limits (universal coverage) Table 32. Table 30.

[641 Topographical Attributes

Topographical ID: Topological Identifier. termined by technicians). or a name established for each basin whose limits Spot Height (in meters): Height Levels, obtained Cod_altitud (Altitude code): Classified from high- have been determined. from terrain. er to lower. Cod_cuenca (Basin code): A code number to iden- Altimetric level: A group of spot height data (con- tify the basin. tours are grouped by height category, for example: River basin delimitation Basin_ID Name Basin_code contours between 0 and 100; contours between 100 basin Al 1 100 and 600; contours 600 and above, etc.). Id_cuenca (Basin Identification): Topological code. 200 basin A2 2 Attributes: Relevant characteristic of attribute Name: Actual nomenclature (actual name of the riv- (low area, medium area and high area; this is de- ers or mountain streams which compose the basin) 300 basin A3 3 Table 33 C=iCV1.0114 . Geological attributes pa bal.ft.. Id_geol (Geological Identification): Topological CM 6 ob. code (the number of the form type, created by zas.Us means of a polygon). Atributo% k Altwoctos..hy Erit:1 Formations: Actual nomenclature (name) used for

.4... KO O01311 1.120X5 50 each formation. Pu 101 (10631(4)! 43I* 100 4 1.40,4471 102 0262231,- S714214 SA 3 Cod_geol (Geological Code): Code number as- 114004 104 0.06110 ISOM 2000 1 P44044 103 0 NOW S 9224511 110:41 2 signed to each formation. P.PCSII 101 410001441 0433071 200) f Rock type: Names of rocks. G. Cod_rocas (Rock Code): Code number assigned Oar4. MN c according to hardness of rock. Tectonic:Characteristics and properties of the rock.

MR ...nee Cod_tect (Tectonic Code): Code number assigned V according to properties. an Attributes: Stability, meteorization, permeability, MI 2 NM er n.o$ others. Cod_atrib (Attribute Code): Code number as- Figure 25. signed according to stability.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [65) Geol_ID Formations Geol code Rock type Rock code Tectonic Tectonic code Attribute Geol 7attrib_ code As variables are added, the same methodology is 100 Stable 1000 applied. 1000 Precambrian 1 Granite 10 Inactive fault 2500 From the intersection of the five variables for the 1001 Mesozoic 2 Limestone 25 Inactive fault 250 - Stable basin, the following table of results is obtained, to- 1002 Cenozoic 3 Riolite 38 Active fault 381 Unstable 3811 gether with the corresponding map: Table 34. Geo-morph_ID Major geomorph GM code Minor geomorph gm code Attribute Geom_ attrib_code

111 2000 Plain 1 River plain 11 Flood-prone B-Preparation of Threat Maps 2001 Slope 2 Alluvial cone 23 Landslide-prone 233 A possible first way of going about this is to com- 2002 Montane 3 Glacis 35 Avalanche-prone 355 bine the table obtained previously (geophysical system) with the occurrence probability of the Table 35. threat(s) that is, the risk estimate to which the Geo-morphological Attributes This mosaic, at the graphic level, is originated municipality is exposed. A new table will thus be when coverages are superimposed and inter- Id_geom (Geo-morphological Identification): To- generated. It must be considered that: cepted, resulting in a subdivision of polygons. pological code. Geomorph: Actual nomenclature (name) of each Tables are crossed automatically (DBase, Excel, As the estimate of the occurrence probability of geomorph (plains, slopes, mountains). SIG operation) in a matrix (intersecting rows and each event is a specific datum, it could be determined by the Management Unit, since it depends Cod_GM (Geo-morphological Code): Code num- columns). As a result of the operation (multipli- on the location of the municipality and on exist- ber assigned to each geomorph. cation) each matrix level obtains a composite code: ing records, which are influenced by the specific Minor geomorphs: Properties of geomorphs. characteristics of the type of event. Cod_gm (Geo-morphological type Code): Code How is this result read? Each basin extends the number assigned according to type of geomorph. length of four attributes. In the example, only one The estimate of a probability model can be a somewhat laborious task, and it may be pos- Attributes: In the face of a threat. basin (Basin 2) will be used, intersecting the topography and geology attributes. sible that there are no previous estimates avail- Cod_atrib (Attribute Code): Assigned numbers. able. In such a case, the management unit can proceed by assigning a numerical code to each Preparation of Codes for Geophysical In- IMPORTANT: Each cell in the table has a value category, according to existing perceptions of which is the product of the intersection. When dicators occurrence probability (groups of specialists the value is zero (0) it means that the geologi- may be consulted for each type of event, for ex- In order to create the indicator codes, attributes cal formation is not present at that level. ample, in focus group workshops). are crossed through the intersection of coverages, forming a mosaic.

[66] The second alternative consists of the estimate plemented by historical information. An example C- Attributes of the Socio-Economic System of the occurrence probability of the threat (of the of this will be given below, in the section on the Use is made of the variables mentioned in this event). That is, this probability provides a risk es- production of composite indicators. timate, which can be combined with information unit that it has been possible to obtain. The mini- about vulnerabilities, and in many cases be com- mum variables recommended in this manual are required, plus any additional variables which may be of interest to the municipality (units on demography, welfare and development, productive ac- Fig. 26. Landslide Threats in the Municipality of tivity and losses). The sources of information, as Condega, Department of Estelí, Nicaragua pointed out before, are varied (from population and housing censuses to income and expenditure surveys; university research centers and institu- Leyenda tions, graduation papers, etc. It is recommended - - - - dreccoon del mmirmento that the smallest territorial unit or censal area Deslizamientos available be used). Desleatmentos dr peligro alto

DesltratmentOS dr ',Nigro med. NeskratmentoS Or Pe.* IMPORTANT: In order to determine the attri- No °Ma bute it is recommended (as an approximation) Geomorfologa Ell Pm that the average value of the corresponding vertiente variable in the municipality be used as a ref- vettiente comma* erence and, on that basics, that a category be República de Nicaragua established and codified before.

IV. As an example, for a few of the variables in these units: \441.1,2 !xi) 4 er, It is important to include poverty variables, and

.°1 80 0 80 160 internee. employment, which in this case are excluded so as not to lengthen the example. Section H shows how 1 O 1 kilómetros Fuente: Municipio de Condega. to include these variables in the development of Departamento de Esteli- Nicaragua (2000) quantitative indicators.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [67] Population D- Production of Vulnerability Indicator Dens_ code Codes Area ID Population Area (sg.rnts.) Density (pis) Attribute 2 1562 156 10.000 156/10.000 Medium The SIGA provides a wide variety of possibilities with 3 regard to the preparation of indicators to quantify 2398 26 5.000 26/5.000 High and monitor progress in vulnerability reduction and 498 800 100.000 800/100.000 Low 1 the increase of local resilience, as recommended in Sex the Hyogo Plan of Action. Sex_ code Area_ ID Population Male Female Male index Attribute 2 Two alternatives are shown below for the produc- 1562 156 80 76 80/76 Medium 3 tion of vulnerability indicators. In both cases, indi- 2398 26 6 20 6/20 High cators are obtained by seeking a quantification of 498 800 500 300 500/300 Low 1 the dimensions of the vulnerability concept.

Age Quantitative vulnerability indicator: For each OA_ code Area_ ID Population 0-14 15-64 65 and over Attribute children Child. code Attribute older adults variable which approximates a specific vulner- 3 1562 156 32 68 56 Medium 2 High ability dimension, it is necessary to find a measur- 2 able magnitude to quantify it. The production of 2398 26 5 12 11 Low 1 Medium

1 a quantitative vulnerability indicator may be a 800 220 520 60 High 3 Low 498 laborious task from the conceptual and measure- Health Coverage ment point of view. Because of this, this case is presented as a second example. Id_zona Population No coverage With coverage No coverage index Attribute Health_code 1562 156 10 146 10/146 Low 1 Qualitative vulnerability scale: Unlike the previ- 2398 26 16 10 16/10 Medium 2 ous alternative, in this case it is only necessary 498 800 600 200 600/200 High 3 to establish a numerical scale for the variables in each dimension (for example: 3-high, 2-medium, Housing Quality 1-low) and then add up the values, as in previous Area_ID Dwellings Heavy materials Light materials Dwell. quality. index Attribute Dwell_ code examples. The precaution of keeping to a logical order in the distribution of values must be taken, 1562 58 50 a 8/50 Low 1 making sure that the higher values, or the lower 6 6/2 High 3 2398 8 2 ones, always correspond to a situation considered 498 142 40 102 102/40 High 3 either positive or negative.

[68] No pie-determined number of variables is needed As a result, a qualitative analytical code is ob- to produce the qualitative or quantitative vulner- tained as well as an aggregate vulnerability code. ability indices. It is recommended that a sufficient An example of a social vulnerability case is shown but manageable number be used. Variables must below: be associated with the effects of the threat/s and to the socio-economic dimensions that they affect.

Area_ ID Dens_Code Sex_code Child_code 0A_code Health_ Dwell_ Analytical Aggregate Level code code vuln_code vuln_code

1562 2 2 2 3 1 1 222311 11 Low

2398 3 1 1 2 2 3 311223 12 Medium

498 1 3 3 1 3 3 133133 14 High Table 36.

The analytical vulnerability code enables the identification of variables which make the greatest contribution to vulnerability. The aggregate code - Selection of dimensions included in vulnerabil- and older adults with respect to the total popu- gives a more general view. In the latter case, when ity (social, physical, cultural, etc.). lation). the analysis is carried out, it must be kept in mind - Selection of variables related to such dimen- Creation of classes for each variable, according that identical final figures may be reflecting very sions (for example: a high population of chil- to category (low, medium and high) and assign- different situations concerning the effect of the dren and older adults implies greater social ment of a number to each class. participating variables. vulnerability). Not necessarily so if their in- For example: 1-low, 2-medium, 3-high. come is high and they are located in low threat The Management Unit can use both indices, accord- areas. Production of the analytical and/or aggregate ing to the SIGA's specific aims and to the criteria re- vulnerability index. garding intervention in the socio-economic variables, Selection of indeces to quantify the variables for example by means of social investment or other chosen (for example: percentage of children Vulnerability map. projects which seek to increase resilience.

In short, the general procedure to be followed is made up of the following steps:

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA 1.69) E- Attributes of Land Use F- Attributes of Lifelines and Services Electricity The categories suggested for the typification of Lifelines to consider could be classified as: road Electr_ID Type Light_code Condition the use of land in urban areas are: residential, pub- network, water, electricity and sewer system. The 300 Electric 301 Fair 2 lic, industrial, commercial, green areas, unused names of the types within each category may vary 301 Lamp 526 Good 3 and unspecified use. according to the country or region. In all case-s, the condition of the line in question is included. Sewer System In rural areas, the following categories are used: Sanitation _ID Type Sanit_code Condition livestock, agriculture, mixed, forestry, industrial, Tables are produced as follows: 100 Network 357 Good 3 mining, protected areas, an 'unused' category and Road Network 101 Tank 159 Fair 2 an 'unspecified use' category. Type Road_ Road net- Condition On the subject of services, the following are taken In both cases, the typology may be broadened ac- work_ID code into account in the SIGA: health, education and cording to the specific characteristics of the mu- 100 10 National highway Good 3 transport. In this case, the typology may vary as nicipality. 125 Departmental highway 12 POOr 1 well. Infrastructure quality is considered for each 136 Road Good 3 The binary code system can be used to assign the case: codes: presence (1) - absence (0). 25 Path Fair 2 Serv_ID Type Infrastructure 101 Road Poor 1 This will generate a table describing the use of 25 Health Hospital, Good 3 land, similar to the one shown below: Water Outpatient Fair 2 clinic, Water_ID Access Access_code Quality of service Poor 1 Community 200 Pipes 20 POOr 1 clinic

201 Well 30 Good 3 1980 Education Primary Good 3 Table 37. Secondary Fair 2 Land_ID Urban Urban_code Rural Rural_code Tertiary Poor 1 Res. Publ Ind Com ev N/u N agr liv mix for Ind min PA N/u N

5001 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1011000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000 35847 Transport passengers

5002 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1111000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000 cargo

2034 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1010100 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 01/10/0000 Hazardous waste

1 0 0 1 0 0 000000100 257 0 0 0 0 0 0 1000000 0 0 0 0 Table 38

[70] Sub- Geophysi- Flood likeli- Analytical Potential Lifelines and services The information provided by the lifelines and services ID basin cal_code hood Area_ID vuln_code risk Use_code c s a sub-system is of use to the management unit, since it makes it possible to become familiar with the infra- 2 211000111113 3 High 1562 222311 1 Low High-low Agriculture 0 0 0 1001 structure. The latter can be counted upon in the case 503 2 222500233221 2 Medium 2398 311223 1 Low Medium-low Livestock 1 0 0 of a disaster, as well as the level of damage which this

3519 2 2338111000221 1 Low 498 133133 3 High Low-high Residential 1 1 1 infrastructure might suffer in such an event. Table 39.

G- Preparation of Environmental Risk Maps Fig. 27. Environmental Risk Map With the availability of information about threats, Malvfn stream basin, Montevideo, Uruguay vulnerability, use of land and lifelines and services, it is possible to produce an environmental risk Leyenda map. RioddoAmbiontal Rindo This map is a summary of the environmental situ- Nor And Rd*. ARA ation (including economic, social and other as- Naga Vedic pects) of the municipality's territory in the face of Ka,. Pep, a particular threat. alaaga Mean Nondd Rd,

accaan Mcnno The final summary map, or environmental risk amn map, which the Management Unit will obtain, will EJnalanCuenca inn. Mann, be similar to the map shown below:

InCituto Nome. As telndltice (ednon, i Intended. Municipal de Monty., 2000

Elaboredo por 000 didbriels Fddlendat Lamm

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [71] Depending on the characteristics of the munici- H- Quantitative Composite Vulnerability Step 1. Definition of a temporal scale and an anal- pality and on the type of threat/s to be faced, the Indices (CVO ysis indicator mode management unit will classify the environmental risk areas that are best suited to its needs. It may happen that the municipality has not been Define the scale or temporal coverage which able to complete all of the SIGA units. lf, for exis desired for the use of data and review the ample, the geophysical module has not incorpo- In some cases it will be advisable to work with a re- availability of information. In this case it is rated all of the necessary details, the Manage- stricted classification (for example: high, medium, important to define the time interval to be em- ment Unit can resort to historical information low or zero risk); on the other hand, in other cases ployed (the example is produced using flood vic- and records, and use them to prepare indicators, it will be advisable to use a wider range of catego- tim reports over a 30-year period: 1970-2000. which, although they do not necessarily contain ries, which can even be numbered (for example: 0 Data obtained from Desinyentar, The Network). the required detail, do provide information for the - zero risk; 10 - very high risk). In this example, the indicator is produced by tak- decision-making process. This indicator will pro- ing the average number of victims per flood. It is by using this summary map that the munici- vide the prevailing vulnerability on the date of the pal authorities can complement their informa- available information. All that is required for this Define the type or mode of indicator. It is rec- tion and contrast it with their action and budget is historical information and tools such as a simple ommended that the UNDP method employed in priorities. This is done for the purpose of facili- electronic spreadsheet. producing the indicator be followed. This uses tating the administrative and political decision- maximum and minimum numbers, and allows taking process, in relation to risk management As an example of this situation, which may arise in comparisons within the same geographic or cen- and increased resilience. the initial stages of the SIGA's design and prepara- sal unit. tion, and also to illustrate other ways of calculating vulnerability indicators, several approaches In this example, a vulnerability indicator of victim are developed below for the production of quanti- per flood (VIVF) is sought. Therefore, the average tative vulnerability and risk indicators. number of victims per flood in area i can be calculated, which, for example, can be defined as the number of victims divided by the total number of flood reports during the period, (Xi/Total floods in the municipality X 100).

[721 Step 2. Calculating the vulnerability index by Prepare the indicator estimate equation. Once The more vulnerable areas will show higher val- characteristics the maximum and the minimum have been found, ues, 100% being the maximum rating, which in- a formula is established for the calculation of the dicates that that specific area is the most likely Identify the minimum and maximum of the vari- victims per flood index. This may simply be done to have flood victims. Therefore, the indicator is able within the municipality. The next step is to on a spreadsheet, as shown in the figure above. comparable and relative to the interior of the mu- find the minimum and maximum values for the The equation is simple: subtract the minimum nicipality and not outside it. Please note that the indicator (in this example, average victims per value found per geographical unit from the in- indicator contains two dimensions: a social di- flood, per geographical unit). This makes it pos- dicator. Divide the result by the difference be- mension, as in this example, broadly summarized sible to carry out comparisons among the differ- tween the maximum and the minimum values. by the average number of victims, and the threat ent areas. In this example, a comparison is made The quantitative vulnerability indicator can be situations which have actually occurred, that is, among the districts that constitute the munici- given as a percentage. the number of events or floods which have taken pality of San José, Costa Rica.' place.

Step 3. Produce other specific vulnerability in- G2 ..(F2-$F114)/(SF S t 3 SF $14) dicators.

A 13 Ak1 AO AR AS This type of calculation may be designed equally PROVINCE CANTON DISTRICT Number &War& Samar& Floods Maims 1 of floods fto ..m4c floods Virit.',4t.ihIlf lade. simply, for indicators such as a death by flood vulnerability index, or for a housing affected by t,I 2 SAN1 JOSE SAN JOSE ;EL cARMEN 12 ' .1 36.. floods vulnerability index, etc., according to the 3 SAN JOSE SAN JOSE iCATEDRAL i 21 139 6,6 15% needs of the municipality. 4 SAN JOSE SAN JOSE :HATILLO i II It must be kept in mind S SAN JOSE T SAN JOsE IHOSPITM. 12 49 4.1 i 4 that these are examples. 6 T1 '° r SAN JOSE MATA REDOkIDA 6 : 18 3,0 The vulnerability risk map shows the VIVE for SAN JOSE SAN JOSÉ LA MERCED .... 3 i 131 In this case, as an illustra- J....- the Municipality of San José, together with other : SAN JOSE .,PAVAS 6 74 4S,ßSAN tion, the "Desinventar" 4 : .1.AA 9 SAN ka .t SAN7Ca. - ,SAN FC0 DE DOS + 1 ...i. 0 -I 0.0 composite vulnerability indicators, which are ex- database has been used, 10 SAN JOSE i SAN JOSE SAN SEBASTIAN t 30 : ra 7,9 : plained in the following paragraphs. for the sake which contains data on :LA URUCA II : 10 SAN JOSE SAN JOSE OP the effects on housing. SAN JOSE : SAN JOSE rZAPOTE f 14 I a (41 of simplicity. Historical information was used in However, as the munici- 13 146x 43,0 these examples. Similarly, it is possible to deter- Min 0.0 pality's Management Unit mine vulnerability due to flooding caused by an improves its statistics, in Table 40. increase in the volume of a watercourse, in terms coordination with other DPI - Min(DP1i, DPId IDVI= of a specific number of meters above the average institutions, the data will Max(DP1i, DPIn) - DPI.) level. In this case, it is possible to calculate the tend to become more pre- Source: M. Adamson, 2007. cise.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA 173] number of potential victims and produce an index Step 1. vulnerability of victims per flood (VIVF); and c) to serve as a vulnerability forecast based on the Define the number of variables to be included in housing affected by floods vulnerability ( HFVI). contour lines described in the geophysical unit and your indicator. B.The second, in an analogous manner, consid- on information about the population. The mecha- The variables that can best quantify and explain ers: a) poverty percentage; b) vulnerability of nism is equally simple; it only requires maintaining the chosen vulnerability must be identified, ac- victims per flood; and c) vulnerability index of systematization. cording to the characteristics of the threat and the economic losses by flood (VIELF). information available.

An easily understood way of doing this is by de- I- Designing compound vulnerability indi- Step 2. signing a composite indicator in the HDI style (see cators (CVO Define the equation and weighting factors. the section on welfare and human development It is possible to produce a quantitative vulnerabil- compound indicators in the appendix), combining As in the previous case, the equation can easily ity index of a social group with respect to a threat. various dimensions: an indicator for social vulner- As pointed out above, vulnerability is multi-dimen- be presented on an electronic spreadsheet. What ability, one for economic vulnerability and a rela- equation can be used? In these cases, simple sional. Therefore, a compound index is produced, tive indicator for threat-associated risk. In these which groups various elements considered rel- equations are recommended: weighted averages cases, threat, as well as social and economic fac- of indicators, and the same weighting factor in evant to a specific vulnerability. tors are brought together to reflect vulnerability the exponents. Thus, the equation will simply effectively as a result of these interactions. As a manner of illustration, some examples of be a weighted average, as in the examples given compound vulnerability indicators by event are above. Next, select the variables to be used in calculating provided in the following step. In these cases, these dimensions and prepare a specific vulner- work has been carried out along the lines of the In our example, these indicators consist of three ability indicator for each one, just as was done in conceptual framework produced in Kobe, which variables. This is why it is divided by three, and the the case of the VIVF example. highlighted the importance of prevention and value given to the exponent is 1/3; as shown in the mitigation, and of monitoring the cycle of pov- equation in Table 41. Among the variables used An example is given below of the preparation of a erty-disaster-degradation of natural resources. is the poverty average, which is clearly affected composite vulnerability to flood index (CVFI). This by income. It is to be expected that the lower the will be presented in two different ways: income, the more likely it is that housing will be located in cheaper and more marginal areas and A.The first shows the estimated vulnerability as will therefore be more exposed to threat from the weighted average of: a) existing poverty flooding. The type of area is also relevant. Areas per district (Average Poverty Index [FGT (0)]; b) with a history of flooding increase the vulnerabil-

[74] ity of housing. This history, in the present case, is Poverty. A Multidimensional Perspective") may be quantified by means of the victim vulnerability per consulted. flood index (VIVF). Another important element is the vulnerability of To obtain an even more detailed vulnerability in- the physical structures of houses. For this reason, dicator, more variables can be used, as long asas the index showing housing destroyed by flooding previously statedsystematization is maintained (HDFI) is included, to provide an approximation of in their preparation (to see further details on the that vulnerability. The way the exponents are in- production of such indicators, Sudhir Anand y Am- cluded gives equal weight to the different compo- artya Sen, "Concepts of Human Development and nents of the joint indicator.

-- i =POTENC (1 (POTENCIA(E2100;3)/POTENCIA(F2100POTENCIA(G7100;3)) __1 13 I C E I F H

PROVINCE , CANTON DISTRICT FGT_O% IVDI IVVI IVPI IVCI (b) 1 1 Ee% 90 120 1,62305 _2__ISAN JOSE iSAN JOSE ICAP EN - - 4 2% 13% 3 SAN JOSE :SAN JOSÈ iÒ EDRAL 3% : 15% 38% 26 6526984 4 SAN JOSE :SAN JOSÉ TILLO 11 M.%; 9% 2 38,88764 5 SAN JOSÉ ...iSAN JOSÉ OSPITAL 16 9% : 100% 45287 6 SAN JOSE ¡SAN JOSÉ iMATA REDONDA - r 3,97% 56% t 7,23164 1:$5810 7 SAN JOSÈ iSAN JOS, !MERCED ¡ 10,15 19% 87,37327 t't ,511334 8 SAN JOSÉ :SAN J - iPAVAS 26% 19 23,99685 2 71974 9 SAN JOSÉ :SAN J , iSAN FCO DOS PI. : 0% 2,62091 ! l3"35 10 SA/4 JOSÉ SAN OSÉ .SAN SE : ..., i : 1040% 1 31% 19% 23 173 16 41 I, SAN JOSÈ t JOSÈ :URU : 22,354 2% 29% 56% 39,6 75 12 SAN JOSÉ JOSÉ OTE 0% 100% 17 877 69 ' ivci..[;(var_or+uvpir+vvvirl ivc4. -Oar or +uvrgr +(ivPir 3

Table 41.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [75] Step 3. Interpretation of results reduction, literacy, infant feeding and so on), in order to achieve greater efficacy in the increase 4 Which lifelines and services are likely to in resilience. Each of the vulnerability indices provides a be affected? value between 0 (zero) and 100 (one hundred 5 Which are the potentially contaminating per cent). Districts showing a composite vulner- Maps showing VIVF and CVFI (versions a and b) results can be found below. industries and where are they located? ability close to zero have the least vulnerability in relation to the other districts and those that 6 What types of effluents are discharged Which approach should be used; coded or calcu- tend towards a hundred have the greatest rela- into the watercourses? What areas may lated risks and vulnerabilities? tive vulnerability. It is therefore possible to com- be reached by this source of contamina- pare the vulnerabilities of different areas in the tion? These methods are not exclusive, but complemen- municipality. tary. The approach chosen depends on budget, 7 Which sector of the population is affect- Vulnerability in the face of a threat is not a information availability and the profitability of in- ed? Where is it located? How long will the probability. In a social group, in a specific loca- formation detail. It is always advisable to balance population be exposed? Is the health of tion within a municipality, vulnerability will be the cost/benefit relationship of a greater amount the population likely to be affected? affected not only by social and economic ele- of detailed information against the municipality's What kind of economic activity is likely to ments (poverty, education and so on), but also needs and priorities. be affected? Which investments might be by institutional aspects (i.e. building codes) and affected and what is their approximate environmental elements, as has been pointed value? out throughout this manual. Some questions the SIGA can answer: What is the historical record regarding 1 Which are the areas in the municipality this event in the area and what actions This approach permits identification of the vari- that face the greatest risk in the event of have been taken in the past? able which carries most weight in the vulnerabil- a flood? ity, and therefore makes it possible to focus work What factors are increasing the poverty- 2 What kind of population (number, income on breaking the links in the cycles of aspects asso- disasters-environmental degradation cycle ciated with poverty-disasters-environmental deg- characteristics, poverty, employment status, and on which locations could the municipal- radation and, therefore, plan by using those com- health, housing, etc.) is to be found in these ity focus its work and centralize social in- posite indicators as quantifiable goals to monitor risk areas? vestment projects? the increase of resilience in the community. 3 Which are the most vulnerable social sec- How can qualitative and quantitative indi- tors in these areas? Where, specifically, cators be set up to monitor the evolution These composite indicators also permit a conare they located? of vulnerability and risk? centration of social investment efforts (poverty

(76] Fig. 29. Victim Vulnerability Index Fig. 30. Compound Vulnerability Index Fig. 31. Compound Vulnerability by flood. by flood (A). by flood (B). Municipality of San José Municipality of San José Municipality of San José

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PAVAS Cal2Z MC@

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Compound vulnerability index by flood (b) Victim vulnerability index by hood Districts, Municipality of San José Compound vuherabdity index by flood (a) Districts. Municipality of San José Districts, Municipality of San Jost D 1,8 to 39 10 to 0,06 39 10 65 10.06 to 0,14 I 2.6 to 11.9 0.14 to 0.27 111.9 1017.617,6 165 to 69.3 I 027 to 1 17.610 218 69.3 lo 69,4 Ii to 22.8 to 87.3 69,4 to 69,6 I 87.3 to 87,4

3 IS Th.1 s.wssrsISRPR Mies 1,5 3

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Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [771 J- Decision-making process tion for the municipality of San José, in which in- The maps included on the previous page show the formation is given on municipal tax collection, in- results, according to an estimate of quantitative Although it is true that, as stated above, the SIGA vestment in vulnerability reduction by district and vulnerability. It Manual is not devoted to the municipal decision- will be noted that the greatest the internal rate of return (IRR) for each of those making process regarding vulnerability and risk internal rates of return (IRR) are not necessarily projects. The IRR indicates the underlying profit- reduction, different ways of using the information always situated in districts within the municipal- ability for each project and if it has been correctly ity with the greatest social vulnerability. obtained in support of that process are shown be- For ex- estimated, it will reflect economic profitability. ample, see the poverty maps, which show that the low. Therefore, the larger it is, the more socially profit- largest poverty rates are in Uruca. This depends able the investment (in this case) in vulnerability on the nature of the project, on the infrastructure, A goal for the municipality may be the reduction reduction. For further details regarding the vari- of vulnerability by means of the development of potential losses and on the degree of vulnerabil- ables, see the appendix on economic definitions. ity reduction achieved by the investment. For ex- Investment in Prevention and Mitigation projects (IPM). The table below shows a hypothetical situa- ample, in the case of the Hospital district, a high vulnerability does tend to match a high IRR.

Prevention and Interna- Investment Collection PROVINCE CANTON . DISTRICT mitigation invest- tional rate Another interesting point is that the districts that m2 index index ment index of return show the highest IRR are not necessarily those in

San José San José Carmen 4,54% 3,51% 3,97% 0,12 which the greatest income in municipal taxes is obtained. This may be due to low probability or risk of San José San José Catedral 11,34% 14,62% 12,90% 0,10 a threat in that district. San José San José Hatillo 11,34% 4,68% 0,40% 0,15 In other districts with lower tax contribution capac- San José San José Hospital 9,07% 11,11% 11,90% 0,40 ity, but greater flood indicators, the IRR is much San José San José Mata Redonda 1,81% 2,34% 1,39% 0,10 higher (Zapote, La Merced, Hospital, etc.). If invest- San José San José Merced 6,80% 17,54% 19,84% 0,13 ment in prevention is used and put into practice according to IRR criteria, situations may arise in San José San José Pavas 18,14% 7,02% 7,94% 0,055 which the municipality's contributors who, on aver- San José San José San Fco. De Dos Rios 4,08% 20,47% 19,84% 0,09 age, pay higher rates, may express their discontent.

San José San José San Sebastian 7,94% 1,17% 0,99% 0,13 In other cases, the situation can derive in a middle ground: a medium IRR and high tax collection, as in Uruca 11,34% San José San José 9,36% 10,91% 0,20 the case of San Sebastián . San José San José Zapote 13,61% 8,19% 9,92% 0,20 Table 41. Indicator of Investment in Prevention and Mitigation in the Municipality of San José.

[78] This hypothetical example shows the comple- Fig. 32. Hypothetical revenue collection map, investment in prevention and mentation of information required for decision TIR by vulnerability reduction projects. Municipality of San José makers in the municipality to use SIGA information and contrast it with the priorities of their administration and budget availability. Thus, they Investment in prevention per district can determine in a transparent manner the cri- Municipality of San José teria which will form the basis of their decisions 0.019 on the location for investment in prevention and 40.095 mitigation in some areas of their municipality. 0,19 Mata Redonda Income per district Municipality of San José 0.013 to 0.082 (5) 0.082 to 0,171 (4) K- Complementing SIGA capabilities &Inn 0,171 to 0.206 (2) across municipalities

Once several neighboring municipalities have in- San F,ranctsco stalled their SIGAs, they will be able to work together, Dos increasing the levels of analysis and taking further advantage of the preventive investment made in the production of their SIGAs.

For example, it might be desirable to carry out a Internal rate of return per project per district comparative an'alysis among various municipali- Municipality of San José ties by type of vulnerability. In this case, the whole Redonda 0,04 SIGA or just one aspect of it can be used. As an 0,2 example, page 72 shows the vulnerability index MI0,4 for flood victims and the GINI coefficient for the Flood index by district Hatillo catedrag municipalities (brown boundary line) in the Prov- Municipality of San José [I 0,002 to 0,0163 (4) ince of San José, Costa Rica. An enlargement is 0,0163 to 0,03E6 (5) 0,03651v 0,0491 (2) included of a section in the central territory, where San the municipalities are smaller in terms of square San Francisco meters. Source: M. Adamson (2007).

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA 1791 In this case, the DVI (Disaster Victim Index) is calculated exactly as before, except that since a Fig. 33. Disaster victims index (DVI) and GINI coefficient, per district and municipality, comparison among districts of the municipalities Province of San José, Costa Rica is desired, the minimum and maximum must be located for each of those districts. This makes it possible to obtain an indicator which provides an immediate comparison across all of the districts of the municipalities in that province. ca. Blarices. Esqumas Likewise, next is a map showing the flood index mercta: ranc,cojniaaliMED (number of floods in district &total number of lattraitlIse Pecro floods) and the proportion of poor people in the "P"'Cate,al CURRIDABAT Hat., Zaecte municipality districts in the province of San José. Ourndabat San Fel.pe Set>aALAJUELITA Artomr3."' high flood rate coincides with a high proportion of raSos -7 poor people, particularly in the municipalities on the periphery. On the other hand, this ratio is not San :luar; DESAMPARADOS always present, as in the case of the municipalities A.Atonra in the interior. Therefore, the municipalities in the interior could undertake cooperation agreements, DVI per district Provi)ce, San Jose in cases in which they are jointly affected through being located in areas where basins are shared. Sa.,:arics 0,0096 1100,048 ,096

GIN! coefficient per district De E Province, San José an el 0,315 to 0,36 (15) fl 0,36 to 0,42 (71) Plata s 0,42 to 1 (32) sabe

Source: Produced by M. Adamson (2007).

MO] Fig. 34. Flood (INUND) and poverty (FGT [0]) indices per district and municipality in the Province of San José, Costa Rica.

INUND per district Province, San José 0 to 0,002 (35) ..4, 'Jesus 0,002 to 0,004 (32) it44)1 ..,;11=,Caosciáijal 0,004 to 0,0081 (41) 140111 Jig' 4#4-#' S 1 ri,J ''"'"Illi III 0,0081 to 0,0163 (21) !la 1P---;"71/0141"°AiMPL"Mvo. - R.". 111 0,0163 to 0,0491 (23) Prielrer I Paybvt-a-raelPncirs391 al''' I ,lipitilit L, , n Fc cT D, mggirie 4:kolontosaiiotnraniolDe FGT (0) per district ..fias_an-Dme.,13n+ri,os San PeS.I.Tbacoasityab -t Province, San José r,,San Luis Santi'agoralmichAlar '' 0,089 Guaitil Rosario 0,445 Fr,tiles 00,89 L Cangre^1San a'illfrés Sabanill.ca Legua Jardih hires """ San Marcos S Carlos

' IITISI.." t lolette Para mo .,. .01111M Rivas SAN .10SE C.1,0Equinas Nuevo lanosco Mato R,olorttio S.It ESCAZU CLIRRICIABM San Isidro De El General. Olk, Matta:, san Pedro Daniel FleirTS, ,Pe San SObastiAn

ALA:AZ:217A resmo.par3dos San Josecitoa 19.1atanares De Dios° Eq sipoARA,, Pejubaye S., Antonio r Source: Produced by M. Adamson (2007).

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [81] f.

1 Faet t

ris' - TPII -to.--

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Ir ' e

r b./ I An Exercise for the Preparation of the From the cross-referencing of the maps, a mosaic will By cross-referencing the previous tables, a com- SIGA result which will describe the level of the threat ex- posite topological code is obtained, as well as a pressed territorially, in a similar format to that seen composite threat indicator. (Basic Model and Qualitative Indicators) on the screen. Identification of threats Elevation Threat Summary The SIGA typifies the geophysical system by Id_height Depth (m) Threat Level Id_ TLi Id TL2 Id geo- TL3 Id net- TL4 TLI,TL2, TL1+TL2+ (T L1) means of five variables: height geology forms works TL3,NA4 TL3+TL4 100 50 100 200 300 400 - Elevation 101 500 201 301 401 - Basins 102 1000 101 103 2000 202 302 402 - Geology 102

- Geo-morphology Geology Id_geology Type of predomi- Threat Level - Hydric networks nant rock (TL2) Socio-Economic System - Social Vulner- 200 Granite ability 201 Sandstone For each, a table is drawn up, containing: In this hypothetical case, the socio-economic sys- 203 Limestone tem is synthesized in the SIGA by means of a sum- Gneiss A topological identifierin this case, virtual- 202 mary of the following variables: which in real cases will be used for the prepara- Geomorphs tion of the database. Id_geoforms Major geoform Threat Level - Population (TL3) - Sex (men/women ratio * 100) - An attribute corresponding to each variable. 300 Plain - Age (in the exercise, the 0-14 age group is con- - The degree of the threat in the face of the event. 301 Concave slope sidered) - Health coverage (absence of coverage is also The object is to determine the degree of expo- 302 Convex slope sure to the threat of flooding, for each of the four taken into account) variables in the geophysical system. In each table, Hydric Networks - Housing quality the level must be organized numerically, the indi- Id_network Flow Threat Level (TL4) cator numbers being placed from lower to higher By working with these variables, qualitative indi- (0- null; 1 - very low; 2 - low; 3- medium; 4- high; 400 Standing cators of "social vulnerability" are established. Analogously to exercise 1, in each of the following 5 - very high), according to how the threat affects 401 Standing the territory. tables the level is organized numerically, with in- 402 Intermittent dicator numbers organized from lower to higher

Methodological Guide for [he Construction of the SIGA [83] (1- very low; 2 low; 3 - medium; 4 - high; 5 - very Discrimination by Sex Result of the Social Vulnerability Code high), thus achieving a qualitative codification of Id_zone Population Men Women Masculinity Code Composite Indicator (population these variables which it is 'hoped will summarize census Index vulnerability Id_ Indicator additive size) CV1 CV2 CV3 CV4 vulnerability. This example, therefore, uses this CV3 zone (co ,cv2, (cv1+cv2+ type of qualitative indicators and not quantitative cv3,cv4) cv3+cv4) (80/70) social vulnerability indicators. 1562 150 80 70 100 1562 2398 200 95 105 It is necessary to remember that socio-economic 2398 variable data are obtained from Population Cen- 450 100 60 40 450 suses, and that the topological identifiers are those used by the relevant institution. Health CoVerage In order to obtain the potential risk, the degree of Threat (TN) must be cross- referenced with the 0-14 yearS 0-14 yearS COde Vulnerability code (VC), as a first approximation. Population (Total population is 450 people) Id_zone olds Population No without vulnerability census security %without Id_zone Population Area Population Code CV4 Potencial Risk census (population (has) Density vulnerability coverage coverage size) CV1 1562 150 14 400 400 400 Id_ Compound Compound Potential 2398 200 23 Id_ height (TL) (CV) Risk 401 401 401 450 100 5 100 1562 402 402 402 _ 101 2368 102 450 Age Group Housing Quality

Id_zone Population 0-14 years % 0-14 Code No Poor Poor (Population (age group Code vulner census years vulnerability Id_zone No Housing quality quality ok size) by number) CV2 housing Housing ability CV5

1562 150 40 40/150 1562 78 20

2398 200 35 2398 50 40

450 100 38 450 36 2

[84] Use of Land Lifelines and Services Road network Education In this exercise, the main uses of the land and how Id-Roads Type Risk Facing Threat Id- Height these uses are affected by threats are determined. Existence State Vulnerability As in the previous exercises, the uses are organ- 100000 Route Education (bench mark) 50000 10 ized by numerical indicators (1 - very low; 2 - low; 100001 Neighborhood 3 - medium; 4 - high; 5 - very high). This makes it 50001 500 100003 Path possible to determine the type of environmental 50002 100 conflict produced by anthropic activities, which 50003 2000 will reduce or increase the potential risk obtained Sanitation System in exercises 1 and 2. Id-Sanitation Height Risk Facing (cota) Threat Communications

20000 10 Id- Height Use of Land Existence State Vulnerability Education (bench mark) Responding to 20001 500 Id_land uses Land use 60000 10 the threat 20003 100 10000 Irregular Housing 60001 500 20000 Particular Housing Electric Power 60002 100 50000 Hortofruticul Orchard Id-Height Height (cota) Risk Facing Threat 60003 2000 80000 Industrial Manufacturing 30001 10 80001 Industrial Cultivation 30002 500 85000 Heavy Industry 30003 100 107 Green Spaces 30004 2000 30005 2300 30006 1000

Health Services Id-Health Heighl Existence State Vulnerability (bench mark) 40000 10 40061 500 40002 100 40003 _ 2000 40004 2300 40005 1000

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [85] Satellital image of Buenos Aires City and suburb. In- ternational Space Station (ISS). Date 08/02/2003. Source: http://caece.edu.ar/ tea/imagenes.htm 4. USE OF SPACE AND SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY AND NEW LOCAL PRACTICES IN RISK MANAGE- MENT AND VULNERABILITY REDUCTION

At present, the significant investment which agencies As using the Geographic Information System (GIS), make in space and satellite technology, is not only became more popular, municipalities acquired justified from the point of view of attention to disas- greater experience in the use of this tool and in- r ters and the importance of access to information in cluded the type of information derived from the the least possible time, but also because investment system in municipal tasks. For example, in Costa is currently more and more justified mainly from the Rica, several municipalities (San José, Escazú, point of view of prevention. Barba, etc.) are making progress in this respect. Furthermore, a significant number of municipali- Space and satellite technology provide a large ties include this information in the management and diverse amount of information deriving from and monitoring of building permits. various remote sensors, which can be stationary or mobilefor example, sensors can be placed on More recently, space technology has become a Fig. 35. Illustration of a satellite sending information. ships and cars or air-borne in aeroplanes, helicop- significant tool for municipalities. In particular, in ters, satellites and so on. activities related to improving municipal rate collection, mainly through the application of GIS in Satellite sensors make it possible for continuous territorial tax collection processes. The municipal- monitoring of different elements such as land use, ity can, by means of images with the appropriate tree coverage, crops, urban areas, maritime-ter- resolution, determine the exact size of properties, restrial areas, bodies of water, and so on. Visual their condition, the actual use given to the land, information is often resorted tophotographs or types of structure, and so on. This way, they can imageswhich may be taken from the air or from update their valuation platforms and monitor tax satellites. This real-time monitoring may be car- collection based on updated information. ried out on a daily basis, or even provide an almost instantaneous view of an area, depending on the location of the sensors and receptors. Fig. 36. Actual color photograph, ADS 40 digital camera.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [87] This technology also provides a significant source studies, urban planning, use of land management, of updated information available to the different national park management, hydrological models, units of the SIGA. hydrological studies and planning, plans for urban and agricultural use of land, transport studies, Until recently, cadastral procedures were car- mapping, cadastral systems and valuation plat- ried out by the municipalities, which, at best, had forms, topographic and relief maps, cartography to spend large sums on aerial photography. The in general, and, of course, applications for the expenditure was high since it had to cover flight management of emergencies, risk management, planning, the flight itself, fuel, as well as analogue and prevention and mitigation planning, among film, adequate storage, manual processing in or- others. thorectification (in order to produce digital elevation modelsDEMfor example). In addition to the information provided by color images, municipalities have recently begun to All of this represented a significant financial bar- use more specialized information, such as infra- Fig. 37. Merge of infrared images of the Greater Metropolitan rier for municipalities wishing to incorporate infor- red images or information derived from spectral Area of Costa Rica. Source: Presentation by R. Rodríguez, 2006. mation obtained by space and satellite technology. sensorsof up to fifty light spectrum bandsand Usually, the cost/benefit ratio of these procedures even hyper spectral informationover two hun- for the acquisition of information was not attrac- dred bandswhich provide a variety of informa- tive. tion, such as quality of the water, identification of materials, landslide studies, flooding, faults, etc. At present, with the advent of precision digital All of these may be used to carry out detailed clas- cameras, it is possible for municipalities to receive sification of land use, type of forest, volcano emis- digitized and orthorectified products directly from sion analysis, etc. Furthermore, municipalities are only one fly-over. Everything is done in the same using the information derived from radar sensors, procedure and at a much lower cost than with the which can provide details of flooded areas even in analogue process, a fact which has allowed munici- conditions of dense cloudiness. palities increasingly to include this technology and its products, particularly digitally photographed images in real color.

By using this technology, municipalities can develop a wide variety of projects; Fig. 38. Infrared photograph of a flood in Costa Rica in 2003. environmental Source: CONARE-CENAT, 2003

[881 In addition to the information provided by color images, municipalities Capacities of SAC-C La constelación matutina have recently begun to use more specialized information, such as infrared The sensibility of the multispectral camera to different infrared The inclusion of the SAC-C in images or information derived from spectral sensorsof up to fifty light bands allows the study of plants age and health, making it possible to this group of satellites gives the predict the results of harvests. CONAE access to "visual capaci- spectrum bandsand even hyper spectral informationover two hundred This characteristic allows the SAC-C to monitor the advance in soil ties" for the scientific use of the desertification that affects our country. four devices for the price of one. The information IS shared under bandswhich provide a variety of information, such as quality of the wa- InThe night sensibility heat camera not only permits photographing these restrictions: the Terra im- fields at night, but also the detection of fires in isolated forests. ages from a Japanese camera will ter, identification of materials, landslide studies, flooding, faults, etc. All of In the band of visible light, the SAC-C is ideal for coastal studies and not reach our country in real time. for soil and water contamination. Finally, the CONAE can only sell these may be used to carry out a detailed classification of land use, type of the images obtained through the The satellite evaluates hydroenergetic resources, like the waterfall SAC-C and the Landsat. in the Parana basin or th snow accumulation in mountains that feed forest, volcano emission analysis' , etc. Furthermore, Municipalities are us- the Limay, and it can determine areas vulnerable to floods. In the high bands of visible light, the SAC can study geological and ing the information derived from radar sensors, which can provide details Lena. 7: no ten nee... -mow.- Ineleenni mining resources. of laS kilometers O. erel "sees'. few. Wee of flooded areas even in conditions of dense cloudiness. Man IS rotten Crosser. Ecuador al 10 nicbee

The increased application of satellite technology to municipal procedures and tasks from risk prevention and management, to the management of LuanAt/ municipal finances and the accelerated substitution of aero-transported technology, is the result of the lower cost per square meter of satellite tech- [0-11.1. (own ea ow. tee. al 7.5 and 16 101000,00111.1, eon/ dlecl 0011/11., Ineo 30 nnedos Cron.. coon/ I en.. 100.117. nology. The cost is lower compared to aero-transported technology, even - - - - - with the latest technological progress made in the latter. The cost of plan- 1'114 CAW ning flights and of the flights themselves is a financial barrier which is not , easy to overcome and justify by means of photographs which will soon be r Ak4 outdated. The advantage of satellite technology is precisely that it makes it 1-eee. -014 AO -4 SACO no Ire. cameras mat snane01101190 possible to obtain updated information at a very low cost per area. ane 700 kilometers. At maximum resolution detects otencislaneallallS Meters, and with "night ma/ -tr 7 a I. 1.114 ASZI. eft It is still true, however, that for some specific engineering projects which require extremely high resolution for electric power transmission pylons, for example aero-transported technology can be appropriate. However, even in such cases, satellite technology is showing really significant progress, Twee Ines ono Owe., one 111.1 ems 7300 lor oome which in the medium term will provide interesting substitutes, at a lower ow ...me .0ee end once. ea, In. 00 Contribution of other countries kilometers, one "resolution" varies from IS oriental cost per square meter, due mainly to economies of scale

12 I-11111E1 UP. The United States set the launch, Included our satellite in its -Morning Constellation" and put instruments of atmospheric study on board. Italy tested several control instruments and satellite orientation on the SAC. France monitors the effects of cosmic radi- Fig. 38. ation on advanced chips. Denmark installed a device lo measure the Earth's magnetic field and Brazil tested the satellite's resistance to thermo-mechanic exigencies. Source: CONAE.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [891 At present there are various options for acquiring Because of this, CONAE devised a simple and ef- creates its own demand, there was also an increase information, both from government-owned and pri- ficient procedure for the provision of space infor- in the number of users and institutions which pre- vately-owned satellites. In Latin America, countries mation at no cost. During that event alone, final pared products with a greater added value, required such as Argentina and Brazil have their own satel- demand was for 100 images a month. in the decision making based on those images. De- lites which provide information. Venezuela has also In accordance with the hypothesis that every offer mand grew from 10 in 1998 to over 70 in 2002. announced the imminent launching of its own satel- Fig. 39. Source: ÇONAE and NASA. lite, and missions continue to make progress. One of its kind SAC-D Deployment For example, in the case of Argentina, the National mechanism Commission for Space Activities (CONAE) has made With the SAC-D satellite the marine salinity a significant effort to make the satellite information will be measured globally from space for the generated by SAC-C satellite available to provinces first time. and municipalities. Among other purposes, this sat- This measurement is ellite obtains information for the management of indispensable to emergencies. estimate the evolution of the The plan is part of that country's Federal Emer- weather and of rain regimes gency System (SIFEM in Spanish). For example, the website http://www.conae.gov.ar shows the It 'mil also cro.ide mfo:roition about. Reflector valuable contribution made by space information - Monitoring of environmental Feeding to the process of managing emergencies. It is pos- disasters. module sible to evaluate the success of the space informa- - Harvest estimations Climate changes) - Fire detection. meter tion service in the management of emergencies in - Aerial and aquatic this case, through the significant increase in the contamination. demand for satellite and space information by mu- - Soil humidity. Space nicipalities and other users. SAC-0 capsule panet 3,00 An interesting case, which occurred during a slow- 1,50 evolving disaster, was the El Niño 97/98 event, which ' 1,50 showed, on the one hand, the potentially strong Main body Covering 'Will be demand from user institutions and municipalities, `,:oo complete, built in en and, on the other, the usefulness of the service. Launching rocket Satellite protection -Ve a a:WM Argentina

1901 At present, CONAE is making progress in the devel- The availability of this kind of information is International Charter: strengthening risk management, as well as the opment of its next satellite, SAC-D. As the diagram Space and Major Disasters shows, it will provide important information about management of disasters in regions and munici- salinity, climate monitoring and environmental di- palities. By way of example, the type of product The International Charter wt., SP.o this kind of technology generates is shown below, sasters; it will make it possible to estimate crops, is a mission which includes detect fires, air and water pollution, ground hu- for a real case, in the province of La Pampa, in Ar- space agencies and orga- .14 ooT midity and so on. gentina. nizations (the European lot Fig. 40. Modeling a flood threat in the province of La Pampa. Argentina. Space Agency, the French, e,.2 Argentinean, Japanese and N , AMI rUIdR ur PAMPA Indian agencies; the Geo- ^to logical Service and the Na- el!nl tional Ocean and Atmosphere Administration, of the M Cballar "*" - United States). GM . - Its aim is to provide, through Authorized Users, a - unified system for the acquisition and delivery of hp, 3G M s space data, devoted to areas affected by great natural or anthropogenic catastrophes. Each member PROM agency has committed resources in support of the BUENO provisions of the Charter, thus, helping mitigate the effects of catastrophes on the lives of people and on N goods.

PROVINCIA DE The International Charter officially came into ef- R/O NEGRO ' fect on November 1, 2000. An Authorized User can Mao Ciwols now request, by means of a simple phone call, the s I mobilization of related space and terrestrial resources (such as RADARSAT, ERS, ENVISAT, SPOT, IRS, SAC-C, and the NOAA and LANDSAT satellites) of the agencies in order to obtain data and MAR information regarding a catastrophe. Source: CONAE, 2005. MP Training Course. International Charter and CONAE.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [91] An operator (a 24-hour service) receives- the call, verifies the identity of the applicant and checks Fig. 42. Thematic satellite products of remote optic sensors. that the User Request form sent by the Authorized Zone 3. Municipality Gamarra, Department Cesar, Magdalena River User has been correctly completed. The operator then transfers the information to the Emergency Charier C3:110076 - Colombian Flood Duty Officer, who will analyze the request and the range of the catastrophe with the Authorized User Affected Location and will prepare a file and a plan of acquisition by means of the available space resources. The acquisition and delivery of the information is carried out on the basis of an emergency criterion, while a Proj- ect Director, who is qualified to organize, handle and apply the data, will guide the user through the whole procedure.'

In Latin America, the Charter has been activated in support of regions and municipalities affected by great disasters, with the participation of the National Commission for Space Activities (CONAE) and the Federal Emergency System (SIFEN) of Ar- gentina. Examples of activations in Latin America have taken place in countries such as Venezuela, Colombia, El Salvador and Argentina.

Source: Translated from the Spanish version (Alvaro Soldano; National Water Institute; Project Manager (Floods) Inter- national Charter. Presentation: INTERNATIONAL CHARTER: "SPACE AND MAJOR DISASTERS", at the Tv:1Mo Tabanera Taken from Space Centre (CETT). Regional Seminar, April 21st and 22nd, 2005. CONAE. Córdoba, Argentina). www.disastercharter.org

1921 The areas projected for damage assessment were Fig. 43. Thematic satellital products of remote optic sensors. situated in the NE of Colombia. The affected re- Zone 3. Municipality Gamarra, Departament César, Magdalena River gions were grouped in the Project in three (3) areas. Each area is a circle with a 30 km radius: Charter Call ID 076 - COLOMBIAN FLOOD Municipality of Guaranda - Department of Sucre, Río Cauca, Colombia. Geographic Coordinates: DETECTION OF CHANGES Flooded Zone, 08° 28', -74° 32'. Recovered Zone, 0- Municipality of San Pablo - Department of

Bolívar, Río Magdalena, Colombia. Geographic I Coordinates: 08° 20' N, -73° 45. CA, - Municipality of Gamarra - Department of Cesar, . Río Magdalena, Colombia. Geographic Coordi- nates: 07° 30' N, -73° 55.

1 Y?.4"

Source: Translated from the Spanish version (Alvaro Soldano; National Water Institute; Project Manager (Floods) Inter- national Charter. Presentation: INTERNATIONAL CHARTER: "SPACE AND MAJOR DISASTERS", at the Te6f ilo Tabanera Space Centre (CETT). Regional Seminar, April 21 and 22, 2005. CONAE. Córdoba, Argentina).

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [931 As observed, the technology made possible by the Charter generates very valuable information Fig. 44. Activation in Venezuela. February 2004 which makes it possible to manage the disaster. The value of the information very often amounts to several hundred million dollars. It is to be hoped Charter Call ID: 085 Floods and Lanslides in Venezuela that space technology will continue to develop, and that municipalities will therefore find it pos- IM :I- CITY sible to include it more and more in their tasks and `,..;,..., . , ..."-:;":-, ., responsibilities; above all, in risk management and ,....,e0 ' 7f.t , 1' :4m. (Light north) vulnerability reduction. : fir: '1. ..,... :- .1! . ve 1 el Municipality of .. ;.., I.. - .. i Vargas .., , .4 , """ ., -.4. "" air i.> L 4.° 'I-1Pd r 6,.: E::::1 -J. . .., 1 ,- - 111 . 1.0.',.. x-4. 41..... ' .... it. .. r 11.4. ., CI ..., ...:.e_. ------; -fp L!..r.12 r .....11 v . 145, -11511Pa - Ei 174j ' e. ° .Z.Z.--- --AN ri 4.. - .411' CI J 4: .el; .: -l'ard _ 2. ....,.., ..., .. ,. ... '-' tii.1.1W ,- ItLi.x- 1,1 P+ °duct Mop.* .0 e. 4 7q , g. 9 , , .., Among Pea, -. -....,... a .,- k igi$7,-elosik,2 T 5 estTe.et k .. i ....,..A._ ) N.G. levSPO 101 V21. ..1, t-- N.. ,E.,...,:i.,24,:..zA.,, ;.: e...... - .., ' ----. 7., .., ,T... 7 o -. ...S. I SOLO. . cau.,, 1.cfcr ummcs um Dj bands - 5 2 : m." 3Ne..- v. r.l& , _. 13 V. . o . P:__ . . u ... I e et,1/4,1 .--.,....AV - KT, OM I1IND Eza " _ Alta% .S.. _I»

Source: Translated from the Spanish version (Alvaro Soldano; National Water Institute; Project Manager (Floods) Inter- national Charter. Presentation: INTERNATIONAL CHARTER: "SPACE AND MAJOR DISASTERS", at the Teófilo Tabanera Space Centre (CETT). Regional Seminar, April 21 and 22, 2005. CONAE. Córdoba, Argentina).

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Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [95]

APPENDICES

Basic concepts A hydrographic basin is a spatial unit consist- ing of a great diversity of biotic and abiotic factors which interact with each other. Solar energy and precipitations constitute the main "input" of energy, matter and information which unleash processes and interactions between the elements of the hydrographic basin, from which "output" responses are generated, depending on internal structures and dynamics. The hydrographic basin acts as a Achkar et al - Hacia un "systemic operator", so that any qualitative Uruguay Sustentable. Gestión Integrada de and/or quantitative alteration produced in Cuencas Hidrográficas the input will influence both the global func- 2004. ("Towards a Sus- tion and its sub-system components (Achkar Fuente: Municipalidad de Quito (2005) tainable Uruguay. Integral Management of Hydro- et al, 2004'). Figure Al. graphic Basins 2004").

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [97] A hydrographic basin is by definition an open sys- Fig. A2. Municipalities and drains of the Province of San José tem, in which interactions take place between physical and natural factors, a society which transforms it internally, and makes it possible to identify external interactions. Internal and external interactions influence and favour specific land uses, which, together with the infrastructure, make up the visible landscape.

The basin's geographical area is subject to modifi- cations due to changes in the elements mentioned above and their interactions, as well as to the influence of external factors climatic and tectonic and internal ones economic activities, socio-cultural characteristics, institutional aspects which generate risk. This territorial unit is appropriate when planning preventive measures within the framework of sustainable development, in as much as the basin is the territory's functional unit.

This implies developing the capacity for coordination of the administrative units (departments or municipalities) within these territorial units, in terms of managing environmental risk. In the vast majority of countries, it is the courses of the rivers themselves that have been used as boundaries between different municipalities and/or districts.

[981 An example of this situation is given below, with Technological threats can be directly attributed a map of the main rivers and municipalities of the Threat, Risk, Vulnerability to the application of technology developed by man Province of San José, in Costa Rica. As can be and Resilience during the course of his daily activities (produc- seen, watercourses delimit most of the municipali- tion, housing, leisure, consumption and so on), which can affect the quality of the environment ties. This calls for a great capacity for coordination Threat/Danger: Understood to be the potentially or natural resources and the very welfare and among municipalities, providing as it does a good damaging existence of a physical or technological quality of life of the population. For example: the opportunity for cooperation in the vulnerability event, or a combination of both, which can cause discharge of solid or effluent waste, which causes and risk reduction, by means of the SIGA, as was loss of life or injury, or material damage, and af- water contamination; emission of contaminating shown above at inter-municipal levels. fect the socio-economic or environmental system. particles in the air, which causes respiratory dis- Threats include latent conditions which might ma- eases; death by war; productive or urban patterns terialize in the future.' which degrade the river banks and/or increase su- perficial overflow through urbanization, thus caus- They may be of different natural (geological, hy- ing floods and aquifer contamination; contamina- drometeorological and biological) or technological tion of freshwater layers through the intrusion of originresulting from the use of man-developed salinity, leading to a deficit of fresh water, etc.). technology. Within the latter are included techno- Technological threats are clearly mainly linked to logical threats such as the explosion of a chemical two broad factors: the availability of technology or nuclear plant. There are also threats which are and the use which society makes of it. caused by a combination of factors; for example, those which are linked to environmental contami- Risk: The quantitative or scientific definition of nation and degradation of natural resources, such risk indicates that it is the probability of a threat as a flood which, although it may be due to heavy or latent danger materializing. The concept of risk rain, is accentuated by the elimination of forests in has an ex ante meaning; that is, before the event a steeply sloping area, resulting from farming cus- materializes, since when the event occurs, its toms and technologies. probability is equal to the actual event; that is, it 2: Taken from the liyogo is a certainty. Action Framework for Natural threats originate in the dynamics of the 2005-2015: Increase of earth's crust, or the atmosphere (for example: the resilience of nations This probability can be determined either by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, tsu- and communities in the means of historical or scientific information about face of disasters, based namis, torrential rains). For the purposes of the the behaviour of the type of threat, or by means of on the ISDR of the United project they are sub-divided into hydrometeoro- probabilistic models. Furthermore, the risk can be Nations, Geneva. In A/ logical and tectonic threats. CON F.206/L.2 005.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [99] quantified on a subjective scalewhich can even measured together with others, it requires much beliefs, which place people and communities in an by coded to represent the perceptions of a group more detailed probabilistic models, and greater inferior condition when faced with a threat. or of an individual, and therefore approximate a amounts of information on those sectors, for its subjective probability by type of threat. In this lat- evaluation. Cultural Vulnerability is given by a combination of ter case, probability depends upon individual and relationships, behaviours, knowledge and beliefs, collective perceptions, motivations and attitudes, Which should be chosen? The principles of uncer- which place people and communities in an inferior and does not necessarily coincide with the scien- tainty and irreversibility indicate that more infor- condition when faced with a threat. tific-technical perspective, but it is very relevant, mation is always better than less, in particular in in particular in the making of decisions about plan- the case of threats that could affect human life and Social Vulnerability refers to the social conditions ning, as it stems from the interaction of people development. Therefore, a complement to the infor- of human welfare and development within a com- with the environment. Such interactions are the mation available will always be the better choice. munity which determine and condition its capac- result of reality and not simplifications resulting ity to procure opportunities to achieve adequate from idealizations, as scientific models are, which Vulnerability to Disasters: based on social condi- and safe housing levels, safe sanitary levels, mini- implies that the latter can be and are subject to tions (such as levels of poverty), economic condi- mum levels of education and knowledge regarding overlooking certain relevant aspects. tions (average income and productive models), threats, levels of organizational capabilities in the environmental conditions, as regards natural face of such threats, etc. Social perceptions of risk are not free from error, and institutional resources (existence of struc- such as when they are the product of imaginary tural codes, regulation of urban concentrations, Physical Vulnerability is related to the physical lo- perceptions, or expectations founded on events etc.), all of which increase the susceptibility and cation of human settlements, road infrastructure that are not entirely true or well-grounded on exposure of a community, and therefore, the ef- and lifelines (electricity, sanitation, water) and the fact. fect or potential impact of a threat'. Vulnerabil- technical quality or condition of housing materi- ity is closely linked to the risk of a specific threat als. For example: location of villages in areas with On the other hand, in social terms, progress has occurring, for the natural environment and the a high risk of flooding or landslides. been made in the conceptualization of risk, inas- socio-economic system. Its measurement is not much as threats generate interest if they pose probabilistic. Rather, it is related to the conditions Structural and Non-structural Investment: a latent danger to a particular social group. It mentioned above and can be determined in terms Structural investment consists of building and/or 3 Taken from the Hyogo is clear that the impact of a threat on a social of percentages; for example, from zero to one hun- restructuring to reduce the possible impact of Action Framework for group depends on the factors that may lessen or dred percent, in which latter case the vulnerability 2005-2015: Increase in threats. Non-structural investments are those re- the resilience of nations increase the realization of the danger. Therefore, is greatest in comparison to other locations. lated to policies, awareness-raising, development and communities in the social, environmental and natural factors come to- of knowledge, public commitment, operational face of disasters, based on gether to produce an integral concept of risk. In Environmental Vulnerability is given by a combi- methods and practices, including participation the ISDR of the United Na- the same way, when this integral concept must be nation of relationships, behaviours, knowledge and tions, Geneva, 2004. mechanisms and the supply of information, which depreciation of the asset (the bridge) through use can reduce risk and its related effects'. has been deducted, as well as its recovery value, so it is important to consider these factors in a Resilience: The capacity of a system, community more detailed analysis. or society which is potentially exposed to threat, to adapt, by resisting or changing, in order achieve Constant economic losses are differentiated be- or maintain an acceptable level of operation and cause they are valued using the prices in a base structure. It is determined by the degree to which year. This makes it possible to make a comparison the social system is capable of organizing itself in between different periods and determine which order to increase its capacity to learn from past events generated the greatest losses. In practical disasters and in order to protect itself better in the terms, a base year is taken and the series of val- future and improve risk reduction measures.5 ues is deflated by applying the implicit index in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Economic Loss nominal vs. constant: Economic loss provides an economic valuation of the impact of a disaster on a social group within a specific economic context. Nominal losses are valued at market prices; that is, they are measured by prices which the market establishes within a certain period of time; for example: the valuation which can be made of the different materials with which a bridge was built; as time passes, the price of those materials may fluctuateeither rise or fall. In that case, the loss (or the affected percentage) of the bridge can be valued at the price it would cost to rebuild at the present time (with a replacement criterion), with the same materials but at current prices, as an approximation of the opportunity cost of those resources.

If an accountancy valuation is carried out, the book value of the asset is takenwhich implies that 4 Op cit. 5 Op cit.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [IOU Source of Information

Table Al. Municipal Cartographic Inventory Fig. A3. Hydrologic cycle CARTOGRAPHIC COORDENATES DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY FORMAT SCALE SYSTEMS COVERAGE Rain clouds - ,CM r , 1/ 50.000 Geographic (lati- Clouds formation Urban tude longitude) Digital P aper 1/20.000 polygon *** lines Infrastructure Cartographic Precipitation Evaporation 1/10.000 (X/Y) 1/10.000 Geographic Cadastral Cartographic records Digital Paper 1/5.000 polygon *** lines Nomenclature (urban/rural) 1/1.000 (streets) Shallow wafers

Rural 1/50.000 Geographic Digital Paper polygon *** lines Infrastructure 1/10.000 Cartographic Infiltration 1/25.000 Urban Digital Paper Geographic polygon *** lines sewerage 1/10.000 Cartographic network 1/5.0001/1.000 _ Ocean Deep percolation Geetind water flow 1/10.000 Urban Geographic transport Digital Paper 1/5.000 Lines Almost all the water is concentrated in the oceans. Solar energy transforms part of this liquid Cartographic network water into water vapor. Mere heating motivates the elevation of humid air to colder zones 1/1.000 where it transforms into clouds. Clouds also contain fine dust, sea salt particles and other Public Services extraneous particles. When the clouds cool, raindrops are formed around these extraneous (Central and Geographic particles which serve as nuclei and fall to the ground. As they fall, they absorb carbon dioxide Digital Paper 1/10.000 Dots Municipal Cartographic and other particles. The rain that falls to the ground seeps down, it runs off along the ground, Government) or it is immediately absorbed by plants. Finally, much of the water that falls on the Earth's surface converts into water vapor and returns to the water cycle. ***This type of coverage is recommended when the digitization of existing information on paper is to be carried out.

[102] Table A2. Principal Geo-morphological Structures

Erosion

Erosion Method Forms of Erosion Method Deposition Cause Nature of Deposits

Talus cones -Slump -Moraines Slumping Slope decrease -Landslides -Rock-fall scars Rock falls Rock glaciers Avalanches obstruction Mass Movements -Avalanches Mud outflows Landslides Water seepage -Displacement Plastic flow Granite deposits -Rockfalls Soil creeping Fluvial valleys ... Speed reduction Alluvial fan -corrasion Suspension Pediment Slope decrease Banks -corrosion Peneplains Dissolution, saltation Riverbed filling Surface water Fluvial terrace Volume reduction Alluvial terrace -Hydraulic effect Wadis (in deserts) Rolling Deltas Channel changes Giant marmites Push and drag Levées Potholes Obstacles to circulation Alluvial plain deposits Truncated hills Loss of speed Loess Deflation Hollowed rocks Saltation Volcanic ashes and Corrasion Mesa shaped rocks Suspension Accumulation of Wind heavy particles volcanic dust Abrasion Rounded rocks Rolling Desert varnish Rain Dunes (barkhane, longitudinal, Impact Reg (rocky desert) transverse, seif, parabolic Striation and ridging. Drumlins Tills, moraines (lateral, terminal, Suspension recess, medial, foundation) Extraction (plucking) Polished surfaces. Crescent- Ice fusion shaped markings. U-shaped Plucking Eskers, Kames, Kame terraces Glaciation Abrasion, scouring Breakage of ice in the ocean valleys. Truncated spurs Surface transport Glaciofluvial deposits Glacial cirques. Hilled fjords Pushing Varves, Erratic boulders Crests. Horns Emergence terraces Caves Precipitations due to 1- evaporation Stalactites and stalagmites Ground Waters Solution Dolines Solution (as in surface running water) 2- loss of acidity Sediment cement Karst topography 3- chemical reactions (cavity and vein fills) Loss of speed replacement (petrified trunks)

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA f1031 Table A3. A Table used to determine the geo-morphological processes taking mean temperatures and precipitations into consideration Climatic Characteristics and the actuating processes in regions established by Peltier (1950)

Boundaries calculated from annual averages Morphogenetic Region Morphological characteristics Temp (° C) Prec (in mm) - glacial erosion Glacial -18 to 7 0 to 1150 - snow accumulation - wind action - accentuated collective movements Periglacial -15 to -1 125 to 1400 - moderate to strong wind action - weak effect of running water

Northern - 9 to 3 250-1500 - moderate glacial action - light to moderate wind action - moderate effect of running water Maritime 2 to 21 1300 to 1900 - accentuated collective movement action - moderate to strong running water action

- accentuated collective movement action Jungle 16 to 29 1400 to 2300 - light effect of slope-wash - no wind action - maximum effect of collective movements Moderate 3 to 29 900 to 1500 - light glacial action in colder areas - insignificant wind action, except in coastal areas

Savannah 12-29 650 to 1300 - light to strong running water action - moderate wind action

Semi-Arid 2 to 29 250 to 650 -- strong wind - moderate to strongaction- running water action

- strong wind action Arid 13 to 29 0-400 - light action of running water and collective movements

Excerpt from: Christofoletti, A. (1980). Geomorfología. 2. Edición. Blucher. Ltda. (Christofoletti, A. (1980). Geomorphology. 2nd Edition. Blucher. Ltd.)

[104) Soil Classification Social and Economic definitions and ways of measuring it. Traditionally, Textural Triangle according to Percent- poverty has been defined as a state of material Concepts deprivation, measured through the individual's or ages of Sand, Mud and Clay the family's income or consumption. However, as Economic and Financial Instruments: These are ECLAC puts it, not only should the lack of basic arrangements whereby a relationship is estab- material needs be taken into account, but also per- lished for the rendering of, and payment for, a ser- sonal self-realization, participation in society, en- vice. In normal situations of market transactions, vironmental quality, freedom and human rights. price is the economic instrument par excellence. In the case of loans, the interest rate acts as a finan- Extreme Poverty: Extreme or absolute poverty is cial instrument. However, in many cases, such as the lack of the necessary income to satisfy basic in a vulnerability reduction service, it is necessary food needs. These needs are usually expressed in to make explicit the economic instrument through terms of minimum calorie requirements. There 100 which beneficiaries are identified, as well as the is also a definition applied to general or relative poverty, which is the lack of the income necessary 90 10 ways in which a fraction of those benefits may be to satisfy both basic food needs and other kinds 20 recovered by means of a payment plan. 80 V of basic needs, such as clothing, energy and hous- 30 70 Income Distribution: This is a global economic in- ing. ff AVA WA 40 dicator that shows the relationship between the population and national income during a specific Assets: An asset is everything of value which a 50 SO period. It shows how national income is distrib- person or a company owns, including accounts uted among the various components of produc- receivable, real and tangible assets, such as land, 40 A7AYAYka, 60 silWclay tion (land, labor, capital and organization). In this buildings, factories, machinery, furnishings and clam 70 30 s'andy manner, income corresponds to land; salaries and other goods, and financial assets: money, secu- clay loam rities, credit, and intangibles such as copyright, 20 fiatTAVAVA 80 wages to labor; profits and interest to capital, and ideas, knowledge, know-how, brands and so on. sáridy benefits to organization. The combination of sala- silt loam 90 6 According 10 ries, wages, profits, interests and income make up to http:// www.definicion.org/dis- 614 IMA IL 100 the national revenue, which is distributed among tribucion-del-ingreso. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 all those who have contributed to generating it. 6 Poverty Percentage Index (FGT_O): This indicator, 10/01/07. percent sand known as the Incidence or Headcount Index, mea- 7 See UNDP Poverty Re- Poverty: Poverty is a complex and multi-dimen- sures the proportion of individuals or families who port 2000, at http://wWw. are below the Poverty Line, and represents the pov- undp.org/povertyreport/. Fig. A4. sional phenomenon, and thus there are many 10/01/07.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [1051 erty "incidence", "predominance" or "headcount". the income of poorer people. For this reason, if Flood Index: This indicator attempts to provide an This index is determined by taking the number of the income of individuals or families is very close aggregate measurement of the localities in which individuals or households with incomes below the to the Poverty Line, FGT_2 tends to take value 0 various flood events have been reported. Values Poverty Line, from among the total population. The (zero). On the other hand, if the income of the poor close to 1(one) are assigned to localities which re- index shows the proportion of the total population is very far from the Poverty Line, FGT_2 tends to port a greater number of floods and 0 (zero) to whose income is below the Poverty Line, but does show values close to FGT_O. It is calculated by tak- those which report fewer disasters, within a spe- not determine how far or how close the individuals ing the square of the sum of the income gap coef- cific period of time. It is important to note that or households are to that line. ficients for each locality multiplied by the inverse this type of indicator only reflects the frequency of the total population. of floods in a specific locality in relation to the to- Poverty Gap Percentage Index (FGT_1): Measures tal population (municipality or province) for the the "depth" of poverty and indicates the aver- 'Literacy Rate: Shows the percentage of people purpose of comparison. It does not provide a mea- age distance of poor individuals or families from who are considered to be literate. It is calculated surement of the intensity of flooding in the differ- the Poverty Line, weighted by the incidence of by taking the number of literate people in each lo- ent localities. poverty. It is obtained by multiplying the poverty cality, as a percentage of the total population. percentage index by the income gap coefficient, Lorenz Curve: This is a relative representation of where the latter is defined by the difference be- Illiteracy Rate: Shows the percentage of people income distribution for households or individuals. It tween the poverty gap and the average income of considered to be illiterate (who cannot read or is a graph in which the accumulated percentage of poor people in each locality; all of which is divided write). It is calculated as a ratio between the il- households or individuals is plotted on the horizon- by the Poverty Line. literate population in each locality and the total tal axis, and the percentage of accumulated income population. on the vertical axis. This indicator shows that the closer poor people's income is to the Poverty Line, the closer to zero Social Security Rate: Shows the percentage of Gin' Coefficient: The Gini index measures the con- the indicator will tend to be indicating that poverty the population covered by the social security sys- centration of wealth and is calculated by means of is not so severe. On the other hand, if the average tem (in the case of Costa Rica). It is calculated by the Lorenz Curve. It measures the relative inequal- income of the poor tends to move away from the taking the number of people in each locality who ity of income, showing values between zero and Poverty Line, the index approaches one, indicating have coverage, divided by the total population. one. The closer the Gini index is to one, the greater that poverty is very severe. the concentration of income in the population. On Lack of Social Security Rate: Shows the percent- the other hand, the closer the index is to zero, the Severity of Poverty Index or Median Quadratic age of the population not covered by the social more equitable the distribution of income. It is cal- Distance (FGT_2): This is a severity of poverty security system. It is calculated by taking the culated by obtaining the area between the 45° line indicator; it overcomes the weak points of the number of people in each locality who do not have and the Lorenz Curve, where the 45° curve repre- Poverty Gap Index, awarding greater weight to coverage divided by the total population. sents a situation of perfect equity.

[106] Polarization Index: Attempts to measure the disap- are unable to work and other inactive people. That walls, roof and floors; the availability of basic utili- pearance of the middle class and the formation of exis, all the people who do not belong to the work- ties such as electricity, water and sanitation. treme distribution groups. The index divides income force. distribution into two groups. It shows a value equal Average Number of Deaths by Flood: Measures to 0 (zero) if there is no polarization. In this case, Economically Active Population: All the people the number of people deceased per year in floods there is a perfect distribution of income. It shows a aged 12 and over who worked during the reference per geographic locality in which the deaths were value of 1 (one) if there is complete polarization, in week. reported, during the period of time established for which case there is a perfectly bimodal distribution the analysis. of income in the group being studied. It is calculated Poverty Line: The limit beyond which quality of life by duplicating the area between the Lorenz Curve or welfare levels become socially unacceptable. It and the line tangent to the income median point. is the limit beyond which income is insufficient to cover the basic needs of a human being, where Employment Rate: This is the percentage of the food staples play an important role in indicating population which is employed. The calculation of poverty measurement. this rate depends on the parameters established by the statistics and census bureaus; the population Health Insurance and Lack of Health Insurance: A to be measured will vary. In the case of Costa Rica, person, man or woman, is covered by health insur- the population aged 12 and over is measured. ance when he or she has the right to receive, in full or in part, the benefits of Health Insurance. The Open Unemployment Rate: This is the percentage person must fulfill certain conditions regarding of the population which is unemployed, in relation to dues, relationship with or economic dependence the workforce. The workforce is defined as both em- on the affiliated member, or the family's socio- ployed and unemployed individuals, in accordance economic situation. A person is not covered when to the criteria used by the statistics and census bu- he or she does not fulfill the required conditions, reaus of each country. and therefore does not have the right to receive the partial benefits of Health Insurance. Economically Inactive Population: These are all of the people of 12 years of age and over who did Good, Medium and Poor Quality Housing: This not work during the reference week, nor looked is the classification established by the National for work during the previous five weeks. The Statistics and Census Institute (INEC in Spanish) group includes: pensioners and retired individuals, of Costa Rica, where the parameters to be con- students, people who work at home, people who sidered are the types of material: the state of the

Methodological Guide for the construction of the SIGA 1107] Death by Flood Vulnerability Index (IVMI / DFVI): This index permits comparisons in the interior Composite Flood Vulnerability Index (a): (IVCI / A relative indicator (in this case, within the munici- of sub-regions of the municipality. It will show a CFVI) This indicator can be composed of various pality), which measures the degree of historical value close to1(one) for localities which are highly indicators. The manual has used, for example, vulnerability to death by flood in a specific sub- vulnerable, and a value close to 0 (zero) for those the poverty percentage indices, the Flood Victims region within the municipality. It is calculated by which are less vulnerable to deaths by flood. Vulnerability Index and the Housing Affected by measuring the distance between average deaths Floods Vulnerability Index. It seeks to measure in the sub-region and the minimum number of Average Number of Victims per Flood: Measures vulnerability to floods in a wider spectrum, relat- deaths in all the sub-regions, divided by the dis- the number of people who are injured or wounded ing poverty factors, human vulnerability factors tance between the maximum and minimum num- in floods per year, per geographic locality where and housing vulnerability factors to achieve a ba- ber of deaths in the sub-regions: deaths were reported, during the period of time sic assets indicator. established for the analysis. This indicator can include other variables consid- Flood Victims Vulnerability Index: This is calcu- ered relevant in the case of floods. In this case, lated in the same way as the Death by Flood Index, the CFVI includes various social and economic MPI - Min(MPI MPIA) except that in this case, the parameter employed indicators which can be produced. The prepara- IVMI= is the average number of victims per flood. It will tion of indicators simply requires systematization Max(MPli, MPIA) - MPIA) show values close to 1 (one) in highly vulnerable and response to the objectives for which they are localities, and close to 0 (zero) in low vulnerability needed in the analysis of disasters and population vulnerability (for further information on the prep- M Pli: locations. (DFli) Average number of Deaths by Flood aration of such indicators, see Sudhir Anand and in locality i. Average Number of Dwellings Affected by Floods: Amartya Sen, "Concepts of Human Development Measures the number of dwellings affected by and Poverty. A Multidimensional Perspective" and MPIA): (Min{DFli, DPI,» floods per year, area and period of time. the Technical Note accompanying the Human De- Minimum number of Deaths by Flood in the velopment report, 1997). total number of observations. Housing Affected by Floods Vulnerability Index: This is calculated in the same manner as the Death Max(MPli, MPIA): (Max{DFli, DFIA}) by Flood Vulnerability Index and the Flood Victims Maximum number of Deaths by Flood in the Vulnerability Index, except that this index consid- total number of observations. ers the number of houses affected by floods. It produces values close to 1(one) when vulnerability is high and to 0 (zero) when it is low.

(1081 The formula employed for its calculation was: less data for the latter are included and maximum polation methods or by means of software such as and minimum values are obtained for the two Excel, as shown in the table below: provinces to be compared. This is due to the specific characteristics of vulnerability measurement B8 A =TiR(132:137) I VCI = [1/3 (Pi" + P2" + PO] and the geographic unit used for quantification. A Year Data Description P, : Poverty Percentage Index. For the Composite Flood Vulnerability Index (b), 2 o -70000 Initial Investment Flood Victims Vulnerability Index. the same analysis as in type (a) is indicated, except 3 12000 Net revenue for the first year 15000 Net revenue in the second year Housing Affected by Floods Vulnerability that here, the Poverty Percentage Index, the Flood 2 5 3 18000 Net revenue for the third year Index. Victims Vulnerability Index and the Economic Loss 6 4 21000 Net revenue from the fourth year r =3 Vulnerability Index are taken into account. 7 5 26000 Net income of the fifth year 8 !RR 9% I

Internal Benefit Rate: This is the inferred rate, in Table A4. The index uses a value of (\ equal to 3 (three) in which the difference between the present value of order to assign a greater weight to the component the benefits and the cost of the project, after de- where vulnerability is greater. Consequently, if a ducting the initial investment, is equal to zero. increases, the CFVI will tend to take the value of Capital Investment: A monetary measurement the component in which vulnerability is greater. which shows investment in construction, acquisition It is calculated as follows: Values closer to 0 (zero) show that there is no de- of processes, equipment and machinery, and inven- gree of vulnerability to flooding in a specific local- tory variations. ity, and values close to 100 (one hundred) show n maximum composite vulnerability to floods. Io = Investment in Prevention and Mitigation: A mon- (1+Tir)" etary measurement which shows investment in the acquisition of processes (increase in knowledge, In order to make a comparison between municipal- Tir = Ibr : Internal Benefit Rate. ities and determine which the districts with higher sound practices, etc.), structures or construction, I o : Initial Investment. vulnerability may be, the maximum and minimum equipment and machinery and variations in stock, (Bi - Ci): Net income for period i. values must be taken for all the municipalities to for the purpose of prevention and mitigation of be compared. For the analysis proposed in this disaster impact. Normally, two large groups are manual, the comparison will be made at the can- identified: structural and non-structural. In gen- tonal level; that is, the districts of the municipal- In general, if a time horizon greater than three eral, a combination of these is found (for example, ity of San José will be taken, and these cannot be years is used, complications will tend to arise, and an Early Warning System supported by equipment, compared to districts in another municipality, un- therefore, the result may be found by using inter- or new legislation to improve building codes, etc.).

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [109] Sources of Socio-Economic Information

Table AS. First Stage Regressions Results Beta Parameters of Initial Regressions with EMNV 98'

Significant Regions Independent Variables Managua Central Atlantic Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural BPARED 0.1823 0.0397 0.2117 0.0878 -0.0790 0.0347 0.2438 Good Wall (0.0483) (0.0386) (0.0464) (0.0475) (0.0731) (0.0709) (0.2712)

MPARED - 0.0406 0.0517 - - 0.2246 -0.0730 Poor Wall - (0.0907) (0.0674) - - (0.2064) (0.01164)

vi BPISO 0.000 0.0523 0.023 0.056 0.1146 0.1476 0.4002 70 Good Flooring (0.0551) (0.0533) (0.0602) (0.0613) (0.0736) (0.0968) (0.2971)

- MPISO - -0.1310 - -0.1160 mi 0.0000 -0.2500 -0.0480 2 Poor Flooring - (0.0557) - (0.0578) (0.0000) (0.822) (0.0747) BTECHO 0.1337 0.0823 0.0000 0.1081 0.0943 0.5054 0.0621 Roof (0.0897) (0.0383) (0.0393) . (0.0501) (0.0336) (0.1960) (0.1274)

iT) .o MTECHO 0.1672 -0.1090 0.2694 -0.0420 o, vi Poor Roof - (0.1295) _ - o (0.0899) (0.3358) (0.1314) o i BVIVIEN -0.7130 2.683 0.5074 - 0.9178 0.6704 0.1566 Good Household (0.5025) (0.4476) (0.3138) - 0.1919 (0.4737) (0.5570)

MVIVIEN - -0.0520 -0.0860 - - - 0.0830 - 0.1940 Poor Household - (0.1215) (0.0917) - (0.2865) (0.1175)

;:.,.! COCINA 0.1364 - 0.0221 -0.0040 0.1870 -0.0750 0.1695 Kitchen in Exclusive Room (0.0484) - (0.0406) (0.0515) (0.0400) (0.0690) (0.0695)

VPROPIA -0.0140 0.0288 0.0963 -0.0410 0.1157 0.1814 0.2607 Owned Household (0.0482) (0.0384) (0.0396) (0.0499) (0.0327) (0.0618) (0.586)

VALOUIL 0.4499 0.0346 -0.1520 0.2293 0.9311 0.0687 -0.3950 Household (0.1116) (0.0637) (0.2613) (0.0896) (0.1410) (0.1191) (0.3308)

11101 Significant Regions Independent Variables Pacif Central Atlantic Managua Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural BAGUA 0.0563 0.1374 0.1219 0.1374 0.2324 0.0354 0.2200 Water (0.0526) (0.0411) (0.1064) (0.0532) (0.0876) (0.0854) (0.2254) MRAGUA - - - 0.0284 Poor Rural Water ------(0.0600) MUAGUA - -0.0850 - - - -0.0900 - - - - - vi (LI Poor Urban Water - (0.0647) (0.0763) 0.0039 -0.0200 0.1092 0.0080 0.0205 0.0828 . _ > LETRINA -0.0100 ,_. Existence of Latrine (0.1210) (0.0869) (0.0465) (0.0863) (0.0363) (0.0909) (0.0651) a, u-, CONAGNE -0.0030 0.1523 1.5020 0.2802 0.4147 -0.3010 - Toilet With Sewage Disposal (0.1297) (0.0997) (0.4189) (0.1000) (0.4216) (0.3651) - SINAGNE -0.1940 0.0921 0.4668 0.2871 0.4395 0.4402 - Toilet Without Sewage Disposal (0.1483) (0.1030) (0.1732) (0.1163) (0.2501) (0.1566) - BLUZ - 0.0250 0.1970 0.1254 0.2306 0.1169 0.2223 0.0924 Good Lighting (0.1114) (0.0631) (0.0413) (0.0648) (0.0416) (0.0797) (0.1208) TPERV - -0.0610 -0.0460 -0.0660 -0.0690 -0.0550 -0.0600 People in Household - (0.0096) (0.0104) (0.0129) (0.0091) (0.0120) (0.0163) -0.3980 -0.2400 -0.4320 -0.3830 -0.4100 a, PME12 -0.5520 -0.4070 t7,_ People 12 years old (0.1340) (0.1022) (0.1132) (0.1271) (0.0949) (0.2105) (0.1661) o a, PMA65 -0.0680 0.0386 0.0877 -0.1130 -0.1920 0.2805 -0.7640 0_ eople 65 years old (0.1475) (0.1122) (0.1150) (0.1546) (0.1204) (0.2574) (0.2288) ' Standard errors in pa- M1865 Perc. Educated - - 0.0174 - - 0.0403 - renthesis. The correct People Between 18-65 years old - - (0.0175) - - (0.0215) - calculation of the error is JMUJER 0.0252 -0.0300 -0.0310 -0.0720 -0.0350 0.1898 -0.2300 a fundamental part of any (0.0860) (0.1210) o. .ce Women (0.0712) (0.0497) (0.0642) (0.0698) (0.0608) Map of Extreme Poverty, '- JEFUNI 0.0030 -0.1080 -0.0030 -0.0940 -0.0110 0.1792 -0.1900 since without it it is impos- J,,,, - o o , Cohabitation (0.0788) (0.0572) (0.0657) (0.0762) (0.0655) (0.0960) (0.1179) sible to determine if the E i JEFIND -0.5300 0.0634 - - - 0.0330 -6.4500 observed differences in Indigenous Speaking (0.6341) (0.5418) - - - (0.2984) (1.7740) the estimate are signifi- ° -oe -0.0190 -0.0230 -0.0030 0.0196 0.0297 0.1584 -0.2080 cant or not. Cells with no a, JEFCAS i Married (0.0775) (0.0569) (0.0690) (0.0764) (0.0621) (0.0997) (0.1152) information correspond to PINDIG Pert. 0.3954 -1.3800 0.0000 0.0000 -1.3100 0.1633 6.3180 unused variables for the o People Speak Indigenous Languaje (0.8201) (2.3470) (0.0000) (0.0000) (2.3120) (0.3061) (1.7880) corresponding significant THIJNVI Total -0.0250 -0.0020 -0.0230 -0.0060 -0.0080 0.0085 0.0000 region. (0.0099) (0.0077) (0.0063) (0.0087) (0.0059) (0.0119) (0.0086) 0--F-, Total of Children Born Alive HACIN - 0.0820 - 0.0180 - 0.0150 - 0.0610 - 0.0270 - 0.0460 - 0.0240 Source: Translated from the Overcrowding Index (0.0119) (0.0102) (0.0106) (0.0143) (0.0096) (0.0169) (0.0163) Spanish version (EMNV).

Methodological Gu de for the Construction of the SIGA Hill VARIABLES RELATED TO HOUSING, COMMON TO THE 1995 CENSUS AND EMNV 98 (a national survey carried out in Nicaragua on quality of life)

A. Variables related to Dwelling Materials B. Variables related to the Type of Dwelling C. Variables related to Water Supply.

BPARED (Sound walls). The house's walls BVIVIEN (Good dwelling). The dwelling is a BAGUA (Good quality water). The dwelling are built of cement or concrete blocks, detached house with a garden. obtains water from pipes inside the dwell- quarry stone, and Plycem or Nicalit sheet- MVIVIEN (Poor dwelling). The dwelling is ing, both in urban and in rural areas. ing. improvised, or a shack or a hut. MRAGUA (Poor water, rural area). In a ru- MPARED (Poor walls). The house's walls COCINA (Separate kitchen). The dwelling ral area, the dwelling obtains water from a are built of bamboo, cane or palm; rubble has a room specifically set up as a kitch- river, spring or stream. or waste materials. en MUAGUA (Poor water, urban area). In an ur- BPISO (Sound flooring). The flooring of VPROPIA (dwelling is owned). The inhabit- ban area, the dwelling obtains water from the dwelling is built of mud bricks, cement ant holds the deed to the dwelling. a public supply or from a river, spring or brick, mosaic or terrazzo. stream. VALOUIL (Rented dwelling). The dwelling MPISO (Poor flooring). The flooring of the is rented by the inhabitants. LATRINE (Availability of latrine). The dwell- residence is earth. ing is provided with a latrine. BTECHO (Sound roof). The house's roof is CONAGNE (Sewage service). The dwelling zinc, or Plycem or Nicalit sheeting. is connected to sewage disposal services. MTECHO (Poor roof). The house's roof is SINAGNE (No sewage service). The dwell- made of straw or similar material, or rub- ing is not connected to a sewage disposal ble or waste materials. service.

[112] D. Variables related to Lighting F. Variables related to Head of Household G. Variables related to other characteristics of the dwelling's Inhabitants.

BLUZ (Good lighting). Electric power is JMUJER (Female Head of Household). The available in the dwelling. head of the household is a woman. PINDIG (Percentage of people who speak indigenous language). The proportion of JEFUNI (Head in union). The head of the total number of individuals who speak household is in a common-law marriage or E. Demographic Variables. miskito and/or sumo since childhood, with cohabitation. respect to the total number of people in JEFIND (Head speaks indigenous lan- the dwelling. TPERV (Individuals in the dwelling). The guage). The head of the household speaks THIJNVI (Total infants born alive). The total number of persons in the dwelling. miskito and/or sumo. total number of children born alive in the PMEI12 (Percentage of persons aged 12 JEFCAS (Married Head). The head of the dwelling. or less). The proportion of persons of 12 household is married. HACIN (Overcrowding index). The total years of age or less, with respect to the number of persons per room used exclu- total number of persons in the residence. sively for sleeping in the house. PMAI65 (Percentage of persons aged 65 or over). The proportion of people of 65 years of age or over, with respect to the total number of individuals in the dwelling. M1865 (Average education of persons aged between 18 and 65). Average education levels of people aged between 18 and 65 in the dwelling.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [113] Priorities of the Hyogo Plan of Action for 2005-2015 The following priorities form the basis of the Hyo- updating of information in order to alert the go Plan of Action for 2005-2015. With the aim of citizens the generation of disaster risk and Increasing resilience of nations and achieving the objectives mentioned above, the fol- vulnerability indicators as part of the EWS. communities in the face of disasters lowing priority actions are listed, among others: This will permit the timely alerting of those It is the responsibility of the State to promote exposed through the creation and improve- sustainable development and the adoption ment of facilities and information systems, of effective measures for the reduction of di- among which are included databases, sta- saster risk, in order to protect the population tistics, studies for the analysis of long-term within its territory, the infrastructure and changes and emerging factors which may other national assets against the impact of increase vulnerability and risk. disasters. According to the Kobe Plan of Ac- The role of education is highlighted as a tool tion, these measures must be taken by putting for the reduction of the effects of disasters, into practice regulatory, legislative and institu- since a well-informed population is more ca- tional frameworks for the reduction of disaster pable of acting and of resilience. This leads risk, as well as by the preparation of specific to gathering, compiling and divulging rel- and measurable indicators to observe and take evant knowledge and information regarding timely measures in localities which are more threats, vulnerability factors and capabili- susceptible to suffering the effects of disas- ties, which should be clearly communicated ters, and to inform the population. and accessible through the strengthening of As mentioned in the Plan of Action, the start- communication networks with disaster ex- ing point for reducing the risk of disaster and perts. Thus, by using specialized knowledge promoting a culture of resilience is to gain and the latest information and communica- knowledge of the threats and the physical, so- tions technology, it will be easier for the au- cial, economic and environmental vulnerability thorities and for the responsible institutions factors, as well as of the short and long term to provide the general public with informa- vulnerability factors. This includes, according tion both about risks and about the possible to the Plan, measures to complement acquired ways of facing disaster and the measures knowledge by means of the generation and which should be taken.

[114] Emphasis is placed on the fact that disaster case of key public institutions and infrastruc- risk information must be incorporated into tures. Recommendations should be provided the school syllabus in order to reduce that regarding the implementation of risk reduction risk. Priority should be given to implementing mechanisms, such as insurance and reinsur- both local and national programs to promote ance against disaster, encouraging the private community participation in the reduction of sector to participate in disaster reduction ac- disaster risk, by using the mass media, in or- tivities and the implementation of planning der to encourage a culture of resilience in the evaluation programs, both in urban and rural face of disasters. Attempts will be made, with areas. the help of research, to strengthen technical To reduce impact and loss in areas exposed to and scientific capabilities to produce and apply disaster hazards, preparation is important, as methodologies, studies and evaluation models is the readiness of both authorities and com- of vulnerability factors and make them public munities. To this end, strengthening measures so that the population is aware of them and the promotion of communication should Among underlying risk factors, may be found be encouraged, as well as the preparation of economic, social, environmental and land use coordinated approaches in order to improve factors, as well as those related to geological, policies, plans and operational mechanisms, meteorological and hydrological phenomena, which must be periodically revised and up- climate variability and change. The Plan incor- dated. Finally, mention is made of the setting porates a series of strategies and programs for up of emergency funds in support of response sectorial development, which seek to encour- measures such as recovery and preparedness age ecosystem management and sustainable in disaster situations. use, promoting the reduction of risk associated with current climate variability and changes foreseen in the future. Food safety guidelines should also be included as an important factor ensuring the community's resilience, and there is concern that hospitals should be built to re- sist disaster impacts and that their capacity in disaster situations be strengthened, also in the

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [115] ,ô' E Bibliography

Adamson, M., Chapters II and VII. Centre for Eco- World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Kobe, Hyo- nomic and Environmental Studies (CIESA) for the go, Japan. Pages 6 - 26, and United Nations General ACS. Análisis de fondos nacionales en América La- Assembly Resolution 58/214. tina y el Caribe, en Estudio de Factibilidad Financiero y Económico para un Fondo de Reconstrucción Post- Gradfn, C. and Del Río, C. (2001), Desigualdad, Pobreza Desastres. ("Analysis of national funds in Latin Amer- y Polarización en la Distribución de la Renta en Galicia ica and the Caribbean, in a Financial and Economic ("Inequality, Poverty and Polarization in the Distribution Feasibility Study for a Post-Disaster Reconstruction of Income in Galicia"), Paper N°11,tconomic Studies In- Fund.") 2003. The study used a sample of 17 LAC stitute of Galicia, Pedro Barrie de la Maza, A Coruña. countries. Summary to be found at http://www. iesacr.com. United Nations. World Conference on Disaster Reduction Report Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, A/CONF. 206/ L, 2005. Adamson, M., Desastres en Centroamérica: un ancla para el desarrollo humano. ("Disasters in Central Amer- United Nations. Examination of the Yokohama Strate- ica: an Anchor for Human Development.") Presented at gy and Plan of Action lora Safer World. Kobe, Hyogo, the UNDP Disaster Reduction Summit. Kobe 2006. Japan, A/CONF. 206/L.1, 2005.

Achkar, M.; Anido, C., Agua. Diagnóstico y propuesta United Nations. World Summit on Sustainable Develop- hacia una gestión más sustentable. ("Water. Diagnosis ment, Plan of Implementation. Held in Johannesburg and proposal for more sustainable management.") In: (South Africa), from August 26th to September 4th, 2002. Uruguay Sustentable. Una propuesta ciudadana. Re- des - Amigos de la Tierra. ("A Sustainable Uruguay. A Ramos Esquivel, Carmona Villalobos and Sánchez Citizens' Proposal. Networks - Friends of the Earth") Matarrita, (2005), Dimensión espacial de la pobreza, Montevideo, 2000. desigualdad y polarización en Costa Rica incorporando el principio de la línea de ingreso, período 2000-2001 Anand, S. y A.K. Sen, Concepts of human development ("Spatial Dimension of Poverty, Inequality and Polar- and poverty: A multidimensional Perspective. Back- ization in Costa Rica, incorporating the income line ground Paper for Human Development Report 1997. principle, 2000-2001 period"). University of Costa New York: United Nations Development Programme. Rica: School of Economics, Guided Research Seminar.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [1171 Recommended Websites

IDRC Website Vulnerability Indicator Websites The Inter-American Development Bank website shows a series of prevention policies, strategies, working http://www.idrc.org/es/ev-1-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html http://www.undp.org/bcpr/disred/documents/pub- programmes and publications, among other things. 25/01/07 lications/rdr/espanol/at/t3.pdf 24/01/07 Official website of the International Development This website shows a way to calculate risk, refers to http://www.ciesacr.com Research Centre. It contains a series of documents Network websites which contain information about This site shows various studies on economic losses aimed at the implementation of practical solutions different risk and vulnerability indicators, advantag- caused by disasters, training courses in economic as- to social, economic and environmental problems. It es and disadvantages of using some risk indicators, sessment of investment in the prevention and mitiga- also encourages research by implementing and put- and some references to sources of data and information of disasters and economic-environmental loss of ting into practice a series of human development tion on natural threats. natural resources. projects. http://www.cruzroja.org/salud/redcamp/docs/agua- Journals on Disaster http://www.desinventar.org/desinventar.html san-h/Productos%20P1%20y0/020P2.doc 24/01/07 21/11/06 A paper by Isaías Chang Urriola is published here on the http://www2.Iib.udel.edu/subj/disasters/ej.htm "Desinventar" database, produced by the social stud- production of some vulnerability and disaster indica- 25/01/07 ies network known as "La Red", for the prevention of tors in Latin America, using DevInfo 4.0 as an informa- This site provides links to various journals deal- disasters in Latin America: tion base. ing with disasters and studies on disasters. Specific journals classified according to disaster type can be Costa Rica's Statistics and Census Institute: Natural disasters found. http://www.inec.go.cr 03/01/07 For example: http://www.portalplanetasedna.com.ar/desastres_ naturales.htm 25/01/2007 Bulletin of Volcanology (1997- ) Bolivia's National Statistics Institute: This webpage shows the different classifications Disaster Prevention and Management: An Interna- http://www.ine.gov.bo 03/01/07 of disasters according to the factors that originate tional Journal (1994- ) them, as well as aspects of a culture of prevention. It Emerging Infectious Diseases (1995- ) Nicaragua's Statistics and Census Institute: also highlights new technologies used as instruments Fire Technology (1997- ) http://www.inec.gob.ni/ 03/01/07. of prevention and early warning. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics (1997-) http://www.iadb.org/sds/ENV/site_2493_s.htm Weather and Forecasting (1986- ), among others. 25/01/07

[118] Books and Articles on Disasters Organization of American States Website The International Disaster Database (EM-DAT): Pro- vides methodologically-compiled data on global disas- http://www.oas.org/searching/adyguery.asp 25/01/07 http://www.desenredando.org/publialibros/1998/ ter occurrence and impact of disasters. Shows a series of publications related to mitigation mpc/MPLC-MOD4_ene-29-2003.pdf EM-SEANET: A project to improve the quality of public and policies employed by OAS member states. LA RED ("The Network")'s guide to local risk manage- health response in disaster and conflict-affected popu- ment. lations in Southeast Asia. Association of Caribbean States Website The Complex Emergency Database (CE-DAT): Shows www.sociedadevaluacion.org/noticias/656%5BW/o5D. standardized and comprehensive data on the impact http://www.acs-aec.org/desastres.htm 25/01/07 Pol%EDticas.P%FAblicas.pdf 25/01/07 of emergencies due to disasters have on humans. Includes documents on training workshops, financial A book on public policies on vulnerability reduction in The Bibliography Database (EM-BIB): Shows a collec- mechanisms and other articles on disaster preven- the face of natural and socio-natural disasters. Var- tion of publications on disasters, conflicts and their tion, in which cooperation among member states gas, Jorge Enrique. human impacts. when disasters occur is underlined. www.ssn.unam.mx/Postgrado/gestion_riesgo.pdf National Commission for Space Activities 25/01/07 CRED Website http://www.conae.gov.ar 25/01/07 Evaluation of the socio-economic impact of the main http://www.cred.be/ 25/01/07 natural disasters on industry and commerce. Provides space information regarding emergency A series of databases on disasters at the internation- management processes, using satellite information al level may be found on this website, as well as news as a tool for the early detection and monitoring of and projects promoted by the Centre for Research on International Charter Website the different disaster-prone areas. the Epidemiology of Disasters aimed at improving the http://www.disasterscharter.org/main_e.html 25/01/07 quality of the population's response to the effects of Shows a series of news items and information about disasters. disasters in which satellite assistance has been indis- Among the databases on this website, are: pensable for disaster management and monitoring, risk determination and damage assessment.

Methodological Guide for the Construction of the SIGA [119] Se terminó de imprimir en los Talleres Gráficos de MAYNER SOLUCIONES GRÁFICAS en Mayo de 2008 Depósito Legal N° 344582

[120] Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC) is one of the world's leading institutions in the generation and application of new knowledge to meet the challenges of international development. For more than 37 years, IDRC has worked in close collaboration with researchers from the developing world in their search for the means to build healthier, more equitable, and more prosperous societies.

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